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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value, by
+Harry Snyder
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value
+
+
+Author: Harry Snyder
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 22, 2007  [eBook #20871]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE
+VALUE***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 20871-h.htm or 20871-h.zip:
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+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/8/7/20871/20871-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcribers note:
+
+      In this text, subscripted numbers are represented thus: _{12}
+
+
+
+
+
+HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE
+
+by
+
+HARRY SNYDER, B.S.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+The MacMillan Company
+1914
+All rights reserved
+Copyright, 1908,
+by the MacMillan Company.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1908. Reprinted
+October, 1909; September, 1910; February, 1911; September, 1912;
+May, December, 1913; June, 1914.
+
+Norwood Press
+J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Since 1897 instruction has been given at the University of Minnesota,
+College of Agriculture, on human foods and their nutritive value. With
+the development of the work, need has been felt for a text-book
+presenting in concise form the composition and physical properties of
+foods, and discussing some of the main factors which affect their
+nutritive value. To meet the need, this book has been prepared,
+primarily for the author's classroom. It aims to present some of the
+principles of human nutrition along with a study of the more common
+articles of food. It is believed that a better understanding of the
+subject of nutrition will suggest ways in which foods may be selected
+and utilized more intelligently, resulting not only in pecuniary saving,
+but also in greater efficiency of physical and mental effort.
+
+Prominence is given in this work to those foods, as flour, bread,
+cereals, vegetables, meats, milk, dairy products, and fruits, that are
+most extensively used in the dietary, and to some of the physical,
+chemical, and bacteriological changes affecting digestibility and
+nutritive value which take place during their preparation for the table.
+Dietary studies, comparative cost and value of foods, rational feeding
+of men, and experiments and laboratory practice form features of the
+work. Some closely related topics, largely of a sanitary nature, as the
+effect upon food of household sanitation and storage, are also briefly
+discussed. References are given in case more extended information is
+desired on some of the subjects treated. While this book was prepared
+mainly for students who have taken a course in general chemistry, it has
+been the intention to present the topics in such a way as to be
+understood by the layman also.
+
+This work completes a series of text-books undertaken by the author
+over ten years ago, dealing with agricultural and industrial subjects:
+"Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life," "Dairy Chemistry," "Soils and
+Fertilizers," and "Human Foods and their Nutritive Value." It has been
+the aim in preparing these books to avoid as far as possible repetition,
+but at the same time to make each work sufficiently complete to permit
+its use as a text independent of the series.
+
+One of the greatest uses that science can serve is in its application to
+the household and the everyday affairs of life. Too little attention is
+generally bestowed upon the study of foods in schools and colleges, and
+the author sincerely hopes the time will soon come when more prominence
+will be given to this subject, which is the oldest, most important, most
+neglected, and least understood of any that have a direct bearing upon
+the welfare of man.
+
+  HARRY SNYDER.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I
+                                                   PAGE
+  GENERAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS                        1
+
+  Water; Dry Matter; Variations in Weight of Foods;
+  Ash; Function of Ash in Plant Life; Organic Matter;
+  Products of Combustion of Organic Matter; Classification
+  of Organic Compounds; Non-nitrogenous Compounds;
+  Carbohydrates; Cellulose; Amount of Cellulose in Foods;
+  Crude Fiber; Starch; Microscopic Structure of Starch;
+  Dextrin; Food Value of Starch; Sugar; Pectose Substances;
+  Nitrogen-free-extract; Fats; Fuel Value of Fats;
+  Iodine Number of Fats; Glycerol Content of Fats; Ether
+  Extract and Crude Fat; Organic Acids; Dietetic Value
+  of Organic Acids; Essential Oils; Mixed Compounds;
+  Nutritive Value of Non-nitrogenous Compounds; Nitrogenous
+  Compounds; General Composition; Protein; Sub-divisions
+  of Proteins; Crude Protein; Food Value of
+  Protein; Albuminoids; Amids and Amines; Alkaloids;
+  General Relationship of the Nitrogenous Compounds.
+
+
+  CHAPTER II
+
+  CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND
+  PREPARATION                                        27
+
+  Raw and Cooked Foods compared as to Composition;
+  Chemical Changes during Cooking; General Changes
+  affecting Cellulose, Starch, Sugar, Pectin Bodies, Fats,
+  Proteids; Effect of Chemical Changes on Digestibility;
+  Physical Changes during Cooking; Action of Heat on
+  Animal and Plant Tissues; Amount of Heat required for
+  Cooking; Bacteriological Changes; Insoluble Ferments;
+  Soluble Ferments; Bacterial Action Necessary in Preparation
+  of Some Foods; Injurious Bacterial Action; General
+  Relationship of Chemical, Physical, and Bacteriological
+  Changes; Esthetic Value of Foods; Color of Foods;
+  Natural and Artificial Colors; Conditions under which
+  Use of Chemicals in Preparation of Foods is Justifiable.
+
+
+  CHAPTER III
+
+  VEGETABLE FOODS                                    37
+
+  General Composition; Potatoes; Chemical and Mechanical
+  Composition; Uses of Potatoes in Dietary; Sweet
+  Potatoes; Carrots; Parsnips; Cabbage; Cauliflower;
+  Beets; Cucumbers; Lettuce; Onions; Spinach; Asparagus;
+  Melons; Tomatoes; Sweet Corn; Eggplant;
+  Squash; Celery; Dietetic Value of Vegetables; Nutrient
+  Content of Vegetables; Sanitary Condition of Vegetables;
+  Miscellaneous Compounds in Vegetables; Canned Vegetables;
+  Edible Portion and Refuse of Vegetables.
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+
+  FRUITS, FLAVORS AND EXTRACTS                       48
+
+  General Composition; Food Value; Apples; Oranges;
+  Lemons; Grape Fruit; Strawberries; Grapes; Peaches;
+  Plums; Olives; Figs; Dried Fruits; Uses of Fruit in
+  the Dietary; Canning and Preservation of Fruits; Adulterated
+  Canned Fruits; Fruit Flavors and Extracts; Synthetic
+  Preparation of Flavors.
+
+
+  CHAPTER V
+
+  SUGARS, MOLASSES, SYRUP, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS    58
+
+  Composition of Sugars; Beet Sugar; Cane Sugar;
+  Manufacture of Sugar; Sulphur Dioxid and Indigo, Uses
+  of, in Sugar Manufacture; Commercial Grades of Sugar;
+  Sugar in the Dietary; Maple Sugar; Adulteration of
+  Sugar; Dextrose Sugars; Inversion of Sugars; Molasses;
+  Syrups; Adulteration of Molasses; Sorghum Syrup;
+  Maple Syrup; Analysis of Sugar; Adulteration of Syrups;
+  Honey; Confections; Coloring Matter in Candies; Coal
+  Tar Dyes; Saccharine.
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+
+  LEGUMES AND NUTS                                   71
+
+  General Composition of Legumes; Beans; Digestibility
+  of Beans; Use of Beans in the Dietary; String
+  Beans; Peas; Canned Peas; Peanuts; General Composition
+  of Nuts; Chestnuts; The Hickory Nut; Almonds;
+  Pistachio; Cocoanuts; Uses of Nuts in the Dietary.
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+
+  MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS                            80
+
+  Importance in the Dietary; General Composition; Digestibility;
+  Sanitary Condition of Milk; Certified Milk;
+  Pasteurized Milk; Tyrotoxicon; Color of Milk; Souring
+  of Milk; Use of Preservatives in Milk; Condensed Milk;
+  Skim Milk; Cream; Buttermilk; Goat's Milk; Koumiss;
+  Prepared Milks; Human Milk; Adulteration of Milk;
+  Composition of Butter; Digestibility of Butter; Adulteration
+  of Butter; General Composition of Cheese;
+  Digestibility; Use in the Dietary; Cottage Cheese; Different
+  Kinds of Cheese; Adulteration of Cheese; Dairy
+  Products in the Dietary.
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+
+  MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS                     98
+
+  General Composition; Mineral Matter; Fat; Protein;
+  Non-nitrogenous Compounds; Why Meats vary in Composition;
+  Amides; Albuminoids; Taste and Flavor of
+  Meats; Alkaloidal Bodies in Meats; Ripening of Meats
+  in Cold Storage; Beef; Veal; Mutton; Pork; Lard;
+  Texture and Toughness of Meat; Influence of Cooking
+  upon the Composition of Meats; Beef Extracts; Miscellaneous
+  Meat Products; Pickled Meats; Saltpeter in
+  Meats; Smoked Meats; Poultry; Fish; Oysters, Fattening
+  of; Shell Fish; Eggs, General Composition; Digestibility
+  of Eggs; Use of Eggs in the Dietary; Canned
+  Meats, General Composition.
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX
+
+  CEREALS                                           121
+
+  Preparation and Cost of Cereals; Various Grains used
+  in making Cereal Products; Cleanliness of; Corn Preparations;
+  Corn Flour; Use of Corn in Dietary; Corn Bread;
+  Oat Preparations; Cooking of Oatmeal; Wheat Preparations;
+  Flour Middlings; Breakfast Foods; Digestibility
+  of Wheat Preparations; Barley Preparations; Rice Preparations;
+  Predigested Foods; The Value of Cereals in the
+  Dietary; Phosphate Content of Cereals; Phosphorus Requirements
+  of a Ration; Mechanical Action of Cereals
+  upon Digestion; Cost and Nutritive Value of Cereals.
+
+
+  CHAPTER X
+
+  WHEAT FLOUR                                       133
+
+  Use for Bread Making; Winter and Spring Wheat
+  Flours; Composition of Wheat and Flour; Roller Process
+  of Flour Milling; Grades of Flour; Types of Flour; Composition
+  of Flour; Graham and Entire Wheat Flours;
+  Composition of Wheat Offals; Aging and Curing of Flour;
+  Macaroni Flour; Color; Granulation; Capacity of Flour
+  to absorb Water; Physical Properties of Gluten; Gluten
+  as a Factor in Bread Making; Unsoundness; Comparative
+  Baking Tests; Bleaching; Adulteration of Flour; Nutritive
+  Value of Flour.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI
+
+  BREAD AND BREAD MAKING                            158
+
+  Leavened and Unleavened Bread; Changes during
+  Bread Making; Loss of Dry Matter during Bread Making;
+  Action of Yeast; Compressed Yeast; Dry Yeast; Production
+  of Carbon Dioxid Gas and Alcohol; Production
+  of Soluble Carbohydrates; Production of Acids in Bread
+  Making; Volatile Compounds produced during Bread
+  Making; Behavior of Wheat Proteids in Bread Making;
+  Production of Volatile Nitrogenous Compounds; Oxidation
+  of Fat; Influence of the Addition of Wheat Starch
+  and Gluten to Flour; Composition of Bread; Use of
+  Skim Milk and Lard in Bread Making; Influence of
+  Warm and Cold Flours in Bread Making; Variations in
+  the Process of Bread Making; Digestibility of Bread;
+  Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary; Mineral
+  Content of White Bread; Comparative Digestibility
+  of New and Old Bread; Different Kinds of Bread; Toast.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XII
+
+  BAKING POWDERS                                    186
+
+  General Composition; Cream of Tartar Powders; Residue
+  from Cream of Tartar Baking Powders; Tartaric
+  Acid Powders; Phosphate Baking Powders; Mineral and
+  Organic Phosphates; Phosphate Residue; Alum Baking
+  Powders; Residue from Alum Baking Powders; Objections
+  urged against Alum Powders; Action of Baking
+  Powders and Yeast Compared; Keeping Qualities of
+  Baking Powders; Inspection of Baking Powders; Fillers;
+  Home-made Baking Powders.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIII
+
+  VINEGAR, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS                   193
+
+  Vinegar; Chemical Changes during Manufacture of
+  Vinegar; Ferment Action; Materials used in Preparation
+  of Vinegars; Characteristics of a Good Vinegar; Vinegar
+  Solids; Acidity of Vinegar; Different Kinds of Vinegars;
+  Standards of Purity; Adulteration of Vinegar; Characteristics
+  of Spices; Pepper; Cayenne; Mustard; Ginger;
+  Cinnamon and Cassia; Cloves; Allspice; Nutmeg; Adulteration
+  of Spices and Condiments; Essential Oils of;
+  Uses of Condiments in Preparation of Foods; Action of
+  Condiments upon Digestion; Condiments and Natural
+  Flavors.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIV
+
+  TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA                 203
+
+  Tea; Sources of Tea Supply; Composition of Tea;
+  Black Tea and Green Tea; Judging Teas; Adulteration
+  of Tea; Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea;
+  Composition of Coffee; Adulteration of Coffee; Chicory
+  in Coffee; Glazing of Coffee; Cereal Coffee Substitutes;
+  Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations; Composition of Cocoa;
+  Chocolate; Cocoa Nibs; Plain Chocolate; Sweet Chocolate;
+  Cocoa Butter; Nutritive Value of Cocoa; Adulteration
+  of Chocolate and Cocoa; Comparative Composition
+  of Beverages.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XV
+
+  THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD                         214
+
+  Digestibility, how Determined; Completeness and Ease
+  of Digestion Process; Example of Digestion Experiment;
+  Available Nutrients; Available Energy; Caloric Value of
+  Foods; Normal Digestion and Health; Digestibility of
+  Animal Foods; Digestibility of Vegetable Foods; Factors
+  influencing Digestion; Combination of Foods; Amount
+  of Food; Method of Preparation of Food; Mechanical
+  Condition of Foods; Mastication; Palatability of Foods;
+  Physiological Properties of Foods; Individuality; Psychological
+  Factors.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XVI
+
+  COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS               231
+
+  Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods; How to compare
+  Two Foods as to Nutritive Value; Cheap Foods; Expensive
+  Foods; Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum; Examples;
+  Comparing Nutritive Value of Common Foods
+  at Different Prices; Cost and Value of Nutrients.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XVII
+
+  DIETARY STUDIES                                   244
+
+  Object of Dietary Studies; Wide and Narrow Rations;
+  Dietary Standards; Number of Meals per Day; Mixed
+  Dietary Desirable; Animal and Vegetable Foods;
+  Economy of Production; Food Habits; Underfed Families;
+  Cheap and Expensive Foods; Food Notions;
+  Dietary of Two Families Compared; Food in its Relation
+  to Mental and Physical Vigor; Dietary Studies in Public
+  Institutions.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XVIII
+
+  RATIONAL FEELING OF MAN                           261
+
+  Object; Human and Animal Feeding Compared; Standard
+  Rations; Why Tentative Dietary Standards; Amounts
+  of Food Consumed; Average Composition of Foods;
+  Variations in Composition of Foods; Example of a Ration;
+  Calculations of Balanced Rations; Requisites of a
+  Balanced Ration; Examples; Calculations of Rations for
+  Men at Different Kinds of Labor.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIX
+
+  WATER                                             268
+
+  Importance; Impurities in Water; Mineral Impurities;
+  Organic Impurities; Interpretation of a Water Analysis;
+  Natural Purification of Water; Water in Relation to
+  Health; Improvement of Waters; Boiling of Water; Filtration;
+  Purification of Water by Addition of Chemicals;
+  Ice; Rain Waters; Waters of High and Low Purity;
+  Chemical Changes which Organic Matter of Water Undergoes;
+  Bacterial Content of Water; Mineral Waters;
+  Materials for Softening Water; Uses of; Economic Value
+  of a Pure Water Supply.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XX
+
+  FOOD AS AFFECTED BY HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND
+  STORAGE                                           284
+
+  Injurious Compounds in Foods; Nutrient Content and
+  Sanitary Condition of Food; Sources of Contamination
+  of Food; Unclean Ways of Handling Food; Sanitary Inspection
+  of Food; Infection from Impure Air; Storage
+  of Food in Cellars; Respiration of Vegetable Cells; Sunlight,
+  Pure Water, and Pure Air as Disinfectants; Foods
+  contaminated from Leaky Plumbing; Utensils for Storage
+  of Food; Contamination from Unclean Dishcloths; Refrigeration;
+  Chemical Changes that take Place in the
+  Refrigerator; Soil; Disposal of Kitchen Refuse; Germ
+  Diseases spread by Unsanitary Conditions around Dwellings
+  due to Contamination of Food; General Considerations;
+  Relation of Food to Health.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XXI
+
+  LABORATORY PRACTICE                               299
+
+  Object of Laboratory Practice; Laboratory Note-book
+  and Suggestions for Laboratory Practice; List of Apparatus
+  Used; Photograph of Apparatus Used; Directions
+  for Weighing; Directions for Measuring; Use of Microscope;
+  Water in Flour; Water in Butter; Ash in Flour;
+  Nitric Acid Test for Nitrogenous Organic Matter; Acidity
+  of Lemons; Influence of Heat on Potato Starch Grains;
+  Influence of Yeast on Starch Grains; Mechanical Composition
+  of Potatoes; Pectose from Apples; Lemon Extract;
+  Vanilla Extract; Testing Olive Oil for Cotton Seed Oil;
+  Testing for Coal Tar Dyes; Determining the Per Cent of
+  Skin in Beans; Extraction of Fat from Peanuts; Microscopic
+  Examination of Milk; Formaldehyde in Cream or
+  Milk; Gelatine in Cream or Milk; Testing for Oleomargarine;
+  Testing for Watering or Skimming of Milk; Boric
+  Acid in Meat; Microscopic Examination of Cereal Starch
+  Grains; Identification of Commercial Cereals; Granulation
+  and Color of Flour; Capacity of Flour to absorb
+  Water; Acidity of Flour; Moist and Dry Gluten; Gliadin
+  from Flour; Bread-making Test; Microscopic Examination
+  of Yeast; Testing Baking Powders for Alum; Testing
+  Baking Powders for Phosphoric Acid; Testing Baking
+  Powders for Ammonia; Vinegar Solids; Specific Gravity
+  of Vinegar; Acidity of Vinegar; Deportment of Vinegar
+  with Reagents; Testing Mustard for Turmeric; Examination
+  of Tea Leaves; Action of Iron Compounds upon
+  Tannic Acid; Identification of Coffee Berries; Detecting
+  Chicory in Coffee; Comparative Amounts of Soap Necessary
+  with Hard and Soft Water; Solvent Action of Water
+  on Lead; Suspended Matter in Water; Organic Matter
+  in Water; Deposition of Lime by Boiling Water; Qualitative
+  Tests for Minerals in Water; Testing for Nitrites
+  in Water.
+
+  REVIEW QUESTIONS                                  323
+
+  REFERENCES                                        350
+
+  INDEX                                             357
+
+
+
+
+HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GENERAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS
+
+
+1. Water.--All foods contain water. Vegetables in their natural
+condition contain large amounts, often 95 per cent, while in meats there
+is from 40 to 60 per cent or more. Prepared cereal products, as flour,
+corn meal, and oatmeal, which are apparently dry, have from 7 to 14 per
+cent. In general the amount of water in a food varies with the
+mechanical structure and the conditions under which it has been
+prepared, and is an important factor in estimating the value, as the
+nutrients are often greatly decreased because of large amounts of water.
+The water in substances as flour and meal is mechanically held in
+combination with the fine particles and varies with the moisture
+content, or hydroscopicity, of the air. Oftentimes foods gain or lose
+water to such an extent as to affect their weight; for example, one
+hundred pounds of flour containing 12 per cent of water may be reduced
+in weight three pounds or more when stored in a dry place, or there may
+be an increase in weight from being stored in a damp place. In tables
+of analyses the results, unless otherwise stated, are usually given on
+the basis of the original material, or the dry substance. Potatoes, for
+example, contain 2-1/2 per cent of crude protein on the basis of 75 per
+cent of water; or on a dry matter basis, that is, when the water is
+entirely eliminated, there is 10 per cent of protein.
+
+The water of foods is determined by drying the weighed material in a
+water or air oven at a temperature of about 100° C, until all of the
+moisture has been expelled in the form of steam, leaving the dry matter
+or material free from water.[1] The determination of dry matter, while
+theoretically a simple process, is attended with many difficulties.
+Substances which contain much fat may undergo oxidation during drying;
+volatile compounds, as essential oils, are expelled along with the
+moisture; and other changes may occur affecting the accuracy of the
+work. The last traces of moisture are removed with difficulty from a
+substance, being mechanically retained by the particles with great
+tenacity. When very accurate dry matter determinations are desired, the
+substance is dried in a vacuum oven, or in a desiccator over sulphuric
+acid, or in an atmosphere of some non-oxidizing gas, as hydrogen.
+
+
+2. Dry Matter.--The dry matter of a food is a mechanical mixture of
+the various compounds, as starch, sugar, fat, protein, cellulose, and
+mineral matter, and is obtained by drying the material. Succulent
+vegetable foods with 95 per cent of water contain only 5 per cent of
+dry matter, while in flour with 12 per cent of water there is 88 per
+cent, and in sugar 99 per cent. The dry matter is obtained by
+subtracting the per cent of water from 100, and in foods it varies from
+5 per cent and less in some vegetables to 99 per cent in sugar.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS USED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF DRY
+MATTER AND ASH IN FOODS.
+
+1, desiccator; 2, muffle furnace for combustion of foods and obtaining
+ash; 3, water oven for drying food materials.]
+
+
+3. Ash.--The ash, or mineral matter, is that portion obtained by
+burning or igniting the dry matter at the lowest temperature necessary
+for complete combustion. The ash in vegetable foods ranges from 2 to 5
+per cent and, together with the nitrogen, represents what was taken from
+the soil during growth. In animal bodies, the ash is present mainly in
+the bones, but there is also an appreciable amount, one per cent or
+more, in all the tissues. Ash is exceedingly variable in composition,
+being composed of the various salts of potassium, sodium, calcium,
+magnesium, and iron, as sulphates, phosphates, chlorides, and silicates
+of these elements. There are also other elements in small amounts. In
+the plant economy these elements take an essential part and are
+requisite for the formation of plant tissue and the production in the
+leaves of the organic compounds which later are stored up in the seeds.
+Some of the elements appear to be more necessary than others, and
+whenever withheld plant growth is restricted. The elements most
+essential for plant growth are potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron,
+phosphorus, and sulphur.[1]
+
+In the animal body minerals are derived, either directly or indirectly,
+from the vegetable foods consumed. The part which each of the mineral
+elements takes in animal nutrition is not well understood. Some of the
+elements, as phosphorus and sulphur, are in organic combination with the
+nitrogenous compounds, as the nucleated albuminoids, which are very
+essential for animal life. In both plant and animal bodies, the mineral
+matter is present as mineral salts and organic combinations. It is held
+that the ash elements which are in organic combination are the forms
+mainly utilized for tissue construction. While it is not known just what
+part all the mineral elements take in animal nutrition, experiments show
+that in all ordinary mixed rations the amount of the different mineral
+elements is in excess of the demands of the body, and it is only in rare
+instances, as in cases of restricted diet, or convalescence from some
+disease, that special attention need be given to increasing the mineral
+content of the ration. An excess of mineral matter in foods is equally
+as objectionable as a scant amount, elimination of the excess entailing
+additional work on the body.
+
+The composition of the ash of different food materials varies widely,
+both in amount, and form of the individual elements. When for any reason
+it is necessary to increase the phosphates in a ration, milk and eggs do
+this to a greater extent than almost any other foods. Common salt, or
+sodium chloride, is one of the most essential of the mineral
+constituents of the body. It is necessary for giving the blood its
+normal composition, furnishing acid and basic constituents for the
+production of the digestive fluids, and for the nutrition of the cells.
+While salt is a necessary food, in large amounts, as when the attempt is
+made to use sea water as a beverage, it acts as a poison, suggesting
+that a material may be both a food and a poison. When sodium chloride is
+entirely withheld from an animal, death from salt starvation ensues.
+Many foods contain naturally small amounts of sodium chloride.
+
+
+4. Organic Matter.--That portion of a food material which is converted
+into gaseous or volatile products during combustion is called the
+organic matter. It is a mechanical mixture of compounds made up of
+carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur, and is composed of
+various individual organic compounds, as cellulose, starch, sugar,
+albumin, and fat. The amount in a food is determined by subtracting the
+ash and water from 100. The organic matter varies widely in composition;
+in some foods it is largely starch, as in potatoes and rice, while in
+others, as forage crops consumed by animals, cellulose predominates. The
+nature of the prevailing organic compound, as sugar or starch,
+determines the nutritive value of a food. Each has a definite chemical
+composition capable of being expressed by a formula. Considered
+collectively, the organic compounds are termed organic matter. When
+burned, the organic compounds are converted into gases, the carbon
+uniting with the oxygen of the air to form carbon dioxide, hydrogen to
+form water, sulphur to form sulphur dioxide, and the nitrogen to form
+oxides of nitrogen and ammonia.
+
+
+5. Classification of Organic Compounds.--All food materials are
+composed of a large number of organic compounds. For purposes of study
+these are divided into classes. The element nitrogen is taken as the
+basis of the division. Compounds which contain this element are called
+nitrogenous, while those from which it is absent are called
+non-nitrogenous.[2] The nitrogenous organic compounds are composed of
+the elements nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and sulphur, while the
+non-nitrogenous compounds are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
+In vegetable foods the non-nitrogenous compounds predominate, there
+being usually from six to twelve parts of non-nitrogenous to every one
+part of nitrogenous, while in animal foods the nitrogenous compounds are
+present in larger amount.
+
+
+NON-NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS
+
+6. Occurrence.--The non-nitrogenous compounds of foods consist mainly
+of cellulose, starch, sugar, and fat. For purposes of study, they are
+divided into subdivisions, as carbohydrates, pectose substances or
+jellies, fats, organic acids, essential oils, and mixed compounds. In
+plants the carbohydrates predominate, while in animal tissue the fats
+are the chief non-nitrogenous constituents.
+
+
+7. Carbohydrates.--This term is applied to a class of compounds
+similar in general composition, but differing widely in structural
+composition and physical properties. Carbohydrates make up the bulk of
+vegetable foods and, except in milk, are found only in traces in animal
+foods. They are all represented by the general formula CH_2n_2n, there
+being twice as many hydrogen as oxygen atoms, the hydrogen and oxygen
+being present in the same proportion as in water. As a class, the
+carbohydrates are neutral bodies, and, when burned, form carbon dioxide
+and water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF PLANT CELL.]
+
+8. Cellulose is the basis of the cell structure of plants, and is
+found in various physical forms in food materials.[3] Sometimes it is
+hard and dense, resisting digestive action and mechanically inclosing
+other nutrients and thus preventing their being available as food. In
+the earlier stages of plant growth a part of the cellulose is in
+chemical combination with water, forming hydrated cellulose, a portion
+of which undergoes digestion and produces heat and energy in the body.
+Ordinarily, however, cellulose adds but little in the way of nutritive
+value, although it is often beneficial mechanically and imparts bulk to
+some foods otherwise too concentrated. The mechanical action of
+cellulose on the digestion of food is discussed in Chapter XV.
+Cellulose usually makes up a very small part of human food, less than 1
+per cent. In refined white flour there is less than .05 of a per cent;
+in oatmeal and cereal products from .5 to 1 per cent, depending upon the
+extent to which the hulls are removed, and in vegetable foods from .1 to
+1 per cent. The cellulose content of foods is included in the crude
+fiber of the chemist's report.
+
+9. Starch occurs widely distributed in nature, particularly in the
+seeds, roots, and tubers of some plants. It is formed in the leaves of
+plants as a result of the joint action of chlorophyll and protoplasm,
+and is generally held by plant physiologists to be the first
+carbohydrate produced in the plant cell. Starch is composed of a number
+of overlapping layers separated by starch cellulose; between these
+layers the true starch or amylose is found. Starch from the various
+cereals and vegetables differs widely in mechanical structure; in wheat
+it is circular, in corn somewhat angular, and in parsnips exceedingly
+small, while potato starch granules are among the largest.[4] The nature
+of starch can be determined largely from its mechanical structure as
+studied under the microscope. It is insoluble in cold water because of
+the protecting action of the cellular layer, but on being heated it
+undergoes both mechanical and chemical changes; the grains are partially
+ruptured by pressure due to the conversion into steam of the moisture
+held mechanically. The cooking of foods is beneficial from a mechanical
+point of view, as it results in partial disintegration of the starch
+masses, changing the structure so that the starch is more readily acted
+upon by the ferments of the digestive tract. At a temperature of about
+120° C. starch begins to undergo chemical change, resulting in the
+rearrangement of the atoms in the molecule with the production of
+dextrine and soluble carbohydrates. Dextrine is formed on the crust of
+bread, or whenever potatoes or starchy foods are browned. At a still
+higher temperature starch is decomposed, with the liberation of water
+and production of compounds of higher carbon content. When heated in
+contact with water, it undergoes hydration changes; gelatinous-like
+products are formed, which are finally converted into a soluble
+condition. In cooking cereals, the hydration of the starch is one of the
+main physical and chemical changes that takes place, and it simply
+results in converting the material into such a form that other chemical
+changes may more readily occur. Before starch becomes dextrose,
+hydration is necessary. If this is accomplished by cooking, it saves the
+body just so much energy in digestion. Many foods owe their value
+largely to the starch. In cereals it is found to the extent of 72 to 76
+per cent; in rice and potatoes in still larger amounts; and it is the
+chief constituent of many vegetables. When starch is digested, it is
+first changed to a soluble form and then gradually undergoes oxidation,
+resulting in the production of heat and energy, the same
+products--carbon dioxide and water--being formed as when starch is
+burned. Starch is a valuable heat-producing nutrient; a pound yields
+1860 calories. See Chapter XV.
+
+10. Sugar.--Sugars are widely distributed in nature, being found
+principally in the juices of the sugar cane, sugar beet, and sugar
+maple. They are divided into two large classes: the sucrose group and
+the dextrose group, the latter being produced from sucrose, starch, and
+other carbohydrates by inversion and allied chemical changes. Because of
+the importance of sugar in the dietary, Chapter V is devoted to the
+subject.
+
+11. Pectose Substances are jelly-like bodies found in fruits and
+vegetables. They are closely related in chemical composition to the
+carbohydrates, into which form they are changed during digestion; and in
+nutrition they serve practically the same function. In the early stages
+of growth the pectin bodies are combined with organic acids, forming
+insoluble compounds, as the pectin in green apples. During the ripening
+of fruit and the cooking of vegetables, the pectin is changed to a more
+soluble and digestible condition. In food analysis, the pectin is
+usually included with the carbohydrates.
+
+12. Nitrogen-free-extract.--In discussing the composition of foods,
+the carbohydrates other then cellulose, as starch, sugar, and pectin,
+are grouped under the name of nitrogen-free-extract. Methods of
+chemical analysis have not yet been sufficiently perfected to
+enable accurate and rapid determination to be made of all these
+individual carbohydrates, and hence they are grouped together as
+nitrogen-free-extract. As the name indicates, they are compounds which
+contain no nitrogen, and are extractives in the sense that they are
+soluble in dilute acid and alkaline solutions. The nitrogen-free-extract
+is determined indirectly, that is, by the method of difference. All the
+other constituents of a food, as water, ash, crude fiber (cellulose),
+crude protein, and ether extract, are determined; the total is
+subtracted from 100, and the difference is nitrogen-free-extract. In
+studying the nutritive value of foods, particular attention should be
+given to the nature of the nitrogen-free-extract, as in some instances
+it is composed of sugar and in others of starch, pectin, or pentosan
+(gum sugars). While all these compounds have practically the same fuel
+value, they differ in composition, structure, and the way in which they
+are acted upon by chemicals and digestive ferments.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--APPARATUS USED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
+FAT.]
+
+13. Fat.--Fat is found mainly in the seeds of plants, but to some
+extent in the leaves and stems. It differs from starch in containing
+more carbon and less oxygen. In starch there is about 44 per cent of
+carbon, while in fat there is 75 per cent. Hence it is that when fat is
+burned or undergoes combustion, it yields a larger amount of the
+products of combustion--carbon dioxid and water--than does starch. A
+gram of fat produces 2-1/4 times as much heat as a gram of starch. Fat
+is the most concentrated non-nitrogenous nutrient. As found in food
+materials, it is a mechanical mixture of various fats, among which are
+stearin, palmitin, and olein. Stearin and palmitin are hard fats,
+crystalline in structure, and with a high melting point, while olein is
+a liquid. In addition to these three, there are also small amounts of
+other fats, as butyrin in butter, which give character or individuality
+to materials. There are a number of vegetable fats or oils which are
+used for food purposes and, when properly prepared and refined, have a
+high nutritive value. Occasionally one fat of cheaper origin but not
+necessarily of lower nutritive value is substituted for another. The
+fats have definite physical and chemical properties which enable them to
+be readily distinguished, as iodine number, specific gravity, index of
+refraction, and heat of combustion. By iodine number is meant the
+percentage of iodine that will unite chemically with the fat. Wheat oil
+has an iodine number of about 100, meaning that one pound of wheat oil
+will unite chemically with one pound of iodine. Fats have a lower
+specific gravity than water, usually ranging from .89 to .94, the
+specific gravity of a fat being fairly constant. All fats can be
+separated into glycerol and a fatty acid, glycerol or glycerine being
+common constituents, while each fat yields its own characteristic acid,
+as stearin, stearic acid; palmitin, palmitic acid; and olein, oleic
+acid. The fats are soluble in ether, chloroform, and benzine. In the
+chemical analysis of foods, they are separated with ether, and along
+with the fat, variable amounts of other substances are extracted, these
+extractive products usually being called "ether extract" or "crude
+fat."[5] The ether extract of plant tissue contains in addition to fat
+appreciable amounts of cellulose, gums, coloring, and other materials.
+From cereal products the ether extract is largely fat, but in some
+instances lecithin and other nitrogenous fatty substances are present,
+while in animal food products, as milk and meat, the ether extract is
+nearly pure fat.
+
+14. Organic Acids.--Many vegetable foods contain small amounts of
+organic acids, as malic acid found in apples, citric in lemons, and
+tartaric in grapes. These give characteristic taste to foods, but have
+no direct nutritive value. They do not yield heat and energy as do
+starch, fat, and protein; they are, however, useful for imparting flavor
+and palatability, and it is believed they promote to some extent the
+digestion of foods with which they are combined by encouraging the
+secretion of the digestive fluids. Many fruits and vegetables owe their
+dietetic value to the organic acids which they contain. In plants they
+are usually in chemical combination with the minerals, forming compounds
+as salts, or with the organic compounds, producing materials as acid
+proteins. In the plant economy they take an essential part in promoting
+growth and aiding the plant to secure by osmotic action its mineral food
+from the soil. Organic acids are found to some extent in animal foods,
+as the various lactic acids of meat and milk. They are also formed in
+food materials as the result of ferment action. When seeds germinate,
+small amounts of carbohydrates are converted into organic acids. In
+general the organic acids are not to be considered as nutrients, but as
+food adjuncts, increasing palatability and promoting digestion.
+
+15. Essential Oils.--Essential or volatile oils differ from fats, or
+fixed oils, in chemical composition and physical properties.[6] The
+essential oils are readily volatilized, leaving no permanent residue,
+while the fixed fats are practically non-volatile. Various essential
+oils are present in small amounts in nearly all vegetable food
+materials, and the characteristic flavor of many fruits is due to them.
+It is these compounds which are used for flavoring purposes, as
+discussed in Chapter IV. The amount in a food material is very small,
+usually only a few hundredths of a per cent. The essential oils have no
+direct food value, but indirectly, like the organic acids, they assist
+in promoting favorable digestive action, and are also valuable because
+they impart a pleasant taste. Through poor methods of cooking and
+preparation, the essential oils are readily lost from some foods.
+
+16. Mixed Compounds.--Food materials frequently contain
+compounds which do not naturally fall into the five groups
+mentioned,--carbohydrates, pectose substances, fats, organic acids, and
+essential oils. The amount of such compounds is small, and they are
+classed as miscellaneous or mixed non-nitrogenous compounds. Some of
+them may impart a negative value to the food, and there are others which
+have all the characteristics, as far as general composition is
+concerned, of the non-nitrogenous compounds, but contain nitrogen,
+although as a secondary rather than an essential constituent.
+
+17. Nutritive Value of Non-nitrogenous Compounds.--The non-nitrogenous
+compounds, taken as a class, are incapable alone of sustaining life,
+because they do not contain any nitrogen, and this is necessary for
+producing proteid material in the animal body. They are valuable for
+the production of heat and energy, and when associated with the
+nitrogenous compounds, are capable of forming non-nitrogenous reserve
+tissue. It is equally impossible to sustain life for any prolonged
+period with the nitrogenous compounds alone. It is when these two
+classes are properly blended and naturally united in food materials that
+their main value is secured. For nutrition purposes they are mutually
+related and dependent. Some food materials contain the nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds blended in such proportion as to enable one
+food alone to practically sustain life, while in other cases it is
+necessary, in order to secure the best results in the feeding of animals
+and men, to combine different foods varying in their content of these
+two classes of compounds.[7]
+
+
+NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS
+
+18. General Composition.--The nitrogenous compounds are more complex
+in composition than the non-nitrogenous. They are composed of a larger
+number of elements, united in different ways so as to form a much more
+complex molecular structure. Foods contain numerous nitrogenous organic
+compounds, which, for purposes of study, are divided into four
+divisions,--proteids, albuminoids, amids, and alkaloids. In addition to
+these, there are other nitrogenous compounds which do not naturally fall
+into any one of the four divisions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--APPARATUS USED FOR DETERMINING
+TOTAL NITROGEN AND CRUDE PROTEIN IN FOODS.
+
+The material is digested in the flask (3) with sulphuric acid and the
+organic nitrogen converted into ammonium sulphate, which is later
+liberated and distilled at 1, and the ammonia neutralized with standard
+acid (2).]
+
+Also in some foods there are small amounts of nitrogen in mineral forms,
+as nitrates and nitrites.
+
+19. Protein.--The term "protein" is applied to a large class of
+nitrogenous compounds resembling each other in general composition, but
+differing widely in structural composition. As a class, the proteins
+contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen, 52 per cent of carbon, from 6 to
+7 per cent of hydrogen, 22 per cent of oxygen, and less than 2 per cent
+of sulphur. These elements are combined in a great variety of ways,
+forming various groups or radicals. In studying the protein molecule a
+large number of derivative products have been observed, as amid
+radicals, various hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and carbohydrate-like
+bodies.[8] It would appear that in the chemical composition of the
+proteins there are all the constituents, or simpler products, of the
+non-nitrogenous compounds, and these are in chemical combination with
+amid radicals and nitrogen in various forms. The nitrogen of many
+proteids appears to be present in more than one form or radical. The
+proteids take an important part in life processes. They are found more
+extensively in animal than in plant bodies. The protoplasm of both the
+plant and animal cell is composed mainly of protein.
+
+Proteids are divided into various subdivisions, as albumins, globulins,
+albuminates, proteoses and peptones, and insoluble proteids. In plant
+and animal foods a large amount of the protein is present as insoluble
+proteids; that is, they are not dissolved by solvents, as water and
+dilute salt solution. The albumins are soluble in water and coagulated
+by heat at a temperature of 157° to 161° F. Whenever a food material is
+soaked in water, the albumin is removed and can then be coagulated by
+the action of heat, or of chemicals, as tannic acid, lead acetate, and
+salts of mercury. The globulins are proteids extracted from food
+materials by dilute salt solution after the removal of the albumins.
+Globulins also are coagulated by heat and precipitated by chemicals. The
+amount of globulins in vegetable foods is small. In animal foods myosin
+in meat and vitellin, found in the yolk of the egg, and some of the
+proteids of the blood, are examples of globulins. Albuminates are
+casein-like proteids found in both animal and vegetable foods. They are
+supposed to be proteins that are in feeble chemical combination with
+acid and alkaline compounds, and they are sometimes called acid and
+alkali proteids. Some are precipitated from their solutions by acids and
+others by alkalies. Peas and beans contain quite large amounts of a
+casein-like proteid called legumin. Proteoses and peptones are proteins
+soluble in water, but not coagulated by heat. They are produced from
+other proteids by ferment action during the digestion of food and the
+germination of seeds, and are often due to the changes resulting from
+the action of the natural ferments or enzymes inherent in the food
+materials. As previously stated, the insoluble proteids are present in
+far the largest amount of any of the nitrogenous materials of foods.
+Lean meat and the gluten of wheat and other grains are examples of the
+insoluble proteids. The various insoluble proteids from different food
+materials each has its own composition and distinctive chemical and
+physical properties, and from each a different class and percentage
+amount of derivative products are obtained.[1] While in general it is
+held that the various proteins have practically the same nutritive
+value, it is possible that because differences in structural composition
+and the products formed during digestion there may exist notable
+differences in nutritive value. During digestion the insoluble proteids
+undergo an extended series of chemical changes. They are partially
+oxidized, and the nitrogenous portion of the molecule is eliminated
+mainly in the form of amids, as urea. The insoluble proteins constitute
+the main source of the nitrogenous food supply of both humans and
+animals.
+
+20. Crude Protein.--In the analysis of foods, the term "crude protein"
+is used to designate the total nitrogenous compounds considered
+collectively; it is composed largely of protein, but also includes the
+amids, alkaloids, and albuminoids. "Crude protein" and "total
+nitrogenous compounds" are practically synonymous terms. The various
+proteins all contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen; that is, one part of
+nitrogen is equivalent to 6.25 parts of protein. In analyzing a food
+material, the total organic nitrogen is determined and the amount
+multiplied by 6.25 to obtain the crude protein. In some food materials,
+as cereals, the crude protein is largely pure protein, while in others,
+as potatoes, it is less than half pure protein, the larger portion being
+amids and other compounds. In comparing the crude protein content of one
+food with that of another, the nature of both proteids should be
+considered and also the amounts of non-proteid constituents. The factor
+6.25 for calculating the protein equivalent of foods is not strictly
+applicable to all foods. For example, the proteids of wheat--gliadin and
+glutenin--contain over 18 per cent of nitrogen, making the nitrogen
+factor about 5.68 instead of 6.25. If wheat contains 2 per cent of
+nitrogen, it is equivalent to 12.5 per cent of crude protein, using the
+factor 6.25; or to 11.4, using the factor 5.7. The nitrogen content of
+foods is absolute; the protein content is only relative.[9]
+
+21. Food Value of Protein.--Because of its complexity in composition,
+protein is capable of being used by the body in a greater variety of
+ways than starch, sugar, or fat. In addition to producing heat and
+energy, protein serves the unique function of furnishing material for
+the construction of new muscular tissue and the repair of that which is
+worn out. It is distinctly a tissue-building nutrient. It also enters
+into the composition of all the vital fluids of the body, as the blood,
+chyme, chyle, and the various digestive fluids. Hence it is that protein
+is required as a nutrient by the animal body, and it cannot be produced
+from non-nitrogenous compounds. In vegetable bodies, the protein can be
+produced synthetically from amids, which in turn are formed from
+ammonium compounds. While protein is necessary in the ration, an
+excessive amount should be avoided. When there is more than is needed
+for functional purposes, it is used for heat and energy, and as foods
+rich in protein are usually the most expensive, an excess adds
+unnecessarily to the cost of the ration. Excess of protein in the ration
+may also result in a diseased condition, due to imperfect elimination of
+the protein residual products from the body.[10]
+
+22. Albuminoids differ from proteids in general composition and, to
+some extent, in nutritive value. They are found in animal bodies mainly
+in the connective tissue and in the skin, hair, and nails. Some of the
+albuminoids, as nuclein, are equal in food value to protein, while
+others have a lower food value. In general, albuminoids are capable of
+conserving the protein of the body, and hence are called "protein
+sparers," but they cannot in every way enter into the composition of the
+body, as do the true proteins.
+
+23. Amids and Amines.--These are nitrogenous compounds of simpler
+structure than the proteins and albuminoids. They are sometimes called
+compound ammonia in that they are derived from ammonia by the
+replacement of one of the hydrogen atoms with an organic radical. In
+plants, amids are intermediate compounds in the production of the
+proteids, and in some vegetables a large portion of the nitrogen is
+amids. In animal bodies amids are formed during oxidation, digestion,
+and disintegration of proteids. It is not definitely known whether or
+not a protein in the animal body when broken down into amid form can
+again be reconstructed into protein. The amids have a lower food value
+than the proteids and albuminoids. It is generally held that, to a
+certain extent, they are capable, when combined with proteids, of
+preventing rapid conversion of the body proteid into soluble form. When
+they are used in large amounts in a ration, they tend to hasten
+oxidation rather than conservation of the proteids.
+
+24. Alkaloids.--In some plant bodies there are small amounts of
+nitrogenous compounds called alkaloids. They are not found to any
+appreciable extent in food plants. The alkaloids, like ammonia, are
+basic in character and unite with acids to form salts. Many medicinal
+plants owe their value to the alkaloids which they contain. In animal
+bodies alkaloids are formed when the tissue undergoes fermentation
+changes, and also during disease, the products being known as ptomaines.
+Alkaloids have no food value, but act physiologically as irritants on
+the nerve centers, making them useful from a medicinal rather than from
+a nutritive point of view. To medical and pharmaceutical students the
+alkaloids form a very important group of compounds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF FLOUR.
+
+1, flour; 2, starch; 3, gluten; 4, water; 5, fat; 6, ash.]
+
+25. General Relationship of the Nitrogenous Compounds.--Among the
+various subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds there exists a
+relationship similar to that among the non-nitrogenous compounds. From
+proteids, amids and alkaloids may be formed, just as invert sugars and
+their products are formed from sucrose. Although glucose products are
+derived from sucrose, it is not possible to reverse the process and
+obtain sucrose or cane sugar from starch. So it is with proteins, while
+the amid may be obtained from the proteid in animal nutrition, as far
+as known the process cannot be reversed and proteids be obtained from
+amids. In the construction of the protein molecule of plants, nitrogen
+is absorbed from the soil in soluble forms, as compounds of nitrates and
+nitrites and ammonium salts. These are converted, first, into amids and
+then into proteids. In the animal body just the reverse of this process
+takes place,--the protein of the food undergoes a series of changes, and
+is finally eliminated from the body as an amid, which in turn undergoes
+oxidation and nitrification, and is converted into nitrites, nitrates,
+and ammonium salts. These forms of nitrogen are then ready to begin
+again in plant and animal bodies the same cycle of changes. Thus it is
+that nitrogen may enter a number of times into the composition of plant
+and animal tissues. Nature is very economical in her use of this
+element.[5]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND PREPARATION
+
+
+26. Raw and Cooked Foods Compared.--Raw and cooked foods differ in
+chemical composition mainly in the content of water. The amount of
+nutrients on a dry matter basis is practically the same, but the
+structural composition is affected by cooking, and hence it is that a
+food prepared for the table often differs appreciably from the raw
+material. Cooked meat, for example, has not the same percentage and
+structural composition as raw meat, although the difference in nutritive
+value between a given weight of each is not large. During cooking, foods
+are acted upon chemically, physically, and bacteriologically, and it is
+usually the joint action of these three agencies that brings about the
+desirable changes incident to their preparation for the table.
+
+27. Chemical Changes during Cooking.--Each of the chemical compounds
+of which foods are composed is influenced to a greater or less extent by
+heat and modified in composition. The chemistry of cooking is mainly a
+study of the chemical changes that take place when compounds, as
+cellulose, starch, sugar, pectin, fat, and the various proteids, are
+subjected to the joint action of heat, moisture, air, and ferments. The
+changes which affect the cellulose are physical rather than chemical. A
+slight hydration of the cellular tissue, however, does take place. In
+human foods cellulose is not found to any appreciable extent. Many
+vegetables, as potatoes, which are apparently composed of cellular
+substances, contain but little true cellulose. Starch, as previously
+stated, undergoes hydration in the presence of water, and, at a
+temperature of 120° C., is converted into dextrine. At a higher
+temperature disintegration of the starch molecule takes place, with the
+formation of carbon monoxid, carbon dioxid, and water, and the
+production of a residue richer in carbon than is starch. On account of
+the moisture, the temperature in many cooking operations is not
+sufficiently high for changes other than hydration and preliminary
+dextrinizing. In Chapter XI is given a more extended account of the
+changes affecting starch which occur in bread making.
+
+During the cooking process sugars undergo inversion to a slight extent.
+That is, sucrose is converted into levulose and dextrose sugars. At a
+higher temperature, sugar is broken up into its constituents--water and
+carbon dioxide. The organic acids which many fruits and vegetables
+contain hasten the process of inversion. When sugar is subjected to dry
+heat, it becomes a brown, caramel-like material sometimes called barley
+sugar. During cooking, sugars are not altered in solubility or
+digestibility; starches, however, are changed to a more soluble form,
+and pectin--a jelly-like substance--is converted from a less to a more
+soluble condition, as stated in Chapter I. Changes incident to the
+cooking of fruits and vegetables rich in pectin, as in the making of
+jellies, are similar to those which take place in the last stages of
+ripening.
+
+The fats are acted upon to a considerable extent by heat. Some of the
+vegetable oils undergo slight oxidation, resulting in decreased
+solubility in ether, but since there is no volatilization of the fatty
+matter, it is a change that does not materially affect the total fuel
+value of the food.[11]
+
+There is a general tendency for the proteids to become less soluble by
+the action of heat, particularly the albumins and globulins. The protein
+molecule dissociates at a high temperature, with formation of volatile
+products, and therefore foods rich in protein should not be subjected to
+extreme heat, as losses of food value may result. During cooking,
+proteids undergo hydration, which is necessary and preliminary to
+digestion, and the heating need be carried only to this point, and not
+to the splitting up of the molecule. Prolonged high temperature in the
+cooking of proteids and starches is unnecessary in order to induce the
+desired chemical changes. When these nutrients are hydrated, they are in
+a condition to undergo digestion, without the body being compelled to
+expend unnecessary energy in bringing about this preliminary change.
+Hence it is that, while proper cooking does not materially affect the
+total digestibility of proteids or starches, it influences ease of
+digestion, as well as conserves available energy, thereby making more
+economical use of these nutrients.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--CELLS OF A PARTIALLY COOKED
+POTATO. (After KÖNIG.)]
+
+28. Physical Changes.--The mechanical structure of foods is influenced
+by cooking to a greater extent than is the chemical composition. One of
+the chief objects of cooking is to bring the food into better mechanical
+condition for digestion.[12] Heat and water cause partial disintegration
+of both animal and vegetable tissues. The cell-cementing materials are
+weakened, and a softening of the tissues results. Often the action
+extends still further in vegetable foods, resulting in disintegration of
+the individual starch granules. When foods are subjected to dry heat,
+the moisture they contain is converted into steam, which causes bursting
+of the tissues. A good example of this is the popping of corn. Heat may
+result, too, in mechanical removal of some of the nutrients, as the
+fats, which are liquefied at temperatures ranging from 100° to 200° F.
+Many foods which in the raw state contain quite large amounts of fat,
+lose a portion mechanically during cooking, as is the case with bacon
+when it is cut in thin slices and fried or baked until crisp. When foods
+are boiled, the natural juices being of somewhat different density from
+the water in which they are cooked, slight osmotic changes occur. There
+is a tendency toward equalization of the composition of the juices of
+the food and the water in which they are cooked. In order to achieve the
+best mechanical effects in cooking, high temperatures are not necessary,
+except at first for rupturing the tissues; softening of the tissues is
+best effected by prolonged and slow heat. At a higher temperature many
+of the volatile and essential oils are lost, while at lower temperatures
+these are retained and in some instances slightly developed. The cooking
+should be sufficiently prolonged and the temperature high enough to
+effectually disintegrate and soften all of the tissues, but not to cause
+extended chemical changes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--CELLS OF RAW POTATO, SHOWING STARCH
+GRAINS. (After KÖNIG.)]
+
+There is often an unnecessarily large amount of heat lost through faulty
+construction of stoves and lack of judicious use of fuels, which greatly
+enhances the cost of preparing foods. Ovens are frequently coated with
+deposits of soot; this causes the heat to be thrown out into the room or
+lost through the chimney, rather than utilized for heating the oven. In
+an ordinary cook stove it is estimated that less than 7 per cent of the
+heat and energy of the fuel is actually employed in bringing about
+physical and chemical changes incident to cooking.[13]
+
+29. Bacteriological Changes.--The bacterial organisms of foods are
+destroyed in the cooking, provided a temperature of 150° F. is reached
+and maintained for several minutes. The interior of foods rarely reaches
+a temperature above 200° F., because of the water they contain which is
+not completely removed below 212°. One of the chief objects in cooking
+food is to render it sterile. Not only do bacteria become innocuous
+through cooking, but various parasites, as trichina and tapeworm, are
+destroyed, although some organisms can live at a comparatively high
+temperature. Cooked foods are easily re-inoculated, in some cases more
+readily than fresh foods, because they are in a more disintegrated
+condition.
+
+In many instances bacteria are of material assistance in the preparation
+of foods, as in bread making, butter making, curing of cheese, and
+ripening of meat. All the chemical compounds of which foods are
+composed are subject to fermentation, each compound being acted upon by
+its special ferment body. Those which convert the proteids into soluble
+form, as the peptonizing ferments, have no action upon the
+carbohydrates. A cycle of bacteriological changes often takes place in a
+food material, one class of ferments working until their products
+accumulate to such an extent as to prevent their further activity, and
+then the process is taken up by others, as they find the conditions
+favorable for development. This change of bacterial flora in food
+materials is akin to the changes in the vegetation occupying soils. In
+each case, there is a constant struggle for possession. Bacteria take a
+much more important part in the preparation of foods than is generally
+considered. As a result of their workings, various chemical products, as
+organic acids and aromatic compounds, are produced. The organic acids
+chemically unite with the nutrients of foods, changing their composition
+and physical properties. Man is, to a great extent, dependent upon
+bacterial action. Plant life also is dependent upon the bacterial
+changes which take place in the soil and in the plant tissues. The
+stirring of seeds into activity is apparently due to enzymes or soluble
+ferments which are inherent in the seed. A study of the bacteriological
+changes which foods undergo in their preparation and digestion more
+properly belongs to the subject of bacteriology, and in this work only
+brief mention is made of some of the more important parts which
+microörganisms take in the preparation of foods.
+
+30. Insoluble Ferments.--Insoluble ferments are minute, plant-like
+bodies of definite form and structure, and can be studied only with the
+microscope.[1] They are developed from spores or seeds, or from the
+splitting or budding of the parent cells. Under suitable conditions they
+multiply rapidly, deriving the energy for their life processes from the
+chemical changes which they induce. For example, in the souring of milk
+the milk sugar is changed by the lactic acid ferments into lactic acid.
+In causing chemical changes, the ferment gives none of its own material
+to the reacting substance. These ferment bodies undergo life processes
+similar to plants of a higher order.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LACTIC ACID BACTERIA, MUCH
+ENLARGED. (After RUSSELL.)]
+
+All foods contain bacteria or ferments. In fact, it is impossible for a
+food stored and prepared under ordinary conditions, unless it has been
+specially treated, to be free from them. Some of them are useful, some
+are injurious, while others are capable of producing disease. The
+objectionable bacteria are usually destroyed by the joint action of
+sunlight, pure air, and water.
+
+31. Soluble Ferments.--Many plant and animal cells have the power of
+secreting substances soluble in water and capable of producing
+fermentation changes; to these the term "soluble ferments," or
+"enzymes," is applied. These ferments have not a cell structure like
+the organized ferments. When germinated seed, as malted barley, is
+extracted, a soluble and highly nitrogenous substance, called the
+diastase ferment, is secured that changes starch into soluble forms. The
+soluble ferments induce chemical change by causing molecular disturbance
+or splitting up of the organic compounds, resulting in the production of
+derivative products. They take an important part in animal and plant
+nutrition, as by their action insoluble compounds are brought into a
+soluble condition so they can be utilized for nutritive purposes. In
+many instances ferment changes are due to the joint action of soluble
+and insoluble ferments. The insoluble ferment secretes an enzyme which
+induces a chemical change, modified by the further action of the soluble
+ferment. Many of the enzymes carry on their work at a low temperature,
+as in the curing of meat and cheese in cold storage.[14]
+
+32. General Relationship of Chemical, Physical, and Bacteriological
+Changes.--It cannot be said that the beneficial results derived from
+the cooking of foods are due to either chemical, physical, or
+bacteriological change alone, but to the joint action of the three. In
+order to secure a chemical change, a physical change must often precede,
+and a bacteriological change cannot take place without causing a change
+in chemical composition; the three are closely related and
+interdependent.
+
+33. Esthetic Value of Foods.--Foods should be not only of good
+physical texture and contain the requisite nutrients, but they should
+also be pleasing to the eye and served in the most attractive manner.
+Some foods owe a part of their commercial value to color, and when they
+are lacking in natural color they are not consumed with a relish. There
+is no objection to the addition of coloring matter to foods, provided it
+is of a non-injurious character and does not affect the amount of
+nutrients, and that its presence and the kind of coloring material are
+made known. Some foods contain objectionable colors which are eliminated
+during the process of manufacture, as in the case of sugar and flour. As
+far as removal of coloring matter from foods during refining is
+concerned, there can be no objection, so long as no injurious reagents
+or chemicals are retained, as the removal of the color in no way affects
+the nutritive value or permits fraud, but necessitates higher
+purification and refining. The use of chemicals and reagents in the
+preparation and refining of foods is considered permissible in all cases
+where the reagents are removed by subsequent processes. In the food
+decisions of the United States Department of Agriculture, it is stated:
+"Not excluded under this provision are substances properly used in the
+preparation of food products for clarification or refining and
+eliminated in the further process of manufacture." [15]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+VEGETABLE FOODS
+
+
+34. General Composition.--Vegetable foods, with the exception of
+cereals, legumes, and nuts, contain a smaller percentage of protein than
+animal food products. They vary widely in composition and nutritive
+value; in some, starch predominates, while in others, sugar, cellulose,
+and pectin bodies are most abundant. The general term "vegetable foods"
+is used in this work to include roots, tubers, garden vegetables,
+cereals, legumes, and all prepared foods of vegetable origin.
+
+35. Potatoes contain about 75 per cent of water and 25 per cent of dry
+matter, the larger portion being starch. There is but little nitrogenous
+material in the potato, only 2.25 per cent, of which about half is in
+the form of proteids. There are ten parts of non-nitrogenous substance
+to every one part of nitrogenous; or, in other words, the potato has a
+wide nutritive ratio, and as an article of diet needs to be supplemented
+with foods rich in protein. The mineral matter, cellular tissue, and
+fat in potatoes are small in amount, as are also the organic acids.
+Mechanically considered, the potato is composed of three parts,--outer
+skin, inner skin, and flesh. The layer immediately beneath the outer
+skin is slightly colored, and is designated the fibro-vascular layer.
+The outer and inner skins combined make up about 10 per cent of the
+weight of the potato.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF POTATO.
+(After COWDEN and BUSSARD.) _a_, skin; _b_, cortical
+layer; _c_, outer medullary layer; _d_, inner medullary layer.]
+
+A large portion of the protein of the potato is albumin, which is
+soluble in water. When potatoes are peeled, cut in small pieces, and
+soaked in water for several hours before boiling, 80 per cent of the
+crude protein, or total nitrogenous material, is extracted, rendering
+the product less valuable as food. When potatoes are placed directly in
+boiling water, the losses of nitrogenous compounds are reduced to about
+7 per cent, and, when the skins are not removed, to 1 per cent.
+Digestion experiments show that 92 per cent of the starch and 72 per
+cent of the protein are digested.[12] Compared with other foods,
+potatoes are often a cheap source of non-nitrogenous nutrients. If used
+in excessive amounts, however, they have a tendency to make the ration
+unbalanced and too bulky.
+
+
+MECHANICAL COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO
+
+  ================================================
+                                         |Per Cent
+  Unpeeled potatoes                      | 100.0
+  Outer, or true skin                    |   2.5
+  Inner skin, or fibro-vascular layer[A] |   8.5
+  Flesh                                  |  89.0
+  ================================================
+
+
+CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO
+
+  ================================================================
+                       |     |       |   |  CARBOHYDRATES
+                       |-----|-------|---|------------------------
+                       |Water| Crude |Fat|Nitrogen-free-|     |
+                       |     |Protein|   |    extract   |Fiber|Ash
+                       |  %  |   %   | % |      %       |  %  |%
+  ---------------------|-----|-------|---|--------------|-----|---
+  Outer, or true skin  | 80.1|   2.7 |0.8|           14.|6    |1.8
+  Inner skin, or       |     |       |   |              |     |
+   fibro-vascular      |     |       |   |              |     |
+   layer               | 83.2|   2.3 |0.1|     12.6     | 0.7 |1.1
+  Flesh                | 81.1|   2.0 |0.1|     15.7     | 0.3 |0.8
+  Average of 86        |     |       |   |              |     |
+   American analyses[B]| 78.0|   2.2 |0.1|           18.|8    |0.9
+  Average of 118       |     |       |   |              |     |
+   European analyses[C]| 75.0|   2.1 |0.1|     21.0     | 0.7 |1.1
+  ================================================================
+
+[Footnote A: Including a small amount of flesh.]
+
+[Footnote B: From an unpublished compilation of analyses of American
+food products.]
+
+[Footnote C: König, "Chemie der Nahrungs-und Genussmittel," 3d ed., II,
+p. 626.]
+
+36. Sweet Potatoes contain more dry matter than white potatoes, the
+difference being due mainly to the presence of about 6 per cent of
+sugar. There is approximately the same starch content, but more fat,
+protein, and fiber. As a food, they supply a large amount of
+non-nitrogenous nutrients.
+
+37. Carrots contain about half as much dry matter as potatoes, and
+half of the dry matter is sugar, nearly equally divided between sucrose
+and levulose, or fruit sugar. Like the potato, carrots have some organic
+acids and a relatively small amount of proteids. In carrots and milk
+there is practically the same per cent of water. The nutrients in each,
+however, differ both as to kind and proportion. Experiments with the
+cooking of carrots show that if a large amount of water is used, 30 per
+cent or more of the nutrients, particularly of the more soluble sugar
+and albumin, are extracted and lost in the drain waters.[12] The color
+of the carrot is due to the non-nitrogenous compound carrotin,
+C_{26}H_{38}. Carrots are valuable in a ration not because of the
+nutrients they supply, but for the palatability and the mechanical
+action which the vegetable fiber exerts upon the process of digestion.
+
+38. Parsnips contain more solid matter than beets or carrots, of which
+3 to 4 per cent is starch. The starch grains are very small, being only
+about one twentieth the size of the potato starch grains. There is 3 per
+cent of sugar and an appreciable amount of fat, more than in any other
+of the vegetables of this class, and seven times as much as in the
+potato. The mineral matter is of somewhat different nature from that in
+potatoes; in parsnips one half is potash and one quarter phosphoric
+acid, while in potatoes three quarters are potash and one fifth
+phosphoric acid.
+
+39. Cabbage contains very little dry matter, usually less than 10 per
+cent. It is proportionally richer in nitrogenous compounds than many
+vegetables, as about two of the ten parts of dry matter are crude
+protein, which makes the nutritive ratio one to five. During cooking 30
+to 40 per cent of the nutrients are extracted. Cabbage imparts to the
+ration bulk but comparatively little nutritive material. It is a
+valuable food adjunct, particularly used raw, as in a salad, when it is
+easily digested and retains all of the nutrients.[12]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE.]
+
+40. Cauliflower has much the same general composition as cabbage, from
+which it differs mainly in mechanical structure.
+
+41. Beets.--The garden beet contains a little more protein than
+carrots, but otherwise has about the same general composition, and the
+statements made in regard to the losses of nutrients in the cooking of
+carrots and to their use in the dietary apply also to beets.
+
+42. Cucumbers contain about 4 per cent of dry matter. The amount of
+nutrients is so small as to scarcely allow them to be considered a food.
+They are, however, a valuable food adjunct, as they impart palatability.
+
+43. Lettuce contains about 7 per cent of solids, of which 1.5 is
+protein and 2.5 starch and sugar. While low in nutrients, it is high in
+dietetic value, because of the chlorophyll which it contains. It has
+been suggested that it is valuable, too, for supplying iron in an
+organic form, as there is iron chemically combined with the chlorophyll.
+
+44. Onions are aromatic bulbs, valuable for condimental rather than
+nutritive purposes. They contain essential and volatile oils, which
+impart characteristic odor and flavor. In the onion there are about 1.5
+per cent of protein and 9.5 per cent of non-nitrogenous material. Onions
+are often useful in stimulating the digestive tract to action.
+
+45. Spinach is a valuable food, not to be classed merely as a relish.
+Its composition is interesting; for, although there is 90 per cent
+water, and less than 10 per cent dry matter, it still possesses high
+food value. Spinach contains 2.1 per cent crude protein, or about one
+part to every four parts of carbohydrates. In potatoes, turnips, and
+beets there are ten or more parts of carbohydrates to every one part of
+protein.
+
+46. Asparagus is composed largely of water, about 93 per cent. The dry
+matter, however, is richer in protein than that of many vegetables.
+Asparagus contains, too, an amid compound, asparagin, which gives some
+of the characteristics to the vegetable.
+
+47. Melons.--Melons contain from 8 to 10 per cent of dry matter, the
+larger portion of which is sugar and allied carbohydrates. The flavor is
+due to small amounts of essential oils and to organic acids associated
+with the sugars. Melons possess condimental rather than nutritive value.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF TOMATO.]
+
+48. Tomatoes.--The tomato belongs to the night-shade family, and for
+this reason was long looked upon with suspicion. It was first used for
+ornamental purposes and was called "love-apple." Gradually, as the idea
+of its poisonous nature became dispelled, it grew more and more popular
+as a food, until now in the United States it is one of the most common
+garden vegetables. It contains 7 per cent of dry matter, 4 per cent of
+which is sucrose, dextrose, and levulose. It also contains some malic
+acid, and a small amount of proteids, amids, cellulose, and coloring
+material. In the canning of tomatoes, if too much of the juice is
+excluded, a large part of the nutritive material is lost, as the sugars
+and albumins are all soluble and readily removed.[16] If the seeds are
+objectionable, they may be removed by straining and the juice added to
+the fleshy portion. The product then has a higher nutritive value than
+if the juice had been discarded with the seeds.
+
+49. Sweet Corn.--Fresh, soft, green, sweet corn contains about 75 per
+cent of water. The dry matter is half starch and one quarter sugar. The
+protein content makes up nearly 5 per cent, a larger proportional amount
+than is found in the ripened corn, due to the fact that the proteids are
+deposited in the early stages of growth and the carbohydrates mainly in
+the last stages. Sweet corn is a vegetable of high nutritive value and
+palatability.
+
+50. Eggplant contains a high per cent of water,--90 per cent. The
+principal nutrients are starch and sugar, which make up about half the
+weight of the dry matter. It does not itself supply a large amount of
+nutrients, but the way in which it is prepared, by combination with
+butter, bread crumbs, and eggs, makes it a nutritious and palatable
+dish, the food value being derived mainly from the materials with which
+it is combined, the eggplant giving the flavor and palatability.
+
+51. Squash and Pumpkin.--Squash has much the same general composition
+and food value as beets and carrots, although it belongs to a different
+family. Pumpkins contain less dry matter than squash. The dry matter of
+both is composed largely of starch and sugar and, like many other of the
+vegetables, they are often combined with food materials containing a
+large amount of nutrients, as in pumpkin and squash pies, where the food
+value is derived mainly from the milk, sugar, eggs, flour, and butter or
+other shortening used.
+
+52. Celery.--The dry matter of celery is comparatively rich in
+nitrogenous material, although the amount is small, and the larger
+proportion is in non-proteid form. When grown on rich soil, celery may
+contain an appreciable quantity of nitrates and nitrites, which have not
+been converted into amids and proteids. The supposed medicinal value is
+probably due to the nitrites which are generally present. Celery is
+valuable from a dietetic rather than a nutritive point of view.
+
+53. Sanitary Condition of Vegetables.--The conditions under which
+vegetables are grown have much to do with their value, particularly from
+a sanitary point of view. Uncooked vegetables often cause the spread of
+diseases, particularly those, as cholera and typhoid, affecting the
+digestive tract. Particles of dirt containing the disease-producing
+organisms adhere to the uncooked vegetable and find their way into the
+digestive tract, where the bacteria undergo incubation. When sewage has
+been used for fertilizing the land, as in sewage irrigation, the
+vegetables are unsound from a sanitary point of view. Such vegetables
+should be thoroughly cleaned and also well cooked, in order to render
+them sterile. Vegetables to be eaten in the raw state should be dipped
+momentarily into boiling water, to destroy the activity of the germs
+present upon the surface. They may then be immediately immersed in
+ice-cold water, to preserve the crispness.
+
+54. Miscellaneous Compounds in Vegetables.--In addition to the general
+nutrients which have been discussed, many of the vegetables contain some
+tannin, glucosides, and essential oils; and occasionally those grown
+upon rich soils have appreciable amounts of nitrogen compounds, as
+nitrates and nitrites, which have not been built up into proteids.
+Vegetables have a unique value in the dietary, and while as a class they
+contain small amounts of nutrients, they are indispensable for promoting
+health and securing normal digestion of the food.
+
+55. Canned Vegetables.--When sound vegetables are thoroughly cooked to
+destroy ferments, and then sealed in cans while hot, they can be kept
+for a long time without any material impairment of nutritive value.
+During the cooking process there is lost a part of the essential oils,
+which gives a slightly different flavor to the canned or tinned
+goods.[17] In some canned vegetables preservatives are used, but the
+enactment and enforcement of national and state laws have greatly
+reduced their use. When the cans are made of a poor quality of tin, or
+the vegetables are of high acidity, some of the metal is dissolved in
+sufficient quantity to be objectionable from a sanitary point of
+view.[18]
+
+56. Edible Portion and Refuse of Vegetables.--Many vegetables have
+appreciable amounts of refuse,[19] or non-edible parts, as skin, pods,
+seeds, and pulp, and in determining the nutritive value, these must be
+considered, as in some cases less than 50 per cent of the weight of the
+material is edible portion, which proportionally increases the cost of
+the nutrients. Ordinarily, the edible part is richer in protein than the
+entire material as purchased. In some cases, however, the refuse is
+richer in protein, but the protein is in a less available form. See
+comparison of potatoes and potato skins.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+FRUITS, FLAVORS, AND EXTRACTS
+
+
+57. General Composition.--Fruits are characterized by containing a
+large amount of water and only a small amount of dry matter, which is
+composed mainly of sugar and non-nitrogenous compounds. Fruits contain
+but little fatty material and protein. A large portion of the total
+nitrogen is in the form of amid compounds. Organic acids, as citric,
+tartaric, and malic, are found in all fruits, and the essential oils
+form a characteristic feature. The taste of fruits is due mainly to the
+blending of the various organic acids, essential oils, and sugars.
+Although fruits contain a high per cent of water, they are nevertheless
+valuable as food.[20] The constituents present to the greatest extent
+are sugars and acids. The sugar is not all like the common granulated
+sugar, but in ripe fruits a part is in the form known as levulose or
+fruit sugar, which is two and a half times sweeter than granulated
+sugar. Sugars are valuable for heat-and fat-producing purposes, but not
+for muscle repairing. Proteids are the muscle-forming nutrients. The
+organic acids, as malic acid in apples, citric acid in lemons and
+oranges, and tartaric acid in grapes, have characteristic medicinal
+properties. The sugar, proteid, and acid content of some of our more
+common fruits is given in the following table:[21]
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF FRUITS
+
+  ==============================================================
+                  | WATER  |PROTEIDS| SUGAR  |ACID IN |KIND OF
+                  |        |        |        | JUICE  | ACID
+  ----------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|---------
+                  |Per Cent|Per Cent|Per Cent|Per Cent|
+  Apples (Baldwin)|  85.0  |   0.50 |  10.75 |   0.92 |Malic
+  Apples, sweet   |  86.0  |   0.50 |  11.75 |   0.20 |Malic
+  Blackberries    |  88.9  |   0.90 |  11.50 |   0.75 |Malic
+  Currants        |  86.0  |    --  |   1.96 |   5.80 |Tartaric
+  Grapes          |  83.0  |   1.50 |10 to 16|1.2 to 5|Tartaric
+  Strawberries    |  90.8  |   0.95 |   5.36 |   1.40 |Malic
+  Oranges         |  85.0  |   1.10 |  10.00 |   1.30 |Citric
+  Lemons          |  84.0  |   0.95 |   2.00 |   7.20 |Citric
+  ==============================================================
+
+In addition to sugars, acids, and proteids, there are a great many other
+compounds in fruits. Those which give the characteristic taste are
+called essential or volatile oils.
+
+58. Food Value.--When the nutrients alone are considered, fruits
+appear to have a low food value, but they should not be judged entirely
+on this basis, because they impart palatability and flavor to other
+foods and exercise a favorable influence upon the digestive process. In
+the human ration fruits are a necessary adjunct.
+
+59. Apples.--Apples vary in composition with the variety and physical
+characteristics of the fruit. In general they contain from 10 to 16 per
+cent of dry matter, of which 75 per cent, or more, is sugar or allied
+carbohydrates. Among the organic acids malic predominates, and the
+acidity ranges from 0.1 to 0.8 per cent. Apples contain but little
+protein, less than 1 per cent. There is some pectin, or jelly-like
+substance closely related to the carbohydrates. The flavor of the apple
+varies with the content of sugar, organic acids, and essential oils.
+During storage some apples appear to undergo further ripening, resulting
+in partial inversion of the sucrose, and there is a slight loss of
+weight, due to the formation of carbon dioxide. The apple is an
+important and valuable adjunct to the dietary.[22]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF APPLE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF ORANGE.]
+
+60. Oranges contain nearly the same proportion of dry matter as
+apples, the larger part of which is sugar. Citric acid predominates and
+ranges in different varieties from 1 to 2.5 per cent. The amounts of
+protein, fat, and cellulose are small. In some varieties of oranges
+there is more iron and sulphur than is usually found in fruits. All
+fruits, however, contain small amounts, but not as much as is found in
+green vegetables. The average composition of oranges is as follows:
+
+  ===========================================================
+  PHYSICAL COMPOSITION|CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION
+  -----------------------------------------------------------
+              Per Cent|                   Per Cent
+  Rind        20 to 30| Solids            10 to 16
+  Pulp        25 to 35| Sugars             8 to 12
+  Juice       35 to 50| Citric acid        1 to 2.5
+                      | Ash                     0.5
+  ===========================================================
+
+61. Lemons differ from oranges in containing more citric acid and less
+sucrose, levulose, and dextrose. The ash of the lemon is somewhat
+similar in general composition to the ash of the orange, but is larger
+in amount. The average composition of the lemon is as follows:
+
+  ===========================================================
+  PHYSICAL COMPOSITION|CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION
+  -----------------------------------------------------------
+              Per Cent|                 Per Cent
+  Rind        25 to 35| Solids          10 to 12
+  Pulp        25 to 35| Sugar            2 to 4
+  Juice       40 to 55| Citric acid      6 to 9
+  ===========================================================
+
+62. Grape Fruit.--The rind and seed of this fruit make up about 25 per
+cent, leaving 75 per cent as edible portion. The juice contains 14 per
+cent solids, of which nearly 10 per cent is sugar and 2.5 per cent is
+citric acid. There is more acid in grape fruit than in oranges and
+appreciably less than in lemons. The characteristic flavor is due to a
+glucoside-like material. Otherwise the composition and food value are
+about the same as of oranges.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF STRAWBERRY.]
+
+63. Strawberries contain from 8 to 12 per cent of dry matter, mainly
+sugar and malic acid. The protein, fat, and ash usually make up less
+than 2 per cent. Essential oils and coloring substances are present in
+small amounts. It has been estimated that it would require 75 pounds of
+strawberries to supply the protein for a daily ration. Nevertheless they
+are valuable in the dietary. It has been suggested that the malic and
+other acids have antiseptic properties which, added to the appearance
+and palatability, make them a desirable food adjunct. Strawberries have
+high dietetic rather than high food value.
+
+64. Grapes contain more dry matter than apples or oranges. There is no
+appreciable amount of protein or fat, and while they add some nutrients,
+as sugar, to the ration, they do not contribute any quantity. Their
+value, as in the case of other fruits, is due to palatability and
+indirect effect upon the digestibility of other foods. In the juice of
+grapes there is from 10 to 15 per cent or more of sugar, as sucrose,
+levulose, and dextrose. Grapes contain also from 1 to 1.5 per cent of
+tartaric acid, which, during the process of manufacture into wine, is
+rendered insoluble by the alcohol formed, and the product, known as
+argole, is used in the preparation of cream of tartar. Differences in
+flavor and taste of grapes are due to variations in the sugar, acid, and
+essential oil content.
+
+65. Peaches contain about 12 per cent of dry matter, of which over 10
+per cent is sugar and other carbohydrates. There is less than 1.5 per
+cent of protein, fat, and mineral matter and about 0.5 per cent of acid.
+The peach contains also a very small amount of hydrocyanic acid, which
+is more liberally present in the kernel than in the fruit. Flavor is
+imparted mainly by the sugar and essential oils. Peaches vary in
+composition with variety and environment.[23]
+
+66. Plums contain the most dry matter of any of the fruits, about 22
+per cent, mainly sugar. About one per cent is acid and about 0.5 per
+cent are protein and ash. There are a great many varieties of plums,
+varying in composition. Dried plums (prunes) have mildly laxative
+properties.
+
+67. Olives.--The ripe olive contains about 15 per cent of oil,
+exclusive of the pit, which makes up 20 per cent of the weight. In
+green, preserved olives there is considerably less oil. Because of the
+oil the olive has food value. Olive oil is slightly laxative and assists
+mechanically in the digestion of foods.
+
+68. Figs.--Dried figs contain about 50 per cent of sugar and 3.5 per
+cent of protein. The fig has a mildly laxative action.
+
+69. Dried Fruits.--Many fruits are prepared for market by drying. The
+dried fruit has a slightly different composition from the fresh fruit
+because of loss of the volatile and essential oils, and minor chemical
+changes which take place during the drying process. When free from
+preservatives, dried fruits are valuable adjuncts to the dietary and can
+be advantageously used when fresh fruits are not obtainable.
+
+70. Canning and Preservation of Fruits.--To obtain the best results in
+canning, the fruit should not be overripe. After the ripened state has
+been reached fermentation and bacterial changes occur, and it is more
+difficult to preserve the fruit than when not so fully matured.[24] When
+a fruit has begun to ferment, it is hard to destroy the ferment bodies
+and their spores so as to prevent further ferment action. The chemical
+changes that occur in the last stages of ripening are similar to those
+which take place during the cooking process whereby the pectin or
+jelly-like substances are rendered more soluble and digestible.
+
+71. Adulterated Canned Fruits.--Analyses of a number of canned fruits,
+made by various Boards of Health, show the presence of small amounts of
+arsenic, tin, lead, and other poisonous metals. The quantity dissolved
+depends upon the kind, age, and condition of the canned goods and the
+state of the fruit when canned. The longer a can of fruit or vegetable
+has been kept in stock, the larger is the amount of tin or metal that
+has been dissolved. When fresh canned, there is usually very little
+dissolved tin, but in old goods the amount may be comparatively large.
+The tin used for the can is occasionally of poor quality and may contain
+some arsenic, which also is dissolved. The occasional use of canned
+goods preserved in tin is not objectionable, but they should not be used
+continually if it can be avoided. Preservatives, as borax, salicylic
+acid, benzoic acid, and sodium sulphate, are sometimes added to prevent
+fermentation and to preserve the natural appearance of the fruit or
+vegetable.[18]
+
+72. Fruit Flavors and Extracts.--Formerly all fruit extracts and
+flavors were obtained from vegetable sources; at present many are made
+in the chemical laboratory by synthetic methods; that is, by combining
+simpler organic compounds and radicals to produce the material having
+the desired flavor and odor. The various fruit flavors are definite
+chemical compounds, and can be produced in the laboratory as well as in
+the cells of plants. When properly made, there is no difference in
+chemical composition between the two. As prepared in the laboratory,
+however, traces of acids, alkalies, and other compounds, used in
+bringing about the necessary chemical combination, are often present,
+not having been perfectly removed. Hence it is that natural and
+artificial flavors differ mainly in the impurities which the artificial
+flavors may contain.
+
+Some of the flavoring materials have characteristic medicinal
+properties, as the flavor of bitter almond, which contains hydrocyanic
+acid, a poisonous substance. Flavors and extracts should not be
+indiscriminately used. In small amounts they often exert a favorable
+influence upon the digestion of foods, and the value of some fruits is
+in a large measure due to the special flavors they contain. A study of
+the separate compounds which impart flavor to fruits, as the various
+aldehydes, ethers, and organic salts, belongs to organic chemistry
+rather than to foods. Some of the simpler compounds of which flavors are
+composed may exist in entirely different form or combination in food
+products; as for example, pineapple flavoring is ethyl butrate. This can
+be prepared by combination of butyric acid from stale butter with
+alcohol which supplies the ethyl radical. The chemical union of the two
+produces the new compound, ethyl butrate, the distinctive flavoring
+substance of the pineapple. Banana flavor can be made from stale
+butter, caustic soda, and chloroform. None of these materials, as such,
+go into the flavor, but an essential radical is taken from each. These
+manufactured products, when properly made, are in every essential
+similar to the flavor made by the plant and stored up in the fruit. The
+plant combines the material in the laboratory of the plant cell, and the
+manufacturer of essences puts together these same constituents in a
+chemical laboratory. In the fruit, however, the essential oil is
+associated with a number of other compounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SUGARS, MOLASSES, SYRUP, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS
+
+
+73. Composition of Sugars.--The term "sugar" is applied to a large
+class of compounds composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
+oxygen. Sugars used for household purposes are derived mainly from the
+sugar cane and the sugar beet.[25] At the present time about two fifths
+are obtained from the cane and about three fifths from the beet. When
+subjected to the same degree of refining, there is no difference in the
+chemical composition of the sugars from the two sources; they are alike
+in every respect and the chemist is unable to determine their origin.
+The production of sugar is an agricultural industry; the methods of
+manufacture pertain more to industrial chemistry than to the chemistry
+of foods, and therefore a discussion of them is omitted in this
+work.[26]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--SUGAR CRYSTALS.]
+
+74. Commercial Grades of Sugar.--Sugars are graded according to the
+size of the granule, the color and general appearance of the crystals,
+and the per cent of sucrose or pure sugar. Common granulated sugar is
+from 98.5 to 99.7 per cent pure sucrose. The impurities consist mainly
+of moisture and mineral matter. In the process of refining, sulphur
+fumes are frequently used for bleaching and clarifying the solution.[26]
+The sulphurous acid formed is neutralized with lime, which is rendered
+insoluble and practically all removed in subsequent filtrations. There
+are, however, traces of sulphates and sulphites in ordinary sugar, but
+these are in such small amounts as not to be injurious to health. When
+sugar is burned, as in the bomb calorimeter, so as to permit collection
+of all of the products of combustion, granulated sugar yields about 0.01
+of a per cent of sulphur dioxid.[13] Occasionally coloring substances,
+as a small amount of indigo, are added to yellow tinged sugars to impart
+a white color, much on the same principle as the bluing of clothes. The
+amount used is usually extremely small, and the effect on health has
+never been determined. Occasionally, however, bluing is used to such an
+extent that a blue scum appears when the sugar is boiled with water.
+Sugar has high value for the production of heat and energy. Digestion
+experiments show that when it is used in the dietary in not excessive
+amounts, it is directly absorbed by the body and practically all
+available. It can advantageously be combined with other foods to form a
+part of the ration.[27] When a ration contains the requisite amount of
+protein, sugar is used to the best advantage. Alone it is incapable of
+sustaining life, because it does not contain any nitrogen. When sugar
+was substituted for an excess of protein in a ration, it was found to
+produce heat and energy at much less expense. Many foods, as apples,
+grapes, and small fruits, contain appreciable amounts of sugar and owe
+their food value almost entirely to their sugar content. In the dietary,
+sugar is too frequently regarded as a condiment instead of a nutrient,
+to be used for imparting palatability rather than for purposes of
+nutrition. While valuable for improving the taste of foods, the main
+worth of sugar is as a nutritive substance; used in the preparation of
+foods it adds to the total heat and energy of the ration. Sugar is
+sometimes used in excessive amounts and, as is the case with any food or
+nutrient, when that occurs, nutrition disturbances result, due to misuse
+of the food. Statistics show that the average consumption of sugar in
+the United States is nearly 70 pounds a year per capita. In the dietary
+of the adult, sugar to the extent of four ounces per day can be consumed
+advantageously. The exclusion of sugar from the diet of children is a
+great mistake, as they need it for heat and energy and to conserve the
+protein for growth.
+
+     "Sugar is one of the most important forms in which carbohydrates
+     can be added to the diet of children. The great reduction in the
+     price of sugar which has taken place in recent years is probably
+     one of the causes of the improved physique of the rising
+     generation. The fear that sugar may injure children's teeth is,
+     largely illusory. The negroes who live largely on sugar cane have
+     the finest teeth the world can show. If injudiciously taken, sugar
+     may, however, injure the child's appetite and digestion. The
+     craving for sweets which children show is no doubt the natural
+     expression of a physiological need, but they should be taken with,
+     and not between, meals."[28]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--NUTRIENTS OF A RATION WITH SUGAR.
+
+The hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested.]
+
+75. Sugar in the Dietary.--Sugar has an important place in the
+dietary. It not only serves for the production of heat and energy in the
+body, but is also valuable in enabling the proteids to be used more
+economically. In reasonable amounts, it is particularly valuable in the
+dietary of growing children, as the proteids of the food are then
+utilized to better advantage for growth. The unique value of sugar
+depends upon its intelligent use and its proper combination with other
+foods, particularly with those rich in the nitrogenous compounds or
+proteids. Sugar alone is incapable of sustaining life, but combined with
+other foods is a valuable nutrient. The amount which can be
+advantageously used depends largely upon the individual. Ordinarily
+three to five ounces per day is sufficient, although some persons cannot
+safely consume as much as this. In the case of diabetes mellitus, the
+amount of sugar in the ration must be materially reduced. Persons in
+normal health and engaged in outdoor work can use sugar to
+advantage.[29] Many of the "harvest drinks," made largely from molasses
+with a little ginger, and used extensively in some localities, are not
+without merit, as they contain an appreciable amount of nutrients. Milk
+contains more sugar as lactose or milk sugar than any other nutrient.
+
+[Illustration:  FIG. 17.--NUTRIENTS OF A RATION WITHOUT SUGAR.
+
+The hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested.]
+
+The craving for sugar by growing children and athletes is natural.
+Sugar, however, is often injudiciously used, and a perverted taste may
+be established which can be satisfied only by excessive amounts. This
+results in impaired digestion and malnutrition.
+
+76. Maple Sugar.--Sugar obtained by evaporation from the sap of the
+maple tree (_Acer saccharinum_) is identical, except for the foreign
+substances which it contains, with that from the beet and sugar cane.
+The mottled appearance and characteristic color and taste of maple sugar
+are due to the various organic acids and other compounds present in the
+maple sap and recovered in the sugar. Maple sugar, as ordinarily
+prepared, has 0.4 of a per cent or more of ash or mineral matter, while
+refined cane sugar contains less than one tenth as much.[30] Hence, when
+maple sugar is adulterated with cane and beet sugars, the ash content is
+noticeably lowered, as is also the content of organic acids. It is
+difficult, however, to determine with absolute certainty pure high grade
+maple sugar from the impure low grade to which a small amount of
+granulated sugar has been added.
+
+77. Adulteration of Sugar.--Sugar at the present time is not
+materially adulterated. Other than the substances mentioned which are
+used for clarification and color, none are added during refining which
+remain in the sugar in appreciable amounts. Sugar does not readily lend
+itself to adulteration, as it has a definite crystalline structure, and
+materials that would be suitable for its adulteration are of entirely
+different physical character.[31] Cane sugar is not easily blended with
+glucose, or starch sugar, because of the physical differences between
+the two. The question of the kind of sugar to use in the household, as
+granulated, loaf, or pulverized, is largely one of personal choice, as
+there is no appreciable difference in the nutritive value or purity of
+the different kinds.
+
+78. Dextrose Sugars.--Products known as glucose and dextrose sugars
+are made from corn and other starches; they can also be prepared from
+cane sugar by the use of heat, chemicals, or ferments for carrying on
+the process known as inversion. The dextrose sugars differ from cane
+sugar in containing a dissimilar number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
+atoms in the molecule. The formula of the dextrose sugars is
+C_{6}H_{12}_O{6}, while that of cane sugar is C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}. By the
+addition of one molecule of water, H_{2}O, to a molecule of sucrose, two
+molecules of invert sugar (dextrose and glucose) are produced:[1]
+C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + H_{2} = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}. In
+bringing about this change, acids are employed, but the acid in no way
+enters into the chemical composition of the final product; it is removed
+as described during the process of sugar manufacture. The action of the
+acid brings about a catalytic change, the acid being necessary only as a
+presence reagent to start the chemical reaction. When properly prepared
+and the acid product thoroughly removed, dextrose and glucose have
+practically the same food value as sugar. When they are digested, heat
+and energy are produced, and a given weight has about the same fuel
+value as an equal weight of sugar. Some of the glucose-yielding products
+can be made at less expense than sugar, and when they are sold under
+their right names there is no reason why they should not be used in the
+dietary, as they serve the same nutritive purpose.
+
+79. Molasses is a by-product obtained in the refining of sugar. It is
+a mixture of cane sugar and invert sugars, as levulose and dextrose.
+When in sugar making the sucrose is removed by crystallization, a point
+is finally reached where the solution, or mother liquid, as it is
+called, refuses to give up any further crystals;[31] then this product,
+consisting of various sugars and small amounts of organic acids and ash,
+is partially refined and clarified to form molasses. The term "New
+Orleans" molasses was formerly applied to the product obtained by the
+use of open kettles for the manufacture of sugar, but during recent
+years the vacuum pan process has been introduced, and "New Orleans"
+molasses is now an entirely different article. The terms first, second,
+and third molasses are applied to the liquids obtained after the removal
+of the first, second, and third crops of sugar crystals; first molasses
+being richer in sucrose, while third molasses is richer in dextrose and
+invert sugars. The ash in molasses ranges from 4 to 6.5 per cent. Some
+of the low grades of molasses are used in the preparation of animal
+foods.
+
+The taste and physical characteristics of molasses are due largely to
+the organic acids and impurities that are present, as well as to the
+proportion in which the various sugars occur. When used with soda in
+cooking and baking operations, the organic acid of the molasses
+liberates carbon dioxide gas, which acts as a leavening agent. Because
+of the organic acids, molasses should not be stored in tin or metalware
+dishes, as the solvent action results in producing poisonous tin and
+other metallic salts.
+
+The food value of molasses is dependent entirely upon the amount of dry
+matter and the per cent of sugar. A large amount of water is considered
+an adulterant; ordinarily molasses contains from 20 to 33 per cent. If a
+sample of molasses contains 75 per cent of dry matter, it has slightly
+less than three fourths of the nutritive value of the same weight of
+sugar.
+
+80. Syrups.--The term "syrup" is applied to natural products obtained
+by evaporation and purification of the saccharine juices of plants.
+Sorghum syrup is from the sorghum plant, which is pressed by machinery
+and the juice clarified and evaporated so as to contain about 25 per
+cent of water. In sorghum syrups there are from 30 to 45 per cent of
+cane sugar, and from 12 to 20 per cent of glucose and invert sugars.
+Cane syrup is made from the clarified juice of the sugar cane, and has
+about the same general composition as sorghum syrup. Maple syrup,
+prepared from the juice of the sugar maple, is characteristically rich
+in sucrose and contains but little glucose or reducing sugars. The
+flavor of all the syrups is due mainly to organic acids, ethereal
+products, and impurities. In some instances the essential flavor can be
+produced synthetically, or derived from other and cheaper materials;
+and by the use of these flavors, mixed syrups can be prepared closely
+resembling many of the natural products. When properly made, they are
+equal in nutritive value to natural syrups. When sold under assumed
+names, they are to be considered and classified as adulterated, and not
+as syrups from definite and specific products. Low-grade syrups and
+molasses are often used for making fuel alcohol. They readily undergo
+alcoholic fermentation and are valuable for this purpose, rendering it
+possible for a good grade of fuel alcohol to be produced at low cost.
+The manufacture of sugar, syrups, and molasses has been brought to a
+high degree of perfection through the assistance rendered by industrial
+chemistry. Losses in the process are reduced to a minimum, and the
+various steps are all controlled by chemical analysis. Sugar has the
+physical property of deflecting a ray of polarized light, the amount of
+deflection depending upon the quantity of sugar in solution. This is
+measured by the polariscope, an instrument by means of which the sugar
+content of sugar plants is rapidly determined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF
+SYRUP.]
+
+81. Honey is composed largely of invert sugars gathered by the
+honeybee from the nectar of flowers. It varies in composition and flavor
+according to its source. The color depends upon the flower from which it
+came, white clover giving a light-colored, pleasant-flavored honey,
+while that from buckwheat and goldenrod is dark and has a slightly rank
+taste. The comb is composed largely of wax, which has somewhat the same
+general composition as fat, but contains ethereal instead of glycerol
+bodies. On account of the predominance of invert sugars, pure honey has
+a levulo or left-handed rotation when examined by the polariscope. Honey
+contains from 60 to 75 per cent of invert sugars, and from 12 to 20 per
+cent of water, while the ash content is small, less than one tenth of
+one per cent. Strained honey is easily adulterated with glucose
+products. Adulteration with cane sugar is readily detected, as pure
+honey contains only a very small amount of sucrose. Honey can be made by
+feeding bees on sugar; the sugar undergoes inversion, with the
+production of dextrose. Such honey, although not adulterated, is
+inferior in quality and lacking in natural flavor.[18]
+
+82. Confections.--By blending various saccharine products, confections
+are made. Usually sucrose (cane and beet sugar) is used as the basis for
+their preparation. Sucrose has definite physical properties, as
+crystalline structure, and forms chemical and mechanical combinations
+with acid, alkaline, and other substances; it also unites with water,
+and when heated undergoes changes in structural composition. The
+presence of small amounts of acid substances, or variations in the
+concentration of the sugar solution, materially affect the mechanical
+relation of the sugar particles to each other, and their
+crystallization. Usually crystallization takes place when there is less
+than 25 per cent of water present. The form, size, and arrangement of
+the crystals are influenced by agitation during cooling. To secure
+desired results, often small quantities of various other substances are
+employed for their mechanical action. Glucose is frequently used, and is
+said to be necessary for the production of some kinds of candy.
+
+Candies are colored with various dyes and pigments, many of which are
+harmless, although some are injurious. Coal tar dyes are frequently
+employed for this purpose. Objection has generally been urged against
+their use, as it is believed many of them are injurious to health. It
+cannot be said, however, that all are poisonous, as some are known to be
+harmless. The use of a few coal tar dyes is allowed by the United States
+government. Mineral colors are now rarely, if ever, used.
+
+Impure candies result from objectionable ingredients, as starch,
+paraffin, and large amounts of injurious coloring substances. Coal tar
+coloring materials are identified in the way described in Experiment No.
+13. Confectionery, when properly prepared and unadulterated, has the
+same nutritive value as sugar and the other ingredients, and is entitled
+to a place in the dietary for the production of heat and energy. Much
+larger amounts of candies are sold and consumed during the winter than
+the summer months, suggesting that in cold weather candy is most needed
+in the dietary.
+
+83. Saccharine is an artificial sweetening, five hundred times sweeter
+than cane sugar. It contains in its molecule, chemically united,
+benzine, sulphuric acid, and ammonia radicals. It is employed for
+sweetening purposes in cases of diabetes mellitus, where physicians
+advise against the use of sugar. It has no food value. A small amount is
+sometimes added to canned corn and tomatoes to impart a sweet taste. The
+physiological properties of saccharine have not been extensively
+investigated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+LEGUMES AND NUTS
+
+
+84. General Composition of Legumes.--Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts
+are the legumes most generally used for human food. As a class, they are
+characterized by high protein content and a comparatively low per cent
+of starch and carbohydrates. They contain the largest amount of
+nitrogenous compounds of any of the vegetable foods, and hence are
+particularly valuable in the human ration as a substitute for meats.[32]
+For feeding animals the legumes are highly prized, particularly the
+forage crops, clover and alfalfa. These secure their nitrogen, which is
+the characteristic element of protein, from the free nitrogen of the
+air, through the workings of bacterial organisms found in the nodules on
+the roots of the plants. The legumes appear to be the only plants
+capable of making use of the nitrogen of the air for food purposes.
+
+85. Beans contain about 24 per cent of protein and but little fat,
+less than is found in any of the grain or cereal products. The protein
+of the bean differs from that of cereals in its general and structural
+composition. It is a globulin known as legumin, and is acted upon
+mainly by ferments working in alkaline solutions, as in the lower part
+of the digestive tract. Beans have about the same amount of ash as the
+cereals, but the ash is richer in potash and lime.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF BEANS.
+HACKED PART INDIGESTIBLE.]
+
+86. Digestibility of Beans.--Beans are usually considered
+indigestible, but experiments show they are quite completely digested,
+although they require more work on the part of the digestive tract than
+many other foods. The digestibility was found to vary with individuals,
+86 per cent of the protein being digested in one case, and only 72 per
+cent in another. The protein of beans is not as completely digested as
+that of meats. When beans were combined with other foods, forming a part
+of a ration, they were more completely digested than when used in large
+amounts and with only a few other foods. The presence of the skin is in
+part responsible for low digestibility. When in the preparation of beans
+the skins, which contain a large amount of cellulose, are removed, the
+beans are more completely digested. By cooking from twenty minutes to
+half an hour in rapidly boiling water containing a small amount of soda,
+the skins are softened and loosened and are then easily removed by
+rubbing in cold water. Some of the soda enters into combination with the
+legumin. Along with the skins a portion of the germ is lost. The germ
+readily ferments, which is probably the cause of beans producing
+flatulence with some individuals during digestion. After the skins are
+removed the nutrients are more susceptible to the action of the
+digestive fluids. Experiments show that 42 per cent of the protein of
+baked skinned beans is soluble in pepsin and pancreatin solutions, while
+under similar conditions there is only 3.85 per cent of the protein
+soluble from beans baked without removal of the skins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--BEANS, RAW AND COOKED. SKINS, WET
+AND DRY.]
+
+87. Use of Beans in the Dietary.--There is no vegetable food capable
+of furnishing so much protein at such low cost as beans; from a pound
+costing five cents about one fifth of a pound of protein and three
+fifths of a pound of carbohydrates are obtained. Beans can, to a great
+extent, take the place of meats in the dietary. There is more protein in
+beans than in beef. Four ounces of uncooked beans or six ounces of baked
+beans are as much as can conveniently be combined in the dietary, and
+these will furnish a quarter of the protein of the ration. In the case
+of active out-of-door laborers over a pound of baked beans per day is
+often consumed with impunity.
+
+88. String Beans.--String beans--green beans with pod--contain a large
+amount of water, 85 to 88 per cent. The dry matter is rich in protein,
+nearly 20 per cent, although in the green beans as eaten, containing 85
+per cent water, there is less than 2-1/2 per cent. Lima beans are richer
+in protein than string beans, as the green pod is not included. String
+beans are valuable both for the nutrients they contain and for the
+favorable influence they exert upon the digestibility of other foods.
+
+89. Peas.--In general composition and digestibility, peas are quite
+similar to beans. They belong to the same family, Leguminosæ, and the
+protein of each is similar in quantity and general properties. The
+statements made in regard to the composition, digestibility, and use of
+beans in the dietary apply with minor modifications to peas. When used
+in the preparation of soups, they add appreciable amounts of nutrients.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--PEA STARCH GRANULES.]
+
+90. Canned Peas.--In order to impart a rich green color, copper
+sulphate has been used in the canning of peas. Physiologists differ as
+to its effect upon health. While a little may not be particularly
+injurious, much interferes with normal digestion of the food and forms
+insoluble copper proteids. In some countries a small amount of copper
+sulphate is tolerated, while in others it is prohibited.
+
+91. Peanuts.--Peanuts differ from peas and beans in containing more
+fat. They should be considered a food, for at ordinary prices they
+furnish a large amount of protein and fat. Like the other members of the
+legume family, the peanut is rather slow of digestion and requires
+considerable intestinal work for completion of the process.
+
+
+NUTS
+
+92. General Composition.--Nuts should be regarded as food, for they
+contribute to a ration appreciable amounts of nutrients. The edible
+portion of nearly all is rich in fat; pecans, for example, contain as
+high as 70 per cent. In protein content nuts range from 3 per cent in
+cocoanuts to 30 per cent in peanuts. The carbohydrate content is usually
+comparatively low, less than 5 per cent in hickory nuts, although there
+is nearly 40 per cent in chestnuts. On account of high fat content, nuts
+supply a large amount of heat and energy.[33]
+
+93. Chestnuts are characterized by containing less fat and protein and
+much more carbohydrate material, especially starch, than is found in
+other nuts. In southern Europe chestnuts are widely used as food; the
+skins are removed, and the nuts are steamed, boiled, or roasted, and
+sometimes they are dried and ground into flour. Chestnuts are less
+concentrated in protein and fat, and form a better balanced food used
+alone than do other nuts.
+
+94. The Hickory Nut, which is a characteristically American nut,
+contains in the edible portion about 15 per cent protein, 65 per cent
+fat, and 12 per cent carbohydrates.
+
+95. The Almonds used in the United States come chiefly from southern
+Europe, although they are successfully raised in California. They
+contain about 55 per cent fat and 22 per cent protein. The flavor of
+almonds is due to a small amount of hydrocyanic acid.
+
+96. Pistachio.--Some nuts are used for imparting color and flavor to
+food products, as the pistachio nut, the kernel of which is greenish in
+color and imparts a flavor suggestive of almonds. The pistachio has high
+food value, as it is rich in both fat and protein. It is employed in the
+manufacture of confectionery and in ice cream for imparting flavor and
+color.
+
+97. Cocoanuts grow luxuriantly in many tropical countries, and have a
+high food value. They are characteristically rich in fat, one half of
+the edible portion being composed of this nutrient. For tropical
+countries they supply the fat of a ration at less expense than any other
+food. When used in large amounts they should be supplemented with foods
+rich in carbohydrates, as rice, and in proteids, as beans. Cocoanut milk
+is proportionally richer in carbohydrates and poorer in fat and protein
+than the meat of the cocoanut. In discussing the cocoanut, Woods
+states:[34]
+
+     "The small, green, and immature nuts are grated fine for medicinal
+     use, and when mixed with the oil of the ripe nut it becomes a
+     healing ointment. The jelly which lines the shell of the more
+     mature nut furnishes a delicate and nutritious food. The milk in
+     its center, when iced, is a most delicious luxury. Grated cocoanut
+     forms a part of the world-renowned East India condiment, curry.
+     Dried, shredded (desiccated) cocoanut is an important article of
+     commerce. From the oil a butter is made, of a clear, whitish color,
+     so rich in fat, that of water and foreign substances combined there
+     are but O.0068. It is better adapted for cooking than for table
+     use. At present it is chiefly used in hospitals, but it is rapidly
+     finding its way to the tables of the poor, particularly as a
+     substitute for oleomargarine."
+
+98. Use of Nuts in the Dietary.--When nuts can be secured at a low
+price per pound, ten cents or less, they compare favorably in nutritive
+value with other staple foods. Digestion experiments with rations
+composed largely of nuts show that they are quite thoroughly digested.
+Professor Jaffa of the California Experiment Station, in discussing the
+nutritive value of nuts and fruits, says:[35]
+
+     "It is certainly an error to consider nuts merely as an accessory
+     to an already heavy meal, and to regard fruit merely as something
+     of value for its pleasant flavor, or for its hygienic or medicinal
+     virtues. The agreement of one food or another with any person is
+     more or less a personal idiosyncrasy, but it seems fair to say that
+     those with whom nuts and fruits agree, can, if they desire, readily
+     secure a considerable part of their nutritive material from such
+     sources."
+
+
+AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF NUTS
+
+(From Fifteenth Annual Report, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.)
+
+  ===========================================================================
+                      |REFUSE|EDIBLE |        EDIBLE PORTION        |VALUE[A]
+                      |      |       |------------------------------|
+                      |      |PORTION|Water|Prot.| Fat |Carb.| Ash  | PER LB.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                      |   %  |   %   |  %  |  %  |  %  |  %  |  %   |Calories
+  Almonds             | 64.8 |  35.2 | 1.7 | 7.3 |19.3 | 6.2 | 0.7  |  1065
+  Almonds, kernels    |  --  | 100.0 | 4.8 |21.0 |54.9 |17.3 | 2.0  |  3030
+  Brazil nuts         | 49.6 |  50.4 | 2.7 | 8.6 |33.6 | 3.5 | 2.0  |  1545
+  Filberts            | 52.1 |  47.9 | 1.8 | 7.5 |31.3 | 6.2 | 1.1  |  1575
+  Filberts, kernels   |  --  | 100.0 | 3.7 |15.6 |65.3 |13.0 | 2.4  |  3290
+  Hickory nuts        | 62.2 |  37.8 | 1.4 | 5.8 |25.5 | 4.3 | 0.8  |  1265
+  Pecans              | 49.7 |  50.3 | 1.4 | 5.2 |35.6 | 7.2 | 0.8  |  1733
+  Pecans, kernels     |  --  | 100.0 | 2.9 |10.3 |70.8 |14.3 | 1.7  |  3445
+  Walnuts             | 58.0 |  42.0 | 1.2 | 7.0 |27.0 | 6.1 | 0.7  |  1385
+  Walnuts, kernels    |  --  | 100.0 | 2.8 |16.7 |64.4 |14.8 | 1.3  |  3305
+  Chestnuts           | 16.1 |  83.9 |31.0 | 5.7 | 6.7 |39.0 | 1.5  |  1115
+  Acorns              | 35.6 |  64.4 | 2.6 | 5.2 |24.1 |30.9 | 1.6  |  1690
+  Beechnuts           | 40.8 |  59.2 | 2.3 |13.0 |34.0 | 7.8 | 2.1  |  1820
+  Butternuts          | 86.4 |  13.6 | 0.6 | 3.8 | 8.3 | 0.5 | 0.4  |   430
+  Litchi nuts         | 41.6 |  58.4 |10.5 | 1.7 | 0.1 |45.2 | 0.9  |   875
+  Piñon, P. edulis    | 40.6 |  59.4 | 2.0 | 8.7 |36.8 |10.2 | 1.7  |  1905
+  Piñon, P. monophylla| 41.7 |  58.3 | 2.2 | 3.8 |35.4 |15.3 | 1.6  |  1850
+  Piñon, P. sabiniana | 77.0 |  23.0 | 1.2 | 6.5 |12.3 | 1.9 | 1.1  |   675
+  Pistachio, kernels  |  --  | 100.0 | 4.2 |22.6 |54.5 |15.6 | 3.1  |  3010
+  Peanuts, raw        | 26.4 |  73.6 | 6.9 |20.6 |30.7 |13.8 | 1.6  |  1935
+  Peanuts, kernels    |  --  | 100.0 | 9.3 |27.9 |42.0 |18.7 | 2.1  |  2640
+  Roasted peanuts     | 32.6 |  67.4 | 1.1 |20.6 |33.1 |10.9 | 1.7  |  1985
+  Shelled peanuts     |  --  | 100.0 | 1.6 |30.5 |49.2 |16.2 | 2.5  |  2955
+  Peanut butter       |  --  |   --  | 2.0 |29.3 |46.6 |17.1 |[B]5.0|  2830
+  Cocoanuts           | 48.8 |  51.2 | 7.2 | 2.9 |25.9 |14.3 | 0.9  |  1415
+  Cocoanuts, shredded |  --  |   --  | 3.5 | 6.3 |57.3 |31.6 | 1.3  |  3125
+  Cocoanut milk       |  --  |   --  |92.7 | 0.4 | 1.5 | 4.6 | 0.8  |    97
+  =========================================================================
+
+[Footnote A: Calculated from analyses.]
+
+[Footnote B: Including salt, 4.1.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
+
+
+99. Importance in the Dietary.--There is no article of food which
+enters so extensively into the dietary as milk, and it is one of the few
+foods which supply all the nutrients,--fats, carbohydrates, and
+proteids.[36] Milk alone is capable of sustaining life for comparatively
+long periods, and it is the chief article of food during many diseases.
+An exclusive milk diet for a healthy adult, however, would be
+unsatisfactory; in the case of young children, milk is essential,
+because the digestive tract has not become functionally developed for
+the digestion of other foods.
+
+It is necessary to consider not only the composition and nutritive value
+of milk, but also its purity or sanitary condition.
+
+100. General Composition.--Average milk contains about 87 per cent
+water and 13 per cent dry matter. The dry matter is composed
+approximately of:
+
+  =======================
+              | Per Cent
+  Fat         |   3.5
+  Casein      |   3.25
+  Albumin     |   0.50
+  Milk sugar  |   5.00
+  Ash         |   0.75
+  =======================
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--MILK FAT GLOBULES.]
+
+Fat is the most variable constituent of milk. Occasionally it is found
+as low as 2 per cent and as high as 6 per cent or more. The poorest and
+richest milks differ mainly in fat content, as the sugar, ash, casein,
+and albumin, or "solids of the milk serum," are fairly constant in
+amount and composition. Variations in the content of fat are due to
+differences in feed and in the breed and individuality of the animal.
+
+101. Digestibility.--Milk is one of the most completely digested of
+foods, about 95 per cent of the protein and fat and 97 per cent of the
+carbohydrates being absorbed and utilized by the body.
+
+In a mixed ration, the nutrients of milk are practically all absorbed.
+Milk also exerts a favorable influence upon the digestibility of other
+foods with which it is combined. This is doubtless due to the digestive
+action of the special ferments or enzymes which milk contains. In milk
+there is a soluble ferment material or enzyme which has the power of
+peptonizing proteids. It is this ferment which carries on the ripening
+process when cheese is cured in cold storage, and it is believed to be
+this body which promotes digestion of other foods with which milk is
+combined.[27]
+
+Milk is not easily digested by some persons. The tendency to costiveness
+caused by a milk diet can be largely overcome by the use of salt with
+the milk, or of some solid food, as toast or crackers, to prevent
+coagulation and the formation of masses resistant to the digestive
+fluids. Barley water and lime water in small amounts are also useful for
+assisting mechanically in the digestion of milk. Milk at ordinary prices
+is one of the cheapest foods that can be used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--DIRT IN A SAMPLE OF UNSANITARY MILK.]
+
+102. Sanitary Condition of Milk.--Equally as important as composition
+is the sanitary condition or wholesomeness of milk. Milk is a food
+material which readily undergoes fermentation and is a medium for the
+distribution of germ diseases. The conditions under which it is produced
+and the way in which it is handled determine largely its sanitary
+value, and are of so much importance in relation to public health that
+during recent years city and state boards of health have introduced
+sanitary inspection and examination of milk along with the chemical
+tests for detecting its adulteration. Some of the more frequent causes
+of contaminated and unsound milk are: unhealthy animals, poor food and
+water, unsanitary surroundings of the animals, and lack of cleanliness
+and care in the handling and transporting of the milk. Outbreaks of
+typhoid and scarlet fevers and other germ diseases have frequently been
+traced to a contaminated milk supply.[37]
+
+103. Certified Milk.--When milk is produced under the most sanitary
+conditions, the number of bacterial bodies per cubic centimeter is
+materially reduced. In order to supply high grade milk containing but
+few bacteria, special precautions are taken in the care of the animals,
+and in the feeding and milking, and all sources of contamination of the
+milk are eliminated as far as possible. Such milk, when sold in
+sterilized bottles, is commonly called "certified milk," indicating that
+its purity is guaranteed by the producer and that the number of bacteria
+per unit does not exceed a certain standard, as 8000 per cubic
+centimeter. Ordinary market milk contains upwards of 50,000.
+
+104. Pasteurized Milk.--In order to destroy the activity of the
+bacterial organisms, milk is subjected to a temperature of 157° F. for
+ten minutes or longer, which process is known as pasteurization. When
+milk is heated to a temperature above 180°, it is sterilized. Below
+157°, the albumin is not coagulated. By pasteurizing, milk is much
+improved from a sanitary point of view, and whenever the milk supply is
+of unknown purity, it should be pasteurized.[38] After the milk has been
+thus treated, the same care should be exercised in keeping it protected
+to prevent fresh inoculation or contamination, as though it were
+unpasteurized milk. For family use milk can be pasteurized in small
+amounts in the following way: Before receiving the milk, the receptacle
+should be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized with boiling water or dry
+heat, as in an oven. The milk is loosely covered and placed in a pan of
+water, a false bottom being in the pan so as to prevent unequal heating.
+The water surrounding the milk is gradually heated until a temperature
+of 159° F. is registered, and the milk is kept at this temperature for
+about ten minutes. It is then cooled and placed in the refrigerator.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--PASTEURIZING MILK.]
+
+105. Tyrotoxicon.--Tyrotoxicon is a chemical compound produced by a
+ferment body which finds its way into milk when kept in unsanitary
+surroundings. It induces digestion disorders similar to cholera, and
+when present in large amounts, may prove fatal. It sometimes develops in
+cream, ice cream, or cheese, but only when they have been kept in
+unclean places or produced from infected milk.
+
+601. Color of Milk is often taken as a guide to its purity and
+richness in fat. While a yellow tinge is usually characteristic of
+milks rich in fat, it is not a hard and fast rule, for frequently
+light-colored milks are richer in fat than yellow-tinged ones. The
+coloring material is independent of the percentage of fat, and it is not
+always safe to judge the richness of milk on the basis of color.
+
+107. Souring of Milk.--Souring of milk is due to the action of the
+lactic acid organism, which finds its way into the milk through
+particles of dust carried in the air or from unclean receptacles which
+contain the spores of the organism.[39] When milk sours, a small amount
+of sugar is changed to lactic acid which reacts upon the casein,
+converting it from a soluble to an insoluble condition. When milk is
+exposed to the air at a temperature of from 70° to 90° F., lactic acid
+fermentation readily takes place. At a low temperature the process is
+checked, and at a high temperature the organisms and spores are
+destroyed. In addition to lactic acid ferments, there are large numbers
+of others which develop in milk, changing the different compounds of
+which milk is composed. In the processes of butter and cheese making,
+these fermentation changes are controlled so as to develop the flavor
+and secure the best grades of butter and cheese.
+
+108. Use of Preservatives in Milk.--In order to check fermentation,
+boric acid, formalin, and other preservatives have been proposed.
+Physiologists object to their use because the quantity required to
+prevent fermentation is often sufficient to have a medicinal effect.
+The tendency is to use excessive amounts, which may interfere with
+normal digestion of the food. Milk that is cared for under the most
+sanitary conditions has a higher dietetic value and is much to be
+preferred to that which has been kept sweet by the use of preservatives.
+
+109. Condensed Milk is prepared by evaporating milk in vacuum pans
+until it is reduced about one fourth in bulk, when it is sealed in cans,
+and it will then keep sweet for a long time. Occasionally some cane
+sugar is added to the evaporated product. When diluted, evaporated milk
+has much the same composition as whole milk. When a can of condensed
+milk has been opened, the same care should be exercised to prevent
+fermentation as if it were fresh milk.
+
+110. Skim Milk differs in composition from whole milk in fat content.
+When the fat is removed by the separator, there is often left less than
+one tenth of a per cent. Skim milk has a much higher nutritive value
+than is generally conceded, and wherever it can be procured at a
+reasonable price it should be used in the dietary as a source of
+protein.
+
+111. Cream ranges in fat content from 15 to 35 per cent. It is
+generally preferred to whole milk, although it is not as well balanced a
+food, because it is deficient in protein. Cream should contain at least
+25 per cent of fat.
+
+112. Buttermilk is the product left after removal of the fat from
+cream by churning. It has about the same amount of nutrients as skim
+milk. The casein is in a slightly modified form due to the development
+of lactic acid during the ripening of the cream, and on this account
+buttermilk is more easily digested and assimilated by many individuals
+than milk in other forms. The development of the acid generally reduces
+the number of species of other than the lactic organisms, and these are
+increased.
+
+113. Goat's Milk is somewhat richer in solids than cow's milk,
+containing about one per cent more proteids, a little more fat, and less
+sugar. When used as a substitute for human or cow's milk, it generally
+needs to be slightly diluted, depending, however, upon the composition
+of the individual sample.
+
+114. Koumiss is a fermented beverage made from milk by the use of
+yeast to secure alcoholic fermentation. Koumiss contains about one per
+cent each of lactic acid and alcohol, and the casein and other nutrients
+are somewhat modified by the fermentation changes. Koumiss is generally
+considered a non-alcoholic beverage possessing both food and dietetic
+value.
+
+115. Prepared Milks.--Various preparations are made to resemble milk
+in general composition. These are mechanical mixtures of sugar, fats,
+and proteids. Milk sugar, casein, or malted proteids are generally the
+materials employed in their preparation. Often the dried and pulverized
+solids of skim milk are used. Many of the prepared milks are deficient
+in fat. While they are not equal to cow's milk, their use is often made
+necessary from force of circumstances.
+
+116. Human Milk is not as rich in solid matter as cow's milk. It
+contains about the same amount of fat, one per cent more sugar, and one
+per cent less proteids. In human milk nearly one half of the protein is
+in the form of albumins, while in cow's milk there is about one fifth in
+this form. The fat globules are much smaller than those of cow's milk.
+In infant feeding it is often necessary to modify cow's milk by the
+addition of water, cream, and milk sugar, so as to make it more nearly
+resemble in composition human milk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--APPARATUS USED IN TESTING MILK.
+
+1, pipette; 2, lactometer; 3, acid measure; 4, centrifuge; 5, test
+bottle.]
+
+117. Adulteration of Milk.--Milk is not as extensively adulterated as
+it was before the passage and enforcement of the numerous state and
+municipal laws regulating its inspection and sale. The most frequent
+forms of adulteration are addition of water and removal of cream. These
+are readily detected from the specific gravity and fat content of the
+milk. The specific gravity of milk is determined by means of the
+lactometer, an instrument which sinks to a definite point in pure milk.
+In watered milk it sinks to greater depth, depending upon the amount of
+water added. The fat content of milk is readily and accurately
+determined by the Babcock test, in which the fat is separated by
+centrifugal action. For the detection of adulterated milk the student
+is referred to Chapter VI, "Chemistry of Dairying," by Snyder.
+
+
+BUTTER
+
+118. Composition.--Butter is made by the churning or agitation of
+cream and is composed mainly of milk fats and water, together with
+smaller amounts of ash, salt, casein, milk sugar, and lactic acid.
+Average butter has the following composition:
+
+  ============================
+                     |Per Cent
+  Water              | 10.5
+  Ash and salt       |  2.5
+  Casein and albumin |  1.0
+  Fat                | 86.0
+  ============================
+
+When butter contains an abnormal amount of water, it is considered
+adulterated. According to act of Congress standard butter should not
+contain over 16 per cent of water nor less than 82.5 per cent of fat.
+
+119. Digestibility of Butter.--Digestion experiments show that
+practically all of the fat, 98 per cent, is digestible and available for
+use by the body. Butter is valuable only for the production of heat and
+energy. Alone, it is incapable of sustaining life, because it contains
+no proteid material. It is usually one of the more expensive items of
+food, but it is generally considered quite necessary in a ration.[5] It
+has been suggested that it takes an important part mechanically in the
+digestion of food.
+
+120. Adulteration of Butter.--In addition to containing an excess of
+water, butter is adulterated in other ways. Old, stale butter is
+occasionally melted, washed, salted, and reworked. This product is known
+as renovated butter, and has poor keeping qualities. Frequently
+preservatives are added to such butter to delay fermentation changes.
+Oleomargarine and butterine are made by mixing vegetable and animal
+fats.[40] Highly colored stearin, cotton-seed oil, and lard are the
+usual materials from which oleomargarine is made. It has practically the
+same composition, digestibility, and food value as butter. When sold
+under its true name and not as butter, there is no objection, as it is a
+valuable food and supplies heat and energy at less cost than butter. The
+main objection to oleomargarine and butterine is that they are sold as
+butter.[41]
+
+The coloring of butter is not generally looked upon as adulteration, for
+butter naturally has a more or less yellow tinge. According to an act of
+Congress, butter colors of a non-injurious character are allowed to be
+used.
+
+
+CHEESE
+
+121. General Composition.--Cheese, is made by the addition of rennet
+to ripened milk, resulting in coagulation of the casein, which
+mechanically combines with the fat. It differs from butter in
+composition by containing, in addition to fat, casein and appreciable
+amounts of mineral matter. The composition varies with the character of
+the milk from which the cheese was made. Average milk produces cheese
+containing a larger amount of fat than proteids, while cheese from
+skimmed or partially skimmed milk is proportionally poorer in fat.
+Ordinarily there is about 35 per cent of water, 33 per cent of fat, and
+27 per cent of casein, and albumin or milk proteids, the remainder being
+ash, salt, milk sugar, and lactic acid. Cheese is characterized by its
+large percentage of both fat and protein, and has high food value. It
+contains more fat and protein than any of the meats; in fact, there are
+but few foods which have such liberal amounts of these nutrients as
+cheese.
+
+The odor and flavor of cheese are due to workings of bacteria which
+result in the production of aromatic compounds. The purity and condition
+of the milk, as well as the method of manufacture and the kind of
+ferment material used, determine largely the flavor and odor. Cheese is
+generally allowed to undergo a ripening or curing process before it is
+used as food. The changes resulting consist mainly in increased
+solubility of the proteids, with the formation of a small amount of amid
+and aromatic compounds.[42]
+
+122. Digestibility.--Cheese is popularly considered an indigestible
+food, but extended experiments show that it is quite completely
+digested, although in the case of some individuals not easily digested.
+In general, about 95 per cent of the fat and 92 per cent and more of the
+protein is digested, depending upon the general composition of the
+cheese and the digestive capacity of the individual. As far as total
+digestibility is concerned, there appears to be but little difference
+between green and well-cured cheese. So far as ease of digestion is
+concerned, it is probable that some difference exists. There is also but
+little difference in digestibility resulting from the way in which milk
+is made into cheese, the nutrients of Roquefort, Swiss, Camembert, and
+Cheddar being about equally digestible.[13] The differences in odor and
+taste are due to variations in kind and amount of bacterial action. When
+combined with other foods, cheese may exercise a beneficial influence
+upon digestion in the same way as noted from the use of several foods in
+a ration. No material differences were observed in digestibility when
+cheese was used in small amounts, as for condimental purposes, or when
+used in large amounts to furnish nutrients. Artificial digestion
+experiments show that cheese is more readily acted upon by the
+pancreatic than by the gastric fluids, suggesting that cheese undergoes
+intestinal rather than gastric digestion. It is possible this is the
+reason that cheese is slow of digestion in the case of some individuals.
+
+123. Use in the Dietary.--Cheese should be used in the dietary
+regularly and in reasonable amounts, rather than irregularly and then in
+large amounts. Cheese is not a luxury, but ordinarily it is one of the
+cheapest and most nutritious of human foods. A pound of cheese costing
+15 cents contains about a quarter of a pound of protein and a third of a
+pound of fat; at the same price, beef yields only about half as much fat
+and less protein. Cheese at 18 cents per pound furnishes more available
+nutrients and energy than beef at 12 cents per pound. In the dietary of
+European armies, cheese to a great extent takes the place of beef. See
+Chapter XVI.
+
+124. Cottage Cheese is made by coagulating milk and preparing the curd
+by mixing with it cream or melted butter and salt or sugar as desired.
+When milk can be procured at little cost, cottage cheese is one of the
+cheapest and most valuable foods.[43]
+
+125. Different Kinds of Cheese.--By the use of different kinds of
+ferments and variations in the process of manufacture different types or
+kinds of cheese are made, as Roquefort, Swiss, Edam, Stilton, Camembert,
+etc. In the manufacture of Roquefort cheese, which is made from goats'
+and ewes' milk, bread is added and the cheese is cured in caves,
+resulting in the formation of a green mold which penetrates the cheese
+mass, and produces characteristic odor and flavor. Stilton is an English
+soft, rich cheese of mild flavor, made from milk to which cream is
+usually added. It is allowed to undergo an extended process of ripening,
+often resulting in the formation of bluish green threads of fungus.
+Limburger owes its characteristic odor and flavor to the action of
+special ferment bodies which carry on the ripening process. Neufchatel
+is a soft cheese made from sweet milk to which the rennet is added at a
+high temperature. After pressing, it is kneaded and worked, and then put
+into packages and covered with tin foil.
+
+126. Adulteration of Cheese.--The most common forms of adulteration
+are the manufacture of skim-milk cheese by the removal of the fat from
+the milk, and substitution of cheaper and foreign fats, making a product
+known as filled cheese. When not labeled whole milk cheese, or sold as
+such, there is no objection to skim-milk cheese. It has a high food
+value and is often a cheap source of protein. The manufacture of filled
+cheese is now regulated by the national government, and all such cheese
+must pay a special tax and be properly labeled. As a result, the amount
+of filled cheese upon the market has very greatly decreased, and cheese
+is now less adulterated than in former years. The national dairy law
+allows the use of coloring matter of a harmless nature in the
+manufacture of cheese.
+
+127. Dairy Products in the Dietary.--The nutrients in milk are
+produced at less expense for grain and forage than the nutrients in
+beef, hence from a pecuniary point of view, dairy products, as milk and
+cheese, have the advantage. In the case of butter, however, the cost
+usually exceeds that of meat. In older agricultural regions, where the
+cost of beef production reaches the maximum, dairying is generally
+resorted to, as it yields larger financial returns, and as a result more
+cheese and less beef are used in the dietary. As the cost of meats is
+enhanced, dairy products, as cheese, naturally take their place.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS
+
+
+128. General Composition.--Animal tissue is composed of the same
+classes of compounds as plant tissue. In each, water makes up a large
+portion of the weight, and the dry matter is composed of nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds, and ash or mineral matter. Plants and animals
+differ in composition not so much as to the kinds of compounds, although
+there are differences, but more in the percentage amounts of these
+compounds. In plants, with the exception of the legumes, the protein
+rarely exceeds 14 per cent, and in many vegetable foods, when prepared
+for the table, there is less than 2 per cent. In meats the protein
+ranges from 15 to 20 per cent. The non-nitrogenous compounds of plants
+are present mainly in the form of starch, sugar, and cellulose, while in
+animal bodies there are only traces of carbohydrates, but large amounts
+of fat. Fat is the chief non-nitrogenous compound of meats; it ranges
+between quite wide limits, depending upon kind, age, and general
+condition of the animal. Meats contain the same general classes of
+proteins as the vegetable foods; in each the proteins are made up of
+albumins, glubulins, albuminates, peptone-like bodies, and insoluble
+proteids. The larger portion of the protein of meats and cereals is in
+insoluble forms. The meat juices, which contain the soluble portion of
+the proteins, constitute less than 5 percent of the nitrogenous
+compounds. Meats contain less amid substances than plants, in which the
+amids are produced from ammonium compounds and are supposed to be
+intermediate products in the formation of proteids, while in the animal
+body they are derived from the proteids supplied in the food and, it is
+generally believed, cannot form proteids. Albuminoids make up the
+connective tissue, hair, and skin, and are more abundant in animal than
+in plant tissue. One of the chief albuminoids is gelatine. Both plant
+and animal foods undergo bacterial changes resulting in the production
+of alkaloidal bodies known as ptomaines, of which there are a large
+number. These are poisonous and are what cause putrid and stale meat to
+be unwholesome. The protein in meat differs little in general
+composition from that of vegetable origin; differences in structure and
+cleavage products between the two are, however, noticeable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--MEAT AND EXTRACTIVE SUBSTANCES.]
+
+While meats from different kinds of animals have somewhat the same
+general composition, they differ in physical properties, and also in the
+nature of the various nutrients. For example, pork contains less protein
+than beef, but the protein of pork is materially different from that of
+beef, as a larger portion is in the form of soluble proteids, while in
+beef more is present in an insoluble form. Not only are differences in
+the percentage of individual proteins noticeable, but there are equally
+as great differences in the fats. As for example: some of the meats have
+a larger proportion of the fat as stearin than do others. Hence meats
+differ in texture and taste more than in nutritive value, due to the
+variations in the percentage of the different proteins, fats, and
+extractive material, rather than to differences in the total amounts of
+these compounds. The taste and flavor of meat is to a large extent
+influenced by the amount of extractive material.
+
+While the nutrients of meats are divided into classes, as proteins and
+fats, there are a large number of separate compounds which make up each
+of the individual classes, and there are also small amounts of
+compounds which are not included in these groups.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--STANDARD CUTS OF BEEF.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)]
+
+129. Beef.--About one half of the weight of beef is water; the lean
+meat contains a much larger amount than the fat. As a rule, the parts of
+the animal that contain the most fat contain the least water. In some
+meats there is considerable refuse, 25 to 30 per cent. In average meat
+about 12 per cent of the butcher's weight is refuse and non-edible
+parts.[44] A pound of average butcher's meat is about one half water,
+and over 10 per cent waste and refuse, which leaves less than 40 per
+cent fat and protein. Meat is generally considered to have a high
+nutritive value, due to the comparatively large amounts of fat and
+protein. Beef contains more protein than any vegetable food, except the
+legumes, and from 1 to 1.5 per cent mineral matter, exclusive of bone.
+Some of the mineral matter is chemically united with the protein and
+other compounds. While figures are given for average composition of
+beef, it is to be noted that wide variations are frequently to be met
+with, some samples containing a much larger amount of waste and
+trimmings than others, and this influences the percent of the nutritive
+substances. In making calculations of nutrients consumed, as in dietary
+studies, the figures for average composition of meat should be used only
+in cases where the samples do not contain an excess either of fat or
+trimmings.[45] When very lean, there is often a large amount of refuse,
+and the meat contains less dry matter and is of poorer flavor than from
+animals in prime condition. In the case of very fat animals, a large
+amount of waste results, and the flavor is sometimes impaired.
+
+130. Veal differs from beef in containing a smaller amount of dry
+matter, richer in protein, but poorer in fat. Animals differ in
+composition at different stages of growth in much the same way as
+plants. In the earlier stages protein predominates in the plant tissue,
+while later the carbohydrates are added in larger amounts, reducing the
+percentage content of protein. In animals the same is noticeable. Young
+animals are, pound for pound, richer in protein than old animals. While
+in the case of vegetables the increase in size, or rotundity, is due to
+starch and carbohydrates, in animals it is due to the addition of fat.
+But plants, like animals, observe the same general laws as to changes in
+composition at different stages of growth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--STANDARD CUTS OF MUTTON.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)]
+
+131. Mutton.--There is about the same amount of refuse matter in mutton
+as in beef. In a side of mutton about 19 percent: are trimmings and
+waste, and in a side of beef 18.5 per cent. Mutton, as a rule, contains
+a little more fat and dry matter than beef, and somewhat less protein. A
+side of beef, as purchased, contains about 50 per cent of water, 14.5
+per cent protein, and 16.8 per cent of fat, while a side of mutton, as
+purchased, contains 42.9 per cent water, 12.5 per cent protein, and 24.7
+per cent fat. A pound of beef yields a smaller number of calories by 25
+per cent than a pound of mutton. At the same price per pound more
+nutrients can be purchased as mutton than as beef. The differences in
+composition between lamb and mutton are similar to those between veal
+and beef; viz. a larger amount of water and protein and a smaller amount
+of fat in the same weight of the young animals. Differences in
+composition between the various cuts of lamb are noticeable. The leg
+contains the least fat and the most protein, while the chuck is richest
+in fat and poorest in protein. As in the case of beef, many of the
+cheaper cuts contain as much or more nutrients than the more expensive
+cuts. They are not, however, as palatable and differ as to toughness and
+other physical characteristics.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--STANDARD CUTS OF PORK.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)]
+
+132. Pork is characterized by a high per cent of fat and a
+comparatively low per cent of protein. It is generally richest in fat of
+any of the meats. The per cent of water varies with the fatness of the
+animal; in very fat animals there is a smaller amount, while lean
+animals contain more. In lean salt pork there is about 20 per cent
+water, and in fat salt pork about 7 per cent. There is less refuse and
+waste in pork than in either beef or mutton. Ham contains from 14 to 15
+per cent of refuse, and bacon about 7 per cent. Bacon has nearly twice
+as much fat and a smaller amount of protein than ham. A pound of bacon,
+as purchased, will yield nearly twice as much energy or fuel value as a
+pound of ham. Digestion experiments show that bacon is quite readily and
+completely digested and is often a cheaper source of fat and protein
+than other meats. There is about three times as much fat in bacon as in
+beef. When prepared for the table bacon contains, from 40 to 50 per cent
+of fat. A pound of high grade, lean bacon furnishes from 0.1 to 0.3 of a
+pound of digestible protein and from 0.4 to 0.6 of a pound of digestible
+fat, which is about two thirds as much fat as is found in butter. Bacon
+contains nearly as much digestible protein as other meats and from two
+to three times as much fat, making it, at the same price per pound, a
+cheaper food than other meats. In salt pork there is from 60 to 85 per
+cent of fat, and less protein than in bacon. The protein and fat of pork
+differ from those in beef not only in percentage amounts, but also in
+the nature of the individual proteins and fats. The composition of pork
+varies with the nature of the food that is consumed by the animal.
+Experiments show that it is possible by judicious feeding in the early
+stages of growth to produce pork with the maximum of lean meat and the
+minimum of fat. After the animal has passed a certain period, it is not
+possible by feeding to materially influence the percentage of nutrients
+in the meat. The flavor, too, of pork, as of other meats, is dependent
+largely upon the nature of the food the animal consumes. When there is a
+scant amount of available protein in the ration, the meat is dry, nearly
+tasteless, and contains less of the soluble nitrogenous compounds which
+impart flavor and individuality.
+
+133. Lard is prepared from the fat of swine, and is separated from
+associated tissue by the action of heat. A large amount of fat is found
+lining the back of the abdominal cavity, and this is known as leaf lard.
+Slight differences are noticeable in the composition and quality of lard
+made from different parts of the hog. Leaf lard is usually considered
+the best. Lard is composed of the three fats, olein, stearin, and
+palmatin, and has a number of characteristic physical properties, as
+specific gravity, melting point, iodine absorption number, as well as
+behavior with various reagents, and these enable the mixing of other
+fats with lard to be readily detected. Lard is used in the preparation
+of oleomargarine, and it is also combined with various vegetable oils,
+as cotton-seed oil, in the making of imitation or compound lards.[46]
+Lard substitutes differ little in general composition from pure lard,
+except in the structure of the crystals and the percentage of the
+various individual fats.
+
+134. Texture and Toughness of Meats.--In discussing the texture of
+meats, Professor Woods states:[45]
+
+     "Whether meats are tough or tender depends upon two things: the
+     character of the walls of the muscle tubes and the character of the
+     connective tissues which bind the tubes and muscles together. In
+     young and well-nourished animals the tube walls are thin and
+     delicate, and the connective tissue is small in amount. As the
+     animals grow older or are made to work (and this is particularly
+     true in the case of poorly nourished animals), the walls of the
+     muscle tubes and the connective tissues become thick and hard. This
+     is the reason why the flesh of young, well-fed animals is tender
+     and easily masticated, while the flesh of old, hard-worked, or
+     poorly fed animals is often so tough that prolonged boiling or
+     roasting seems to have but little effect on it.
+
+     "After slaughtering, meats undergo marked changes in texture. These
+     changes can be grouped under three classes or stages. In the first
+     stage, when the meat is just slaughtered, the flesh is soft, juicy,
+     and quite tender. In the next stage the flesh stiffens and the meat
+     becomes hard and tough. This condition is known as _rigor mortis,_
+     and continues until the third stage, when the first changes of
+     decomposition set in. In hot climates the meat is commonly eaten in
+     either the first or second stage. In cold climates it is seldom
+     eaten before the second stage, and generally, in order to lessen
+     the toughness, it is allowed to enter the third stage, when it
+     becomes soft and tender, and acquires added flavor. The softening
+     is due in part to the formation of lactic acid, which acts upon the
+     connective tissue. The same effect may be produced, though more
+     rapidly, by macerating the meat with weak vinegar. Meat is
+     sometimes made tender by cutting the flesh into thin slices and
+     pounding it across the cut ends until the fibers are broken."
+
+135. Influence of Cooking upon the Composition of Meats.[47]--It is
+believed by many that losses are prevented and the nutritive value
+conserved when, in the cooking of meat, it is placed directly into
+boiling water rather than into cold water and then brought to the
+boiling point and cooked. Extensive experiments have been made by Dr.
+Grindley in regard to this and other points connected with the cooking
+of meats, and in general it was found that the temperature of the water
+in which the meat was placed made little difference in its nutritive
+value or the amount of material extracted. It was found that by both
+methods there was dissolved 2.3 percent of the protein matter, 1 percent
+of the nitrogenous extractives, 1.6 per cent of non-nitrogenous
+material, and 0.8 per cent of ash, of the raw meat, which was equivalent
+to about 13 per cent of the total proteid material and 81 percent of the
+ash. The cold water extract contained bodies coagulated by heat. Cold
+water did not extract any of the fat, but during the process of cooking,
+appreciable amounts were lost mechanically. Cooked meats were found to
+be less soluble in cold water than raw meats. During the process of
+boiling, meat shrinks in weight about 40 or 45 per cent, depending
+mainly upon the size of the pieces and the content of fat. The loss in
+weight is practically a loss of water, and the loss of nutrients, all
+told, amounts to about 4 per cent, or more, depending upon the
+mechanical loss.[48] But slight differences were found in the
+composition of the meats cooked three and five hour periods.
+
+     "Careful study in this laboratory has shown that when meat is
+     cooked in water at 80° to 85° C., placing meat in hot or cold water
+     at the start has little effect on the amount of nutrients in the
+     meat which passes into the broth. The meat was in the form of
+     cubes, one to two inches, and in pieces weighing from one to two
+     pounds.
+
+     "It is commonly supposed that when meat is plunged into boiling
+     water, the albumin coagulates and forms a crust, which prevents the
+     escape of nutritive materials into the broth. It is also believed
+     that if a rich broth is desired, to be used either as a soup or
+     with the meat as a stew, it is more desirable to place the meat in
+     cold water at the start. From the results of these experiments,
+     however, it is evident that, under these conditions, there can be
+     little advantage in using hot or cold water at the beginning. When
+     meats were cooked by dry heat, as in roasting, a larger amount of
+     nutrients was rendered soluble in water than during boiling. The
+     losses of nutrients were much smaller when meats were cooked by dry
+     heat than when cooked in water, being on the average, water 35 per
+     cent, nitrogenous extractives 9 per cent, non-nitrogenous
+     extractives 17 per cent, fat 7 per cent, ash 12 per cent, and a
+     small loss of protein."
+
+The nutrients in the broth of the meat started in hot water amounted to
+about 1 per cent of protein, 1 per cent of fat, and O.5 per cent of
+ash, the amount of nutrients being directly proportional to the length
+of time and temperature of the cooking. In general, the larger the
+pieces, the smaller the losses. Beef that has been used in the
+preparation of beef tea loses its extractive materials, which impart
+taste and flavor, but there is only a small loss of actual nutritive
+value. Clear meat broth contains little nutriment--less than unfiltered
+broth. Most of the nitrogenous material of the broth is in the form of
+creatin, sarkin, and xanthin, nitrogenous extractives or amid substances
+having a much lower food value than proteids. Experiments show that some
+of these extractives have physiological properties slightly stimulating
+in their action, and it is believed the stimulating effect of a meat
+diet is in part due to these.[49] They are valuable principally for
+imparting taste and flavor, and cannot be regarded as nutrients. The
+variations in taste and flavor of meats from different sources are due
+largely to differences in extractive material.
+
+     "In general, the various methods of cooking materially modify the
+     appearance, texture, and flavor of meat, and hence its
+     palatability, but have little effect on total nutritive value.
+     Whether it be cooked in hot water, as in boiling or stewing, or by
+     dry heat, as in roasting, broiling, or frying, meat of all kinds
+     has a high food value, when judged by the kind and amount of
+     nutrient ingredients which are present." [50]
+
+Beef extracts of commerce contain about 50 per cent of extractive
+matters, as amids, together with smaller amounts of soluble proteids;
+ash, mainly added salt, is also present in liberal amounts (20 per
+cent). Beef extracts have condimental value imparting taste and flavor,
+which make them useful for soup stocks, but they furnish little in the
+way of nutritive substance.
+
+136. Miscellaneous Meat Products.--By combining different parts of the
+same animal, or different meats, a large number of products known as
+sausage are made. These vary in composition with the ingredients used.
+In general, they are richer in fat than beef and contain about the same
+amount of protein. Potato flour and flour from cereals are sometimes
+used in their preparations, but the presence of any material amount,
+unless so stated on the package, is considered an adulterant.
+
+Pickled meats are prepared by the use of condiments, as salt, sugar,
+vinegar, and saltpeter. During the smoking and curing of meats, no
+appreciable losses of nutrients occur.[51] The smoke acts as a
+preservative, and imparts condimental properties. Saltpeter (potassium
+nitrate) has been used from earliest times in the preparation of meats;
+it preserves color and delays fermentation changes. When used in
+moderate amounts it cannot be regarded as a preservative or injurious to
+health. Excessive amounts, however, are objectionable. Smoked meats,
+prepared with or without saltpeter, give appreciable reactions for
+nitrites, compounds formed during combustion of the wood by which the
+meat was smoked. Many vegetables contain naturally much larger amounts
+of nitrates, taken from the soil as food, than meat that has been
+preserved with saltpeter.[52]
+
+137. Poultry.--The refuse and waste from chickens, as purchased on the
+market, ranges from 15 to 30 per cent. The fat content is much lower
+than in turkeys or ducks, the largest amount being found in geese. The
+edible portion of all fowls is rich in protein, particularly the dark
+meat, and the food value is about equal to that of meat in general. When
+it is desired to secure a large amount of protein with but little fat,
+chicken supplies this, perhaps, better than any other animal food. A
+difference is observed in the composition of the meat of young and old
+fowls similar to that between beef and veal. The physical composition
+and, to a slight extent, the solubility of the proteids are altered by
+prolonged cold storage, the difference being noticeable mainly in the
+appearance of the connective tissue of the muscles. In discussing
+poultry as food, Langworthy states:[53]
+
+     "A good, fresh bird shows a well-rounded form, with neat, compact
+     legs, and no sharp, bony angles on the breast, indicating a lack of
+     tender white meat. The skin should be a clear color (yellow being
+     preferred in the American market) and free from blotches and pin
+     feathers; if it looks tight and drawn, the bird has probably been
+     scalded before being plucked. The flesh should be neither flabby
+     nor stiff, but should give evenly and gently when pressed by the
+     finger."
+
+138. Fish.--From 30 to 60 per cent of the weight of fresh fish is
+refuse. The edible portion contains from 35 to 50 per cent, and in some
+cases more, of water. The dry matter is rich in protein; richer than
+many meats. The nutrients in fish range between comparatively wide
+limits, the protein in some cases being as low as 6 per cent, in
+flounder, and in others as high as 30 per cent, in dried codfish. The
+amount of fat, except in a few cases, as salmon and trout, is small.
+Salmon is the richest in fat of any of the fishes. When salted and
+preserved, the proportion of water is lessened and that of the nutrients
+is increased. Fish can take the place of meat in the dietary, but it is
+necessary to add a larger amount of fat to the ration because of the
+deficiency of most fish in this ingredient. Fish has about the same
+digestibility as meats. It is believed by many to be valuable because it
+supplies a large amount of available phosphates. Analyses, however, show
+that the flesh of fish contains no more phosphorus compounds than meats
+in general, and its food value is due to protein rather than to
+phosphates.[54]
+
+Fish appears to be as completely and easily digested as meats.
+Differences in flavor, taste, and palatability are due to small amounts
+of flavors and extractive materials, varying according to the food
+consumed by the fish and the conditions under which they lived. The
+flesh of fish decays more readily than that of other meats and produces
+ptomaines, or toxic substances, which are the result of fermentation
+changes usually associated with putrefaction. Cases of poisoning from
+eating unsound fish are not infrequent.[55]
+
+Shellfish have about the same general composition as fish. In clams
+there is a larger amount of dry matter than in oysters, which contain
+about 12 per cent, half of which is protein. When placed in fresh water,
+the oyster increases in size and undergoes the process known as
+"fattening." Oftentimes impure water is used for this purpose, which
+makes the eating of raw oysters a questionable practice from a sanitary
+point of view, as the water in which they are floated often contains
+disease-producing germs, as typhoid. During the process of fattening,
+although the oyster increases in size and weight, it decreases in
+percentage of nutrients. In discussing the composition of oysters,
+Atwater states:[7]
+
+     "They come nearer to milk than almost any other food material as
+     regards both the amounts and relative proportions of nutrients."
+
+139. Eggs, General Composition.--Eggs are a type of concentrated
+nitrogenous food. About 75 per cent (shell removed) is water, about one
+third is yolk, and a little over 50 per cent is albumin or white. The
+shell makes up from 10 to 12 per cent of the weight. The yolk and white
+differ widely in composition. The yolk contains a much larger per cent
+of solids than the white, and is rich in both fat and protein, from a
+third to a half of the weight being fat. The white has about the same
+amount of water, 88 per cent, as average milk, but, unlike milk, the dry
+matter is mainly albumin. The entire egg (edible portion) contains
+about equal parts of fat and protein; 12 to 13 per cent of each and an
+appreciably large amount of ash or mineral matter,--from 0.8 to 1 per
+cent, consisting mainly of phosphates associated with the albumin. There
+is no material difference in chemical composition between white and dark
+shelled eggs, or between eggs with different colored yolks. It is simply
+a question of coloring matter. The egg is influenced to an appreciable
+extent by feed and general care of the fowls. The egg and the potato
+contain about the same amount of water. They are, however, distinct
+types of food, the potato being largely composed of carbohydrates and
+the egg of protein and fat. Eggs resemble meat somewhat in general
+composition, although they contain rather less of protein and fat. When
+eggs are boiled there is a loss of weight due to elimination of water;
+otherwise the composition is unaltered, the coagulation of the albumin,
+as stated in Chapter I, consisting simply in a rearrangement of the
+atoms of the molecule. The egg is particularly valuable in the dietary
+of the convalescent, when it is desired to secure the maximum amount of
+phosphorus in organic combination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF AN EGG.]
+
+The flavor of eggs is in part due to the food supplied to the fowls, as
+well as the age of the egg. Experiments show that onions and some other
+vegetables, when fed to fowls, impart odors and taste to the eggs. The
+keeping qualities of eggs are also dependent upon the food supplied. In
+experiments at the Cornell Experiment Station, when hens were fed on a
+narrow, nitrogenous ration, a large number of eggs were produced
+containing the minimum amount of solid matter and of poor keeping
+quality, while a larger sized egg of better keeping quality was obtained
+when a variety of foods, nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous, was supplied.
+
+140. Digestibility of Eggs.--Digestion experiments show that there is
+but little difference in the digestibility of eggs cooked in different
+ways. A noticeable difference, however, is observed in the rapidity with
+which the albumin and proteids are dissolved in a pepsin solution. In
+general, it was found that, when the albumin was coagulated at a
+temperature of 180°, it was more rapidly and completely dissolved in the
+pepsin than when coagulated at a temperature of 212°. When eggs were
+cooked at a temperature of 212°, the hard-boiled eggs appeared to be
+slightly more digestible than the soft-boiled eggs, but the digestion
+was not as complete as when the cooking was done at a temperature of
+180°; then no difference in digestibility was found between eggs cooked
+for a short or a long time. The egg is one of the most completely
+digested of all foods, practically all the protein and fat being
+absorbed and available to the body. Langworthy, in discussing
+Jorissenne's investigations on the digestibility of eggs, states:[53]
+
+     "The yolk of raw, soft-boiled, and hard-boiled eggs is equally
+     digestible. The white of soft-boiled eggs, being semi-liquid,
+     offers little more resistance to the digestive juices than raw
+     white. The white of a hard-boiled egg is not generally very
+     thoroughly masticated. Unless finely divided, it offers more
+     resistance to the digestive juices than the fluid or semi-fluid
+     white, and undigested particles may remain in the digestive tract
+     many days and decompose. From this deduction it is obvious that
+     thorough mastication is a matter of importance. Provided
+     mastication is thorough, marked differences in the completeness of
+     digestion of the three sorts of eggs, in the opinion of the writer
+     cited, will not be found."
+
+141. Use of Eggs in the Dietary.--When eggs are at the same price per
+dozen as meat is per pound, they furnish a larger amount of nutrients.
+In general, a dozen eggs have a little higher food value than a pound of
+meat. Eggs are usually a cheaper source of food because a smaller amount
+is served than of meat. When eggs are 25 cents per dozen, the cost of
+ten eggs for a family of five is less than that of a pound or a pound
+and a quarter of beef at 22 cents per pound. The meat, however, would
+furnish the larger amount of nutrients. Eggs are valuable, too, in the
+dietary because they are frequently combined with flour, cereal
+products, and vegetables, which contain a large amount of starch, and
+some of which contain small amounts of protein. This combination
+furnishes a balanced ration, as well as secures palatability and good
+mechanical combination of the foods. Eggs in combination with flour,
+sugar, butter, and other materials have equally as great a value as when
+used alone and as a substitute for meat.
+
+Eggs vary in weight from 17.5 to 28 ounces, and more per dozen. They
+should be purchased and sold by weight. When stored, eggs lose weight.
+The egg cannot be considered as entirely germ proof, and care is
+necessary in its handling and use, the same as with other food articles.
+The cause of the spoiling of eggs is due largely to exterior bacterial
+infection.
+
+
+CANNED MEATS
+
+142. General Composition.--Canned meats differ but little in
+composition from fresh meats. Usually during the process of cooking and
+canning there is a slight increase in the amount of dry matter, but the
+relative proportion of protein and fat is about the same as in fresh
+meat. It is frequently stated that the less salable parts are used in
+the preparation of canned meats, as it is possible by cooking and the
+addition of condiments to conceal the inferior physical properties. As
+to the accuracy of these statements, the author is unable to say. The
+shrinkage or loss in weight during canning amounts to from 30 to 40 per
+cent. The liquids in which the cooking and parboiling are done are
+sometimes used in the preparation of beef extracts. Salt, saltpeter, and
+condiments are generally added during the canning process. Saltpeter is
+used, as it assists in retaining the natural color and prevents some
+objectionable fermentation changes. In moderate amounts it is not
+generally considered an adulterant. An extensive examination by Wiley
+and Bigelow of packing-house products and preserved meats showed that of
+the latter only a small amount contained objectionable preservatives.
+The authors, after an extended investigation, reported favorably upon
+their composition and sanitary value, saying they found "so little to
+criticise and so much to commend in these necessary products." In this
+bulletin they do not classify saltpeter as an adulterant.[51]
+
+Where fresh meats cannot be secured, canned meats are often
+indispensable. Usually the nutrients of canned meats cost more than
+those of fresh meats, and in their use as food much care should be
+exercised to prevent contamination after opening the cans. Occasionally
+the meat contains ferment materials that have not been entirely
+destroyed during cooking, and these, when the cans are stored in warm
+places, develop and cause deleterious changes to occur. Consequently
+canned meats should be stored at a low temperature. By recent
+congressional act, these preparations are now made under the
+supervision of government inspectors. All diseased animals are
+rejected, and the sanitary conditions under which the meat is prepared
+have been greatly improved. Formerly, the most frequent forms of
+adulteration were substitution of one meat for another, as the mixing of
+veal with chicken, and the use of preservatives, as borax and sulphites.
+While the cost of the nutrients in canned meats is generally much higher
+than in fresh meats, the latter are not always easily obtained, or
+capable of being kept for any length of time, and hence canned meats are
+often indispensable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CEREALS
+
+
+143. Preparation and Cost of Cereals.--The grains used in the
+preparation of cereal foods are wheat, oats, corn, rice, and, to a less
+extent, barley and rye. For some of these the entire cleaned grain is
+ground or pulverized, while for others the bran and germ are first
+removed. In order to improve their keeping qualities, they are often
+sterilized before being put up in sealed packages. Special treatment, as
+steaming or malting, is sometimes given to impart palatability and to
+lessen the time required for cooking. As a class, the cereal foods are
+clean, nutritious, and free from adulteration. Extravagant claims are
+sometimes made as to their food value, and frequently excessive prices
+are charged, out of proportion to the cost of the nutrients in the raw
+material. Within recent years the number of cereal preparations has
+greatly increased, due to improvements and variations in the methods of
+manufacture.[56]
+
+Cereal foods are less expensive than meats and the various animal food
+products. They contain no refuse, are easily prepared for the table, and
+may be kept without appreciable deterioration. Some of the
+ready--to-eat brands are cooked, dried, and crushed, and sugar,
+glucose, salt, and various condimental materials added to impart taste.
+Others contain malt, or are subjected to a malting or germinating
+process to develop the soluble carbohydrates, and such foods are
+sometimes called predigested. It is believed that the cereals are being
+more extensively used in the dietary, which is desirable both from an
+economic and a nutritive point of view. Special care is necessary in the
+cooking and preparation of cereals for the table, in order to develop
+flavor and bring about hydration and rupturing of the tissues, as
+explained in Chapter II.
+
+144. Corn Preparations.--Corn or maize is characterized by a high
+percent of fat and starch, and, compared with wheat and oats, a low
+content of protein.[57] Removal of the bran and germ lessens the per
+cent of fat. The germ is removed principally because it imparts poor
+keeping qualities. Many of the corn breakfast foods contain 1 per cent
+or less of fat and from 8 to 9 per cent of protein. Coarsely ground corn
+foods are not as completely digested and assimilated as those more
+finely ground. As in the case of wheat products, the presence of the
+bran and germ appears to prevent the more complete absorption of the
+nutrients. Finely ground corn meal compares favorably in digestibility
+with wheat flour. Corn flour is prepared by removal of the bran and germ
+and granulation of the more starchy portions of the kernel, and has
+better keeping qualities than corn meal from which the bran and germ
+have not been so completely removed. At times corn flour has been
+sufficiently low in price to permit its use for the adulteration of
+wheat flour. The mixing of corn and wheat flours, however, is prohibited
+by law unless the product is so labeled. When combined with wheat flour,
+corn bread and various other articles of food are prepared, but used
+alone corn flour is not suitable for bread making, because its gluten
+lacks the binding properties imparted to wheat flour by the gliadin. It
+is essential that corn be used with foods of high protein content so as
+to make a balanced ration; for when it forms a large part of the
+dietary, the ration is apt to be deficient in protein. In a mixed
+dietary, corn is one of the cheapest and best cereals that can be used.
+Too frequently, however, excessive prices are charged for corn
+preparations that contain no more nutrients than ordinary corn meal.
+There is no difference between yellow and white corn meal so far as
+nutritive value is concerned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--CORN STARCH.]
+
+145. Oat Preparations are characterized by large amounts of both
+protein and fat. Because of the removal of the hulls, they contain more
+protein than the original grain. The oat preparations differ little in
+chemical composition. They all have about 16 per cent of protein, 7 per
+cent of fat, and 65 per cent of starch, and are richer in ash or mineral
+matter than other cereals. The main difference is in method of
+preparation and mechanical composition. Some are partially cooked and
+then dried. Those costing 7 cents or more per pound do not contain any
+greater amount of nutritive substance than those purchased in bulk at
+about half the price. At one time it was believed that oats contained a
+special alkaloid having a stimulating effect when fed to animals. Recent
+investigations, however, show that there is no alkaloidal material in
+oats, and whatever stimulating effect they may have results from the
+nutrients they contain. Occasionally there is an appreciable amount of
+cellulose, or fiber, left in the oat preparations, due to imperfect
+milling. This noticeably lowers the digestibility. Oatmeal requires much
+longer and more thorough cooking than many other cereals, and it is
+frequently used as food when not well prepared. Digestion experiments
+show that when oatmeal is cooked for four hours or more, it is more
+readily acted upon by the diastase ferment and digested in a shorter
+time than oatmeal cooked only a half hour.[5] Oatmeal is one of the
+cheapest sources from which protein is obtained, and when well cooked it
+can advantageously form an essential part of the ration. Unless
+thoroughly cooked, the oat preparations do not appear to be quite so
+completely or easily digested as some of the other cereals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--OAT STARCH GRANULES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--WHEAT STARCH GRAINS.]
+
+146. Wheat Preparations differ in chemical composition more than those
+from oats or corn, because wheat is prepared in a greater variety of
+ways. They are made either from the entire kernel, including the bran
+and germ, or from special parts, as the granular middlings, as in the
+case of some of the breakfast foods, and a few are made into a dough and
+baked, then dried and toasted. Some special flours are advertised as
+composed largely of gluten, but only those that have been prepared by
+washing out the starch are entitled to be classed as gluten flours.[58]
+For the food of persons suffering from diabetes mellitus physicians
+advise the use of flour low in starch, and this can be made by washing
+and thus removing a portion of the starch from wheat flour, as directed
+in Experiment No. 30. The glutinous residue is then used for preparing
+articles of food. Analyses of some of the so-called gluten flours show
+that they contain no more gluten than ordinary flour, particularly the
+low grades. A number of wheat breakfast foods are prepared by
+sterilizing the flour middlings obtained after removal of the bran and
+germ. These middlings are the same stock or material from which the
+patent grades of flour are made, and they differ from wheat flour only
+in mechanical structure and size of the particles. Where granular wheat
+middlings can be secured in bulk at the same price as flour they furnish
+a valuable and cheap cereal breakfast food.
+
+As to the digestibility and food value, the wheat breakfast foods have
+practically the same as graham, entire wheat, or ordinary patent flour,
+depending upon the stock which they contain. Those with large amounts of
+bran and germ are not as completely digested as when these parts of the
+kernel are not included. Wheat preparations, next to oats, have the most
+protein of any of the cereal foods. Occasionally they are prepared from
+wheats low in gluten and not suitable for bread-making purposes. When
+purchased in bulk the wheat preparations are among the cheapest foods
+that can be used in the dietary.[56]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--BARLEY STARCH.]
+
+147. Barley Preparations are not so extensively used as wheat, oats,
+and corn. Barley contains a little more protein than corn, but not quite
+so much as wheat; otherwise it is quite similar to wheat in general
+composition. Sometimes in the preparation of breakfast foods barley meal
+is mixed with wheat or corn. Barley is supposed to be more readily
+digested than some of the other cereals, because of the presence of
+larger amounts of active ferment bodies, and it is frequently used for
+making an extract known as "barley water," which, although it contains
+very little nutritive value, as less than one per cent of the weight of
+the barley is rendered soluble, is useful in its soothing influence and
+mechanical action upon the mucous membrane of the digestive tract.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--RICE STARCH.]
+
+148. Rice Preparations.--Rice varies somewhat in composition, but
+usually contains a slightly lower percentage of protein than corn and
+also a smaller amount of fat. It is particularly rich in starch, and has
+the least ash or mineral matter of any of the cereals. In order to make
+a balanced ration, rice should be supplemented with legumes and other
+foods rich in proteids. It is a valuable grain, but when used alone it
+is deficient in protein. Rice is digested with moderate ease, but is not
+as completely absorbed by the body as other cereals, particularly those
+prepared by fine grinding or pulverization. Of late years rice culture
+has been extensively introduced into some of the southern states, and
+the domestic rice seems to have slightly higher protein content than the
+imported. Rice contains less protein than other cereals, and the starch
+grain is of different construction. Rice does not require such prolonged
+cooking as oatmeal; it needs, however, to be thoroughly cooked.
+
+149. Predigested Foods.[56]
+
+     "It is questionable whether it would be of advantage to a healthy
+     person to have his food artificially digested. The body under
+     normal conditions is well adapted to utilize such foods as the
+     ordinary mixed diet provides, among them the carbohydrates from the
+     cereals. Moreover, it is generally believed that for the digestive
+     organs, as for all others of the body, the amount of exercise they
+     are normally fitted to perform is an advantage rather than the
+     reverse. It has been said that 'a well man has no more need of
+     predigested food than a sound man has for crutches.' If the
+     digestive organs are out of order, it may be well to save them
+     work, but troubles of digestion are often very complicated affairs,
+     and the average person rarely has the knowledge needed to prescribe
+     for himself. In general, those who are well should do their own
+     work of digestion, and those who are ill should consult a competent
+     physician."--WOODS AND SNYDER.
+
+150. The Value of Cereals in the Dietary.--Cereals are valuable in the
+dietary because of the starch and protein they supply, and the heat and
+energy they yield. They are among the most inexpensive of foods and,
+when properly prepared, have a high degree of palatability; then, too,
+they are capable of being blended in various ways with other foods. Some
+are valuable for their mechanical action in digestion, rather than for
+any large amount of nutrients. They do not furnish the quantity of
+mineral matter and valuable phosphates that is popularly supposed. They
+all contain from 0.5 to 1.5 percent of mineral matter, of which about
+one third is phosphoric anhydrid. In discussing the phosphate content of
+food, Hammersten states:[59]
+
+     "Very little is known in regard to the need of phosphates or
+     phosphoric acid.... The extent of this need is most difficult to
+     determine, as the body shows a strong tendency, when increased
+     amounts of phosphorus are introduced, to retain more than is
+     necessary. The need of phosphates is relatively smaller in adults
+     than in young developing animals."
+
+In the coarser cereals, which include the bran and germ, there is the
+maximum amount of mineral matter, but, as in the case of graham bread,
+it is not as completely digested and absorbed by the body as the more
+finely granulated products which contain less. The kind of cereal to use
+in the dietary is largely a matter of personal choice. As only a small
+amount is usually eaten at a meal, there is little difference in the
+quantity of nutrients supplied by the various breakfast cereals.
+
+
+  TOTAL AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FUEL VALUE OF CEREALS
+  [Transcriber's note: This table has been divided into two
+  parts to fit limits on page width.]
+
+  =======================================================
+                        |     TOTAL NUTRIENTS           |
+                        |-----+----+----+----------+----+
+                        |     |    |    |   C.H.   |    |
+      KIND OF FOOD      |Water|Pro.|Fat +----+-----+Ash |
+                        |     |    |    |N.F.|Fiber|    |
+                        |     |    |    |Ext |     |    |
+  ----------------------+-----+----+----+----+-----+----+
+                        |  %  |  % |  % |  % |  %  |  % |
+  Oat Preparations:     |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Oats, whole grain   | 11.0|11.8| 5.0|59.7|  9.5| 3.0|
+    Oatmeal, raw        |  7.3|16.1| 7.2|66.6|  9.9| 1.9|
+    Rolled, steam-cooked|  8.2|16.1| 7.4|65.2|  1.3| 1.8|
+  Wheat:                |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole grain         | 10.5|11.9| 2.1|71.9|  1.8| 1.8|
+    Cracked wheat       | 10.1|11.1| 1.7|73.8|  1.7| 1.6|
+    Rolled, steam-cooked| 10.6|10.2| 1.8|74.4|  1.8| 1.5|
+    Shredded wheat      |  8.1|10.6| 1.4|76.6|  2.1| 1.8|
+    Crumbed and malted  |  5.6|12.2| 1.0|77.6|  1.7| 1.0|
+    Farina              | 10.9|11.0| 1.4|75.9|  0.4| 0.4|
+  Rye:                  |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole grain         | 11.6|10.6| 1.7|72.5|  1.7| 1.9|
+    Flaked, to be eaten | 11.1|10.0| 1.4|   75.8   | 1.7|
+      raw               |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+  Barley:               |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole grain         | 10.9|12.4| 1.8|69.8|  2.7| 2.4|
+    Pearled barley      | 11.5| 8.5| 1.1|77.5|  0.3| 1.1|
+  Buckwheat:            |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Flour               | 13.6| 6.4| 1.2|77.5|  0.4| 0.9|
+  Corn:                 |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole grain         | 10.9|10.5| 5.4|69.6|  2.1| 1.5|
+    Corn meal, unbolted | 11.6| 8.4| 4.7|   74.0   | 1.3|
+    Corn meal, bolted   | 12.5| 9.2| 1.9|74.4|  1.0| 1.0|
+    Hominy              | 10.9| 8.6| 0.6|79.2|  0.4| 0.3|
+    Pop corn, popped    |  4.3|10.7| 5.0|77.3|  1.4| 1.3|
+    Hulled corn         | 74.1| 2.3| 0.9|   22.2   | 0.5|
+  Rice:                 |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole rice, polished| 12.3| 6.9| 0.3|   80.0   | 0.5|
+    Puffed rice         |  7.1| 6.2| 0.6|   85.7   | 0.4|
+  Crackers              |  6.8|10.7| 8.8|71.4|  0.5| 1.8|
+  Macaroni              | 10.3|13.4| 0.9|   74.1   | 1.3|
+  =======================================================
+
+
+  =================================================
+                        | DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS
+                        |----+----+----+----+------
+                        |    |    |    |    | Fuel
+      KIND OF FOOD      |Pro.|Fat |C.H.|Ash | Value
+                        |    |    |    |    | per lb.
+                        |    |    |    |    |
+  ----------------------+----+----+----+----+----------
+                        |  % |  % |  % |  % | Calories.
+  Oat Preparations:     |    |    |    |    |
+    Oats, whole grain   | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Oatmeal, raw        |12.5| 6.5|65.5| 1.4| 1767
+    Rolled, steam-cooked|12.5| 6.7|64.5| 1.4| 1759
+  Wheat:                |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole grain         | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Cracked wheat       | 8.1| 1.5|68.7| 1.2| 1501
+    Rolled, steam-cooked| 8.5| 1.6|70.7| 1.1| 1541
+    Shredded wheat      | 7.7| 1.3|71.1| 1.4| 1521
+    Crumbed and malted  | 9.1| 0.9|73.7| 1.4| 1623
+    Farina              | 8.9| 1.3|72.9| 0.5| 1609
+  Rye:                  |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole grain         | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Flaked, to be eaten | 7.8| 1.3|71.1| 1.3| 1516
+      raw               |    |    |    |    |
+  Barley:               |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole grain         | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Pearled barley      | 6.6| 1.0|73.0| 0.3| 1514
+  Buckwheat:            |    |    |    |    |
+    Flour               | 5.0| 1.1|73.1| 0.7| 1471
+  Corn:                 |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole grain         | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Corn meal, unbolted | 6.2| 4.2|73.2| 1.0| 1728
+    Corn meal, bolted   | 6.8| 1.7|74.6| 0.8| 1602
+    Hominy              | 6.4| 0.5|78.7| 0.2| 1671
+    Pop corn, popped    | 7.9| 4.5|77.8| 1.0| 1882
+    Hulled corn         | 1.7| 0.8|21.8| 0.4|  492
+  Rice:                 |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole rice, polished| 5.8| 0.3|78.4| 0.4| 1546
+    Puffed rice         | 5.1| 0.5|84.0| 0.3| 1639
+  Crackers              | 9.1| 7.9|70.5| 1.4| 1905
+  Macaroni              |11.6| 0.8|72.2| 1.0| 1660
+  =================================================
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+WHEAT FLOUR
+
+
+151. Use for Bread Making.--Wheat is particularly adapted to
+bread-making purposes because of the physical properties of the gliadin,
+one of its proteids. It is the gliadin which, when wet, binds together
+the flour particles, enabling the gas generated during bread making to
+be retained, and the loaf to expand and become porous. Wheat varies in
+chemical composition between wide limits; it may contain as high as 16
+per cent of protein, or as low as 8 per cent; average wheat has from 12
+to 14 per cent; and with these differences in composition, the
+bread-making value varies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--STARCHY (LIGHT-COLORED) AND
+GLUTINOUS (DARK-COLORED) WHEATS.]
+
+152. Winter and Spring Wheat Flours.--There are two general classes of
+wheat: spring wheat and winter wheat. The winter varieties are seeded in
+the fall, and the spring varieties, which are grown mainly in the
+Northwestern states, Minnesota, and North and South Dakota, and the
+Canadian Northwest, are seeded in the spring and mature in the late
+summer. Winter wheat is confined to more southern latitudes and regions
+of less severe winter, and matures in the early summer. There are many
+varieties of both spring and winter wheat, although wheats are
+popularly characterized only as hard or soft, depending upon the
+physical properties. The winter wheats are, as a rule, more soft and
+starchy than the spring wheats, which are usually corneous or flinty to
+different degrees. There is a general tendency for wheats to become
+either starchy or glutinous, owing to inherited individuality of the
+seed and to environment. There are often found in the same field wheat
+plants yielding hard glutinous kernels, and other plants producing
+starchy kernels containing 5 per cent less proteids. Wheats of low
+protein content do not make high-grade flour; neither do wheats of the
+maximum protein content necessarily make the best flour. For a more
+extended discussion of wheat proteids, the student is referred to
+Chapter XI.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WHEAT KERNEL:
+_a_, pericarp; _b_, bran layers; _c_, aleurone cells; _d_,
+germ. (After KÖNIG.)]
+
+153. Composition of Wheat and Flour.--In addition to 12 to 14 per cent
+proteids, wheat contains 72 to 76 per cent of starch and small amounts
+of other carbohydrates, as sucrose, dextrose, and invert sugar. The ash
+or mineral matter ranges from 1.7 to 2.3 per cent. There is also about 2
+per cent fiber, 2.25 per cent ether extract or crude fat, and about 0.2
+per cent organic acids.
+
+Summary:
+
+COMPOSITION OF WHEAT FLOUR
+
+  ========================================================
+                                                | Per Cent
+  Water                                         |  12.00
+                                                |
+       {Potash             }                    |
+       {Soda               }                    |
+       {Lime               }                    |
+  Ash  {Magnesia           }                    |   2.25
+       {Phosphoric anhydrid}                    |
+       {Sulphuric anhydrid }                    |
+       {Other substances   }                    |
+                                                |
+           {Albumin         0.4}                |
+           {Globulin        0.9}                |
+  Protein  {Gliadin         6.0}                |  13.00
+           {Glutenin        5.3}                |
+           {Other proteids  0.4}                |
+  Other nitrogenous bodies, as amids, lecethin  |   0.25
+  Crude fat, ether extract                      |   2.25
+  Cellulose                                     |   2.25
+  Starch                                        |  66.00
+  Sucrose, dextrose, soluble carbohydrates, etc.|   2.00
+  =======================================================
+
+154. Roller Process of Flour Milling.--Flours vary in composition,
+food value, and bread-making qualities with the character of the wheat
+and the process of milling employed. Prior to 1870 practically all
+wheat flour was prepared by grinding the wheat between millstones; but
+with the introduction of the roller process, steel rolls were
+substituted for millstones.[60] By the former process a smaller amount
+of flour was secured from the wheat, but with the present improved
+systems about 75 per cent of the weight of the grain is recovered as
+merchantable flour and 25 per cent as wheat offals, bran, and
+shorts[61].
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--GRANULAR WHEAT FLOUR PARTICLES.]
+
+The wheat is first screened and cleaned, then passed on to the
+corrugated rolls, or the first break, where it is partially flattened
+and slightly crushed and a small amount of flour, known as the break
+flour, is separated by means of sieves, while the main portion is
+conveyed through elevators to the second break, where the kernels are
+more completely flattened and the granular flour particles are partially
+separated from the bran. The material passes over several pairs of rolls
+or breaks, each succeeding pair being set a little nearer together. This
+is called the gradual reduction process, because the wheat is not made
+into flour in one operation. More complete removal of the bran and other
+impurities from the middlings is effected by means of sieves,
+aspirators, and other devices, and the purified middlings are then
+passed on to smooth rolls, where the granulation is completed. The flour
+finally passes through silk bolting cloths, containing upwards of 12,000
+meshes per square inch. The dust and fine débris particles are removed
+at various points in the process. The granulation of the middlings is
+done after the impurities are removed, the object being first to
+separate as perfectly as possible the middlings from the branny portions
+of the kernel. If the wheat were first ground into a fine meal, it would
+be impossible to secure complete separation of the flour from the
+offal portions of the kernel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--EXTERIOR OF FLOUR MILL AND WHEAT ELEVATOR.]
+
+Flour milling is entirely a mechanical process; the flour stock passes
+from roll to roll by means of elevators. According to the number of
+reductions which the middlings and stock undergo, the milling is
+designated as a long or a short reduction system; the term 4, 6, 8, or
+10 break process means that the stock has been subjected to that number
+of reductions. With an 8-break system of milling, the process is more
+gradual than with a 4-break, and greater opportunity is afforded for
+complete removal of the bran. In some large flour mills, the wheat is
+separated into forty or more different products, or streams, as they are
+called, so as to secure a better granulation and more complete removal
+of the offals, after which many of these streams are brought together to
+form the finished flour. What is known as patent flour is derived from
+the reduction of the middlings, while the break flours are recovered
+before the offals are completely removed; hence they are not of so high
+a grade. No absolute definition can be given, however, of the term
+"patent flour," as usage varies the meaning in different parts of the
+country.
+
+155. Grades of Flour.--Flour is the purified, refined, and bolted
+product obtained by reduction and granulation of wheat during and after
+the removal of the branny portions of the wheat kernel. It is defined by
+proclamation of the Secretary of Agriculture, under authority of an
+act of Congress, as: "Flour is the fine, sound product made by bolting
+wheat meal, and contains not more than thirteen and one half (13.5) per
+cent of moisture, not less than one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25)
+per cent of nitrogen, not more than one (1) per cent of ash, and not
+more than fifty hundredths (0.50) per cent of fiber."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--GRINDING FLOOR OF FLOUR MILL,
+RUSSELL-MILLER MILLING CO., MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.]
+
+Generally speaking, flour may be divided into two classes, high grade
+and low grade. To the first class belong the first and second patents
+and, according to some authorities, a portion of the straight grade, or
+standard patent flour, and to the second class belong the second clear
+and "red dog." About 72 per cent of the cleaned wheat as milled is
+recovered in the higher grades of flour, and about 2 or 3 per cent as
+low grades, a large portion of which is sold as animal food. The high
+grades are characterized by a lighter color, more elastic gluten, better
+granulation, and a smaller number of débris particles. Although the
+lower grade flours contain a somewhat higher percentage of protein, they
+are not as valuable for bread-making purposes because the gluten is not
+as elastic, and consequently they do not make as good bread. If the
+impurities from the low grades could be further eliminated, it is
+believed that less difference would exist between high and low grade
+flours.
+
+Various trade names are used to designate flours, as a 95 per cent
+patent, meaning that 95 per cent of the total flour is included in the
+patent; or an 85 per cent patent, when 85 per cent of all the flour is
+included in that particular patent. If all the flour streams were
+purified and blended, and only one grade of flour made, it would be
+called a 100 per cent patent. An 85 per cent patent is a higher grade
+flour than a 95 per cent patent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--SILK BOLTING CLOTH USED IN
+MANUFACTURE OF FLOUR, MAGNIFIED.]
+
+156. Composition of Flour.--The composition of the different grades of
+flour made from the same wheat is given in the following table:[62]
+
+COMPOSITION, ACIDITY, AND HEATS OF COMBUSTION OF FLOURS AND OTHER
+MILLED PRODUCTS OF WHEAT
+
+
+  ===========================================================================
+                      |WATER| PROTEIN | FAT| CARBO-| ASH| ACIDITY | HEAT OF
+  MILLED PRODUCT      |     |(N × 5.7)|    | HY-   |    | CALCUL- |COMBUSTION
+                      |     |         |    | DRATES|    |ATED AS  | PER GRAM
+                      |     |         |    |       |    |LACTIC   |DETERMINED
+                      |     |         |    |       |    | ACID    |
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                      |  %  |    %    |  % |   %   |  % |     %    |Calories
+  First patent flour  |10.55|   11.08 |1.15| 76.85 |0.37|   0.08   | 4032
+  Second patent flour |10.49|   11.14 |1.20| 76.75 |0.42|   0.08   | 4006
+  Straight[A] or      |     |         |    |       |    |          |
+    standard patent   |10.54|   11.99 |1.61| 75.36 |0.50|   0.09   | 4050
+    flour             |     |         |    |       |    |          |
+  First clear grade   |10.13|   13.74 |2.20| 73.13 |0.80|   0.12   | 4097
+    flour             |     |         |    |       |    |          |
+  Second clear grade  |10.08|   15.03 |3.77| 69.37 |1.75|   0.56   | 4267
+    flour             |     |         |    |       |    |          |
+  "Red dog" flour     | 9.17|   18.98 |7.00| 61.37 |3.48|   0.59   | 4485
+  Shorts              | 8.73|   14.87 |6.37| 65.47 |4.56|   0.14   | 4414
+  Bran                | 9.99|   14.02 |4.39| 65.54 |6.06|   0.23   | 4198
+  Entire-wheat flour  |10.81|   12.26 |2.24| 73.67 |1.02|   0.32   | 4032
+  Graham flour        | 8.61|   12.65 |2.44| 74.58 |1.72|   0.18   | 4148
+  Wheat               | 8.50|   12.65 |2.36| 74.69 |1.80|   0.18   | 4140
+  ===========================================================================
+
+[Footnote A: Straight flour includes the first and second patents and
+first clear grade.]
+
+In the table it will be noted that there is a gradual increase in
+protein content from first patent to "red dog," the largest amount being
+in the "red dog" flour. Although "red dog" contains the most protein, it
+is by far the poorest flour in bread-making qualities, and in the
+milling of wheat often it is not separated from the offals, but is sold
+as an animal food. It will also be seen that there is a gradual increase
+in the ash content from the highest to the lowest grades of flour, the
+increase being practically proportional to the grade,--the most ash
+being in the lowest grade. The grade to which a flour belongs can be
+determined more accurately from the ash content than from any other
+constituent. Patent grades of flour rarely contain more than 0.55 per
+cent of ash,--the better grades less than 0.5 per cent. The more
+completely the bran and offals are removed during the process of
+milling, the lower the per cent of ash. The ash content, however, cannot
+be taken as an absolute guide in all cases, as noticeable variations
+occur in the amount of mineral matter or ash in different wheats;
+starchy wheats that have reached full maturity often contain less than
+hard wheats grown upon rich soil where the growing season has been
+short, and from such wheats a soft, straight flour may have as low a per
+cent of ash as a hard first patent flour. When only straight or standard
+patent flour is manufactured by a mill, all of the flour is included
+which would otherwise be designated first and second patents and first
+clear.
+
+157. Graham and Entire Wheat Flours.--When the germ and a portion of
+the bran are retained in the flour, and the particles are not completely
+reduced, the product is called "entire wheat flour." The name does not
+accurately describe the product, as it includes all of the flour and
+only a portion of the bran, and not the entire wheat kernel. Graham
+flour is coarsely granulated wheat meal. No sieves or bolting cloths
+are employed in its manufacture, and many coarse, unpulverized
+particles are present in the product[62].
+
+158. Composition of Wheat Offals.--Bran and shorts are characterized
+by a high percentage of fiber, or cellulose. The ash, fat, and protein
+content of bran are all larger than of flour. The protein, however, is
+not in the form of gluten, but is largely albumin and globulins,[16]
+which are mainly in the aleurone layer of the wheat kernel, and are
+inclosed in branny capsules, and consequently are in a form not readily
+digested by man.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--FLOUR AND GLUTEN.
+
+1, flour; 2, dough; 3, moist gluten; 4, dry gluten.]
+
+The germ is generally included in the shorts, although occasionally it
+is removed for special commercial purposes. It is sometimes sterilized
+and used in breakfast food products. The germ is rich in oil and is
+excluded from the flour mainly because it has a tendency to become
+rancid and to impart to the flour poor keeping qualities. Wheat oil has
+cathartic properties, and it is believed the physiological action of
+whole wheat and graham bread is in part due to the oil. The germ is also
+rich in protein, mainly in the form of globulins and proteoses. A dough
+cannot be made of pure germ, because it contains so little of the
+gliadin and glutenin.
+
+159. Aging and Curing of Flour.--Flours well milled and made from
+high-grade, cleaned wheat generally improve in bread-making value when
+stored in clean, ventilated warehouses for periods of three to six
+months[9]. High-grade flour becomes drier and whiter and produces bread
+of slightly better quality when properly cured by storage. If the flour
+is in any way unsound, it deteriorates during storage, due to the action
+of ferment bodies. Wheat also, when properly cleaned and stored,
+improves in milling and bread-making value. Certain enzymic changes
+appear to take place which are beneficial. Wheats differ materially from
+year to year in bread-making value, and those produced in seasons when
+all the conditions for crop growth are normal do not seem to be so much
+improved by storing and aging, either of the wheat or the flour, as when
+the growing season has been unfavorable. When wheat is stored, specific
+changes occur in both the germ and the cells of the kernel; these
+changes are akin to the ripening process, and appear to be greater if,
+for any reason, the wheat has failed to fully mature or is abnormal in
+composition.
+
+The flour yield of wheat is in general proportional to the weight per
+bushel of the grain, well-filled, heavy grain producing more flour than
+light grain.[61] The quality of the flour, however, is not necessarily
+proportional to the weight of the grain. It is often necessary to blend
+different grades and types of wheat in order to secure good flour.
+
+160. Macaroni Flour is made from durum wheat, according to Saunders a
+variety of hard, spring wheat. It is best grown in regions of restricted
+rainfall. Durum and other varieties of hard spring wheat grown under
+similar conditions, differ but little in general chemical composition,
+except that the gluten of durum appears to have a different percentage
+of gliadin and glutenin, and the flour has a more decided yellow color.
+Durum wheats are not generally considered as valuable for bread making
+as other hard wheat. They differ widely in bread-making value, some
+being very poor, while others produce bread of fair quality.[68]
+
+161. Color.--The highest grades of flour are white in color, or of a
+slight creamy tinge. Dark-colored, slaty, and gray flours are of
+inferior quality, indicating a poor grade of wheat, poor milling, or a
+poor quality of gluten. Flours, after being on the market for a time,
+bleach a little and improve to a slight degree in color. Color is one of
+the characteristics by which the commercial value of flour is
+determined; the whiter the flour, the better the grade, provided other
+properties are equal[9]. The color, however, should be a pure or cream
+white. Some flours have what is called a dead white color, and, while
+not objectionable as far as color is concerned, they are not as valuable
+for bread-making and general commercial purposes. One of the principal
+trade requirements of a flour is that it possess a certain degree of
+whiteness and none of the objectionable shades mentioned.
+
+To determine the color of a flour, it is compared with a standard. If it
+is a winter wheat flour, one of the best high-grade winter patents to be
+found on the market is selected, and the sample in question is compared
+with this; if it is a spring wheat patent flour, one of the best spring
+wheat patent grades is taken as the standard. In making the comparison,
+the flours should be placed side by side on a glass plate and smoothed
+with the flour trier, the comparison being made preferably by a north
+window. Much experience and practice are necessary in order to determine
+with accuracy the color value of a flour.
+
+162. Granulation.--The best patent grades of flour contain an
+appreciable amount of granular middlings, which have a characteristic
+"feel" similar to fine, sharp sand. A flour which has no granular
+feeling is not usually considered of the highest grade, but is generally
+a soft wheat flour of poor gluten. However, a flour should not be too
+coarsely granulated. The percentage amounts of the different grades of
+stock in a flour can be approximately determined by means of sieves and
+different sized bolting cloths. To test a flour, ten grams are placed in
+a sieve containing a No. 10 bolting cloth; with a camel's-hair brush and
+proper manipulation, the flour is sieved, and that which passes through
+is weighed. The percentage amount remaining on the No. 10 cloth is
+coarser middlings. Nearly all high-grade flours leave no residue on the
+No. 10 cloth. The sifted flour from the No. 10 cloth is also passed
+through Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14 cloths[63]. In this way the approximate
+granulation of any grade of flour may be determined, and the granulation
+of an unknown sample be compared with that of a standard flour. In
+determining the granulation of a flour, if there are any coarse or
+discolored particles of bran or dust, they should be noted, as it is an
+indication of poor milling. When the flour is smoothed with a trier,
+there should be no channels formed on the surface of the flour, due to
+fibrous impurities caught under the edge of the trier. A hand magnifying
+glass is useful for detecting the presence of abnormal amounts of dirt
+or fibrous matter in the flour.
+
+163. Capacity of Flour to absorb Water.--The capacity of a flour to
+absorb water is determined by adding water from a burette to a weighed
+amount of flour until a dough of standard consistency is obtained. Low
+absorption is due to low gluten content. A good flour should absorb from
+60 to 65 per cent of its weight of water. In making the test, it is
+advisable to determine the absorption of a flour of known baking value
+at the same time that an unknown flour is being tested. Flours of low
+absorption do not make breads of the best quality; also there are a
+smaller number of loaves per barrel, and the bread dries out more
+readily.
+
+164. Physical Properties of Gluten.--The percentages of wet and dry
+gluten in a flour are determined as outlined in Experiment No. 27.
+Flours of good character should show at least 30 per cent moist gluten
+and from 10 to 12 per cent dry gluten. The quality of a flour is not
+necessarily proportional to its gluten content, although a flour with
+less than 10-1/2 per cent of dry gluten will not make the best quality
+of bread, and flours with excessive amounts are sometimes poor bread
+makers. The color of the gluten is also important; it should be white or
+creamy. The statements made in regard to color of flour apply also to
+color of the gluten. A dark, stringy, or putty-like gluten is of little
+value for bread-making purposes.[64] In making the gluten test, it is
+advisable to compare the gluten with that from a flour of known
+bread-making value. Soft wheat flours have a gluten of different
+character from hard wheat flours.
+
+165. Gluten as a Factor in Bread Making.--The bread-making value of a
+flour is dependent upon the character of the wheat and the method of
+milling. It is not necessarily dependent upon the amount of gluten, as
+the largest volume and best quality of bread are often made from flour
+of average rather than maximum gluten content. But flours with low
+gluten do not produce high-grade breads. When a flour contains more than
+12 or 13 per cent of proteids, any increase does not necessarily mean
+added bread-making value. The quality of the gluten, equally with the
+amount, determines the value for bread-making purposes.
+
+166. Unsoundness.--A flour with more than 14 per cent of moisture is
+liable to become unsound. High acidity also is an indication of
+unsoundness or of poor keeping qualities. The odor of a sample of flour
+should always be carefully noted, for any suggestion of fermentation
+sufficient to affect the odor renders the flour unsuited for making the
+best bread. Any abnormal odor in flour is objectionable, as it is due to
+contamination of some sort, and most frequently to fermentation changes.
+A musty odor is always an indication of unsoundness. Some flours which
+have but a slight suggestion of mustiness will, when baked into bread,
+have it more pronounced; on the other hand, some odors are removed
+during bread making. Flours may absorb odors because of being stored in
+contaminated places or being shipped in cars in which oil or other
+ill-smelling products with strong odors have previously been shipped.
+Unsoundness is often due to faulty methods in handling, as well as to
+poor wheat, or to lack of proper cleaning of the wheat or flour.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--FUNGOUS GROWTH IN UNSOUND FLOUR.]
+
+167. Comparative Baking Tests.--To determine the bread-making value of
+a flour, comparative baking tests, as outlined in Experiment No. 29, are
+made; the flour in question is thus compared as to bread-making value
+with a flour of known baking quality. In making the baking tests, the
+absorption of the flour, the way in which it responds in the doughing
+process, and the general properties of the dough, are noted. The details
+should be carried out with care, the comparison always being made with a
+similar flour of known baking value, and the bread should be baked at
+the same time and under the same conditions as the standard. The color
+of the bread, the size and weight of the loaf, and its texture and odor,
+are the principal characteristics to be noted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--COMPARATIVE BAKING TESTS.]
+
+The quality of flour for bread-making purposes is not strictly
+dependent upon any one factor, but appears to be the aggregate of a
+number of desirable characteristics. The commercial grade of a flour can
+be accurately determined from the color, granulation, absorption, gluten
+and ash content, and the quality of the bread. Technical flour testing
+requires much experience and a high degree of skill.
+
+168. Bleaching.--In the process of manufacture, flours are often
+subjected to air containing traces of nitrogen peroxide gas, generated
+by electrical action and resulting in the union of the oxygen and
+nitrogen of the air. This whitens and improves the color of the flour.
+Bleached flours differ neither in chemical composition nor in nutritive
+value from unbleached flours, except that bleached flours contain a
+small amount (about one part to one million parts of flour) of nitrite
+reacting material, which is removed during the process of bread making.
+The amount of nitrites produced in flour during bleaching is less than
+is normally present in the saliva, or is found naturally in many
+vegetable foods, or in smoked or cured meats, or in bread made from
+unbleached flour and baked in a gas oven where nitrites are produced
+from combustion of the gas. The bleaching of flour cannot be regarded as
+in any way injurious to health or as adulteration, and a bleached flour
+which has good gluten and bread-making qualities is entirely
+satisfactory. It is not possible to successfully bleach low-grade flours
+so they will resemble the high grades, because the bran impurities of
+the low grades blacken during bleaching and become more prominent.
+Alway, of the Nebraska Experiment Station, has shown that there is no
+danger to apprehend from over-bleaching, for when excess of the
+bleaching reagent is used, flours become yellow in color[65]. Similar
+results have been obtained at the Minnesota Experiment Station. As
+bleaching is not injurious to health, and as it is not possible through
+bleaching to change low grades so as to resemble the patent grades,
+bleaching resolves itself entirely into the question of what color of
+flour the consumer desires. Pending the settlement of the status of
+bleaching the practice has been largely discontinued.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--WHEAT HAIRS AND DÉBRIS IN LOW GRADE FLOURS.]
+
+169. Adulteration of Flour.--Flour is not easily adulterated, as the
+addition of any foreign material interferes with the expansion and
+bread-making qualities and hence is readily detected. The mixing of
+other cereals, as corn flour, with wheat flour has been attempted at
+various times when wheat commanded a high price, but this also is
+readily detected, by microscopic examination, as the corn starch and
+wheat starch grains are quite different in mechanical structure. Such
+flours are required to be labeled, in accord with the congressional act
+of 1898, when Congress passed, in advance of the general pure food bill,
+an act regulating the labeling and sale of mixed and adulterated flours.
+Various statements have been made in regard to the adulteration of flour
+with minerals, as chalk and barytes, but such adulteration does not
+appear to be at all general.
+
+170. Nutritive Value of Flour.--From a nutritive point of view, wheat
+flour and wheat bread have a high value.[66] A larger amount of
+nutrients can be secured for a given sum of money in the form of flour
+than of any other food material except corn meal. According to
+statistics, the average per capita consumption of wheat in the United
+States is about 4-1/2 bushels, or, approximately, one barrel per year,
+and from recent investigations it would appear that the amount of flour
+used in the dietary is on the increase. According to the Bureau of
+Labor, flour costs the average laborer about one tenth as much as all
+other foods combined, although he secures from it a proportionally
+larger amount of nutritive material than from any other food.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BREAD AND BREAD MAKING
+
+
+171. Leavened and Unleavened Bread.--To make unleavened bread the
+flour is moistened and worked into a stiff dough, which is then rolled
+thin, cut into various shapes, and baked, forming a brittle biscuit or
+cracker.
+
+The process of making raised or leavened bread consists, in brief, of
+mixing the flour and water in proper proportions for a stiff dough,
+together with some salt for seasoning, and yeast (or other agent) for
+leavening. The moistened gluten of the flour forms a viscid, elastic,
+tenacious mass, which is thoroughly kneaded to distribute the yeast. The
+dough is then set in a warm place and the yeast begins to grow, or
+"work," causing alcoholic fermentation, with the production of carbon
+dioxid gas, which expands the dough, or causes it to "rise," thus
+rendering it porous. After the yeast has grown sufficiently, the dough
+is baked in a hot oven, where further fermentation is stopped because of
+destruction of the yeast by the heat, which also causes the gas to
+expand the loaf and, in addition, generates steam. The gas and steam
+inflate the tenacious dough and finally escape into the oven. At the
+same time the gluten of the dough is hardened by the heat, and the mass
+remains porous and light, while the outer surface is darkened and formed
+into a crust.
+
+When the flour is of good quality, the dough well prepared, and the
+bread properly baked, the loaf has certain definite characteristics. It
+should be well raised and have a thin, flinty crust, which is not too
+dark in color nor too tough, but which cracks when broken; the crumb, as
+the interior of the loaf is called, should be porous, elastic, and of
+uniform texture, without large holes, and should have good flavor, odor,
+and color.
+
+Meal or flour from any of the cereals may be used for unleavened bread,
+but leavened bread can be made only from those that contain gluten, a
+mixture of vegetable proteids which when moistened with water becomes
+viscid, and is tenacious enough to confine the gas produced in the
+dough. Most cereals, as barley, rice, oats, and corn, some of which are
+very frequently made into forms of unleavened bread, are deficient or
+wholly lacking in gluten, and hence cannot be used alone for making
+leavened bread. For the leavened bread, wheat and rye, which contain an
+abundance of gluten, are best fitted, wheat being in this country by far
+the more commonly used.
+
+172. Changes during Bread Making.--In bread making complex physical,
+chemical, and biological changes occur. Each chemical compound of the
+flour undergoes some change during the process. The most important
+changes are as follows[64]:
+
+1. Production of carbon dioxid gas, alcohol, and soluble carbohydrates
+as the result of ferment action.
+
+2. Partial rupturing of the starch grains and formation of a small
+amount of soluble carbohydrates due to the action of heat.
+
+3. Production of lactic and other organic acids.
+
+4. Formation of volatile carbon compounds, other than alcohol and carbon
+dioxid.
+
+5. Change in the solubility of the gluten proteins, due to the action of
+the organic acids and fermentation.
+
+6. Changes in the solubility of the proteids due to the action of heat,
+as coagulation of the albumin and globulin.
+
+7. Formation and liberation of a small amount of volatile, nitrogenous
+compounds, as ammonia and amids.
+
+8. Partial oxidation of the fat.
+
+173. Loss of Dry Matter during Bread Making.--As many of the compounds
+formed during bread making are gases resulting from fermentation action,
+and as these are volatile at the temperature of baking, appreciable
+losses necessarily take place. Experiments show about 2 per cent of loss
+of dry matter under ordinary conditions. These losses are not confined
+to the carbohydrates alone, but also extend to the proteids and other
+compounds. When 100 pounds of flour containing 10 per cent of water and
+90 per cent of dry matter are made into bread, the bread contains about
+88 pounds of dry matter. In exceptional cases, where there has been
+prolonged fermentation, the losses exceed 2 per cent[64].
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--BREWERS' YEAST.]
+
+174. Action of Yeast.--Yeast is a monocellular plant requiring sugar
+and other food materials for its nourishment. Under favorable conditions
+it rapidly increases by budding, and as a result produces the well-known
+alcoholic fermentation. It requires mineral food, as do plants of a
+higher order, and oftentimes the fermentation process is checked for
+want of sufficient soluble mineral food. The yeast plant causes a
+number of chemical changes to take place, as conversion of starch to a
+soluble form and alcoholic fermentation.
+
+  C_{6}H_{10}O_{5} + H_{2}O = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}.
+
+  C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} = 2 C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 CO_{2}.
+
+Alcoholic fermentation cannot occur until the starch has been converted
+into dextrose sugar. The yeast plant is destroyed at a temperature of
+131° F. It is most active from 70° to 90° F. At a low temperature it is
+less active, and when it freezes the cells are ruptured. A number of
+different kinds of fermentation are associated with the growth of the
+yeast plant, and there are many varieties of yeast, some of which are
+more active than others. For bread making an active yeast is desirable
+to prevent the formation of acid bodies. If the work proceeds quickly,
+the rising process is completed before the acid fermentation is far
+advanced. If fermentation is too prolonged, some of the products of the
+yeast plant impart an undesirable taste and odor to the bread, and
+hinder the development of the gluten and expansion of the loaf.
+
+175. Compressed Yeast.--The yeast most commonly used in bread making
+is compressed yeast, a product of distilleries. The yeast floating on
+the surface of the wort is skimmed off and that remaining is allowed to
+settle to the bottom, and is obtained by running the wort into shallow
+tanks or settling trays. It is then washed with cold water, and the
+impurities are removed either by sieving through silk or wire sieves,
+or, during the washing, by fractional precipitation. The yeast is then
+pressed, cut into cakes, and wrapped in tinfoil. When fresh, it is of
+uniform creamy color, moist, and of a firm, even texture[18]. It should
+be kept cold, as it readily decomposes.
+
+176. Dry Yeast is made by mixing starch or meal with fresh yeast until
+a stiff dough is formed. This is then dried, either in the sun or at a
+moderate temperature, and cut into cakes. By drying, many of the yeast
+cells are rendered temporarily inactive, and so it is a slower acting
+leaven than the compressed yeast. A dry yeast will keep indefinitely.
+
+177. Production of Carbon Dioxid Gas and Alcohol.--Carbon dioxid and
+alcohol are produced in the largest amounts of any of the compounds
+formed during bread making. When the alcoholic ferments secreted by the
+yeast plant act upon the invert sugars and produce alcoholic
+fermentation, carbon dioxid is one of the products formed. Ordinarily
+about 1 per cent of carbon dioxid gas is generated and lost during bread
+making. About equal weights of carbon dioxid and alcohol are produced
+during the fermentation. In baking, the alcohol is vaporized and aids
+the carbon dioxid in expanding the dough and making the bread porous. If
+all of the moisture given off during bread making be collected it will
+be found that from a pound loaf of bread there are about 40 cubic
+centimeters of liquid; when this is submitted to chemical analysis,
+small amounts of alcohol are obtained. Alcoholic fermentation sometimes
+fails to take place readily, because there are not sufficient soluble
+carbohydrates to undergo inversion, or other food for the yeast plant.
+Starch cannot be converted directly into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas;
+it must first be changed into dextrose sugars, and these undergo
+alcoholic fermentation. Bread gives no appreciable reaction for alcohol
+even when fresh.[64]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--WHEAT STARCH GRANULES AFTER
+FERMENTATION WITH YEAST, AS IN BREAD MAKING.]
+
+If the gluten is of poor quality, or deficient in either gliadin or
+glutenin, the dough mass fails to properly expand because the gas is not
+all retained. The amount of gas formed is dependent upon temperature,
+rapidity of the ferment action, and quality of the yeast and flour. If
+the yeast is inactive, other forms of fermentation than the alcoholic
+may take place and, as a result, the dough does not expand. Poor yeast
+is a frequent cause of poor bread.
+
+The temperature reached in bread making is not sufficient to destroy all
+the ferment bodies associated with the yeast, as, for example, bread
+sometimes becomes soft and stringy, due to fermentation changes after
+the bread has been baked and stored. Both bread and flour are subject to
+many bacterial diseases, and one of the objects of thorough cleaning of
+the wheat and removal of the bran and débris particles during the
+process of flour manufacture is to completely eliminate all ferment
+bodies mechanically associated with the exterior of the wheat kernel,
+which, if retained in the flour, would cause it readily to become
+unsound.
+
+178. Production of Soluble Carbohydrates.--Flour contains naturally a
+small amount of soluble carbohydrates, which are readily acted upon by
+the alcoholic ferments. The yeast plant secretes soluble ferments, which
+act upon the starch, forming soluble carbohydrates, and the heat during
+baking brings about similar changes. In fact, soluble carbohydrates are
+both consumed and produced by ferment action during the bread-making
+process. Flour contains, on an average, 65 per cent of starch, and
+during bread making about 10 per cent is changed to soluble forms.
+Bread, on a dry matter basis, contains approximately 6 per cent of
+soluble carbohydrates, including dextrine, dextrose, and sucrose
+sugars.[64]
+
+The physical changes which the starch grains undergo are also
+noticeable. Wheat starch has the structure shown in illustration No. 33.
+The starch grains are circular bodies, concave, with slight markings in
+the form of concentric rings. When the proteid matter of bread is
+extracted with alcohol and the starch grains are examined, it will, be
+seen that some of them are partially ruptured, like those in popped
+corn, while others have been slightly acted upon or eaten away by the
+organized ferments, the surface of the starch grains being pitted, as
+shown in the illustration. The joint action of heat and ferments on the
+starch grains changes them physically so they may more readily undergo
+digestion. The brown coating or crust formed upon the surface of bread
+is mainly dextrine, produced by the action of heat on the starch.
+Dextrine is a soluble carbohydrate, having the same general composition
+as starch, but differing from it in physical properties and ease of
+digestion.
+
+179. Production of Acids in Bread Making.--Wheat bread made with yeast
+gives an acid reaction. The acid is produced from the carbohydrates by
+ferment action. Flour contains about one tenth of 1 per cent of acid;
+the dough contains from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent, while the baked bread
+contains from 0.14 to 0.3 per cent, but after two or three days slightly
+more acid is developed.[64] During the process of bread making, a small
+portion of the acid is volatilized, but the larger part enters into
+chemical combination with the gliadin, forming an acid proteid. When the
+alcoholic fermentation of bread making becomes less active, acid
+fermentations begin, and sour dough results. It is not definitely known
+what specific organic acids are developed in bread making. Lactic and
+butyric acids are known to be formed, and for purposes of calculation,
+the total acidity is expressed in terms of lactic acid.
+
+The acidity is determined by weighing 20 grams of flour into a flask,
+adding 200 cubic centimeters of distilled water, shaking vigorously, and
+leaving the flour in contact with the water for an hour; 50 cubic
+centimeters of the filtered solution are then titrated with a tenth
+normal solution of potassium hydroxid. Phenolphthalein is used as the
+indicator. It cannot be said that all of the alkali is used for
+neutralizing the acid, as a portion enters into chemical combination
+with the proteids. If the method for determining the acid be varied,
+constant results are not secured. Unsound or musty flours usually show a
+high per cent of acidity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--APPARATUS USED IN STUDY OF LOSSES
+IN BREAD MAKING.]
+
+180. Volatile Compounds produced during Bread Making.--In addition to
+carbon dioxid and alcohol, there is lost during bread making a small
+amount of carbon in other forms, as volatile acids and hydrocarbon
+products equivalent to about one tenth of one per cent of carbon dioxid.
+The aroma of freshly baked bread is due to these compounds. Both the
+odor and flavor of bread are caused in part by the volatile acids and
+hydrocarbons. The amount and kind of volatile products formed can be
+somewhat regulated through the fermentation process by the use of
+special flours and the addition of materials that produce specific
+fermentation changes and desirable aromatic compounds. Some of the
+ferment bodies left in flour from the imperfect removal of the dirt
+adhering to the exterior of the wheat kernels impart characteristic
+flavors to the bread. The so-called nutty flavor of some bread is due to
+the action of these ferment bodies and, when intensified, it becomes
+objectionable. Fungous growths in unsound flour and bread result in the
+liberation of volatile products, which impart a musty odor. Good odor
+and flavor are very desirable in both flour and bread.
+
+181. Behavior of Wheat Proteids in Bread Making.--Gluten is an
+ingredient of the flour on which its bread-making properties largely
+depend. The important thing, however, is not entirely the quantity of
+gluten, but more particularly its character. Two flours containing the
+same amounts of carbohydrates and proteid compounds, when converted into
+bread by exactly the same process, may produce bread of entirely
+different physical characteristics because of differences in the nature
+of the gluten of the two samples. Gluten is composed of two bodies
+called gliadin and glutenin. The gliadin, a sort of plant gelatin, is
+the material which binds the flour particles together to form the dough,
+thus giving it tenacity and adhesiveness; and the glutenin is the
+material to which the gliadin adheres. If there is an excess of gliadin,
+the dough is soft and sticky, while if there is a deficiency, it lacks
+expansive power. Many flours containing a large amount of gluten and
+total proteid material and possessing a high nutritive value, do not
+yield bread of the best quality, because of an imperfect blending of the
+gliadin and glutenin. This question is of much importance in the milling
+of wheats, especially in the blending of the different types of wheat.
+An abnormally large amount of gluten does not yield a correspondingly
+large loaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--BREAD FROM NORMAL FLOUR (1);
+GLIADIN EXTRACTED FLOUR (2); AND FROM FLOUR AFTER EXTRACTION OF SUGAR
+AND SOLUBLE PROTEIDS (3).]
+
+Experiments were made at the Minnesota Experiment Station to determine
+the relation between the nature of the gluten and the character of the
+bread. This was done by comparing bread from normal flour with that
+from other flour of the same lot, but having part or all of its gliadin
+extracted.[64] Dough made from the latter was not sticky, but felt like
+putty, and broke in the same way. The yeast caused the mass to expand a
+little when first placed in the oven; then the loaf broke apart at the
+top and decreased in size. When baked it was less than half the size of
+that from the same weight of normal flour, and decidedly inferior in
+other respects. The removal of part of the gliadin produced nearly the
+same effect as the extraction of the whole of it, and even when an equal
+quantity of normal flour was mixed with that from which part of the
+gliadin had been extracted, the bread was only slightly improved. In
+flour of the highest bread-making properties the two constituents,
+gliadin and glutenin, are present in such proportions as to form a
+well-balanced gluten.
+
+The proteids of wheat flour are mainly in an insoluble form, although
+there are small amounts of albumins and globulins; these are coagulated
+by the action of heat during the bread-making process, and rendered
+insoluble. A portion of the acid that is developed unites with the
+gliadin and glutenin, forming acid proteids, which change the physical
+properties of the dough. Both gliadin and glutenin take important parts
+in bread making. The removal of gliadin from flour causes complete loss
+of bread-making properties. Ordinarily from 45 to 65 per cent of the
+total nitrogen of the flour is present in alcohol soluble or gliadin
+form. Proteids also undergo hydration during mixing, some water being
+chemically united with them, changing their physical properties. This
+hydration change is necessary for the full development of the physical
+properties of the gluten. The water and salt soluble proteids appear to
+take no important part in the bread-making process, as their removal in
+no way affects the size of the loaf or general character of the bread.
+Because of the action of the acids upon the gliadin, bread contains a
+larger amount of alcohol soluble nitrogen or gliadin than the flour from
+which the bread was made. It is believed that this action changes the
+molecular structure of the protein so that it is more readily separated
+into its component parts when it undergoes digestion and assimilation.
+
+182. Production of Volatile Nitrogenous Compounds.--When fermentation
+is unnecessarily prolonged, an appreciable amount of nitrogen is
+volatilized in the form of ammonia and allied bodies, as amids. During
+the process of bread making, the yeast appears to act upon the protein,
+as well as upon the carbohydrates, and, as previously stated, losses of
+dry matter fall alike upon these two classes of compounds, nitrogenous
+and non-nitrogenous. Analyses of the flours and materials used in bread
+making, and of the bread, show that ordinarily about 1.5 per cent of the
+total nitrogen is liberated in the form of gas during the bread-making
+process, and analyses of the gases dispelled in baking show
+approximately the same per cent of nitrogen. When bread is dried, as in
+a drying oven, a small amount of volatile nitrogen appears to be given
+off,--probably as ammonium compounds formed during fermentation. The
+nitrogen lost in bread making under ordinary conditions is not
+sufficient to affect the nutritive value of the product. The losses of
+both nitrogen and carbon are more than offset by the increased
+solubility of the proteids and carbohydrates, the preliminary changes
+they have undergone making them more digestible and valuable for food
+purposes. The nitrogen volatilized in bread making appears to be mainly
+that present in the flour in amid forms or liberated as the result of
+fermentation processes. The more stable proteids undergo only limited
+changes in solubility and are not volatilized.
+
+183. Oxidation of Fat.--Flour contains about 1.25 per cent of fat
+mechanically mixed with a small amount of yellow coloring matter. During
+the process of bread making the fat undergoes slight oxidation,
+accompanied by changes in both physical and chemical properties. The fat
+from bread, when no lard or shortening has been added, is darker in
+color, more viscous, less soluble in ether, and has a lower iodine
+number, than fat from flour. The change in solubility of the fat is not,
+however, such as to affect food value, because the fat is not
+volatilized, and is only changed by the addition of a small amount of
+oxygen from the air. When wheat fat and other vegetable and animal fats
+are exposed to the air, they undergo changes known as aging, similar to
+the slight oxidation changes in bread making.[64]
+
+184. Influence of the Addition of Wheat Starch and Gluten to
+Flour.--Ten per cent or more of starch may be added to normal flour
+containing a well-balanced gluten, without decreasing the size of the
+loaf. When moist gluten was added to flour, thus increasing the total
+amount of gluten, the size of the loaf was not increased[67].
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF ADDITION OF STARCH AND GLUTEN TO FLOUR
+
+  =====================================================================
+                                           | SIZE OF LOAF    | WEIGHT
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Wheat flour, 14 ounces                   | 22-1/2 × 17-1/2 | 18.75
+  Wheat flour, 10% wheat starch            | 23-1/2 × 17     | 18.25
+  Wheat flour, 12.2% wheat starch          | 21-1/2 × 17     | 18.00
+                                           |                 |
+  Wheat flour, 210 grams, about 8 ounces   | 12-3/4 × 9      | 12.00
+  Wheat flour, 10% gluten added, 210 grams | 12-1/2 × 9      | 12.75
+  Wheat flour, 20% gluten added            | 12 × 8-3/4      | 13.00
+  =====================================================================
+
+So long as the quality of the gluten is not destroyed, the addition of a
+small amount of either starch or gluten to flour does not affect the
+size of the loaf, but removal of the gluten affects the moisture content
+and physical properties of the bread. The addition of starch to flour
+has the same effect upon the bread as the use of low gluten
+flour,--lessening the capacity of the flour to absorb water and
+producing a dryer bread of poorer quality.
+
+185. Composition of Bread.--The composition of bread depends primarily
+upon that of the flour from which it was made. If milk and butter (or
+lard) are used in making the dough, as is commonly the case, their
+nutrients are, of course, added to those of the flour; but when only
+water and flour are used, the nutrients of the bread are simply those
+of the flour. In either case the amount of nutrients in the bread is
+smaller than in the same weight of flour, because a considerable part of
+the water or milk used in making the dough is present in the bread after
+baking; that is, a pound of bread contains less of any of the nutrients
+than a pound of the flour from which the bread was made, because the
+proportion of water in the bread is greater. The following table shows
+how the composition of flour compares with that of bread, the different
+kinds of bread all having been made from the flour with which they are
+compared:
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF FLOUR, AND BREAD MADE FROM IT IN DIFFERENT WAYS
+
+
+  =====================================================================
+         MATERIAL                   | WATER | PROTEIN | FAT| C.H.| ASH
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                    |   %   |    %    |  % |  %   |  %
+  Flour                             | 10.11 |  12.47  |0.86|76.09 |0.47
+  Bread from flour and water        | 36.12 |   9.46  |0.40|53.70 |0.32
+  Bread from flour, water, and lard | 37.70 |   9.27  |1.02|51.70 |0.31
+  Bread from flour and skim milk    | 36.02 |  10.57  |0.48|52.63 |0.30
+  =====================================================================
+
+Thus it may be seen that the proportion of water is larger and of each
+nutrient smaller in bread than in flour, and that the nutrients of the
+flour are increased by those in the materials added in making the bread.
+
+It is apparent that two breads of the same lot of flour may differ,
+according to the method used in making, and also that two loaves of
+bread made by exactly the same process but from different lots of flour,
+even when of the same grade or brand, do not necessarily have the same
+composition, because of possible variation in the flours. In bread made
+from flour of low gluten content, the per cent of protein is
+correspondingly low.
+
+186. Use of Skim Milk and Lard in Bread Making.--When flours low in
+gluten are used, skim milk may be employed advantageously in making the
+bread, to increase the protein content. Tests show that such bread
+contains about 1 per cent more protein than that made with water.
+Ordinarily there is no gain from a nutritive point of view in adding an
+excessive amount of lard or other shortening, as it tends to widen the
+nutritive ratio.
+
+187. Influence of Warm and Cold Flours on Bread Making.--When flour is
+stored in a cold closet or storeroom, it is not in condition to produce
+a good quality of bread until it has been warmed to a temperature of
+about 70° F. Cold flour checks the fermentation process, and is
+occasionally the cause of poor bread. On the other hand, when flour is
+too warm (98° F.) the influence upon fermentation is unfavorable.
+Heating of flour does not affect the bread-making value, provided the
+flour is not heated above 158° F. and is subsequently cooled to a
+temperature of 70° F. Wheat flour contains naturally a number of
+ferment substances, some of which are destroyed by the action of heat.
+The natural ferments, or enzymes, of flour appear to take a part in
+bread making, imparting characteristic odors and flavors to the product.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.-BREAD FROM (1) GRAHAM, (2) ENTIRE
+WHEAT, AND (3) WHITE FLOUR.
+
+The same amounts of flour were used in making all of the breads.]
+
+188. Variations in the Process of Bread Making.--Since flours differ
+so in chemical composition, and the yeast plant acts upon all the
+compounds of flour, it naturally follows that bread making is not a
+simple but a complex operation, resulting in a number of intricate
+chemical reactions, which it is necessary to control and many of which
+are only imperfectly understood. Bread of the best physical quality and
+commercial value is made of flour from fully matured, hard wheats,
+containing a low per cent of acid, no foreign ferment materials or their
+products, and at least 12-1/2 per cent of proteids, of which the larger
+portion is in the form of gliadin. It is believed that a better quality
+of bread could be produced from many flours by slight changes or
+modifications in the process of bread making. It cannot be expected that
+the same process will give the best results alike with all types and
+kinds of flour. The kind of fermentation process that will produce the
+best bread from a given type of flour can be determined only by
+experimentation. Poor bread making is due as often to lack of skill on
+the part of the bread maker, and to poor yeast, as it is to poor quality
+of flour. Frequently the flour is blamed when the poor bread is due to
+other factors. Lack of control of the fermentation process, and the
+consequent development of acid and other organisms which check the
+activity of the alcoholic ferments, is a frequent cause of poor bread.
+
+189. Digestibility of Bread.--Extensive experiments have been made by
+the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States Department of
+Agriculture, at the Minnesota and Maine Experiment Stations, to
+determine the digestibility and nutritive value of bread. Different
+kinds and types of wheat were milled so as to secure from each three
+flours: graham, entire wheat, and standard patent. The flours were made
+into bread, and the bread fed to workingmen, and its digestibility
+determined. The experiments taken as a whole show that bread is an
+exceedingly digestible food, nearly 98 per cent of the starch or
+carbohydrate nutrients and about 88 per cent of the gluten or proteid
+constituents being assimilated by the body. In the case of the graham
+and entire wheat flours, although they contained a larger total amount
+of protein, the nutrients were not as completely digested and absorbed
+by the body as were those of the white flour. The body secured a larger
+amount of nutrients from the white than from the other grades of flour,
+the digestibility of the three types being as follows: standard patent
+flour, protein 88.6 per cent and carbohydrates 97.7 per cent; entire
+wheat flour, protein 82 percent and carbohydrates 93.5 per cent; graham
+flour, protein 74.9 per cent and carbohydrates 89.2 per cent. The low
+digestibility of the protein of the graham and entire wheat flours is
+supposed to be due to the coarser granulation; the proteins, being
+embedded and surrounded with cellular tissue, escape the action of the
+digestive fluids. Microscopic examination of the feces showed that often
+entire starch grains were still inclosed in the woody coverings and
+consequently had failed to undergo digestion.[62], [64], [67], [86]
+
+190. Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary.--Entire wheat and
+graham flours should be included in the dietary of some persons, as they
+are often valuable because of their physiological action, the branny
+particles stimulating the process of digestion and encouraging
+peristaltic action. In the diet of the overfed, they are valuable for
+the smaller rather than the larger amount of nutrients they contain.
+Also they supply bulk and give the digestive tract needed exercise. For
+the laboring man, where it is necessary to obtain the largest amount of
+available nutrients, bread from white flour should be supplied; in the
+dietary of the sedentary, graham and entire wheat flours can, if found
+beneficial, be made to form an essential part. The kind of bread that it
+is best to use is largely a matter of personal choice founded upon
+experience.
+
+     "When we pass on to consider the relative nutritive values of white
+     and whole-meal bread, we are on ground that has been the scene of
+     many a controversy. It is often contended that whole-meal is
+     preferable to white bread, because it is richer in proteid and
+     mineral matter, and so makes a better balanced diet. But our
+     examination of the chemical composition of whole-meal bread has
+     shown that as regards proteid at least, this is not always true,
+     and even were it the case, the lesser absorption of whole-meal
+     bread, which we have seen to occur, would tend to annul the
+     advantage.... On the whole, we may fairly regard the vexed question
+     of whole-meal _versus_ white bread as finally settled and settled
+     in favor of the latter."[28]
+
+     "The higher percentage of nitrogen in bran than in fine flour has
+     frequently led to the recommendation of the coarser breads as more
+     nutritious than the finer. We have already seen that the more
+     branny portions of the grain also contain a much larger percentage
+     of mineral matter. And, further, it is in the bran that the largest
+     proportion of fatty matter--the non-nitrogenous substance of higher
+     respiratory capacity which the wheat contains--is found. It is,
+     however, we think, very questionable whether upon such data alone
+     a valid opinion can be formed of the comparative values of bread
+     made from the finer or courser flours ground from one and the same
+     grain. Again, it is an indisputable fact that branny particles when
+     admitted into the flour in the degree of imperfect division in
+     which our ordinary milling processes leave them very considerably
+     increase the peristaltic action, and hence the alimentary canal is
+     cleared much more rapidly of its contents. It is also well known
+     that the poorer classes almost invariably prefer the whiter bread,
+     and among some of those who work the hardest and who consequently
+     soonest appreciate a difference in nutritive quality (navvies, for
+     example) it is distinctly stated that their preference for the
+     whiter bread is founded on the fact that the browner passes through
+     them too rapidly; consequently, before their systems have extracted
+     from it as much nutritious matter as it ought to yield them.... In
+     fact, all experience tends to show that the state as well as the
+     chemical composition of our food must be considered; in other
+     words, that the digestibility and aptitude for assimilation are not
+     less important qualities than its ultimate composition.
+
+     "But to suppose that whole-wheat meal as ordinarily prepared is, as
+     has generally been assumed, weight for weight more nutritious than
+     ordinary bread flour is an utter fallacy founded on theoretical
+     text-book dicta, not only entirely unsupported by experience, but
+     inconsistent with it. In fact, it is just the poorer fed and the
+     harder working that should have the ordinary flour bread rather
+     than the whole-meal bread as hitherto prepared, and it is the
+     overfed and the sedentary that should have such whole-meal bread.
+     Lastly, if the whole grain were finely ground, it is by no means
+     certain that the percentage of really nutritive nitrogenous matters
+     would be higher than in ordinary bread flour, and it is quite a
+     question whether the excess of earthy phosphates would not then be
+     injurious."--LAWES AND GILBERT.[68]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "According to the chemical analysis of graham, entire wheat, and
+     standard patent flours milled from the same lot of hard Scotch Fife
+     spring wheat, the graham flour contained the highest and the
+     patent flour the lowest percentage of total protein. But according
+     to the results of digestion experiments with these flours the
+     proportions of digestible or available protein and available energy
+     in the patent flour were larger than in either the entire wheat or
+     the graham flour. The lower digestibility of the protein of the
+     latter is due to the fact that in both these flours a considerable
+     portion of this constituent is contained in the coarser particles
+     (bran), and so resists the action of the digestive juices and
+     escapes digestion. Thus while there actually may be more protein in
+     a given amount of graham or entire wheat flour than in the same
+     weight of patent flour from the same wheat, the body obtains less
+     of the protein and energy from the coarse flour than it does from
+     the fine, because, although the including of the bran and germ
+     increases the percentage of protein, it decreases its
+     digestibility. By digestibility is meant the difference between the
+     amounts of the several nutrients consumed and the amount excreted
+     in the feces.
+
+     "The digestibility of first and second patent flours was not
+     appreciably different from that of standard patent flour. The
+     degree of digestibility of all these flours is high, due largely to
+     their mechanical condition; that is, to the fact that they are
+     finely ground."--SNYDER.[62]
+
+For a more extended discussion of the subject, the student is referred
+to Bulletins 67, 101, and 126, Office of Experiment Stations, United
+States Department of Agriculture.
+
+191. Mineral Content of White Bread.--Average flour contains from 0.4
+to 0.5 of 1 per cent of ash or mineral matter, the larger portion being
+lime and magnesia and phosphate of potassium. It is argued by some that
+graham and entire wheat flours should be used liberally because of their
+larger mineral content and their greater richness in phosphates. In a
+mixed dietary, however, in which bread forms an essential part, there is
+always an excess of phosphates, and there is nothing to be gained by
+increasing the amount, as it only requires additional work of the
+kidneys for its removal. Few experiments have been made to determine the
+phosphorus requirements of the human body, but these indicate that it is
+unnecessary to increase the phosphate content of a mixed diet. It is
+estimated that less than two grams per day of phosphates are required to
+meet all of the needs of the body, and in an average mixed ration there
+are present from three to five grams and more. A large portion of the
+phosphate compounds of white bread is present in organic combinations,
+as lecithin and nucleated proteids, which are the most available forms,
+and more valuable for purposes of nutrition than the mineral phosphates.
+In the case of graham and entire wheat flours, a proportionally smaller
+amount of the phosphates are digested and assimilated than from the
+finer grades of flour.
+
+192. Comparative Digestibility of New and Old Bread.--With healthy
+persons there is no difference whatever in the completeness of
+digestibility of old and new bread; one appears to be as thoroughly
+absorbed as the other. In the case of some individuals with impaired
+digestion there may be a difference in the ease and comfort with which
+the two kinds of bread are digested, but this is due mainly to
+individuality and does not apply generally. The change which bread
+undergoes when it is kept for several days is largely a loss of moisture
+and development of a small amount of acid and other substances from the
+continued ferment action.
+
+193. Different Kinds of Bread.--According to variations in method of
+preparation, there are different types and varieties of bread, as the
+"flat bread" of Scandinavian countries, unleavened bread, Vienna bread,
+salt rising bread, etc. Bread made with baking powder differs in no
+essential way from that made with yeast, except in the presence of the
+residue from the baking powder, discussed in Chapter XII. Biscuits,
+wheat cakes, crackers, and other food materials made principally from
+flour, have practically the same food value as bread. It makes but
+little difference in what way flour is prepared as food, for in its
+various forms it has practically the same digestibility and nutritive
+value.
+
+194. Toast.--When bread is toasted there is no change in the
+percentage of total nutrients on a dry matter basis. The change is in
+solubility and form, and not in amount of nutrients available. Some of
+the starch becomes dextrine, which is more soluble and digestible.[5]
+Proteids, on the other hand, are rendered less soluble, which appears to
+slightly lower the digestion coefficient. They are somewhat more readily
+but not quite so completely digested as those of bread. Digestion
+experiments show that toast more readily yields to the diastase and
+other ferments than does wheat bread. Toasting brings about ease of
+digestion rather than increased completeness of the process. Toast is a
+sterile food, while bread often contains various ferments which have not
+been destroyed by baking. These undergo incubation during the process of
+digestion, particularly in the case of individuals with diseases of the
+digestive tract. With normal digestion, however, these ferment bodies do
+not develop to any appreciable extent, as the digestive tract disinfects
+itself. When the flour is prepared from well cleaned wheat and the
+ferment substances which are present mainly in the bran particles have
+been removed, a flour of higher sanitary value is secured.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BAKING POWDERS
+
+
+195. General Composition.--All baking powders contain at least two
+materials; one of these has combined carbon dioxid in its composition,
+the other some acid constituent which serves to liberate the gas. The
+material from which the gas is obtained is almost invariably sodium
+bicarbonate, NaHCO_{3}, commonly known as "soda" or "saleratus."
+Ammonium carbonate has been used to some extent, but is very seldom used
+at the present time. The acid constituent may be one of several
+materials, the most common being cream of tartar, tartaric acid, calcium
+phosphate, or alum. These may be used separately or in combination. The
+various baking powders are designated according to the acid constituent,
+as "cream of tartar," "phosphate," and "alum" powders. All of them
+liberate carbon dioxid gas, but the products left in the food differ
+widely in nature and amount[69].
+
+Baking powder is a chemical preparation which, when brought in contact
+with water, liberates carbon dioxid gas. The baking powder is mixed dry
+with flour, and when this is moistened the carbon dioxid that is
+liberated expands the dough. The action is similar to that of yeast
+except that in the case of yeast the gas is given off much more slowly
+and no residue is left in the bread. When baking powder is used, there
+is a residue left in the food which varies with the material in the
+powder. It is the nature and amount of this residue that is important
+and makes one baking powder more desirable than another.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--INGREDIENTS OF A BAKING POWDER.
+
+1, baking powder; 2, cream of tartar; 3, baking soda; 4, starch.]
+
+196. Cream of Tartar Powders.--The acid ingredient of the cream of
+tartar powders is tartaric acid, H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. Cream of tartar
+is potassium acid tartrate, KHC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}; it contains one atom of
+replaceable hydrogen, which imparts the acid properties, and it is
+prepared from crude argol, a deposit of grape juice when wine is made.
+The residue from this powder is sodium potassium tartrate,
+NaKC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}, commonly known as Rochelle salt. This is the active
+ingredient of Seidlitz powders and has a purgative effect when taken
+into the body. The dose as a purgative is from one half to one ounce. A
+loaf of bread as ordinarily made with cream of tartar powder contains
+about 160 grains of Rochelle salt, which is 45 grains more than is found
+in a Seidlitz powder, but the amount actually eaten at any one time is
+small and its physiological effect can probably be disregarded. When a
+cream of tartar baking powder is used, the reaction takes place
+according to the following equation:
+
+          188            84             210              44       18
+  HKH_{4}C_{4}O_{6} + NaHCO_{3} = KNaC_{4}H_{4}O_{6} + CO_{2} + H_{2}O.
+
+The crystallized Rochelle salt contains four molecules of water, so
+that, even allowing for some starch filler, there is very nearly as much
+weight of material (Rochelle salt) left in the food as there was of the
+original powder. If free tartaric acid were used instead of potassium
+acid tartrate, the reaction would be as follows:
+
+          150              168              230                           88
+  H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O{6} + 2NaHCO_{3} = Na_{2}C_{2}H_{4}O_{6}.2 H_{2}O + 2CO_{2}.
+
+But the residue, sodium tartrate, is less in proportion. It has
+physiological properties very similar to Rochelle salt. Tartaric acid is
+seldom used alone, but very often in combination with cream of tartar.
+It is more expensive than cream of tartar; but not so much is required,
+and it is more rapid in action.
+
+197. Phosphate Baking Powders.--Here the acid ingredient is phosphoric
+acid and the compound usually employed is mono-calcium phosphate,
+CaH_{4}(PO-{4})_{2}. This is made by the action of sulphuric acid on
+ground bone (Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 H_{2}SO_{4} = CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} +
+2 CaSO_{4}), and it is difficult to free it from the calcium phosphate
+formed at the same time; hence such powders contain more or less of this
+inert material. The reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as
+follows:
+
+       234                 168           136
+  CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 NaHCO_{3} = CaHPO_{4}
+
+           88         36           142
+      + 2 CO_{2} + 2 H_{2}O + Na_{2}HPO_{4}.
+
+Sodium phosphate, according to the United States Dispensatory, is
+"mildly purgative in doses of from 1 to 2 ounces." The claim is made by
+the makers of phosphate baking powders that the phosphates of sodium and
+calcium, products left after the baking, restore the phosphates which
+have been lost from the flour in the bran. This baking powder residue
+does not restore the phosphates in the same form in which they are
+present in grains and it does furnish them in larger amounts--nearly
+tenfold. However, the residue from these powders is probably less
+objectionable than that from alum powders. The chief drawback to the
+phosphate powders is their poor keeping qualities.
+
+198. Alum Baking Powders.--Sulphuric acid is the acid constituent of
+these powders. The alums are double sulphates of aluminium and an
+alkali metal, and have the general formula _x_Al(SO_{4})_{2} in which
+_x_ may be K, Na, or NH_{4}, producing respectively a potash, soda, or
+ammonia alum. Potash alum is most commonly used, soda and ammonia alums
+to a less extent. The reaction takes place as follows:
+
+           475                 504             157
+  2 NH_{4}Al(SO_{4})_{2} + 6 NaHCO_{3} = Al_{2}(OH)_{6}
+
+              426                132            264
+      + 3 Na_{2}SO_{4} + (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} + 6 CO_{2}.
+
+If it is a potash or soda alum, simply substitute K or Na for NH_{4}
+throughout the equation. The best authorities regard alum baking powders
+as the most objectionable. Ammonia alum is without doubt the worst form,
+since all of the ammonium compounds have an extremely irritating effect
+on animal tissue. Sulphates of sodium and potassium are also
+objectionable. Aluminium hydroxide is soluble in the slightly acid
+gastric juice and has an astringent action on animal tissue, hindering
+digestion in a way similar to the alum itself. Many of the alum powders
+contain also mono-calcium phosphate; the reaction is as follows:
+
+           475                   234                   336
+  2 NH_{4}Al(SO_{4})_{2} + CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 4 NaHCO_{3}
+
+          245              136              132
+  = Al_{2}(PO_{4})_{2} + CaSO_{4} + (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4}
+
+           284         176          72
+  + 2 Na_{2}SO_{4} + 4 CO_{2} + 4 H_{2}O.
+
+These are probably less injurious than the straight alum powders,
+although the residues are, in general, open to the same objection.
+
+199. Inspection of Baking Powders.--Many of the states have enacted
+laws seeking to regulate the sale of alum baking powders. Some of these
+laws simply require the packages to bear a label setting forth the fact
+that alum is one of the ingredients; others require the baking powder
+packages to bear a label naming all the ingredients of the powder.
+
+200. Fillers.--All baking powders contain a filler of starch. This is
+necessary to keep the materials from acting before the powder is used.
+The amount of filler varies from 15 to 50 per cent; the least is found
+in the tartrate powders and the most in the phosphate powders. The
+amount of gas which a powder gives off regulates its value; it should
+give off at least 1/8 of its weight.
+
+201. Home-made Baking Powders.--Baking powders can be made at home for
+about one half what they usually cost and they will give equal
+satisfaction. The following will make a long-keeping powder: cream of
+tartar, 8 ounces; baking soda, 4 ounces; corn starch, 3 ounces. For a
+quick-acting powder use but one ounce of starch. The materials should be
+thoroughly dry. Mix the soda and starch first by shaking well in a glass
+or tin can. Add the cream of tartar last and shake again. Thorough
+mixing is essential to good results. Cream of tartar is often
+adulterated, but it can be obtained pure from a reliable druggist. To
+insure baking powders remaining perfectly dry, they should always be
+kept in glass or tin cans, never in paper.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+VINEGAR, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS
+
+
+202. Vinegar.--Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid produced by
+fermentation, and contains, in addition to acetic acid, small amounts of
+other materials in solution, as mineral matter and malic acid, according
+to the material from which the vinegar was made. Unless otherwise
+designated, vinegar in this country is generally considered to be made
+from apples. Other substances, however, are used, as vinegar can be
+manufactured from a variety of fermentable materials, as molasses,
+glucose, malt, wine, and alcoholic beverages in general. The chemical
+changes which take place in the production of vinegars are: (1)
+inversion of the sugar, (2) conversion of the invert sugars into
+alcohol, and (3) change of alcohol into acetic acid. All these chemical
+changes are the result of ferment action. The various invert ferments
+change the sugar into dextrose and glucose sugars; then the alcoholic
+ferment produces alcohol and carbon dioxid from the invert sugars, and
+finally the acetic acid ferment completes the work by converting the
+alcohol into acetic acid. The chemical changes which take place in these
+different steps are:
+
+            sucrose                   dextrose             levulose
+  (1) C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + H_{2}O = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{6}H_{12}O_{6};
+
+        dextrose              alcohol
+  (2) C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} = 2 C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 CO_{2};
+
+         alcohol               acid
+  (3) C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 O = HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} + H_{2}O.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--ACETIC ACID FERMENTS. (After KÖNIG.)]
+
+The acetic acid organism, _Mycoderma aceti_, can work only in the
+presence of oxygen. It is one of the aerobic ferments, and is present in
+what is known as the "mother" of vinegar and is secreted by it. When
+vinegar is made in quantity, the process is hastened by allowing the
+alcoholic solution to pass through a narrow tank rilled with shavings
+containing some of the ferment material, and at the same time air is
+admitted so as to secure a good supply of oxygen. When vinegar is made
+by allowing cider or wine to stand in a warm place until the
+fermentation process is completed, a long time is required--the length
+of time depending upon the supply of air and other conditions affecting
+fermentation.
+
+In some countries malt vinegar is common. This is produced by allowing a
+wort made from malt and barley to undergo acetic acid fermentation,
+without first distilling the alcohol as is done in the preparation of
+spirit vinegar. In various European countries wine vinegar is in general
+use and is made by acetification of the juice of grapes. Sometimes
+spirit vinegar is made from corn or barley malt. Alcoholic fermentation
+takes place, the alcohol is distilled so that a weak solution remains,
+which is acetified in the ordinary way. Such a vinegar can be produced
+very cheaply and is much inferior in flavor to genuine wine or cider
+vinegar.
+
+Vinegar, when properly made, should remain clear, and should not form a
+heavy deposit or produce any large amount of the fungous growth,
+commonly called the "mother" of vinegar. In order to prevent the vinegar
+from becoming cloudy and forming deposits, it should be strained and
+stored in clean jugs and protected from the air. So long as air is
+excluded further acetic acid fermentation and production of "mother" of
+vinegar cannot take place. When the vinegar is properly made and the
+fermentation process has been completed, the acid already produced
+prevents all further development of acetic acid ferments. When vinegar
+becomes cloudy and produces deposits, it is an indication that the
+acetic fermentation has not been completed.
+
+The national standard for pure apple cider vinegar calls for not less
+than 4 grams acetic acid, 1.6 grams of apple solids, and 0.25 grams of
+apple ash per 100 cubic centimeters, along with other characteristics,
+as acidity, sugar, and phosphoric acid content. Many states have special
+laws regarding the sale of vinegar.
+
+203. Adulteration of Vinegar.--Vinegar is frequently adulterated by
+the addition of water, or by coloring spirit vinegar, thus causing it to
+resemble cider vinegar. Formerly vinegar was occasionally adulterated by
+the use of mineral acids, as hydrochloric or sulphuric, but since acetic
+acid can be produced so cheaply, this form of adulteration has almost
+entirely disappeared. Colored spirit vinegar contains merely a trace of
+solid matter and can be readily distinguished from cider vinegar by
+evaporating a small weighed quantity to dryness and determining the
+weight of the solids. Occasionally, however, glucose and other materials
+are added so as to give some solids to the spirit vinegar, but such a
+vinegar contains only a trace of ash[18]. Attempts have also been made
+to carry the adulteration still further by adding lime and soda to give
+the colored spirit vinegar the necessary amount of ash. Malt, white
+wine, glucose, and molasses vinegars when properly manufactured and
+unadulterated are not objectionable, but too frequently they are made to
+resemble and sell as cider vinegar. This is a fraud which affects the
+pocketbook rather than the health. For home use apple cider vinegar is
+highly desirable. There is no food material or food adjunct, unless
+possibly ground coffee and spices, so extensively adulterated as
+vinegar.
+
+Vinegar has no food value whatever, and is valuable only for giving
+flavor and palatability to other foods, and to some extent for the
+preservation of foods. It is useful in the household in other ways, as
+it furnishes a dilute acid solution of aid in some cooking and baking
+operations for liberating gas from soda, and also when a dilute acid
+solution is required for various cleaning purposes.
+
+Vinegar should never be kept in tin pails, or any metallic vessel,
+because the acetic acid readily dissolves copper, tin, iron, and the
+ordinary metals, producing poisonous solutions. Earthenware jugs,
+porcelain dishes, glassware, or wooden casks are all serviceable for
+storing vinegar.
+
+204. Characteristics of Spices.[70]--Spices are aromatic vegetable
+substances characterized as a class by containing some essential or
+volatile oil which gives taste and individuality to the material. They
+are used for the flavoring of food and are composed of mineral matter
+and the various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds found in all
+plant bodies. Since only a comparatively small amount of a spice is used
+for flavoring purposes, no appreciable nutrients are added to the food.
+Some of the spices have characteristic medicinal properties.
+Occasionally they are used to such an extent as to mask the natural
+flavors of foods, and to conceal poor cooking and preparation or poor
+quality. For the microscopic study of spices the student is referred to
+Winton, "Microscopy of Vegetable Foods," and Leach, "Food Inspection and
+Analysis."
+
+205. Pepper.--Black and white pepper are the fruit of the pepper plant
+(_Piper nigrum_), a climbing perennial shrub which grows in the East and
+West Indies, the greatest production being in Sumatra. For the black
+pepper, the berry is picked before thoroughly ripe; for the white
+pepper, it is allowed to mature. White pepper has the black pericarp or
+hull removed. Pepper owes its properties to an alkaloid, piperine, and
+to a volatile oil. In the black pepper berries there is present ash to
+the extent of about 4.5 per cent, it ought not to be above 6.5 per cent;
+ether extract, including piperine and resin, not less than 6.5 per cent;
+crude fiber not more than 16 per cent; also some starch and nitrogenous
+material. The white pepper contains less ash and cellulose than the
+black pepper. Ground pepper is frequently grossly adulterated; common
+adulterants being: cracker crumbs, roasted nut shells and fruit stones,
+charcoal, corn meal, pepper hulls, mustard hulls, and buckwheat
+middlings. The pepper berries wrinkle in drying, and this makes it
+difficult to remove the sand which may have adhered to them. An
+excessive amount of sand in the ash should be classed as adulteration.
+Adulterants in pepper are detected mainly by the use of the microscope.
+The United States standard for pepper is: not more than 7 per cent total
+ash, 15 per cent fiber, and not less than 25 per cent starch and 6 per
+cent non-volatile ether extract.[71]
+
+206. Cayenne.--Cayenne or red pepper is the fruit pod of a plant,
+_capsicum_, of which there are several varieties,--the small-fruited
+kind, used to make cayenne or red pepper; and the tabasco sort, forming
+the basis of tabasco sauce. It is grown mainly in the tropics, and was
+used there as a condiment before the landing of Columbus, who took
+specimens back to Europe. Cayenne pepper contains 25 per cent of oil,
+about 7 per cent of ash, and a liberal amount of starch. The adulterants
+are usually of a starchy nature, as rice or corn meal, and the product
+is often colored with some red dye.
+
+207. Mustard.--Mustard is the seed of the mustard plant, and is most
+often found in commerce in the ground form. The black or brown mustard
+has a very small seed and the most aroma. White mustard is much larger
+and is frequently used unground. For the ground mustard, only the
+interior of the seed is used, the husk being removed in the bolting.
+Mustard contains a large amount of oil, part of which is usually
+expressed before grinding, and this is the form in which spice grinders
+buy it. In mustard flour there is: ash from 4 to 6 per cent, volatile
+oil from 0.5 to 2 per cent, fixed oil from 15 to 25 per cent, crude
+fiber from 2 to 5 per cent, albuminoids from 35 to 45 per cent, and a
+little starch. The principal adulterants are wheat, corn, and rice
+flour. When these are used, the product is frequently colored with
+turmeric, a harmless vegetable coloring material.
+
+208. Ginger.--Ginger is the rhizome or root of a reed-like plant
+(_Zingiber officinale_), native in tropical Asia, chiefly India. It is
+cultivated in nearly all tropical countries. When unground it usually
+occurs in two forms: dried with the epidermis, or with the epidermis
+removed, when it is called scraped ginger. Very frequently a coating of
+chalk is given, as a protection against the drug store beetle. Jamaica
+ginger is the best and most expensive. Cochin, scraped, African, and
+Calcutta ginger range in price in the order given. Ginger contains from
+3.6 to 7.5 per cent of ash, from 1.5 to 3 per cent of volatile oil, and
+from 3 to 5.5 per cent of fixed oil. There is a large amount of starch.
+The chief adulterants are rice, wheat, and potato starch, mustard hulls,
+exhausted ginger from ginger-ale and extract factories, sawdust and
+ground peanut-shells, and turmeric is frequently used for coloring the
+product. The United States standard for ginger is not more than 42 per
+cent starch, 8 per cent fiber, and 6 per cent total ash.[71]
+
+209. Cinnamon and Cassia.--The bark of several species of plants
+growing in tropical countries furnishes these spices. True cinnamon is a
+native of Ceylon, while the cassias are from Bengal and China. In this
+country there is more cassia used than cinnamon--cinnamon being rarely
+found except in drug stores. Cassia bark is much thicker than cinnamon
+bark. The ground spice contains about 1.5 per cent volatile oil and the
+same amount of fixed oil, 4 per cent of ash, and some fiber, nitrogenous
+matter, and starch. Cereals, cedar sawdust, ground nutshells, oil meal,
+and cracker crumbs are the chief adulterants.
+
+210. Cloves.--Cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree that
+grows in the tropics. These are picked by hand and dried in the sun. In
+the order of value, Penang, Sumatra, Amboyna, and Zanzibar furnish the
+chief varieties. Cloves rarely contain more than 8 per cent ash, or less
+than 10 per cent volatile oil and 4 per cent fixed oil, and 16 to 20 per
+cent of tannin-yielding bodies. No starch is present. The chief
+adulterants of ground cloves are spent cloves, allspice, and ground
+nutshells. Clove stems are also sometimes used and may be detected by a
+microscopical examination, since they contain many thick-walled cells
+and much fibrous tissue.
+
+211. Allspice.--Allspice, or pimento, is the fruit of an evergreen
+tree common in the West Indies. It is a small, dry, globular berry,
+two-celled, each cell having a single seed. Allspice contains about 2.5
+per cent volatile oil, 4 per cent fixed oil, and 4.5 per cent ash.
+Because of its cheapness, it is not generally adulterated, cereal
+starches being the most common adulterants.
+
+212. Nutmeg.--Nutmeg is the interior kernel of the fruit of a tree
+growing in the East Indies. The fruit resembles a small pear. A fleshy
+mantle of crimson color, which is mace, envelopes the seed. Nutmeg
+contains about 2.2 per cent ash, 2.5 to 5 per cent volatile oil, and 25
+to 35 per cent fixed oil. Mace has practically the same composition.
+Extensive adulteration is seldom practiced. The white coating on the
+surface of the nutmeg is lime, used to prevent sprouting of the germ.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--TEA LEAF. (After
+WINTON.)]
+
+213. Tea is the prepared leaf of an evergreen shrub or small tree
+cultivated chiefly in China and Japan. There are two varieties of
+plants. The Assamese, which requires a very moist, hot climate, yields
+in India and Ceylon about 400 pounds per acre, and may produce as high
+as 1000 pounds. From this plant a number of flushes or pickings are
+secured in a year. The Chinese plant grows in cooler climates and has a
+smaller, tougher, and darker leaf, which is more delicate than that of
+the Assamese and is usually made into green tea. The Chinese tea plant
+yields only four or five flushes a year. About 40 per cent of the tea
+used in this country comes from Japan and 50 per cent from China. The
+tea industry of India and Ceylon has developed rapidly in late years,
+and is now second only to that of China. Tea has been raised upon a
+small scale in the United States. The quality or grade of the tea
+depends upon the leaves used and the method of curing.
+
+214. Composition of Tea.--Black and green teas are produced from the
+same species of plant, but owe their difference in color as well as
+flavor and odor to methods of preparation. The same plant may yield
+several grades of both green and black tea. To produce black tea, the
+leaves are bruised to liberate the juices, allowed to ferment a short
+time, which develops the color, and then dried.[73] For green tea the
+fresh leaves are roasted or steamed, then rolled and dried as quickly as
+possible to prevent fermentation. The smaller leaves and the first
+picking produce the finest quality of tea. The characteristic flavor and
+odor of tea are imparted by a volatile oil, although the odor is
+sometimes altered by the tea being brought in contact with orange
+flowers, jessamine, or the fragrant olive. There are also present in tea
+an alkaloid, theine, which gives the peculiar physiological properties,
+and tannin, upon which depends largely the strength of the tea infusion.
+The composition of tea is as follows:
+
+  ===========================================
+                    |ORIGINAL| GREEN | BLACK
+                    |  TEA   |  TEA  |  TEA
+  -------------------------------------------
+  Tannin, per cent  |  12.91 | 10.64 |  4.89
+  Theine, per cent  |   3.30 |  3.20 |  3.30
+  Ash, per cent     |   4.97 |  4.92 |  4.93
+  Fiber, per cent   |  10.44 | 10.06 | 10.07
+  Protein, per cent |  37.33 | 37.43 | 38.90
+    (all insoluble) |        |       |
+  ===========================================
+
+It will be noticed that green tea contains twice as much tannin as black
+tea; during the fermentation which the black tea undergoes, some of the
+tannin is decomposed. There is a large amount of protein in tea, but it
+is of no food value, because of its insolubility. About half of the ash
+is soluble. The tannin is readily soluble, and for this reason green tea
+especially should be infused for a very short time and never boiled.
+Tannin in foods in large amounts may interfere with the normal digestion
+of the protein compounds, because it coagulates the albumin and peptones
+after they have become soluble, and thus makes additional work for the
+digestive organs.
+
+215. Judging Teas.--Teas are judged according to: (1) the tea as it
+appears prepared for market, (2) the infusion, and (3) the out-turn
+after infusion. The color should be uniform; if a black tea, it should
+be grayish black, not a dead black. The leaves should be uniform in size
+or grade. The quality and grade are dependent upon flavor, and, with the
+strength of the infusion, are determined by tasting. This work is
+rapidly done by the trained tea taster. The out-turn should be of one
+color; no bright green leaves should be present; evenness of make is
+judged by the out-turn. The flavor of a tea is largely a matter of
+personal judgment, but from a physiological point of view black teas are
+given the preference.
+
+216. Adulteration of Tea.--A few years ago tea was quite extensively
+adulterated, but the strict regulation of the government regarding
+imported tea has greatly lessened adulteration. The most common form
+was the use of spent leaves, _i.e._ leaves which had been infused.
+Leaves of the willow and other plants which resemble tea were also used,
+as well as large quantities of tea stems. Facing or coloring is also an
+adulteration, since it is done to give poor or damaged tea a brighter
+appearance. "Facing consists in treating leaves damaged in manufacture
+or which from age are inferior, with a mixture containing Prussian blue,
+turmeric, indigo, or plumbago to impart color or gloss, and with a
+fraudulent intent. There is no evidence that the facing agents are
+deleterious to health in the small quantities used, but as they are used
+for purposes of deception, they should be discouraged."[73] Facing and
+the addition of stems are the chief adulterations practiced at present.
+
+217. Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea.--Tea infusion
+does not contain sufficient nutrients to entitle it to be classed as a
+food. It is with some persons a stimulant. The caffein or theine in tea
+is an alkaloid that has characteristic physiological properties. In
+doses of from three to five grains, according to the United States
+Dispensatory, "it produces peculiar wakefulness." Larger doses produce
+intense physical restlessness, mental anxiety, and obstinate
+sleeplessness. "It has no effect upon the motor nerves, but is believed
+to have a visible effect upon the sensatory nerves." (United States
+Dispensatory.) Experiments with animals show that it causes elevation
+of the arterial pressure. It is used as a cardiac stimulant. The
+quantity of theine consumed in a cup of tea is about 4/5 of a grain, or
+1/4 of a medicinal dose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--COFFEE BERRIES.
+
+1, Mocha; 2, Java; 3, Rio.]
+
+218. Composition of Coffee.--The coffee tree is an evergreen
+cultivated in the tropics. It grows to a height of 30 feet, but when
+cultivated is kept pruned to from 6 to 10 feet. The fruit, which
+resembles a small cherry, with two seeds or coffee grains embedded in
+the pulp, is dried and the seeds removed, cleaned, and graded. Coffee
+has an entirely different composition from tea; it is characterized by
+a high per cent of fat and soluble carbohydrates, and also contains an
+essential oil and caffein, an alkaloid identical with theine. Tannic
+acid, not as free acid, is combined with caffein as a tannate.
+
+  ======================================
+              |RAW COFFEE|ROASTED COFFEE
+  --------------------------------------
+              | Per Cent | Per Cent
+  Water       |  11.23   |   1.15
+  Ash         |   3.92   |   4.75
+  Fat         |  12.27   |  14.48
+  Sugar, etc. |   0.66   |   8.55
+  Protein     |  12.07   |  13.98
+  Caffein     |   1.21   |   1.24
+  ======================================
+
+The high per cent of sugar and other soluble carbohydrates in roasted
+coffee is caused by the action of heat upon the non-nitrogenous
+compounds. Coffee cannot be considered a food, because only a
+comparatively small amount of the nutrients are soluble and available.
+It is a mildly stimulating beverage. With some individuals it appears to
+promote the digestive process, while with others its effect is not
+beneficial. Coffee is more extensively used in this country than tea,
+and is subject to greater adulteration. It is adulterated by facing and
+glazing; _i.e._ coloring the berries to resemble different grades and
+coating them with caramel and dextrine. Spent coffee grains and coffee
+that has been extracted without grinding are also used as adulterants.
+Imitation berries made of rye, corn, or wheat paste, molded, colored
+with caramel, and baked have been found mixed with genuine coffee
+berries. Roasted cereals and chicory are used extensively to adulterate
+ground coffee. Chicory is prepared from the root of the chicory plant,
+which belongs to the same family as the dandelion. It is claimed by some
+that a small amount of chicory improves the flavor of coffee. However,
+when chicory is added to coffee, it should be so stated on the label and
+the amount used given. The dextrine and sugar used in glazing are
+browned or caramelized during roasting and impart a darker color to the
+infusion, making it appear better than it really is. The glazing also
+makes the coffee retain moisture which would otherwise be driven off
+during roasting. Coffee contains such a large per cent of oil that the
+berries generally float when thrown on water, while the imitation
+berries sink. Chicory also sinks rapidly and colors the water brown,
+while the coffee remains floating for some time.
+
+There are three kinds of coffee in general use: Java, Mocha, and Rio or
+Brazil. The Brazil coffee has the largest berry and is usually styled by
+dealers as "low" or "low middlings." The Java coffee berries are smaller
+and paler in color, the better grades being brown. Mocha usually
+commands the highest price in commerce. The seeds are small and dark
+yellow before roasting.
+
+219. Cereal Coffee Substitutes.
+
+     "A few of these preparations contain a little true coffee, but for
+     the most part they appear to be made of parched grains of barley,
+     wheat, etc., or of grain mixed with pea hulls, ground corncobs, or
+     wheat middlings. It is said that barley or wheat parched, with a
+     little molasses, in an ordinary oven, makes something
+     indistinguishable in flavor from some of the cereal coffees on the
+     market. If no coffee is used in the cereal preparations, the claim
+     that they are not stimulating is probably true. As for the
+     nutritive value, parching the cereals undoubtedly renders some of
+     the carbohydrates soluble, and a part of this soluble matter passes
+     into the decoction, but the nutritive value of the infusion is
+     hardly worth considering in the dietary."[56]
+
+220. Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations.--Cocoa and chocolate are
+manufactured from the "cocoa bean," the seed of a tree native to
+tropical America. The beans are inclosed in a lemon-yellow, fleshy pod.
+They are removed from the pulp, allowed to undergo fermentation, and
+dried by exposure to the air and light, which hardens them and gives
+them a red color. This method produces what is known as the "fermented
+cocoa." For the "unfermented cocoa," the beans are dried without
+undergoing fermentation. Fermentation removes much of the acidity and
+bitterness characteristic to the unfermented bean, and when properly
+regulated develops flavor. The original bean contains about 50 per cent
+fat, part of which is removed in preparing the cocoa. This fat is sold
+as cocoa butter. In the preparation of some brands of cocoa, alkalies,
+such as soda and potash, are used to form a combination with the fat to
+prevent its separating in oily globules. This treatment improves the
+appearance of the cocoa, but experiments show the albumin to be somewhat
+less digestible and the soap-like product resulting not as valuable a
+food as the fat. Such preparations have a high per cent of ash. There
+is no objection from a nutritive point of view to a cocoa in which the
+fat separates in oily globules.
+
+221. Composition of Cocoa.--The cocoa bean, when dried or roasted and
+freed from its husk and ground, is sold as cracked cocoa, or cocoa nibs.
+From cocoa nibs the various cocoa and chocolate preparations are made.
+Cocoas vary in composition according to the extent to which the fat is
+removed during the process of manufacture and the nature and extent to
+which other ingredients are added. An average cocoa contains about 20
+per cent of proteids, and 30 per cent fat, also starch, sugar, gums,
+fiber, and ash, as well as theobromine, a material very similar to
+theine and caffein in tea and coffee, but not such an active stimulant.
+Cocoa is not easily soluble, but it may be ground so fine that a long
+time is required for its sedimentation; or sugar or other soluble
+material may be added during the process of manufacture to increase the
+specific gravity of the liquid to such an extent that the same object is
+attained without such fine grinding. The first method is to be
+preferred. Cocoa and its preparations are richer in nutritive substances
+than tea and coffee and have this added advantage that both the soluble
+and insoluble portions become a part of the beverage. Owing to the small
+amount used for a cup of cocoa, independent of the milk it does not add
+much in the way of nutrients to the ration.
+
+222. Chocolate.--Plain chocolate is prepared from cocoa nibs without
+"removal of the fat or other constituents except the germ." It differs
+in chemical composition from cocoa by containing more fat and less
+protein; it has nearly the same chemical composition as the cocoa nibs.
+It is officially defined as containing "not more than 3 per cent of ash
+insoluble in water, 3-1/2 per cent of crude fiber and 9 per cent of
+starch, and less than 45 per cent cocoa fat."[71]
+
+By the addition of sugar, sweet chocolates are made. They vary widely in
+composition according to the flavors and amounts of sugar added during
+their preparation. The average composition of cocoa nibs, standard
+cocoa, and plain chocolate is as follows:
+
+  ==============================================================
+                  |  COCOA |  COMPOSITION OF  | COMPOSITION OF
+                  |   NIBS |  STANDARD COCOA  |  PLAIN CHOCOLATE
+                  |---------------------------------------------
+                  |Per Cent|     Per Cent     |   Per Cent
+  Water           |  3.00  |        --        |     3.09
+  Ash             |  3.50  |       4.20       |     3.08
+  Theobromine     |  1.00  |        --        |      --
+  Caffein         |  0.50  |        --        |      --
+  Crude Protein   | 12.00  |        --        |      --
+  Crude fiber     |  2.50  |       5.02       |     2.63
+  Fat             | 50.00  |      32.52       |    49.81
+  Starch and other|        |                  |
+   non-nitrogenous|        |                  |
+   matter         | 27.50  |        --        |      --
+  ============================================================
+
+223. Adulteration of Chocolate and Cocoa.--The various chocolate and
+cocoa preparations offer an enticing field for sophistication; they are
+not, however, so extensively adulterated as before the enforcement of
+national and state pure food laws. The most common adulterants are
+starch, cocoa shells, and occasionally iron dioxid and other pigments to
+give color, also foreign fats to replace the fat removed and to give the
+required plasticity for molding.
+
+224. Comparative Composition of Beverages.--Tea and coffee as
+beverages contain but little in the way of nutrients other than the
+cream and sugar used in them. The solid matter in tea and coffee
+infusions amounts to less than 1.2 per cent. When cocoa is made with
+milk, it is a beverage of high nutritive value due mainly to the milk.
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF BEVERAGES[56]
+
+  =============================================================================
+                          |          |          |          |          | FUEL
+      KIND OF BEVERAGE    |  WATER   | PROTEIN  |   FAT    |  CARBO-  | VALUE
+                          |          |          |          | HYDRATES | PER LB.
+  ------------------------|----------|----------|----------|----------|--------
+                          | Per Cent | Per Cent | Per Cent | Per Cent |Calories
+  Commercial cereal coffee|          |          |          |          |
+    (0.5 ounce to         |          |          |          |          |
+      1 pint water)       |   98.2   |    0.2   |    --    |   1.4    |    30
+  Parched corn coffee     |          |          |          |          |
+    (1.6 ounces to        |          |          |          |          |
+       1 pint water)      |   99.5   |    0.2   |    --    |   0.5    |    13
+  Oatmeal water (1 ounce  |          |          |          |          |
+    to 1 pint water)      |   99.7   |    0.3   |    --    |   0.3    |    11
+  Coffee (1 ounce         |          |          |          |          |
+    1 pint water)         |   98.9   |    0.2   |    --    |   0.7    |    16
+  Tea (0.5 ounce to       |          |          |          |          |
+    1 pint water)         |   99.5   |    0.2   |    --    |   0.6    |    15
+  Cocoa (0.5 ounce to     |          |          |          |          |
+    1 pint milk)          |   84.5   |    3.8   |    4.7   |   6.0    |   365
+  Cocoa (0.5 ounce to     |          |          |          |          |
+    1 pint water)         |   97.1   |    0.6   |    0.9   |   1.1    |    65
+  Skimmed milk            |   90.5   |    3.4   |    0.3   |   5.1    |   170
+  =============================================================================
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS
+
+
+225. Digestibility, How Determined.--The term "digestibility," as
+applied to foods, is used in two ways: (1) meaning the thoroughness of
+the process, or the completeness with which the nutrients of the food
+are absorbed and used by the body, and (2) meaning the ease or comfort
+with which digestion is accomplished. Cheese is popularly termed
+indigestible, and rice digestible, when in reality the nutrients of
+cheese are more completely although more slowly digested than those of
+rice. In this work, unless otherwise stated, digestibility is applied to
+the completeness of the digestion process.
+
+The digestibility of a food is ascertained by means of digestion
+experiments, in which all of the food consumed for a certain period,
+usually two to four days, is weighed and analyzed, and from the weight
+and composition is determined the amount, in pounds or grams, of each
+nutrient consumed.[72] In like manner the nutrients in the indigestible
+portion, or feces, are determined from the weight and composition of the
+feces. The indigestible nutrients in the feces are deducted from the
+total nutrients of the food, the difference being the amount digested,
+or oxidized in the body. When the food is digested, the various
+nutrients undergo complete or partial oxidation, with the formation of
+carbon dioxid gas, water, urea (CH_{4}N_{2}O), and other compounds. The
+feces consist mainly of the compounds which have escaped digestion. The
+various groups of compounds of foods do not all have the same
+digestibility; for example, the starch of potatoes is 92 per cent
+digestible, while the protein is only 72 per cent. The percentage amount
+of a nutrient that is digested is called the digestion coefficient.
+
+In the following way the digestibility of a two-days ration of bread and
+milk was determined: 773.5 grams of bread and 2000 grams of milk were
+consumed by the subject. The dried feces weighed 38.2 grams. The foods
+and feces when analyzed were found to have the following
+composition:[62]
+
+  =====================================================================
+      COMPOSITION    |    BREAD       |      MILK     |     FECES[A]
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Water              |     44.13      |     86.52     |       --
+  Crude protein      |      7.75      |      3.15     |      25.88
+  Ether extract      |      0.90      |      4.63     |      18.23
+  Ash                |      0.32      |      0.70     |      26.35
+  Carbohydrates      |     46.90      |      5.00     |      29.54
+  Calories per gram  |      2.450     |      0.79     |       5.083
+  =====================================================================
+
+[Footnote A: Results on dry-matter basis.]
+
+
+STATEMENT OF RESULTS OF A DIGESTION EXPERIMENT
+
+  =============================================================================
+    FOOD CONSUMED   |  WEIGHT  |  PROTEIN |  ETHER  | CARBO- |       | HEAT OF
+                    |    OF    | N × 6.25 | EXTRACT |  HY-   |  ASH  | COMBUS-
+                    | MATERIAL |          |         | DRATES |       | TION
+  ------------------+----------+----------+---------+--------+-------+---------
+                    |   Grams  |   Grams  |   Grams |  Grams | Grams | Calories
+  Bread             |    773.5 |    60.0  |     6.9 |  362.8 |   2.5 |  1895
+  Milk              |   2000.0 |    63.0  |    92.6 |  100.0 |  14.0 |  1585
+                    |          |  ------- + ------- + -------+-------+---------
+        Total       |     38.2 |   123.0  |    99.5 |  462.8 |  16.5 |  3480
+  Feces             |          |     9.9  |     7.0 |   11.3 |  10.1 |   194
+                    |          |  ------- + ------- + -------+-------+---------
+  Total amount      |          |   113.1  |    92.5 |  451.5 |   6.4 |  3286
+    digested        |          |          |         |        |       |
+  Per cent digested |          |          |         |        |       |
+    or coefficients |          |          |         |        |       |
+    of digestibility|          |    92.0  |    93.0 |  97.5  |  38.8 |  94.4
+                    |          |          |         |        |       |
+  Available energy  |          |     --   |     --  |   --   |   --  |  90.0
+  =============================================================================
+
+In this experiment 92 per cent of the crude protein, 93 per cent of the
+ether extract, and 97.5 per cent of the carbohydrates of the bread and
+milk ration were digested and absorbed by the body. In calculating the
+available energy, correction is made for the unoxidized residue, as urea
+and allied forms. It is estimated that for each gram of protein in the
+ration there was an indigestible residue yielding 1.25 calories.
+
+226. Available Nutrients.--A food may contain a comparatively large
+amount of a compound, and yet, on account of its low digestibility, fail
+to supply much of it to the body in an available form. Hence it is that
+the value of a food is dependent not alone on its composition, but also
+on its digestibility. The digestible or available nutrients of a food
+are determined by multiplying the per cent of each nutrient which the
+food contains by its digestion coefficient. For example, a sample of
+wheat flour contains 12 per cent protein, 88 per cent of which is
+digestible, making 10.56 per cent of available or digestible protein (12
+× 0.88-10.56). Graham flour made from similar wheat contains 13 per cent
+total protein, and only 75 per cent of the protein is digestible, making
+9.75 per cent available (13 × 0.75 = 9.75). Thus one food may contain a
+larger total but a smaller available amount of a nutrient than another.
+
+227. Available Energy.--The available energy of a food or a ration is
+expressed in calories. A ration for a laborer at active out-of-door work
+should yield about 3200 calories. The calory is the unit of heat, and
+represents the heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of
+water 1° C., or four pounds of water 1° F. The caloric value of foods is
+determined by the calorimeter, an apparatus which measures heat with
+great accuracy. A pound of starch, or allied carbohydrates, yields 1860
+calories, and a pound of fat 4225 (see Section 13). While a gram of
+protein completely burned produces 7.8 calories, digested it yields only
+about 4.2 calories, because, as explained in the preceding section, not
+all of the carbon and oxygen are oxidized.[59] The caloric value or
+available energy of a ration can be calculated from the digestible
+nutrients by multiplying the pounds of digestible protein and
+carbohydrates by 1860, the digestible fat by 4225, and adding the
+results. For determination of the available energy of foods under
+different experimental conditions, and where great accuracy is desired,
+a specially constructed respiration calorimeter has been devised, which
+is built upon the same principle as an ordinary calorimeter, except it
+is large enough to admit a person, and is provided with appliances for
+measuring and analyzing the intake and outlet of air.[74] The heat
+produced by the combustion of the food in the body warms the water
+surrounding the calorimeter chamber, and this increase in temperature is
+determined by thermometers reading to 0.005 of a degree or less.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CALORIMETER.]
+
+228. Normal Digestion and Health.--While the process of digestion has
+been extensively studied, it is not perfectly understood. Between the
+initial compounds of foods and their final oxidation products a large
+number of intermediate substances are formed, and when digestion fails
+to take place in a normal way, toxic or poisonous compounds are produced
+and various diseases result. It is probable that more diseases are due
+to imperfect or malnutrition than to any other cause. There is a very
+close relationship between health and normal digestion of the food.
+
+The cells in the different parts of the digestive tract secrete fluids
+containing substances known as soluble ferments, or enzymes, which act
+upon the various compounds of foods, changing them chemically and
+physically so that they can be absorbed and utilized by the body. (See
+Section 31.) Some of the more important ferments are: ptyolin of the
+saliva, pepsin of the stomach, and pancreatin and diastase of the
+intestines. In order that these ferments may carry on their work in a
+normal way, the acidity and alkalinity of the different parts of the
+digestive tract must be maintained. The gastric juice contains from 0.1
+to 0.25 per cent of hydrochloric acid, imparting mildly antiseptic
+properties; and while the peptic ferment works in a slightly acid
+solution, the tryptic ferment requires an alkaline solution. To secrete
+the necessary amount and quality of digestive fluids, the organs must be
+in a healthy condition. Many erroneous ideas regarding the digestion of
+foods are based upon misinterpretation of facts by persons suffering
+from impaired digestion, and attempts are frequently made to apply to
+normal digestion generalizations applicable only to diseased conditions.
+
+229. Digestibility of Animal Foods.--The proteids and fats in animal
+foods, as meats, are more completely digested than the same class of
+nutrients in vegetables. In general, about 95 per cent of the proteids
+of meats is digestible, while those in vegetables are often less than 85
+percent digestible. The amount of indigestible residue from animal foods
+is small; while from vegetables it is large, for the cellulose prevents
+complete absorption of the nutrients and, as a result, there is much
+indigestible residue. Animal foods are concentrated, in that they
+furnish large amounts of nutrients in digestible forms. There is less
+difference in the completeness with which various meats are digested
+than in their ease of digestion; the proteins all have about the same
+digestion coefficients, but vary with individuals as to ease of
+digestion and time required. It is generally considered that the
+digestible proteins, whether of animal or vegetable origin, are equally
+valuable for food purposes. This is an assumption, however, that has not
+been well established by experimental evidence. In a mixed ration, the
+proteins from different sources appear to have the same nutritive value,
+but as each is composed of different radicals and separated into
+dissimilar elementary compounds during the process of digestion, they
+would not necessarily all have the same food value.
+
+There is but little difference between the fats and proteins of meats as
+to completeness of digestion,--the slight difference being in favor of
+the proteins. Some physiologists claim that the fat, which in some meats
+surrounds the bundles of fiber (protein), forming a protecting coat,
+prevents the complete solvent action of the digestive fluid. Very fat
+meats are not as completely digested as those moderately fat. It is also
+claimed that the digestibility of the meat is influenced by the
+mechanical character, as toughness of the fiber.
+
+230. Digestibility of Vegetable Foods.--Vegetable foods vary in
+digestibility with their mechanical condition and the amount of
+cellulose or fiber. In some the nutrients are so embedded in cellular
+tissue as to be protected from the solvent action of the digestive
+fluids, and in such cases the digestibility and availability are low.
+The starches and sugars are more completely digested than any other of
+the nutrients of vegetables; in some instances they are from 95 to 98
+per cent digestible. Some cellular tissue, but not an excess, is
+desirable in a ration, as it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon
+the organs of digestion, encourages peristalsis, and is an absorbent and
+dilutant of the waste products formed during digestion. For example, in
+the feeding of swine, it has been found that corn and cob meal often
+gives better results than corn fed alone. The cob contains but little in
+the way of nutrients, but it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon
+digestion. Occasionally too many bulky foods are combined, containing
+scant amounts of nutrients, so that the body receives insufficient
+protein. This is liable to be the case in the dietary of the strict
+vegetarian. Many of the vegetables possess special dietetic value, due
+to the organic acids and essential oils, as cited in the chapter on
+fruits and vegetables. The value of such foods cannot always be
+determined from their content of digestible protein, fat, and
+carbohydrates. This is particularly evident when they are omitted from
+the ration, as in the case of a restricted diet consisting mainly of
+animal foods. Many vegetables have low nutritive value on account of
+their bulky nature and the large amount of water and cellulose which
+they contain, which tends to decrease digestibility and lower the amount
+of available nutrients. Because of their bulk and fermentable nature,
+resulting in the formation of gases, a diet of coarse vegetables has a
+tendency to cause distention and enlargement of the intestinal organs.
+The carbohydrates, which are the chief constituents of vegetables, are
+digested mainly in the intestines, and require special mechanical
+preparation in the stomach, hence the nutrients of vegetables are not,
+as a rule, as easily digested as those of animal foods.
+
+231. Factors influencing Digestion.--There are a number of factors
+which influence completeness as well as ease of digestion, as: (1)
+combination of foods; (2) amount of food; (3) method of preparation; (4)
+mechanical condition of the food; (5) palatability; (6) physiological
+properties; (7) individuality of the consumer; and (8) psychological
+influences.
+
+232. Combination of Foods.--In a mixed ration the nutrients are
+generally more completely digested than when only one food is used. For
+example, milk is practically all digested when it forms a part of a
+ration, and it also promotes digestibility of the foods with which it is
+combined, but when used alone it is less digestible.[27] Bread alone and
+milk alone are not as completely digested as bread and milk combined.
+The same in a general way has been observed in the feeding of farm
+animals,--better results are secured from combining two or more foods
+than from the use of one alone. The extent to which one food influences
+the digestibility of another has not been extensively studied.
+
+In a mixed ration, consisting of several articles of food of different
+mechanical structure, the work of digestion is more evenly distributed
+among the various organs. A food often requires special preparation on
+the part of the stomach before it can be digested in the intestines, and
+if this food is consumed in small amounts and combined with others of
+different structure, the work of gastric digestion is lessened so that
+the foods are properly prepared and normal digestion takes place. The
+effect which one food exerts upon the digestibility of another is
+largely mechanical.
+
+233. Amount of Food.--Completeness as well as ease of digestion is
+influenced by the amount of food consumed. In general, excessive amounts
+are not as completely digested as moderate amounts. In digestion
+experiments with oatmeal and milk, it was found that when these foods
+were consumed in large quantities the fat and protein were not as
+completely absorbed by the body as when less was used, the protein being
+7 per cent and the fat 6 per cent more digestible in the medium ration.
+Experiments with animals show that economical results are not secured
+from an excess of food.[5] Some individuals consume too much food, and
+with them a restricted diet would be beneficial, while others err in not
+consuming enough to meet the requirements of the body. Quite frequently
+it is those who need more food who practice dieting. When there is
+trouble with digestion, it is not always the amount or kind of food
+which is at fault, but other habits may be such as to affect digestion.
+The active out-of-door laborer can with impunity consume more food,
+because there is greater demand for nutrients, and the food is more
+completely oxidized in the body and without the formation of poisonous
+waste products. The amount of food consumed should be sufficient to meet
+all the demands of the body and maintain a normal weight.
+
+234. Method of Preparation of Food.--The extent to which methods of
+cooking and preparation influence completeness of digestion has not been
+extensively investigated. As is well known, they have great influence
+upon ease and comfort of digestion. During cooking, as discussed in
+Chapter II, extensive physical and chemical changes occur, and these in
+turn affect digestibility. When the cooking has not been sufficient to
+mechanically disintegrate vegetable tissue, the digestive fluids fail to
+act favorably upon the food. Cooking is also beneficial because it
+renders the food sterile and destroys all objectionable microörganisms
+which, if they remain in food, readily undergo incubation in the
+digestive tract, interfering with normal digestion. Prolonged heat
+causes some foods to become less digestible, as milk, which digestion
+experiments show to be more completely digested when fresh than when
+sterilized. Pasteurized milk, which is not subjected to so high a
+temperature as sterilized milk, is more completely digested. See Chapter
+VII for discussion of sterilizing and pasteurizing milk.[38] The
+benefits derived from the destruction of the objectionable bacteria in
+foods are, however, greater than the losses attendant on lessened
+digestibility due to the action of heat. The method of preparation of a
+food affects its digestibility mainly through change in mechanical
+structure, and modification of the forms in which the nutrients are
+present.[5]
+
+235. Mechanical Condition of Foods.--The mechanical condition of foods
+as to density and structure of the particles and the extent to which
+they are disintegrated in their preparation for the table influences
+digestibility to a great extent. The mechanics of digestion is a subject
+that has not been extensively investigated, and it is one of great
+importance, as biological and chemical changes cannot take place if the
+food is not in proper mechanical condition. In general, the finer the
+food particles, the more completely the nutrients are acted upon by the
+digestive fluids and absorbed by the body. Nevertheless, the diet should
+not consist entirely of finely granulated foods. Some foods are valuable
+mainly because of the favorable action they exert mechanically upon
+digestion, rather than for the nutrients they contain.[62] Coarsely
+granulated breakfast foods, whole wheat flour, and many vegetables
+contain sufficient cellular tissue to give special value from a
+mechanical rather than a chemical point of view. The extent to which
+coarsely and finely granulated foods should enter into the ration is a
+question largely for the individual to determine. Experiments with pigs
+show that if large amounts of coarse, granular foods are consumed, the
+tendency is for the digestive tract to become inflamed and less able to
+exercise its normal functions. Coarsely granulated foods have a tendency
+to pass through the digestive tract in less time than those that are
+finely granulated, due largely to increased peristaltic action, and the
+result is the food is not retained a sufficient length of time to allow
+normal absorption to take place. In the feeding of farm animals, it has
+been found that the mechanical condition of the food has a great
+influence upon its economic use. Rations that are either too bulky or
+too concentrated fail to give the best results. In the human ration, the
+mechanical condition of the food is equally as important as its chemical
+composition.
+
+236. Mastication is an important part of digestion, and when foods are
+not thoroughly masticated, additional work is required of the stomach,
+which is usually an overworked organ because of doing the work of the
+mouth as well. Although much of the mechanical preparation and mixing of
+foods is of necessity done in the stomach, some of it may advantageously
+be done in the mouth. The stomach should not be required to perform the
+function of the gizzard of a fowl.
+
+237. Palatability of Foods.--Many foods naturally contain essential
+oils and other substances which impart palatability. These have but
+little in the way of nutritive value, but they assist in rendering the
+nutrients with which they are associated more digestible. Palatability
+of a food favorably influences the secretion of the gastric and other
+digestive fluids, and in this way the natural flavors of well-prepared
+foods aid in digestion. In the feeding of farm animals it has been found
+that when foods are consumed with a relish better returns are secured
+than when unpalatable foods are fed. To secure palatability the
+excessive use of condiments is unnecessary. It is possible to a great
+extent during preparation to develop and conserve the natural flavors.
+Some foods contain bitter principles which are removed during the
+cooking, while in others pleasant flavors are developed. Palatability is
+an important factor in the digestibility of foods.
+
+238. Physiological Properties of Food.--Some food materials,
+particularly fruits and vegetables, contain compounds which have
+definite physiological properties, as tannin which is an astringent,
+special oils which exert a cathartic action, and the alkaloids which
+serve as irritants to nerve centers. Wheat germ oil is laxative, and it
+is probable that the physiological properties of graham and whole wheat
+breads are due in some degree to the oil which they contain.[67] The
+use of fruits, herbs, and vegetables for medicinal purposes is based
+upon the presence of compounds possessing well-defined medicinal
+properties. As a rule food plants do not contain appreciable amounts of
+such substances, and the use of food for medicinal effect should be by
+the advice of a physician. The physiological properties of some foods
+are due to bacterial products. See Chapter XX.
+
+239. Individuality.--Material difference in digestive power is
+noticeable among individuals. Digestion experiments show that one person
+may digest 5 per cent more of a nutrient than another. This difference
+appears to be due to a number of factors, as activity of the organs, as
+affected by exercise and kind of labor performed; abnormal composition
+of the digestive fluids; or failure of the different parts of the
+digestive tract to act in harmony. Individuality is one of the most
+important factors in digestion. Persons become accustomed to certain
+foods through long usage, and the digestive tract adapts itself to those
+foods, rendering sudden and extreme changes in the dietary hazardous.
+Common food articles may fail to properly digest in the case of some
+individuals, while with others they are consumed with benefit. What is
+food to one may prove to be a poison to another, and while general
+statements can be made in regard to the digestibility of foods,
+individual differences must be recognized.
+
+240. Psychological Factors.--Previously conceived ideas concerning
+foods influence digestibility. Foods must be consumed with a relish in
+order to secure the best results, as flow of the digestive fluids and
+activity of the organs are to a certain extent dependent upon the nerve
+centers. If it is believed that a food is poisonous or injurious, even
+when the food is wholesome, normal digestion fails to take place. In
+experiments by the author, in which the comparative digestibility of
+butter and oleomargarine was being studied, it was found that when the
+subjects were told they were eating oleomargarine, its digestibility was
+depressed 5 per cent, and when they were not told the nature of the
+material, but assumed that butter was oleomargarine, the digestibility
+of the butter was lowered about 6 per cent.[13] Preconceived notions in
+regard to foods, not founded upon well-established facts, but due to
+prejudice resulting from ignorance, cause many valuable foods to be
+excluded from the dietary. Many persons, like the foreign lady who,
+visiting this country, said she ate only acquaintances, prefer foods
+that have a familiar taste and appearance, and any unusual taste or
+appearance detracts from the value because of the psychological
+influence upon digestion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS
+
+
+241. Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods.--The market price and the
+nutritive value of foods are often at variance, as those which cost the
+most frequently contain the least nutrients.[75] It is difficult to make
+absolute comparisons as to the nutritive value of foods at different
+prices, because they differ not only in the amounts, but also in the
+kinds of nutrients. While it is not possible to express definitely the
+value of one food in terms of another, approximate comparisons may be
+made as to the amounts of nutrients that can be secured for a given sum
+of money when foods are at different prices, and tables have been
+prepared making such comparisons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--COMPOSITION OF FOODS.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]
+
+242. Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum.[7]--To ascertain the
+nutrients procurable for a given sum first determine the amount in
+pounds that can be obtained, say, for ten cents, and then multiply by
+the percentages of fat, protein, carbohydrates, and calories in the
+food. The results are the amounts, in pounds, of nutrients procurable
+for that sum of money. For example: if milk is 5 cents per quart, two
+quarts or approximately four pounds, can be procured for 10 cents. If
+the milk contains fat, 4 per cent, protein, 3.3 per cent, carbohydrates,
+5 per cent, and fuel value, 310 calories per pound, multiplying each of
+these by 4 gives the nutrients and fuel value in four pounds, or 10
+cents worth of milk, as follows:
+
+  Protein             0.13 lb.
+  Fat                 0.16 lb.
+  Carbohydrates       0.2 lb.
+  Calories            1240
+
+If it is desired to compare milk at 5 cents per quart with round steak
+at 15 cents per pound, 10 cents will procure 0.66, or two thirds of a
+pound of round steak containing on an average (edible portion) 19 per
+cent protein, 12.8 per cent fat, and yielding 890 calories per pound. If
+10 per cent is refuse, there is edible about 0.6 of a pound. The amounts
+of nutrients in the 0.6 of a pound of steak, edible portion, or 0.66 lb.
+as purchased would be:
+
+  Protein          0.11 lb.
+  Fat              0.08 lb.
+  Calories          534
+
+It is to be observed that from the 10 cents' worth of milk a little more
+protein, 0.08 of a pound more fat, and nearly two and one half times as
+many calories can be secured as from the 10 cents' worth of meat. This
+is due to the carbohydrates and the larger amount of fat which the milk
+contains. At these prices, milk should be used liberally in the dietary,
+as it furnishes more of all the nutrients than does meat. It would not
+be advisable to exclude meat entirely from the ration, but milk at 5
+cents per quart is cheaper food than meat at 15 cents per pound. In
+making comparisons, preference cannot always be given to one food
+because of its containing more of any particular nutrient, for often
+there are other factors that influence the value.
+
+243. Comparing Foods as to Nutritive Value.--In general, preference
+should be given to foods which supply the most protein, provided the
+differences between the carbohydrates and fats are not large. When the
+protein content of two foods is nearly the same, but the fats and
+carbohydrates differ materially, the preference may safely be given to
+the food which supplies the larger amount of total nutrients. A pound of
+protein in a ration is more valuable than a pound of either fat or
+carbohydrates, although it is not possible to establish an absolute
+scale as to the comparative value of these nutrients, because they serve
+different functional purposes in the body. It is sometimes necessary to
+use small amounts of foods rich in protein in order to secure a balanced
+ration; excessive use of protein, however, is not economical, as that
+which is not needed for functional purposes is converted into heat and
+energy which could be supplied as well by the carbohydrates, and they
+are less expensive nutrients.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]
+
+
+TEN CENTS WILL PURCHASE: (From Farmer's Bulletin No. 142, U. S.
+Dept. of Agr.)
+
+  =============================================================================
+                          |       | TOTAL   |        |       |        |
+                          |       | WEIGHT  |        |       |        |
+    KIND OF FOOD          | PRICE | OF FOOD |        |       |  CAR-  |
+      MATERIAL            |  PER  | MATE-   |PROTEIN |  FAT  |  BOHY- |  ENERGY
+                          | POUND | RIAL    |        |       | DRATES |
+  ------------------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+---------+-------
+                          | Cents | Pounds  | Pound  | Pound | Pounds |Calories
+  Beef, sirloin           |   25  |   0.40  |  0.06  |  0.06 |   --   |    410
+      Do.                 |   20  |   0.50  |  0.08  |  0.08 |   --   |    515
+      Do.                 |   15  |   0.67  |  0.10  |  0.11 |   --   |    685
+  Beef, round             |   16  |   0.63  |  0.11  |  0.08 |   --   |    560
+      Do.                 |   14  |   0.71  |  0.13  |  0.09 |   --   |    630
+      Do.                 |   12  |   0.83  |  0.15  |  0.10 |   --   |    740
+  Beef, shoulder clod     |   12  |   0.83  |  0.13  |  0.08 |   --   |    595
+      Do.                 |    9  |   1.11  |  0.18  |  0.10 |   --   |    795
+  Beef, stew meat         |    5  |   2.00  |  0.29  |  0.23 |   --   |   1530
+  Beef, dried, chipped    |   25  |   0.40  |  0.10  |  0.03 |   --   |    315
+  Mutton chops, loin      |   16  |   0.63  |  0.08  |  0.17 |   --   |    890
+  Mutton, leg             |   20  |   0.50  |  0.07  |  0.07 |   --   |    445
+      Do.                 |   16  |   0.63  |  0.09  |  0.09 |   --   |    560
+  Roast pork, loin        |   12  |   0.83  |  0.11  |  0.19 |   --   |   1035
+  Pork, smoked ham        |   22  |   0.45  |  0.06  |  0.14 |   --   |    735
+      Do.                 |   18  |   0.56  |  0.08  |  0.18 |   --   |    915
+  Pork, fat salt          |   12  |   0.83  |  0.02  |  0.68 |   --   |   2950
+  Codfish, dressed, fresh |   10  |   1.00  |  0.11  |   --  |   --   |    220
+  Halibut, fresh          |   18  |   0.56  |  0.08  |  0.02 |   --   |    265
+  Cod, salt               |    7  |   1.43  |  0.22  |  0.01 |   --   |    465
+  Mackerel, salt, dressed |   10  |   1.00  |  0.13  |  0.20 |   --   |   1135
+  Salmon, canned          |   12  |   0.83  |  0.18  |  0.10 |   --   |    760
+  Oysters, solids,        |       |         |        |       |        |
+      50 cents per quart  |   25  |   0.40  |  0.02  |   --  |  0.01  |     90
+      35 cents per quart  |   18  |   0.56  |  0.03  |  0.01 |  0.02  |    125
+  Lobster, canned         |   18  |   0.56  |  0.10  |  0.01 |   --   |    225
+  Butter                  |   20  |   0.50  |  0.01  |  0.40 |   --   |   1705
+      Do.                 |   25  |   0.40  |   --   |  0.32 |   --   |   1365
+      Do.                 |   30  |   0.33  |   --   |  0.27 |   --   |   1125
+  Eggs, 36 cents per dozen|   24  |   0.42  |  0.05  |  0.04 |   --   |    260
+  Eggs, 24 cents per dozen|   16  |   0.63  |  0.07  |  0.06 |   --   |    385
+  Eggs, 12 cents per dozen|    8  |   1.25  |  0.14  |  0.11 |   --   |    770
+  Cheese                  |   16  |   0.63  |  0.16  |  0.20 |  0.02  |   1185
+  Milk, 7 cents per quart | 3-1/2 |   2.85  |  0.09  |  0.11 |  0.14  |    885
+  Milk, 6 cents per quart |    3  |   3.33  |  0.11  |  0.13 |  0.17  |   1030
+  Wheat flour             |    3  |   3.33  |  0.32  |  0.03 |  2.45  |   5440
+      Do.                 | 2-1/2 |   4.00  |  0.39  |  0.04 |  2.94  |   6540
+  Corn meal, granular     | 2-1/2 |   4.00  |  0.31  |  0.07 |  2.96  |   6540
+  Wheat breakfast food    | 7-1/2 |   1.33  |  0.13  |  0.02 |  0.98  |   2235
+  Oat breakfast food      | 7-1/2 |   1.33  |  0.19  |  0.09 |  0.86  |   2395
+  Oatmeal                 |    4  |   2.50  |  0.34  |  0.16 |  1.66  |   4500
+  Rice                    |    8  |   1.25  |  0.08  |   --  |  0.97  |   2025
+  Wheat bread             |    6  |   1.67  |  0.13  |  0.02 |  0.87  |   2000
+      Do.                 |    5  |   2.00  |  0.16  |  0.02 |  1.04  |   2400
+      Do.                 |    4  |   2.50  |  0.20  |  0.03 |  1.30  |   3000
+  Rye bread               |    5  |   2.00  |  0.15  |  0.01 |  1.04  |   2340
+  Beans, white, dried     |    5  |   2.00  |  0.35  |  0.03 |  1.16  |   3040
+  Cabbage                 | 2-1/2 |   4.00  |  0.05  |  0.01 |  0.18  |    460
+  Celery                  |    5  |   2.00  |  0.02  |   --  |  0.05  |    130
+  Corn, canned            |   10  |   1.00  |  0.02  |  0.01 |  0.18  |    430
+  Potatoes,               |       |         |        |       |        |
+      90 cents per bushel |  1-1/2|   6.67  |  0.10  |  0.01 |  0.93  |   1970
+      60 cents per bushel |    1  |  10.00  |  0.15  |  0.01 |  1.40  |   2950
+      45 cents per bushel |   3/4 |  13.33  |  0.20  |  0.01 |  1.87  |   3935
+  Turnips                 |    1  |  10.00  |  0.08  |  0.01 |  0.54  |   1200
+  Apples                  |  1-1/2|   6.67  |  0.02  |  0.02 |  0.65  |   1270
+  Bananas                 |    7  |   1.43  |  0.01  |  0.01 |  0.18  |    370
+  Oranges                 |    6  |   1.67  |  0.01  |   --  |  0.13  |    250
+  Strawberries            |    7  |   1.43  |   .01  |  0.01 |  0.09  |    215
+  Sugar                   |    6  |   1.67  |   --   |   --  |  1.67  |   2920
+  =============================================================================
+
+It is to be noted in the table that, ordinarily, for the same amount of
+money the most nutrients can be obtained in the form of milk, cheese,
+sugar, and beans, corn meal, wheat flour, oatmeal, and cereals in bulk.
+While meats supply protein liberally, they fail to furnish carbohydrates
+as the vegetables. As discussed in the chapter on Dietary Studies of
+Families, unnecessarily expensive foods are often used, resulting either
+in lack of nutrients or unbalanced rations.
+
+
+EXAMPLES
+
+1. Compute the calories and the amounts of protein, fat, and
+carbohydrates that can be procured for 25 cents in cheese selling for 18
+cents per pound; how do these compare with the nutrients in eggs at 20
+cents per dozen?
+
+2. Which food furnishes the larger amount of nutrients, potatoes at 50
+cents per bushel or flour at $6 per barrel?
+
+3. How do beans at 10 cents per quart compare in nutritive value with
+beef at 15 Cents per pound?
+
+4. How does salt codfish at 10 cents per pound compare in nutritive
+value with lamb chops at 15 cents per pound?
+
+5. Compare in nutritive value cream at 25 cents per quart with butter at
+30 cents per pound.
+
+6. Calculate the composition and nutritive value of a cake made of
+sugar, 8 oz.; butter, 4 oz.; eggs, 8 oz.; flour, 8 oz.; and milk, 4 oz.;
+the baked cake weighs one and three fourths pounds.
+
+
+AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMON AMERICAN FOOD PRODUCTS
+
+(From Farmer's Bulletin, No. 142, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)
+
+  =============================================================================
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     | F
+                                |      |      |      |      |   h |     | u p
+                                |  R   |      |  P   |      | C y |     | e e
+                                |  e   |  W   |  r   |      | a d |     | l r
+                                |  f   |  a   |  o   |  F   | r r |  A  |
+      Food Material             |  u   |  t   |  t   |  a   | b a |  s  | v P
+      (as purchased)            |  s   |  e   |  e   |  t   | o t |  h  | a o
+                                |  e   |  r   |  i   |      | - e |     | l u
+                                |      |      |  n   |      |   s |     | u n
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     | e d
+  ------------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     | Calo-
+         ANIMAL FOOD            |  %   |  %   |  %   |  %   |  %  |  %  | ries
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Beef, fresh:                  |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Chuck ribs                  | 16.3 | 52.6 | 15.5 | 15.0 |  -- | 0.8 |  910
+    Flank                       | 10.2 | 54.0 | 17.0 | 19.0 |  -- | 0.7 | 1105
+    Loin                        | 13.3 | 52.5 | 16.1 | 17.5 |  -- | 0.9 | 1025
+    Porterhouse steak           | 12.7 | 52.4 | 19.1 | 17.9 |  -- | 0.8 | 1100
+    Sirloin steak               | 12.8 | 54.0 | 16.5 | 16.1 |  -- | 0.9 |  975
+    Neck                        | 27.6 | 45.9 | 14.5 | 11.9 |  -- | 0.7 | 1165
+    Ribs                        | 20.8 | 43.8 | 13.9 | 21.2 |  -- | 0.7 | 1135
+    Rib rolls                   |  --  | 63.9 | 19.3 | 16.7 |  -- | 0.9 | 1055
+    Round                       |  7.2 | 60.7 | 19.0 | 12.8 |  -- | 1.0 |  890
+    Rump                        | 20.7 | 45.0 | 13.8 | 20.2 |  -- | 0.7 | 1090
+    Shank, fore                 | 36.9 | 42.9 | 12.8 |  7.3 |  -- | 0.6 |  545
+    Shoulder and clod           | 16.4 | 56.8 | 16.4 |  9.8 |  -- | 0.9 |  715
+    Fore quarter                | 18.7 | 49.1 | 14.5 | 17.5 |  -- | 0.7 |  995
+    Hind quarter                | 15.7 | 50.4 | 15.4 | 18.3 |  -- | 0.7 | 1045
+  Beef, corned, canned,         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+        pickled, dried:         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Corned beef                 |  8.4 | 49.2 | 14.3 | 23.8 |  -- | 4.6 | 1245
+    Tongue, pickled             |  6.0 | 58.9 | 11.9 | 19.2 |  -- | 4.3 | 1010
+    Dried, salted, and smoked   |  4.7 | 53.7 | 26.4 |  6.9 |  -- | 8.9 |  790
+    Canned boiled beef          |  --  | 51.8 | 25.5 | 22.5 |  -- | 1.3 | 1410
+    Canned corned beef          |  --  | 51.8 | 26.3 | 18.7 |  -- | 4.0 | 1270
+  Veal:                         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Breast                      | 21.3 | 52.0 | 15.4 | 11.0 |  -- | 0.8 |  745
+    Leg                         | 14.2 | 60.1 | 15.5 |  7.9 |  -- | 0.9 |  625
+    Leg cutlets                 |  3.4 | 68.3 | 20.1 |  7.5 |  -- | 1.0 |  695
+    Fore quarter                | 24.5 | 54.2 | 15.1 |  6.0 |  -- | 0.7 |  535
+    Hind quarter                | 20.7 | 56.2 | 16.2 |  6.6 |  -- | 0.8 |  580
+  Mutton:                       |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Flank                       |  9.9 | 39.0 | 13.8 | 36.9 |  -- | 0.6 | 1770
+    Leg, hind                   | 18.4 | 51.2 | 15.1 | 14.7 |  -- | 0.8 |  890
+    Loin chops                  | 16.0 | 42.0 | 13.5 | 28.3 |  -- | 0.7 | 1415
+    Fore quarter                | 21.2 | 41.6 | 12.3 | 24.5 |  -- | 0.7 | 1235
+    Hind quarter, without       | 17.2 | 45.4 | 13.8 | 23.2 |  -- | 0.7 | 1210
+         tallow                 |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Lamb:                         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Breast                      | 10.1 | 45.5 | 15.4 | 19.1 |  -- | 0.8 | 1075
+    Leg, hind                   | 17.4 | 52.9 | 15.9 | 13.6 |  -- | 0.9 |  860
+  Pork, fresh:                  |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Ham                         | 10.7 | 48.0 | 13.5 | 25.9 |  -- | 0.8 | 1320
+    Loin chops                  | 19.7 | 41.8 | 13.4 | 24.2 |  -- | 0.8 | 1245
+    Shoulder                    | 12.4 | 44.9 | 12.0 | 29.8 |  -- | 0.7 | 1450
+    Tenderloin                  |  --  | 66.5 | 18.9 | 13.0 |  -- | 1.0 |  895
+  Pork, salted, cured, pickled: |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Ham, smoked                 | 13.6 | 34.8 | 14.2 | 33.4 |  -- | 4.2 | 1635
+    Shoulder, smoked            | 18.2 | 36.8 | 13.0 | 26.6 |  -- | 5.5 | 1335
+    Salt pork                   |  --  |  7.9 |  1.9 | 86.2 |  -- | 3.9 | 3555
+    Bacon, smoked               |  7.7 | 17.4 |  9.1 | 62.2 |  -- | 4.1 | 2715
+  Sausage:                      |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Bologna                     |  3.3 | 55.2 | 18.2 | 19.7 |  -- | 3.8 | 1155
+    Pork                        |  --  | 39.8 | 13.0 | 44.2 |  1.1| 2.2 | 2075
+    Frankfort                   |  --  | 57.2 | 19.6 | 18.6 |  1.1| 3.4 | 1155
+  Soups:                        |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Celery, cream of            |  --  | 88.6 |  2.1 |  2.8 |  5.0| 1.5 |  235
+    Beef                        |  --  | 92.9 |  4.4 |  0.4 |  1.1| 1.2 |  120
+    Meat stew                   |  --  | 84.5 |  4.6 |  4.3 |  5.5| 1.1 |  365
+    Tomato                      |  --  | 90.0 |  1.8 |  1.1 |  5.6| 1.5 |  185
+  Poultry:                      |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Chicken, broilers           | 41.6 | 43.7 | 12.8 |  1.4 |  -- | 0.7 |  305
+    Fowls                       | 25.9 | 47.1 | 13.7 | 12.3 |  -- | 0.7 |  765
+    Goose                       | 17.6 | 38.5 | 13.4 | 29.8 |  -- | 0.7 | 1475
+    Turkey                      | 22.7 | 42.4 | 16.1 | 18.4 |  -- | 0.8 | 1060
+  Fish:                         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Cod, dressed                | 29.9 | 58.5 | 11.1 |  0.2 |  -- | 0.8 |  220
+    Halibut, steaks or sections | 17.7 | 61.9 | 15.3 |  4.4 |  -- | 0.9 |  475
+    Mackerel, whole             | 44.7 | 40.4 | 10.2 |  4.2 |  -- | 0.7 |  370
+    Perch, yellow dressed       | 35.1 | 50.7 | 12.8 |  0.7 |  -- | 0.9 |  275
+    Shad, whole                 | 50.1 | 35.2 |  9.4 |  4.8 |  -- | 0.7 |  380
+    Shad, roe                   |   -- | 71.2 | 20.9 |  3.8 |  2.6| 1.5 |  600
+  Fish, preserved:              |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Cod, salt                   | 24.9 | 40.2 | 16.0 |  0.4 |  -- |18.5 |  325
+    Herring, smoked             | 44.4 | 19.2 | 20.5 |  8.8 |  -- | 7.4 |  755
+  Fish, canned                  |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Salmon                      |   -- | 63.5 | 21.8 | 12.1 |  -- | 2.6 |  915
+    Sardines                    |[A]5.0| 53.6 | 23.7 | 12.1 |  -- | 5.3 |  950
+  Shellfish:                    |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Clams                       |  --  | 80.8 | 10.6 | 1.1  | 5.2 |  2.3|  340
+    Crabs                       | 52.4 | 36.7 |  7.9 | 0.9  | 0.6 |  1.5|  200
+    Lobsters                    | 61.7 | 30.7 |  5.9 | 0.7  | 0.2 |  0.8|  145
+  Eggs: Hen's eggs           [B]|11.2  | 65.5 | 13.1 | 9.3  | --  |  0.9|  635
+  Dairy products, etc.:         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Butter                      |  --  | 11.0 |  1.0 |85.0  | --  |  3.0| 3410
+    Whole milk                  |  --  | 87.0 |  3.3 | 4.0  | 5.0 |  0.7|  310
+    Skim milk                   |  --  | 90.5 |  3.4 | 0.3  | 5.1 |  0.7|  165
+    Buttermilk                  |  --  | 91.0 |  3.0 | 0.5  | 4.8 |  0.7|  160
+    Condensed milk              |  --  | 26.9 |  8.8 | 8.3  |54.1 |  1.9| 1430
+    Cream                       |  --  | 74.0 |  2.5 |18.5  | 4.5 |  0.5|  865
+    Cheese, Cheddar             |  --  | 27.4 | 27.7 |36.8  | 4.1 |  4.0| 2075
+    Cheese, full cream          |  --  | 34.2 | 25.9 |33.7  | 2.4 |  3.8| 1885
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  VEGETABLE FOOD                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Flour, meal, etc.:            |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Entire wheat flour          |  --  | 11.4 | 13.8 | 1.9  |71.9 |  1.0| 1650
+    Graham flour                |  --  | 11.3 | 13.3 | 2.2  |71.4 |  1.8| 1645
+    Wheat flour, patent         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+        roller process          |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+      High-grade and medium     |  --  | 12.0 | 11.4 | 1.0  |75.1 |  0.5| 1635
+      Low grade                 |  --  | 12.0 | 14.0 | 1.9  |71.2 |  0.9| 1640
+    Macaroni, vermicelli, etc   |  --  | 10.3 | 13.4 | 0.9  |74.1 |  1.3| 1645
+    Wheat breakfast food        |  --  |  9.6 | 12.1 | 1.8  |75.2 |  1.3| 1680
+    Buckwheat flour             |  --  | 13.6 |  6.4 | 1.2  |77.9 |  0.9| 1605
+    Rye flour                   |  --  | 12.9 |  6.8 | 0.9  |78.7 |  0.7| 1620
+    Corn meal                   |  --  | 12.5 |  9.2 | 1.9  |75.4 |  1.0| 1635
+    Oat breakfast food          |  --  |  7.7 | 16.7 | 7.3  |66.2 |  2.1| 1800
+    Rice                        |  --  | 12.3 |  8.0 | 0.3  |79.0 |  0.4| 1620
+    Tapioca                     |  --  | 11.4 |  0.4 | 0.1  |88.0 |  0.1| 1650
+    Starch                      |  --  |  --  |  --  | --   |90.0 |  -- | 1675
+  Bread, pastry, etc.:          |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    White bread                 |  --  | 35.3 |  9.2 | 1.3  |53.1 |  1.1| 1200
+    Brown bread                 |  --  | 43.6 |  5.4 | 1.8  |47.1 |  2.1| 1040
+  Bread, pastry, etc.:          |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+   Graham bread                 |  --  | 35.7 |  8.9 |   1.8| 52.1| 1.5 | 1195
+  Whole wheat bread             |  --  | 38.4 |  9.7.|   0.9| 49.7| 1.3 | 1130
+  Rye bread                     |  --  | 35.7 |  9.0.|   0.6| 53.2| 1.5 | 1170
+  Cake                          |  --  | 19.9 |  6.3.|   9.0| 63.3| 1.5 | 1630
+  Cream crackers                |  --  |  6.8 |  9.7.|  12.1| 69.7| 1.7 | 1925
+  Oyster crackers               |  --  |  4.8 | 11.3.|  10.5| 70.5| 2.9 | 1910
+  Soda crackers                 |  --  |  5.9 |  9.8.|   9.1| 73.1| 2.1 | 1875
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Sugars, etc.:                 |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Molasses                      |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- | 70.0| --  | 1225
+  Candy[C]                      |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- | 96.0| --  | 1680
+  Honey                         |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- | 81.0| --  | 1420
+  Sugar, granulated             |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- |100.0| --  | 1750
+  Maple sirup                   |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- | 71.4| --  | 1250
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Vegetables:[D]                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Beans, dried                  |  --  | 12.6 | 22.5.|   1.8| 59.6| 3.5 | 1520
+  Beans, Lima, shelled          |  --  | 68.5 |  7.1.|   0.7| 22.0| 1.7 |  540
+  Beans, string                 |  7.0 | 83.0 |  2.1.|   0.3|  6.9| 0.7 |  170
+  Beets                         | 20.0 | 70.0 |  1.3.|   0.1|  7.7| 0.9 |  160
+  Cabbage                       | 15.0 | 77.7 |  1.4.|   0.2|  4.8| 0.9 |  115
+  Celery                        | 20.0 | 75.6 |  0.9.|   0.1|  2.6| 0.8 |   65
+  Corn, green (sweet),          |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+          edible portion        |  --  | 75.4 |  3.1 |   1.1| 19.7| 0.7 |  440
+  Cucumbers                     | 15.0 | 81.1 |  0.7.|   0.2|  2.6| 0.4 |   65
+  Lettuce                       | 15.0 | 80.5 |  1.0.|   0.2|  2.5| 0.8 |   65
+  Mushrooms                     | --   | 88.1 |  3.5 |   0.4|  6.8| 1.2 |  185
+  Onions                        | 10.0 | 78.9 |  1.4.|   0.3|  8.9| 0.5 |  190
+  Parsnips                      | 20.0 | 66.4 |  1.3.|   0.4| 10.8| 1.1 |  230
+  Peas _(Pisum sativum),_       |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+      dried.                    |  --  |  9.5 | 24.6 |   1.0| 62.0| 2.9 | 1565
+      shelled                   |  --  | 74.6 |  7.0 |   0.5| 16.9| 1.0 |  440
+  Cowpeas, dried                |  --  | 13.0 | 21.4.|   1.4| 60.8| 3.4 | 1505
+  Potatoes                      | 20.0 | 62.6 |  1.8.|   0.1| 14.7| 0.8 |  295
+  Vegetables:                   |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Rhubarb                     | 40.0 | 56.6 |  0.4 |  0.4 |  2.2| 0.4 |   60
+    Sweet potatoes              | 20.0 | 55.2 |  1.4 |  0.6 | 21.9| 0.9 |  440
+    Spinach                     |  --  | 92.3 |  2.1 |  0.3 |  3.2| 2.1 |   95
+    Squash                      | 50.0 | 44.2 |  0.7 |  0.2 |  4.5| 0.4 |  100
+    Tomatoes                    |  --  | 94.3 |  0.9 |  0.4 |  3.9| 0.5 |  100
+    Turnips                     | 30.0 | 62.7 |  0.9 |  0.1 |  5.7| 0.6 |  120
+  Vegetables, canned:           |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Baked beans                 |  --  | 68.9 |  6.9 |  2.5 | 19.6| 2.1 |  555
+    Peas _(Pisum sativum),_     |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+        green                   |  --  | 85.3 |  3.6 |  0.2 |  9.8| 1.1 |  235
+    Corn, green                 |  --  | 76.1 |  2.8 |  1.2 | 19.0| 0.9 |  430
+    Succotash                   |  --  | 75.9 |  3.6 |  1.0 | 18.6| 0.9 |  425
+    Tomatoes                    |  --  | 94.0 |  1.2 |  0.2 |  4.0| 0.6 |   95
+  Fruits, berries, etc.,        |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+              fresh: [E]        |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Apples                      | 25.0 | 63.3 |  0.3 |  0.3 | 10.8| 0.3 |  190
+    Bananas                     | 35.0 | 48.9 |  0.8 |  0.4 | 14.3| 0.6 |  260
+    Grapes                      | 25.0 | 58.0 |  1.0 |  1.2 | 14.4| 0.4 |  295
+    Lemons                      | 30.0 | 62.5 |  0.7 |  0.5 |  5.9| 0.4 |  125
+    Muskmelons                  | 50.0 | 44.8 |  0.3 |  --  |  4.6| 0.3 |   80
+    Oranges                     | 27.0 | 63.4 |  0.6 |  0.1 |  8.5| 0.4 |  150
+    Pears                       | 10.0 | 76.0 |  0.5 |  0.4 | 12.7| 0.4 |  230
+    Persimmons, edible portion  |  --  | 66.1 |  0.8 |  0.7 | 31.5| 0.9 |  550
+    Raspberries                 |  --  | 85.8 |  1.0 |  --  | 12.6| 0.6 |  220
+    Strawberries                |  5.0 | 85.9 |  0.9 |  0.6 |  7.0| 0.6 |  150
+    Watermelons                 | 59.4 | 37.5 |  0.2 |  0.1 |  2.7| 0.1 |   50
+  Fruits, dried:                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Apples                      |  --  | 28.1 |  1.6 |  2.2 | 66.1| 2.0 | 1185
+    Apricots                    |  --  | 29.4 |  4.7 |  1.0 | 62.5| 2.4 | 1125
+    Dates                       | 10.0 | 13.8 |  1.9 |  2.5 | 70.6| 1.2 | 1275
+  Fruits, dried:                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Rhubarb                     | 40.0 | 56.6 |  0.4 |  0.4 |  2.2| 0.4 |   60
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Figs                        |  --  | 18.8 |  4.3 |  0.3 | 74.2| 2.4 | 1280
+    Raisins                     | 10.0 | 13.1 |  2.3 |  3.0 | 68.5| 3.1 | 1265
+    Nuts:                       |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Almonds                     | 45.0 |  2.7 | 11.5 | 30.2 |  9.5| 1.1 | 1515
+    Brazil nuts                 | 49.6 |  2.6 |  8.6 | 33.7 |  3.5| 2.0 | 1485
+    Butternuts                  | 86.4 |  0.6 |  3.8 |  8.3 |  0.5| 0.4 |  385
+    Chestnuts, fresh            | 16.0 | 37.8 |  5.2 |  4.5 | 35.4| 1.1 |  915
+    Chestnuts, dried            | 24.0 |  4.5 |  8.1 |  5.3 | 56.4| 1.7 | 1385
+    Cocoanuts                [F]| 48.8 |  7.2 |  2.9 | 25.9 | 14.3| 0.9 | 1295
+    Cocoanut, prepared          |  --  |  3.5 |  6.3 | 57.4 | 31.5| 1.3 | 2865
+    Filberts                    | 52.1 |  1.8 |  7.5 | 31.3 |  6.2| 1.1 | 1430
+    Hickory nuts                | 62.2 |  1.4 |  5.8 | 25.5 |  4.3| 0.8 | 1145
+    Pecans, polished            | 53.2 |  1.4 |  5.2 | 33.3 |  6.2| 0.7 | 1465
+    Peanuts                     | 24.5 |  6.9 | 19.5 | 29.1 | 18.5| 1.5 | 1775
+    Piñon _(Pinus edulis)_      | 40.6 |  2.0 |  8.7 | 36.8 | 10.2| 1.7 | 1730
+    Walnuts, black              | 74.1 |  0.6 |  7.2 | 14.6 |  3.0| 0.5 |  730
+    Walnuts, English            | 58.1 |  1.0 |  6.9 | 26.6 |  6.8| 0.6 | 1250
+  Miscellaneous:                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Chocolate                   |  --  |  5.9 | 12.9 | 48.7 | 30.3| 2.2 | 5625
+    Cocoa, powdered             |  --  |  4.6 | 21.6 | 28.9 | 37.7| 7.2 | 2160
+    Cereal coffee, infusion     |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+       (1 part boiled in        |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+       20 parts water)[G]       |  --  | 98.2 |  0.2 |  --  |  1.4| 0.2 |   30
+  =============================================================================
+
+
+[Footnote A: Refuse, oil.]
+[Footnote B: Refuse, shell.]
+
+[Footnote C: Plain confectionery not containing nuts, fruit, or
+chocolate.]
+
+[Footnote D: Such vegetables as potatoes, squash, beets, etc., have a
+certain amount of inedible material, skin, seeds, etc The amount varies
+with the method of preparing the vegetables, and cannot be accurately
+estimated The figures given for refuse of vegetables, fruits, etc., are
+assumed to represent approximately the amount of refuse in these foods
+as ordinarily prepared.]
+
+[Footnote E: Fruits contain a certain proportion of inedible materials,
+as skin, seeds, etc., which are properly classed as refuse. In some
+fruits, as oranges and prunes, the amount rejected in eating is
+practically the same as refuse. In others, as apples and pears, more or
+less of the edible material is ordinarily rejected with the skin and
+seeds and other inedible portions. The edible material which is thus
+thrown away, and should properly be classed with the waste, is here
+classed with the refuse. The figures for refuse here given represent, as
+nearly as can be ascertained, the quantities ordinarily rejected.]
+
+[Footnote F: Milk and shell.]
+
+[Footnote G: The average of five analyses of cereal coffee grain is:
+Water 6.2, protein 13.3, fat 3.4, carbohydrates 72.6, and ash 4.5 per
+cent. Only a portion of the nutrients, however, enter into the infusion.
+The average in the table represents the available nutrients in the
+beverage. Infusions of genuine coffee and of tea like the above contain
+practically no nutrients.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+DIETARY STUDIES
+
+
+244. Object of Dietary Studies.--The quantity of food which different
+families purchase varies between wide limits; a portion being lost
+mechanically in preparation and a still larger and more variable amount
+in the refuse and non-edible parts. If a record is made of all foods
+purchased and the waste and non-edible portions are deducted, the
+nutrients consumed by a family may be calculated by multiplying the
+weight of each food by the average composition. If such calculations be
+made, it will be found that in some families nearly a half pound per day
+of both protein and fat is consumed by adults, while in other families
+less than half of this amount is used. The object of dietary studies is
+to determine the source, cost, composition, and nutritive value of the
+foods consumed by different families; they also enable comparisons to be
+made of the amounts of nutrients purchased. Extensive dietary studies
+have been made by the United States Department of Agriculture, and the
+results have been published in various bulletins.[76]
+
+245. Wide and Narrow Rations.--When the amount of carbohydrates in a
+ration is small in comparison with the protein, it is called a narrow
+ration, while a wide ration is one in which the carbohydrates are much
+in excess of the protein. When a ration contains 0.40 of a pound of
+protein, 0.40 of a pound of fat, and 1 pound of carbohydrates, it has a
+nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.8 and is a narrow ration. To calculate the
+nutritive ratio, the fat is multiplied by 2-1/4, the product added to
+the carbohydrates, and this sum divided by the protein. It is not
+possible to designate accurately the amount of protein and other
+nutrients that should be in the daily ration of all persons, because the
+needs of the body vary so with different individuals. Hard and fast
+rules governing the amounts of nutrients to be consumed cannot as yet be
+formulated, as our knowledge of the subject is too limited. It is known
+that both excessive and scant amounts are alike injurious. While the
+appetite may indicate either hunger or satiety, it alone cannot always
+be relied upon as a safe guide for determining the amount and kind of
+food to consume, although the demands of appetite should not be
+disregarded until it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that it is not
+voicing the needs of nature. There has been a tendency which perhaps was
+a survival of the Puritanical ideas of the early days to stamp as
+hurtful whatever seemed desirable and pleasant; as examples might be
+cited the craving for water by fever patients, and for sugar by growing
+children, which have now been proven to be normal demands of nature.
+
+246. Dietary Standards.--As a result of a large number of dietary
+studies and digestion experiments, dietary standards have been
+prepared. Atwater in this country and Voit in Germany have proposed such
+standards for men employed at different kinds of labor, as follows:
+
+
+  ==========================================================================
+                                   |Protein| Fat|Carbo-  | Fuel   |Nutritive
+                                   |       |    |hydrates| Value  |
+  ---------------------------------|-------|----|-----------------|---------
+                                   |  lb.  | lb.|   lb.  |Calories| Ratio
+  Man with little physical exercise| 0.20  |0.20|  0.66  |  2450  |  5.5
+  Man with light muscular work     | 0.22  |0.22|  0.77  |  2800  |  5.7
+  Man with moderate muscular work  | 0.28  |0.28|  0.99  |  3520  |  5.8
+  Man with active muscular work    | 0.33  |0.33|  1.10  |  4060  |  5.6
+  Man with hard muscular work      | 0.39  |0.55|  1.43  |  5700  |  6.9
+  ==========================================================================
+
+In the table it will be seen that the quantity of nutrients increases
+with the labor to be performed. In order to secure the necessary heat
+and energy, rations for men at heavy labor contain proportionally more
+fat and carbohydrates than are required for light work. All dietary
+standards, however, should be regarded as tentative only. Opinions
+differ greatly on different points; for example, as to the amount of
+protein a ration should contain. This is a matter that can be determined
+only from extended investigations under a variety of conditions, and as
+yet results are too meager to formulate other than tentative standards.
+Chittenden has found that the body can be sustained on very much less
+protein than is called for in the standard ration.[77] The amount of
+protein in the ration should be ample to sustain the body weight and
+maintain a nitrogen equilibrium; that is, the income and outgo of
+nitrogen from the body should be practically equal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--DIETARIES AND DIETARY
+STANDARDS.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]
+
+     "While one freely admits that health and a large measure of
+     muscular strength may be maintained upon a minimum supply of
+     protein, yet I think that a dispassionate survey of mankind will
+     show that races which adopt such a diet are lacking in what, for
+     want of a better word, one can only describe as energy." [28]
+
+On the other hand, excessive and unnecessarily large amounts of protein
+are sometimes consumed, adding greatly to the cost of the ration and
+necessitating additional labor on the part of the body for its
+elimination.
+
+247. Number of Meals per Day.--Some persons advocate two meals per day
+rather than three, but dietary studies show that the best results are
+secured when the food is divided among three rather than two meals, and
+with a two-meal system the tendency is to consume a larger total amount
+of food than when three meals are eaten. It is not essential that the
+food be equally divided among the three meals. Any one of them may be
+lighter or more substantial as the habits and inclinations of the
+individual dictate. If it is found necessary to reduce the total
+quantity of food consumed, this may be done by a proportional reduction
+of each of the meals, or of any one of them instead of decreasing the
+number of meals per day. The occasional missing of a meal is sometimes
+beneficial, in cases of digestion disorders, but the ordinary
+requirements of persons in normal health who have either mental or
+physical labor to perform are best met when three meals per day are
+consumed, as this insures an even supply of nutrients. For persons of
+sedentary habits, the kind and quantity of food at each meal must be
+regulated largely by the individual from knowledge based on personal
+experience.
+
+     "In the matter of diet every man must, in the last resort, be a law
+     unto himself; but he should draw up his dietetic code intelligently
+     and apply it honestly, giving due heed to the warnings which nature
+     is sure to address to him should he at any time transgress."[28]
+
+If there is trouble in digesting the food, it is well to study the other
+habits of life along with the food question, for it may be the
+difficulty arises from some other cause, and would be remedied by more
+exercise and fresh air, avoiding rush immediately after meals, more
+thorough mastication, or less worry. It is a serious matter to shut off
+the supply of food from a person not suffering from some disease and who
+is working; as well cut off the supply of fuel from a furnace and then
+expect a full amount of energy and heat. But unlike the furnace, when
+the human body is deprived of needed nutrients it preys upon itself and
+uses up its reserve that should be drawn upon only in cases of illness
+or extreme nervous strain. Some persons live in such a way as to never
+have any reserve of strength and energy to call upon but use up each day
+all the body can produce and so become physical bankrupts when they
+should be in their prime. Food is required for the production of nerve
+energy as well as physical energy.[78]
+
+248. Mixed Dietary Desirable.--Experiments in the feeding of farm
+animals show that the best results come from the combination of a number
+of foods to form a mixed ration, rather than from the use of one food
+alone,[79] for in this way the work of digestion is more evenly
+distributed, and a higher degree of efficiency is secured from the foods
+consumed. The same is true in human feeding; the best results are
+secured from a mixed diet. Ordinarily, about two fifths of the nutrients
+of a ration are derived from animal and three fifths from vegetable
+sources.
+
+249. Animal and Vegetable Foods; Economy of Production.--Animal foods
+can never compete in cheapness of the nutrients with cereals and
+vegetables, as it takes six to eight pounds or more of a cereal,
+together with forage crops, to make a pound of meat. Hence the returns
+in food value are very much larger from the direct use of the cereals as
+human food, than from the feeding of cereals to cattle and the use of
+the meat. As the population of a country increases, and foods
+necessarily become more expensive, cereals are destined to replace
+animal foods to a great extent, solely as a matter of economy.
+
+250. Food Habits.--Long-established dietary habits and customs are not
+easily changed, and when the body becomes accustomed to certain foods,
+substitution of others, although equally valuable, may fail to give
+satisfactory results. For example, immigrants from southern Europe
+demand foods with which they are familiar, as macaroni, olive oil, and
+certain kinds of cheese, foods which are generally imported and more
+expensive than the staples produced in this country,[80] and when they
+are compelled to live on other foods, even though they have as many
+nutrients, they complain of being underfed. Previously acquired food
+habits appear to affect materially the process of digestion and
+assimilation. Sudden and pronounced change in the feeding of farm
+animals is attended with unsatisfactory results, and whenever changes
+are made in the food of either humans or animals they should be gradual
+rather than radical.
+
+251. Underfed Families.--As the purchasing of food is often done by
+inexperienced persons, palatability rather than nutritive value is made
+the basis of choice. Dietary studies show that because of lack of
+knowledge of the nutritive value of foods, whole families are often
+underfed. Particularly is this true where the means for purchasing foods
+are limited. In dietary studies among poor families in New York
+City,[81] the United States Department of Agriculture notes: "It is
+quite evident that what is needed among these families more than
+anything else is instruction in the way to make the little they have go
+the farthest." Some classes of the rich too are equally liable to be
+underfed, as they are more prone to food notions and are able to indulge
+them. Among the children of the rich are found some as poorly nourished
+as among the poor.
+
+252. Cheap and Expensive Foods.--Among the more expensive items of a
+ration are meats, butter, and canned fruits. The difference in
+composition and nutritive value between various cuts of meat is small,
+being largely physical, and affecting taste and flavor rather than
+nutritive value. Expensive cuts of meat, high-priced breakfast cereals,
+tropical fruits and foods which impart special flavors, add little in
+the way of nutritive value to the ration, but greatly enhance the cost
+of living. Ordinarily the cheapest foods are corn meal, wheat flour and
+bread, milk, beans, cheese, sugar, and potatoes.[7] The amount of animal
+and vegetable foods to combine with these to form a balanced ration may
+be governed largely by personal preference or cost, as there is little
+difference in nutritive value. The selection of foods on the basis of
+cost and nutritive value is discussed in Chapter XVI.
+
+253. Food Notions.--Many erroneous ideas exist as to the nutritive
+value of foods, and often wholesome and valuable foods are discriminated
+against because of prejudice. Skim milk is usually regarded as
+containing little if any nourishing material, when in reality it has a
+high protein content, and can be added to other foods to increase their
+nutritive value. The less expensive cuts of meat contain more total
+nutrients than many of the more expensive ones. Beef extracts have been
+erroneously said to contain more nutrients than beef,[51] and mushrooms
+to be equal in value of beefsteak; chemical analyses fail to confirm
+either statement. The banana also has been overestimated as to food
+value, and while it contains more nutrients than many fruits, it is not
+the equal of cereals, as has been claimed.[82] Cocoa, although a
+valuable beverage, adds but little in the way of nutrients to a ration
+unless it is made with milk. The value of a food should be based upon
+its composition as determined by chemical analysis, its digestibility as
+founded upon digestion experiments, and its palatability and mechanical
+structure. Food notions have, in many instances, been the cause of
+banishing from the dietary wholesome and nutritious foods, of greatly
+increasing the cost of living, as well as of promulgating incorrect
+ideas in regard to foods, so that individuals and in some cases entire
+families have suffered from improper or insufficient food.
+
+254. Dietary of Two Families Compared.--A dietary study often reveals
+ways in which it is possible to improve the ration in kinds and amounts
+of food, and sometimes at less expense. The following dietaries of two
+families for the same period show that one family expends over twice as
+much in the purchase of foods as the other family, and yet the one whose
+food costs the less actually secures the larger amount of nutritive
+material and is better fed than the family where more money is expended
+for food.[13]
+
+  FOOD CONSUMED, ONE WEEK
+
+  FAMILY No. 1
+
+  20 loaves of bread                               $1.00
+  10 to 12 lb. loin steak, or meat of similar cost  2.00
+  20 to 25 lb. rib roast, or similar meat           4.40
+  4 lb. high-priced cereal breakfast food, 20 ct.   0.80
+  Cake and pastry purchased                         3.00
+  8 lb. butter, 30 ct.                              2.40
+  Tea, coffee, spices, etc                          0.75
+  Mushrooms                                         0.75
+  Celery                                            1.00
+  Oranges                                           2.00
+  Potatoes                                          0.25
+  Miscellaneous canned goods                        2.00
+  Milk                                              0.50
+  Miscellaneous foods                               2.00
+  3 doz. eggs                                       0.60
+                                                  ------
+                                                  $23.45
+
+  FAMILY No. 2
+
+  15 lb. flour, bread home-made (skim milk used)      $0.45
+  Yeast, shortening and skim milk                      0.10
+  10 lb. steak (round. Hamburger and some loin)        1.50
+  10 lb. other meats, boiling pieces, rump roast, etc. 1.00
+  5 lb. cheese, 16 cents                               0.80
+  5 lb. oatmeal (bulk)                                 0.15
+  5 lb. beans                                          0.25
+  Home-made cake and pastry                            1.00
+  6 lb. butter, 30 ct.                                 1.80
+  3 lb. home-made shortening                           0.25
+  Tea, coffee, and spices                              0.40
+  Apples                                               0.50
+  Prunes                                               0.25
+  Potatoes                                             0.25
+  Milk                                                 1.00
+  Miscellaneous foods                                  1.00
+  3 doz. eggs                                          0.60
+                                                     ------
+                                                     $11.30
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--COST AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF RATIONS.]
+
+In comparing the foods used by the two families, it will be observed
+that family No. 1 purchased their bread at the bakery at a cost of $
+1.00, while the bread of family No. 2 was home-made, skim milk being
+used in its preparation, the flour, milk, yeast, and shortening costing
+about 55 cents. Family No. 1 consumed 10 pounds of expensive steaks,
+family No. 2 consumed the same number of pounds, a portion being cheaper
+cuts. Instead of the 20 pounds of roast or similar beef used by family
+No. 1, only one half as much and cheaper cuts as boiling pieces, stew,
+rump roast, etc., were used by family No. 2; 5 pounds of beans and 5
+pounds of cheese taking the place of some of the meat. Family No. 1
+consumed 4 pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods, supposing they
+contained a larger amount of nutrients than were actually present. In
+place of the 4 pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods of family
+No. 1, family No. 2 used 5 pounds of oatmeal purchased in bulk. Family
+No. 1 bought their cake and pastry for $3.00, while those of family No.
+2 were home made and cost $1.00. Family No. 2 used 2 pounds less butter
+per week because of the preparation and use of home-made shortening from
+beef suet and milk. They also purchased a smaller amount of tea, coffee,
+and spices than family No. 1. Family No. 2 consumed a larger quantity of
+less expensive fruits and vegetables than family No. 1, who ate 75
+cents' worth of mushrooms with the idea that they contained as much
+protein as meat, but analyses show that mushrooms contain no more
+nutrients than potatoes and similar vegetables. In place of the celery
+and oranges, apples and prunes were used by family No. 2. The same
+amount of potatoes was used by each. Fifty cents was spent for milk by
+family No. 1 and $1.00 by family No. 2. The total amount expended for
+food by family No. 1 was $23.45, while family No. 2 purchased a greater
+variety of foods for $11.30, as well as foods containing more nutrients.
+The approximate amounts of nutrients in the foods purchased by the two
+families are given in the following table, from which it will be
+observed that family No. 2 obtained a much larger amount of total
+nutrients and was better fed at considerably less expense than family
+No. 1.
+
+NUTRIENTS IN FOODS CONSUMED.--FAMILY NO. 1
+
+  =============================================
+                   |PROTEIN| FAT |CARBOHYDRATES
+                   |  LB.  | LB. |   LB.
+  -------------------------|-----|-------------
+  20 lb. bread     |  1.98 | 0.28| 11.42
+  10 lb. loin steak|  1.59 | 1.76|   --
+  20 lb. rib roast |  2.68 | 4.26|   --
+  4 lb. cereals    |  0.42 | 0.06|  2.75
+  8 lb. butter     |  0.04 | 6.80|   --
+  25 lb. potatoes  |  0.45 | 0.03|  3.83
+  20 lb. milk      |  0.70 | 0.80|  1.00
+                   |-------|-----|-------------
+                   |  7.86 |13.99| 19.00
+  =============================================
+
+  FAMILY NO. 2
+  =====================================================
+                           |PROTEIN| FAT |CARBOHYDRATES
+                           |  LB.  | LB. |   LB.
+  -------------------------|-------|-----|-------------
+  15 lb. flour             |  1.89 | 0.12|  11.15
+  5 lb. skim milk          |  0.16 | 0.01|   0.26
+  10 lb. round steak       |  1.81 | 1.26|    --
+  10 lb. beef              |  1.32 | 2.02|    --
+  5 lb. cheese             |  1.40 | 1.75|    --
+  5 lb. oatmeal            |  0.78 | 0.36|   3.40
+  6 lb. butter             |  0.03 | 5.10|    --
+  3 lb. shortening         |   --  | 2.55|    --
+  3 lb. prunes             |  0.03 |  -- |   0.60
+  25 lb. apples            |  0.12 |  -- |   2.50
+  25 lb. potatoes          |  0.45 | 0.03|   3.83
+  40 lb. milk              |  1.44 | 1.60|   1.90
+  5 lb. beans              |  1.12 |  -- |   3.00
+  -------------------------|-------|-----|------------------
+                           | 10.55 |14.80|  26.64
+  -------------------------|-------|-----|------------------
+  Difference in nutrients  |
+  in favor of family No. 2,|
+  consuming the cheaper    |2.69  0.81  7.64
+  combination of foods     |
+  =====================================================
+
+255. Food in its Relation to Mental and Physical Vigor.--When the body
+is not properly supplied with food, the best results in the form of
+productive work cannot be secured. There is a close relationship between
+the nature of the food consumed and mental activity, also ability to
+satisfactorily perform physical labor. "The productive power of the
+individual as well as of the nation depends doubtless upon many factors
+other than food, such as race, climate, habit, etc., but there is no
+gainsaying the fact that diet has also a profound and direct influence
+upon it."[83]
+
+If the body is diseased, it cannot make the right uses of the food, and
+often the food is blamed when the trouble is due primarily to other
+causes. The fact that a diseased digestive tract is unable to utilize
+some foods is no valid reason why these foods should be discarded in the
+dietary of persons in normal health, particularly when the food is in no
+way responsible for the disease.
+
+Some diseases are most prevalent in the case of a restricted diet. A
+change in the dietary of the Japanese navy greatly improved the health
+of the sailors.
+
+     "The prevalence of kakke or beriberi in the navy turned the
+     attention of many medical specialists toward the problem of
+     nutrition.... It was generally believed that there was some very
+     close connection between the disease and the rice diet.... One
+     outcome of these investigations was the passage of the food supply
+     act of the navy in 1884. The ration provided in accordance with
+     this act was sufficient to furnish an abundance of protein and
+     energy.... Following the change of ration in 1884, the prevalence
+     of the disease was very materially diminished, and at the end of
+     three years cases of kakke were practically unknown among the
+     marines."[83]
+
+256. Dietary Studies in Public Institutions.--Dietary studies in
+public institutions, as prisons, and asylums for the insane, show that
+it is possible to secure greater variety of food containing a larger
+amount of nutrients, and even at a reduction in cost.[84] In such
+institutions it is important that the food should be not only ample in
+amount, but wholesome and nutritious, as many of the inmates respond
+both physically and mentally to an improved diet. For humanitarian as
+well as economic reasons institutional dietetics should more generally
+be placed under the supervision of skilled dietists.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+RATIONAL FEEDING OF MAN
+
+
+257. Object.--Rational feeding of man has for its object the
+regulation of the food supply in accord with the demands of the body. It
+is based upon the same principles as the rational feeding of animals; in
+each, the best results in the way of health, amount of labor performed,
+and economy are secured when the body receives nutrients sufficient for
+the production of heat and energy and for the repair of worn-out
+tissues. Rational feeding is simply regulation of the food, both as to
+kind and amount, to meet the needs of the body.[72]
+
+258. Standard Rations.--In human feeding, as in animal feeding, it is
+not possible to lay down hard and fast rules as to the quantity of
+nutrients required for a standard ration.[85] As stated in the chapter
+on Dietary Studies, such standards have been proposed, but they are to
+be considered as tentative rather than absolute, for the amount of food
+required by different persons must necessarily vary with the
+individuality. While it is impossible to establish absolute standards,
+any large variation from the provisional standards usually results in
+lessened ability to accomplish work, ill health, or increased expense.
+
+259. Amounts of Food Consumed.--The approximate amounts of some food
+articles consumed per day are as follows:
+
+  ===================================
+          |   RANGE   | APPROXIMATE
+          |           |AMOUNT IN LBS.
+  --------|--------------------------
+  Bread   |6 to 14 oz.| 0.50
+  Butter  |2 to  5 oz.| 0.12
+  Potatoes|8 to 16 oz.| 0.75
+  Cheese  |1 to  4 oz.| 0.12
+  Beans   |1 to  4 oz.| 0.12
+  Milk    |8 to 32 oz.|  --
+  Sugar   |2 to  5 oz.| 0.20
+  Meats   |4 to 12 oz.| 0.25
+  Oatmeal |1 to  4 oz.| 0.12
+  ===================================
+
+In the calculation of rations it is desirable that the amount of any
+food article should not exceed that designated, unless for some special
+reason it has been found the food can consistently be increased. The
+amount of nutrients given in dietary standards is for one day, and the
+nutrients may be divided among the three meals as desired. It is to be
+noted that, ordinarily, the foods which supply carbohydrates are flour,
+corn meal, cereal products, potatoes, beans, sugar, and milk; those
+which supply fat are milk, butter, lard, and meats; and those which
+supply protein in liberal amounts are beans, cheese, meats, oatmeal,
+cereals, bread, and milk.
+
+260. Average Composition of Foods.--The amounts of nutrients in foods
+are determined from the average composition of the foods. These figures
+for average composition are based upon analyses of a large number of
+samples of food materials.[7] In individual cases it will be found that
+foods may vary from the standards given; as for example, milk may
+contain from 2.5 to 5 per cent of fat, while the protein and fat of
+meats vary appreciably from the figures given for average composition.
+With the cereals and vegetable foods, variations from the standards are
+small. In the table, the composition of the food as purchased represents
+all of the nutrients in the food, including those in the refuse,
+trimmings, or waste, while the figures for the edible portion represent
+the nutrients in the food after deducting what is lost as refuse. In
+making calculations, the student should use the figures given for the
+foods as purchased, unless the weights are of the edible portion only.
+The figures in the table are on the basis of percentage amounts, or
+nutrients in 100 pounds of food. By moving the decimal point two places
+to the left, the figures will represent the nutrients in one pound, and
+if this is multiplied by the number of pounds or fraction of a pound
+used, the quantity of nutrients is secured. For example, suppose bread
+contains 9.5 per cent of protein and 56 per cent of carbohydrates, 1
+pound would contain 0.095 pound of protein, 0.56 pound of
+carbohydrates; and 0.5 of a pound would contain approximately 0.05 pound
+of protein and 0.28 pound of carbohydrates. In calculating rations, it
+is not necessary to carry the figures to the third decimal place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--FOOD ARTICLES FOR A HUMAN RATION.]
+
+261. Example of a Ration.--Suppose it is desired to calculate a ration
+for a man at light muscular work. First, note the requirements in the
+way of nutrients in the table "Dietary Standards," Section 246. Such a
+ration should supply approximately 0.22 pound each of protein and fat,
+and 0.77 pound of carbohydrates, and should yield 2800 calories. A trial
+ration is made by combining the following:
+
+  ==========================================================
+                                                 | Pound
+  Bread                                          |  0.50
+  Butter                                         |  0.12
+  Potatoes                                       |  0.75
+  Milk                                           |  1.00
+  Sugar                                          |  0.12
+  Beef                                           |  0.25
+  Ham                                            |  0.20
+  Oatmeal                                        |  0.12
+  Eggs                                           |  0.25
+  ==========================================================
+
+The quantities of nutrients in these food materials are approximately as
+follows:
+
+
+RATION FOR MAN AT MODERATE WORK
+
+  ===================================================================
+                           |      | PROTEIN | FAT  | C.H. |
+                           | LB.  |   LB.   | LB.  | LB.  | CALORIES
+  -------------------------+------+---------+------+------+----------
+  Bread                    | 0.50 |   0.05  | 0.01 | 0.29 |    653
+  Butter                   | 0.12 |    --   | 0.10 |  --  |    432
+  Potato                   | 0.75 |   0.01  |  --  | 0.12 |    244
+  Milk                     | 1.00 |   0.04  | 0.04 | 0.05 |    323
+  Sugar                    | 0.12 |    --   |  --  | 0.12 |    192
+  Beef (round)             | 0.25 |   0.05  | 0.03 |  --  |    218
+  Ham                      | 0.20 |   0.03  | 0.07 |  --  |    331
+  Oatmeal                  | 0.12 |   0.02  | 0.01 | 0.08 |    223
+  Eggs                     | 0.25 |   0.03  | 0.03 |  --  |    164
+  Squash                   | 0.20 |    --   |  --  | 0.01 |     25
+                           |------+---------+------+------+----------
+                           |      |   0.23  | 0.29 | 0.67 |   2805
+  ===================================================================
+
+It is to be noted that this ration contains approximately the amount of
+protein called for in the standard ration, while the fat is slightly
+more and the carbohydrates are less. The food value of the ration is
+practically that called for in the standard. This ration is sufficiently
+near the standard to supply the nutrient requirements of a man at light
+muscular work. To supply palatability, some fruit and vegetables should
+be added to the ration. These will contribute but little to the nutrient
+content, but are necessary in order to secure health and the best
+returns from the other foods, and as previously stated, they are not to
+be estimated entirely upon the basis of nutrient content. A number of
+food articles could be substituted in this ration, if desired, either in
+the interests of economy, palatability, or personal preference.
+
+262. Requisites of a Balanced Ration.--Reasonable combinations of
+foods should be made to form balanced rations.[2] A number of foods slow
+of digestion, or which require a large amount of intestinal work, should
+not be combined; neither should foods which are easily digested and
+which leave but little indigestible residue. After a ration has been
+calculated and found to contain the requisite amount of nutrients, it
+should be critically examined to see whether or not it fulfills the
+following requirements:
+
+     1. Economy and adaptability to the work required.
+
+     2. Necessary bulk or volume.
+
+     3. Desired physiological influence of the foods upon the digestive
+     tract, whether constipating or laxative in character.
+
+     4. Ease of digestion.
+
+     5. Effect upon health. It is recognized that there are foods
+     wholesome and nutritious, that cannot be used by some persons,
+     while with others the same foods can be consumed with impunity.
+
+As explained in the chapter on Dietary Studies, the nutrients should be
+supplied from a number of foods rather than from a few, because it is
+believed the various nutrients, particularly the proteins, are not
+absolutely identical from all sources, or equal in nutritive value.
+
+
+EXAMPLES
+
+1. Calculate a ration for a man with little physical exercise.
+
+2. Calculate a ration for a man at hard muscular labor, and give the
+approximate cost of the ration.
+
+3. Calculate the amounts of food and the nutrient requirements for a
+family of seven for 10 days; five of the family to consume 0.8 as much
+as an adult. Calculate the cost of the food; then calculate on the same
+basis the probable cost of food for one year, adding 20 per cent for
+fluctuation in market price and additional foods not included in the
+list.
+
+4. Weigh out the food articles used in problem No. 2, and apportion them
+among three meals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+WATER
+
+
+263. Importance.--Water is one of the most essential food materials.
+It enters into the composition of the body, and without it the nutrients
+of foods would be unavailable, and life could not be sustained. Water
+unites chemically with various elements to form plant tissue and
+supplies hydrogen and oxygen for the production of organic compounds
+within the leaves of plants. In the animal economy it is not definitely
+known whether or not water furnishes any of the elements of which the
+tissues are composed, as the food contains liberal amounts of hydrogen
+and oxygen; it is necessary mainly as the vehicle for distributing
+nutrients in suspension and solution, and as a medium in which chemical,
+physical, and physiological changes essential to life processes take
+place. From a sanitary point of view, the condition of the water supply
+is of great importance, as impure water seriously affects the health of
+the consumer.[87]
+
+264. Impurities in Water.--Waters are impure because of: (1) excessive
+amounts of alkaline salts and other mineral compounds; (2) decaying
+animal and vegetable matters which act chemically as poisons and
+irritants, and which may serve as food for the development of
+objectionable bacterial bodies; and (3) injurious bacteria. The most
+common forms of impurities are excess of organic matter and bacterial
+contamination. The sanitary condition of water is greatly influenced by
+the character of the soil through which it flows and the extent to which
+it has been polluted by surface drainage.[88]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--DIRT AND IMPURITIES IN A SURFACE WELL WATER.]
+
+265. Mineral Impurities.--- The mineral impurities of water are mainly
+soluble alkaline and similar compounds dissolved by the water in passing
+through various layers of soil and rock. When water contains a large
+amount of sodium chloride, sodium sulphate or carbonate, or other
+alkaline salts, it is termed an "alkali water." Where water passes
+through soil that has been largely formed from the decay of rocks
+containing alkaline minerals, the water dissolves some of these minerals
+and becomes alkaline. The kind of alkali determines the character of the
+water; in some cases it is sodium carbonate, which is particularly
+objectionable. The continued use of strong alkali water causes digestion
+disorders, because of the irritating action upon the digestive tract.
+Hard waters are due to the presence of lime compounds. In regions where
+limestone predominates, the carbon dioxid in water acts as a solvent,
+producing hard waters. Waters that are hard on account of the presence
+of calcium carbonate give a deposit when boiled, due to liberation of
+the carbon dioxid which is the material that renders the lime soluble.
+Calcium sulphate, or gypsum, on the other hand, imparts permanent
+hardness. There is no deposit when such waters are boiled. A large
+number of minerals are found in various waters, often sufficient in
+amount to impart physiological properties. Water that is highly charged
+with mineral matter is difficult to improve sufficiently for household
+purposes. About the only way is by distillation.[89]
+
+266. Organic Impurities.--Water that flows over the surface of the
+ground comes in contact with animal and vegetable material in various
+stages of decay, and as a result some is dissolved and some is
+mechanically carried along by the water. After becoming soluble, the
+organic matter undergoes further chemical changes, as oxidation and
+nitrification caused by bacteria. If the organic matter contain a large
+amount of nitrogenous material, particularly of proteid origin, a series
+of chemical changes induced by bacterial action takes place, resulting
+in the production of nitrites. The nitrifying organisms first produce
+nitrous acid products (nitrites), and in the further development of the
+nitrifying process these are changed to nitrates. The ammonia formed as
+the result of the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter readily
+undergoes nitrification changes. Nitrates and nitrites alone are not
+injurious in water, but they are usually associated with objectionable
+bacteria and generally indicate previous contamination.[90]
+
+267. Interpretation of a Water Analysis.--"Total solid matter"
+represents all the mineral, vegetable, and animal matter which a water
+contains. It is the residue obtained by evaporating the water to dryness
+at a temperature of 212° F. Average drinking water contains from 20 to
+90 grains per gallon of solid matter. "Free ammonia" is that formed as a
+result of the decomposition of animal or vegetable matter containing
+nitrogen. Water of high purity usually contains less than 0.07 parts
+per million of free ammonia. "Albuminoid ammonia" is derived from the
+partially decomposed animal or vegetable material in water. The greater
+the amount of nitrogenous organic impurities, the higher the albuminoid
+ammonia. A good drinking water ought not to contain more than 0.10 part
+per million of albuminoid ammonia. An abnormal quantity of chlorine
+indicates surface drainage or sewage contamination, or an excess of
+alkaline matter, as common salt. Nitrites should not be present, as they
+are generally associated with matter not completely oxidized. Nitrites
+are usually considered more objectionable than nitrates; both are
+innocuous unless associated with disease-producing nitroörganisms.
+
+268. Natural Purification of Water.--River waters are sometimes dark
+colored because of large amounts of dissolved organic matter, but in
+contact with the sun and air they gradually undergo natural purification
+and the organic matter is oxidized. However, absolute reliance cannot be
+placed upon natural purification of a bad water, as the objectionable
+organisms often have great resistive power. There is no perfectly pure
+water except that prepared in the chemical laboratory by distillation.
+All natural waters come in contact with the soil and air, and
+necessarily contain impurities proportional to the extent of their
+contamination.
+
+269. Water in Relation to Health.--There are many diseases, of which
+typhoid fever is a type, that are distinctly water-born. The typhoid
+bacilli, present in countless numbers in the feces of persons suffering
+or convalescent from typhoid fever, find their way into streams, lakes,
+and wells.[91] They retain their vitality, and when they enter the
+digestive tract of an individual, rapidly increase in numbers. Numerous
+disastrous outbreaks of typhoid fever have been traced to contamination
+of water. Coupled with the sanitary improvement of a city's water
+supply, there is diminution of typhoid fever cases, and a noticeable
+lowering of the death rate. Many cities and villages are dependent for
+their water upon rivers and lakes into which surface drainage finds its
+way, with all contaminating substances. Mechanical sedimentation and
+filtration greatly improve waters of this class, but do not necessarily
+render them entirely pure. Compounds of iron and aluminium are sometimes
+added in small amounts, under chemical supervision, to such waters to
+precipitate the organic impurities. Spring waters are not entirely above
+suspicion, as oftentimes the soil through which they flow is highly
+polluted. All water of doubtful purity should be boiled, and there are
+but few natural waters of undoubted purity. There is no such thing as
+absolutely pure water in a state of nature. The mountain streams perhaps
+approach nearest to it where there are no humans to pollute the banks;
+but then there are always the beasts and birds, and they, too, are
+subject to disease. There are very few waters that at some time of the
+year and under some conditions are not contaminated with
+disease-producing organisms. No matter how carefully guarded are the
+banks of lakes furnishing the water supply of cities, more or less
+objectionable matter will get in. In seasons of heavy rains, large
+amounts of surface water enter the lakes, carrying along the filth
+gathered from many acres of land drained by the streams entering the
+lakes. Some of the most serious outbreaks of typhoid fever have come
+from temporary contamination of ordinarily fairly good drinking water.
+In general, too little attention is given to the purity of drinking
+water. It is just as important that water should be boiled as that food
+should be cooked. One of the objects of cooking is to destroy the
+injurious bacteria, and they are frequently more numerous in the
+drinking water than in the food.
+
+The argument is sometimes advanced that the mineral matter present in
+water is needed for the construction of the bone and other tissues of
+the body, and that distilled water fails to supply the necessary mineral
+matter. This is an erroneous assumption, as the mineral matter in the
+food is more than sufficient for this purpose. When water is highly
+charged with mineral salts, additional work for their elimination is
+called for on the part of the organs of excretion, particularly the
+kidneys; and furthermore, water nearly saturated with minerals cannot
+exert its full solvent action.
+
+In discussing the immediate benefits resulting from improvement of
+water, Fuertes says:[92]
+
+     "Immediately after the change to the 'four mile intake' at Chicago
+     in 1893, there was a great reduction in typhoid. Lawrence, Mass.,
+     showed a great improvement with the setting of the filters in
+     operation in September, 1893; fully half of the deaths in 1894 were
+     among persons known to have used the unfiltered canal water. The
+     conclusion is warranted that for the efficient control of the death
+     rate from typhoid fever it is necessary to have efficient sewerage
+     and drainage, proper methods of living, and pure water. The reason
+     why our large cities, which are all provided with sewerage, have
+     such high death rates is therefore without doubt their continuance
+     of the filthy practice of supplying drinking water which carries in
+     solution and suspension the washings from farms, from the streets,
+     from privies, from pigpens, and the sewage of cities.... And also
+     we should recognize the importance of flies and other winged
+     insects and birds which feed on offal as carriers of bacteria of
+     specific diseases from points of infection to the watersheds, and
+     the consequent washing of newly infected matter into our drinking
+     water by rains."
+
+There is a very close relationship between the surface water and that of
+shallow wells. A shallow well is simply a reservoir for surface water
+accumulations. It is stated that, when an improved system of drainage
+was introduced into a part of London, many of the shallow wells became
+dry, indicating the source from which they received their supply. Direct
+subterranean connection between cesspools and wells is often traced in
+the following way: A small amount of lithium, which gives a distinct
+flame reaction, and a minute trace of which can be detected with the
+spectroscope, is placed in the cesspool, and after a short time a
+lithium reaction is secured from the well water.
+
+Rain water is relied upon in some localities for drinking purposes. That
+collected in cities and in the vicinity of barns and dwellings contains
+appreciable amounts of organic impurities. The brown color is due to the
+impurities, ammonium carbonate being one of these. There are also traces
+of nitrates and nitrites obtained from the air. When used for drinking,
+rain water should be boiled.
+
+270. Improvement of Waters.--Waters are improved by: (1) boiling,
+which destroys the disease-producing organisms; (2) filtration, which
+removes the materials mechanically suspended in the water; and (3)
+distillation, which eliminates the impurities in suspension and
+solution, as well as destroys all germ life.
+
+271. Boiling Water.--In order to destroy the bacteria that may be in
+drinking water, it is not sufficient to heat the water or merely let it
+come to a boil. It has been found that if water is only partially
+sterilized and then cooled in the open air, the bacteria develop more
+rapidly than if the water had not been heated at all. It should boil
+vigorously five to ten minutes; cholera and typhoid bacteria succumb in
+five minutes or less. Care should be taken in cooling that the water is
+not exposed to dust particles from the air nor placed in open vessels in
+a dirty refrigerator. It should be kept in perfectly clean,
+tight-stoppered bottles. These bottles should be frequently scalded.
+Great reliance may be placed upon this method of water purification when
+properly carried out.
+
+272. Filtration.--Among the most efficient forms of water filters are
+the Berkefeld and Pasteur. The Pasteur filter is made of unglazed
+porcelain, and the Berkefeld of fine infusorial earth (finely divided
+SiO_{2}). Both are porous and allow a moderately rapid flow of water.
+The flow from the Berkefeld filter is more rapid than from the Pasteur.
+The mechanical impurities of the water are deposited upon the filtering
+surface, due to the attraction which the material has for particles in
+suspension. These particles usually are the sources of contamination and
+carry bacteria. When first used, filters are satisfactory, but unless
+carefully looked after they soon lose their ability to remove germs from
+the water and may increase the impurity by accumulation. Small faucet
+filters are made of porous stone, asbestos, charcoal, etc. Many of them
+are of no value whatever or are even worse than valueless. Filters
+should be frequently cleansed in boiling water or in steam under
+pressure. Unless this is done, the filters may become incubators for
+bacteria.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--PASTEUR WATER FILTERS.]
+
+273. Distillation.--When an unquestionably pure water supply is
+desired, distillation should be resorted to. There are many forms of
+stills for domestic use which are easily manipulated and produce
+distilled water economically.[93] The mineral matter of water is in no
+way essential for any functional purpose, and hence its removal through
+distillation is not detrimental.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--WATER STILL.]
+
+274. Chemical Purification.--Purification of water by the use of
+chemicals should not be attempted in the household or by inexperienced
+persons. When done under supervision of a chemist or bacteriologist, it
+may be of great value to a community. Turneaure and Russell,[94] in
+discussing the purification of water by addition of chemicals, state:
+
+     "There are a considerable number of chemical substances that may be
+     added to water in order to purify it by carrying down the suspended
+     matter as well as bacteria, by sedimentation. Such a process of
+     purification is to be seen in the addition of alum, sulphate of
+     iron, and calcium hydrate to water. Methods of this character are
+     directly dependent upon the flocculating action of the chemical
+     added, and the removal of the bacteria is accomplished by
+     subsidence."
+
+275. Ice.--The purity of the ice supply is also of much importance.
+While freezing reduces the number of organisms and lessens their
+vitality, it does not make an impure water absolutely wholesome. The
+way, too, in which ice is often handled and stored subjects it to
+contamination, and foods which are placed in direct contact with it
+mechanically absorb the impurities which it contains. For cooling water,
+ice should be placed around rather than in it. Diseases have frequently
+been traced to impure ice. The only absolutely pure ice is that made
+from distilled water.
+
+276. Mineral Waters.--When water is charged with carbonic acid gas
+under pressure, carbonated water results, and when minerals, as salts of
+sodium, potassium, or lithium, are added, artificial mineral waters are
+produced. Natural mineral waters are placed on the market to some
+extent, but most mineral waters are artificial products and they are
+sometimes prepared from water of low sanitary character. Mineral waters
+should not be used extensively except under medical direction, as many
+have pronounced medicinal properties. Some of the constituents are
+bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, and lithium; sulphates of magnesium
+(Epsom salts) and calcium; and chloride of sodium. The sweetened mineral
+waters, as lemonade, orangeade, ginger ale, and beer, contain sugar and
+organic acids, as citric and tartaric, and are flavored with natural or
+artificial products. Most of them are prepared without either fruit or
+ginger. Natural mineral waters used under the direction of a physician
+are often beneficial in cases of chronic digestion disorders or other
+diseases.
+
+277. Materials for Softening Water.--The materials most commonly used
+for softening water are sodium carbonate (washing soda), borax, ammonia,
+ammonium carbonate, potash, and soda lye. Waters that are very hard with
+limestone should have a small amount of washing soda added to them. Two
+ounces for a large tub of water is the most that should be used, and it
+should first be dissolved in a little water. If too much soda is used,
+it is injurious, as only a certain amount can be utilized for softening
+the water, and the excess simply injures the hands and fabric. When hard
+limewater is boiled and a very little soda lye added, a precipitate of
+carbonate of lime is formed, and then if the water is strained, it is
+greatly improved for washing purposes. Borax is valuable for making some
+hard waters soft. It is not as strong in its action as is sodium
+carbonate. For the hardest water 1/4 pound of borax to a large tubful
+may be used; most waters, however, do not need so much. Ammonia is one
+of the most useful reagents for softening water. It is better than
+washing soda and borax, because the ammonia is volatile and does not
+leave any residue to act on the clothes, thus causing injury. For
+bathing purposes, the water should be softened with ammonia, in
+preference to any other material. Ammonia should not be poured directly
+into hot water; it should be added to the water while cold, or to a
+small quantity of cold water, and then to the warm water, as this
+prevents the ammonia from vaporizing too readily. Ammonia produces the
+same effect as potash or soda lye, without leaving a residue in the
+garments washed. It is especially valuable in washing woolen goods or
+materials liable to shrink. Waters which are hard with alum salts are
+greatly benefited by the addition of ammonia. A little in such a water
+will cause a precipitate to form, and when the water is strained it is
+in good condition for cleaning purposes. Ammonium carbonate is used to
+some extent as a softening and cleaning agent, and is valuable, as there
+is no injurious effect upon clothing, because it readily volatilizes.
+Caustic potash and caustic soda are sometimes employed for softening
+water, but they are very active and are not adapted to washing colored
+or delicate fabrics. They may be used for very heavy and coarse articles
+that are greasy,--not more than a gram in a gallon of water. Bleaching
+powder is not generally a safe material for cleansing purposes, as it
+weakens the texture of clothing. After a contagious disease, articles
+may be soaked in water containing a little bleaching powder and a few
+drops of carbolic acid, followed by thorough rinsing and bleaching in
+the sun. But as a rule formaline is preferable for disinfecting
+clothing. It can be used at the rate of about one pound to 100 gallons
+of water. Bleaching powder, caustic potash or soda, and strong soap are
+not suitable for cleaning woodwork, because of the action of the alkali
+on paint and wood; they roughen the surface and discolor the paint.
+Waters vary so in composition, that a material suitable for softening
+one may not prove to be the best for softening another. The special kind
+must be determined largely by trial, and it should be the aim to use as
+little as possible. When carbolic acid, formaline, bleaching powder, and
+caustic soda are used, the hands should be protected and the clothes
+should be well rinsed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--TYPHOID BACILLI.]
+
+278. Economic Value of a Pure Water Supply.--From a financial point of
+view, the money spent in securing pure water is one of the best
+investments a community can make. Statisticians estimate the death of an
+adult results in a loss to the state of from $1000 to $5000; and to the
+losses sustained by death must be added those incurred by sickness and
+by lessened quality and quantity of work through impaired
+vitality,--all caused by using poor drinking water. Wherever plants have
+been installed for improving the sanitary condition of the water supply,
+the death rate has been lowered and the returns to the community have
+been far greater than the cost of the plant. Impure water is the most
+expensive food that can be consumed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+FOOD AS AFFECTED BY HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND STORAGE
+
+
+279. Injurious Compounds in Foods.--An ordinary chemical analysis of a
+food determines only the nutrients, as protein, carbohydrates, and fats;
+and unless there is reason to believe the food contains injurious
+substances no special tests for these are made. There are a number of
+poisonous compounds that foods may contain, and many of them can but
+imperfectly be determined by chemical analysis. Numerous organic
+compounds are produced in foods as the result of the workings of
+microörganisms; some of these are poisonous, while others impart only
+special characteristics, as taste and odor. The poisonous bacteria
+finding their way into food produce organic compounds of a toxic
+character; and hence it is that the sanitary condition of a food, as
+influenced by preparation and storage, is often of more vital importance
+than the nutrient content.[95]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--TUBERCULOSIS BACILLI. (After CONN.)
+
+Often present in dust particles and contaminated foods.]
+
+280. Sources of Contamination of Food.--As a rule, too little
+attention is given to the sanitary handling and preparation of foods.
+They are often exposed to impure air and to the dust and filth from
+unclean streets and surroundings, and as a result they become inoculated
+with bacteria, which are often the disease-producing kind. Gelatine
+plates exposed by bacteriologists under the same conditions as foods
+develop large numbers of injurious microörganisms. In order to avoid
+contamination in the handling of food, there must be: (1) protection
+from impure air and dust; (2) storage in clean, sanitary, and ventilated
+storerooms and warehouses; (3) storage of perishable foods at a low
+temperature so as to retard fermentation changes; and (4) workmen free
+from contagious diseases in all occupations pertaining to the
+preparation of foods. Ordinarily, foods should not be stored in the
+paper wrappers in which they are purchased, as unclean paper is often a
+source of contamination.
+
+281. Sanitary Inspection of Food.--During recent years some state and
+city boards of health have introduced sanitary inspection of foods, with
+a view of preventing contamination during manufacture and
+transportation, and this has done much to improve the quality and
+wholesomeness. Putrid meats, fish, and vegetables are not allowed to be
+sold, and foods are required to be handled and stored in a sanitary way.
+Next to a pure water supply, there is no factor that so greatly
+influences for good the health of a community as the sanitary condition
+of the food. While the cooking of foods destroys many organisms, it
+often fails to render innocuous the poisons which they produce, and
+furthermore the unsound foods when cooked are not entirely wholesome,
+and they have poor keeping qualities.
+
+Often meats, vegetables, and other foods eaten uncooked, as well as the
+numerous cooked foods, are exposed in dirty market places, and
+accumulate large amounts of filth, and are inoculated with disease germs
+by flies. Protection of food from flies is a matter of vital importance,
+as they are carriers of many diseases. In the case of typhoid fever,
+next to impure drinking water flies are credited with being the greatest
+distributors of the disease germs.[96]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--DIPHTHERIA BACILLI. (After CONN.)
+
+Often present in dust particles and in food unprotected from dust.]
+
+282. Infection from Impure Air.--The dust particles of the air contain
+decayed animal and vegetable matter in which bacteria are present; these
+find their way into the food when it is not carefully protected, into
+the water supply, and also into the lungs and other organs of the body.
+When foods are protected from the mechanical impurities which gain
+access through the air, and fermentation is delayed by storage at a low
+temperature, digestion disorders are greatly lessened. From a sanitary
+point of view, the air of food storerooms and of living rooms should be
+of equally high purity. When foods are kept in unventilated living
+rooms, they become contaminated with the impurities thrown off from the
+lungs in respiration, which include not only carbon dioxid, but the more
+objectionable toxic organic materials.
+
+Vegetable foods need to be stored in well-ventilated places, as the
+plant cells are still alive and carrying on life functions, as the
+giving off of carbon dioxid, which is akin to animal respiration; in
+fact, it is plant-cell respiration. Provision should be made for the
+removal of the carbon dioxid and other products, as they contaminate the
+air. When vegetable tissue ceases to produce carbon dioxid, death and
+decay set in, accompanied by fermentation changes.
+
+283. Storage of Food in Cellars.--Cellars are often in a very
+unsanitary condition, damp, poorly lighted, unventilated, and the air
+filled with floating particles from decaying vegetables. The walls and
+shelves absorb the dust and germs from the foul air and are bacterially
+contaminated, and whenever a sound food is stored in such a cellar, it
+readily becomes inoculated with bacteria. There is a much closer
+relationship existing between the atmosphere of the cellar and that of
+the house than is generally realized. An unclean cellar means
+contaminated air throughout the house. When careful attention is given
+to the sanitary condition of the cellar, many of the more common
+diseases are greatly reduced. Cases of rheumatism have often been traced
+to a damp cellar. In some localities where the cellars are unusually
+unsanitary, there is in the season of spring rains, when they are
+especially damp and contain the maximum of decayed vegetation, a
+prevalence of what might be called "cellaritis." The symptoms differ and
+the trouble is variously attributed, but the real cause is the same,
+although overlooked, for, unfortunately, doctors do not visit the
+cellar.
+
+Cellars should be frequently cleaned and disinfected, using for the
+purpose some of the well-known disinfectants, as formaline, bleaching
+powder, or a dilute solution of carbolic acid. It has been found in
+large cities, when the spread of such diseases as yellow fever was
+imminent, that a general and thorough cleaning up of streets and cellars
+with the improved sanitary conditions resulting greatly lowered the
+usual death rate.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--DUNG FUNGUS. (After BUTTERS.)
+
+Often present on surface of unclean vegetables.]
+
+284. Sunlight, Pure Water, and Pure Air as Disinfectants.--The most
+effectual and valuable disinfectants are sunlight, pure water, and pure
+air. Many kinds of microörganisms, particularly those that are
+disease-producing, are destroyed when exposed for a time to sunlight.
+The chemical action of the sun's rays is destructive to the organic
+material which makes up the composition of many of these organisms,
+while higher forms of organic life are stirred into activity by it. The
+disinfecting power of sunlight should be made use of to the fullest
+extent, not only in the house, but plenty of sunlight should also be
+planned for in constructing barns and other buildings where milk-and
+meat-producing animals are kept. Pure water is also a disinfectant, but
+when water becomes polluted it loses this power. Many disease-producing
+organisms are rendered inactive when placed in pure water. Water
+contains more dissolved oxygen than air, and apparently a portion of the
+oxygen in water is in a more active condition than that in air. Pure
+air, too, is a disinfectant; the ozone and hydrogen peroxide and oxides
+of nitrogen, which are present in traces, exert a beneficial influence
+in oxidizing organic matter. Fresh air and sunlight, acting jointly, are
+nature's most effectual disinfectants. Sunshine, fresh air, and pure
+water are a health-producing trinity. In discussing the importance of
+pure air, water, and sunlight, Ellen H. Richards[97] says:
+
+     "The country dweller surrounds his house with evergreens or shade
+     trees, the city dweller is surrounded with high brick walls.
+     Blinds, shades, or thick draperies shut out still more, and prevent
+     the beneficial sunlight from acting its role of germ prevention and
+     germ destruction. Bright-colored carpets and pale-faced children
+     are the opposite results which follow. Sunlight, pure air, and pure
+     water are our common birthright which we often bargain away for
+     so-called comforts."
+
+And Dr. Woods Hutchinson says of sunlight:
+
+     "It is a splendid and matchless servant in the promoting of
+     healthfulness of the house, for which no substitute has yet been
+     discovered. It is the foe alike of bacilli and the blues; the best
+     tonic ever yet invented for the liver and for the scalp, and for
+     everything between, the only real complexion restorer, and the
+     deadliest foe of dirt and disease."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--DIRT AND MANURE EMBEDDED IN SURFACE OF CELERY.]
+
+285. Utensils for Storage of Food.--In order that dishes and household
+utensils may be kept in the best sanitary condition, they should be free
+from seams, cracks, and crevices where dust and dirt particles can find
+lodgment. From the seams of a milk pail that has not been well washed,
+decaying milk solids can be removed with the aid of a pin or a
+toothpick. This material acts as a "starter" or culture when pure, fresh
+milk is placed in the pail, contaminating it and causing it to become
+sour. Not only is this true of milk, but also of other foods. Wooden
+utensils are not satisfactory for the handling, storage, or preparation
+of foods, as it is difficult to keep wood in a sanitary condition.
+Uncleanliness of dishes in which foods are placed is too often caused by
+the use of foul dishcloths and failure to thoroughly wash and rinse the
+dishes. It is always well to rinse dishes with scalding water, as colds
+and skin diseases may be communicated from the edges of drinking
+glasses, and from forks and spoons, and, unless the dish towels are kept
+scrupulously clean, it is more sanitary to drain the dishes than to wipe
+them.
+
+286. Contamination from Unclean Dishcloths.--When the dishcloth is
+foul, the fat absorbed by the fibers becomes rancid, the proteids
+undergo putrefaction changes with formation of ill-smelling gases
+containing nitrogen, the carbohydrates ferment and are particularly
+attractive to flies, and all the various disease germs collected on the
+surface of the dishcloth are, along with the rancid fat and other
+putrifying materials, distributed over the surface of the dishes with
+which the cloth comes in contact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--CONTAMINATION OF WELL WATER FROM SURFACE DRAINAGE.
+
+(After Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. Agr.)]
+
+287. Refrigeration.--At a low temperature the insoluble or unorganized
+ferments become inactive, but the chemical ferments or enzymes are still
+capable of carrying on fermentation. Thus it is that a food, when placed
+in a refrigerator or in cold storage, continues to undergo chemical
+change. An example of such enzymic action is the curing of beef and
+cheese in cold storage. A small amount of ventilation is required when
+foods are refrigerated, just sufficient to keep up a slight circulation
+of air. It seems not to be generally understood that all fermentation
+changes do not cease when food is placed in refrigerators, and this
+often leads to neglect in their care. Cleanliness is equally as
+essential, or more so, in the refrigeration of food as in its handling
+in other ways. Too often the refrigerator is neglected, milk and other
+food is spilt, filling the cracks, and slow decomposition sets in. A
+well-cared-for refrigerator is an important factor in the preservation
+of food, but when it is neglected, it becomes a source of contamination.
+Unclean vegetables and food receptacles, impure ice and foul air, are
+the most common forms of contamination. The chemical changes which
+foods undergo during refrigeration are such as result in softening of
+the tissues.
+
+288. Soil.--The soil about dwellings and places where foods are stored
+frequently becomes polluted with decaying animal and vegetable matter,
+and in such soils disease-producing organisms readily find lodgment.
+Poorly drained soils containing an excess of vegetable matter furnish a
+medium in which the tapeworm and the germs of typhoid fever, lockjaw,
+and various diseases affecting the digestive tract, may propagate. The
+wind carries the dust particles from these contaminated places into
+unprotected food, where they cause fermentation changes and the disease
+germs multiply. In considering the sanitary condition of a locality, the
+character of the soil is an important factor. Whenever there is reason
+to suspect that a soil is unsanitary, it should be disinfected with lime
+or formaldehyde. Soils about dwellings need care and frequent
+disinfecting to keep them in a sanitary condition, equally as much as do
+the rooms in the dwellings.[99] In the growing of garden vegetables,
+frequently large quantities of fertilizers of unsanitary character are
+used, and vegetables often retain mechanically on their surfaces
+particles of these. To this dirt clinging to the vegetables have been
+traced diseases, as typhoid fever and various digestion disorders.
+
+289. Disposal of Kitchen Refuse.--Refuse, as vegetable parings, bones,
+and meat scraps, unless they are used for food for animals or collected
+as garbage, should preferably be burned; then there is no danger of
+their furnishing propagating media for disease germs. Garbage cans
+should be kept clean, and well covered to protect the contents from
+flies. Where the refuse cannot be burned, it should be composted. For
+this, a well-drained place should be selected, and the refuse should be
+kept covered with earth to keep off the flies and absorb the odors that
+arise from the fermenting material, and to prevent its being carried
+away by the wind. Lime should be sprinkled about the compost heap, and
+from time to time it should be drawn away and the place covered with
+clean earth. It is very unsanitary to throw all of the kitchen refuse in
+the same place year after year without resorting to any means for
+keeping the soil in a sanitary condition. Although composting refuse is
+not as sanitary as burning, it is far more sanitary than neglecting to
+care for it at all, as is too frequently the case.
+
+Ground polluted with kitchen refuse containing large amounts of fatty
+material and soap becomes diseased, so that the natural fermentation
+changes fail to take place, and the soil becomes "sewage sick" and gets
+in such a condition that vegetation will not grow. Failure to properly
+dispose of kitchen refuse is frequently the cause of the spread of germ
+diseases, through the dust and flies that are attracted by the material
+and carry the germs from the refuse pile to food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--PLUMBING OF SINK.
+
+1, 1, house side of trap, filled with water; 2, vent pipe; 3, drain pipe
+connecting with sewer.]
+
+Where there is no drainage system, disposal of the liquid refuse is a
+serious problem. Drain basins and cesspools are often resorted to, and
+these may become additional sources of contamination. As stated in the
+chapter on well water, direct communication is frequently established
+between such places and shallow wells. Where the only place for the
+disposal of waste water is the surface of the ground, it should be
+thrown some distance from the house and where it will drain from and not
+toward the well. The land should be well drained and open to the
+sunlight. Coarse sand and lime should be sprinkled over it frequently,
+and occasionally the soil should be removed and replaced with fresh.
+Sunlight, aëration, and disinfection of the soil and good drainage are
+necessary, in order to keep in a sanitary condition the place where the
+dish water is thrown.
+
+Poor plumbing is often the cause of contaminated food. The gases which
+escape from unclean traps may carry with them solid particles of organic
+matter in various stages of decay. The "house side" of traps always
+ventilates into the rooms, and hence it is important that they be kept
+scrupulously clean. Where the drip pipe from the refrigerator drains
+directly into the sewerage system, there is always danger. Special
+attention should be given to the care of plumbing near places where
+foods are stored. Frequently there are leaky joints due to settling of
+the dwellings or to extreme changes in temperature, and the plumbing
+should be occasionally inspected by one familiar with the subject.[100]
+
+290. General Considerations.--In order to keep food in the most
+wholesome condition, special care should be taken that all of its
+surroundings are sanitary. The air, the dishes in which the food is
+placed, the refrigerator, cellar or closet where stored, and the other
+food with which it comes in contact, all influence the wholesomeness or
+cause contamination. A food may contain sufficient nutrients to give it
+high value, and yet, on account of products formed during fermentation,
+be poisonous. Foods are particularly susceptible to putrefaction
+changes, and chemicals and preservatives added as preventives, with a
+view of retarding these changes, are objectionable, besides failing to
+prevent all fermentation from taking place. Intelligent thought should
+be exercised in the care of food, for the health of the consumer is
+largely dependent upon the purity and wholesomeness of the food supply.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--A PETRI DISH, SHOWING COLONIES OF
+BACTERIA PRODUCED BY ALLOWING A HOUSE FLY TO CRAWL OVER SURFACE.
+
+(From Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 93.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+LABORATORY PRACTICE
+
+
+Object of Laboratory Practice, Laboratory Note-book, and Suggestions
+for Laboratory Practice.--The aim of the laboratory practice is to give
+the students an idea of the composition, uses, and values of food
+materials, and the part which chemistry takes in sanitation and
+household affairs; also to enable them by simple tests to detect some of
+the more common adulterants in foods.
+
+Before performing an experiment, the student is advised to review those
+topics presented in the text which have a bearing upon the experiment,
+so that a clear conception may be gained of the relationship between the
+laboratory work and that of the class room. The student should endeavor
+to cultivate the power of observation and to grasp the principle
+involved in the work, rather than do it in a merely mechanical and
+perfunctory way. Neatness is one of the essentials for success in
+laboratory practice, and too much emphasis cannot be laid upon this
+requisite to good work. The student should learn to use his time in the
+laboratory profitably and economically. He should obtain a clear idea of
+what he is to do, and then do it to the best of his ability. If the
+experiment is not a success, repeat it. While the work is in progress it
+should be given undivided attention. Care should be exercised to prevent
+anything getting into the sinks that will clog the plumbing; soil,
+matches, broken glass, and paper should be deposited in the waste jars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--APPARATUS USED IN LABORATORY WORK.
+
+See page 301 for names.]
+
+A careful record of the experiments should be kept by each student in a
+suitable note-book. It is suggested that those students desiring more
+time in writing out the experiments than the laboratory period affords,
+take notes as they make the various tests, and then amplify and
+rearrange them in the evening study time. The final writing up of the
+notes should, however, be done before the next laboratory period.
+Careful attention should be given to the spelling, language, and
+punctuation, and the note-book should represent the student's individual
+work. He who attempts to cheat by copying the results of others, only
+cheats himself. In recording the results of an experiment, the student
+should state briefly and clearly the following:
+
+
+  1. Number and title of experiment.
+  2. How the experiment is performed.
+  3. What was observed.
+  4. What the experiment proves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--BALANCE AND WEIGHTS.]
+
+
+LIST OF APPARATUS USED IN EXPERIMENTS
+
+   1 Crucible Tongs
+   2 Evaporating Dishes
+   1 Casserole
+   6 Beakers
+  12 Test Tubes
+   1 Wooden Stand
+   1 Test Tube Stand
+   1 Sand Bath
+   2 Funnels
+   1 Tripod
+   1 Stoddart Test Tube Clamp
+   1 Test Tube Brush
+   1 Burner and Tubing
+   2 Stirring Rods
+   6 Watch Glasses
+   2 Erlenmeyer Flasks
+   1 Package Filter Paper
+   1 Box Matches
+   1 Wire Gauze
+   2 Burettes
+   1 Porcelain Crucible
+   1 Aluminum Dish
+
+Directions for Weighing.--Place the dish or material to be weighed in
+the left-hand pan of the balance. With the forceps lay a weight from the
+weight box on the right-hand pan. Do not touch the weights with the
+hands. If the weight selected is too heavy, replace it with a lighter
+weight. Add weights until the pans are counterpoised; this will be
+indicated by the needle swinging nearly as many divisions on one side of
+the scale as on the other. The brass weights are the gram weights. The
+other weights are fractions of a gm. The 500, 200, 100 mg. (milligram)
+weights are recorded as 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1 gm. The 50, 20, and 10 mg.
+weights as 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01 gm. If the 10, and 2 gm., and the 200,
+the 100, and the 50 mg. weights are used, the resulting weight is 12.35
+gms. No moist substances should ever come in contact with the scale
+pans. The weights and forceps should always be replaced in the weight
+box. Too much care and neatness cannot be exercised in weighing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Pouring Reagent from Bottle.]
+
+Directions for Measuring.--Reagents are measured in graduated
+cylinders (see Fig. 74). When the directions call for the addition of 5
+or 10 cc. of a reagent, unless so directed it is not absolutely
+necessary to measure the reagent in a measuring cylinder. A large test
+tube holds about 30 cc. of water. Measure out 5 cc. of water and
+transfer it to a large test tube. Note its volume. Add approximately 5
+cc. of water directly to the test tube. Measure it. Repeat this
+operation until you can judge with a fair degree of accuracy the part of
+a test tube filled by 5 cc. In the experiments where a burette is used
+for measuring reagents, the burette is first filled with the reagent by
+means of a funnel. The tip of the burette is allowed to fill before the
+readings are made, which are from the lowest point or meniscus. When
+reagents are removed from bottles, the stopper should be held between
+the first and second fingers of the right hand (see Fig. 75). Hold the
+test tube or receptacle that is to receive the reagent in the left hand.
+Pour the liquid slowly until the desired amount is secured. Before
+inserting the stopper, touch it to the neck of the bottle to catch the
+few drops on the edge, thus preventing their streaking down the sides of
+the bottle on to the shelf. Replace the bottle in its proper place.
+Every precaution should be taken to prevent contamination of reagents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--MICROSCOPE AND ACCESSORIES.
+
+1, eye-piece or ocular; 2, objective; 3, stage; 4, cover glass; 5,
+slide; 6, mirror.]
+
+Use of the Microscope.--Special directions in the use of the
+microscope will be given by the instructor. The object or material to be
+examined is placed on a microscopical slide. Care should be exercised to
+secure a representative sample, and to properly distribute the substance
+on the slide. If a pulverized material is to be examined, use but little
+and spread it in as thin a layer as possible. If a liquid, one or two
+drops placed on the slide will suffice. The material on the slide is
+covered with a cover glass, before it is placed on the stage of the
+microscope. In focusing, do not allow the object glass of the microscope
+to come in contact with the cover glass. Focus upward, not downward.
+Special care should be exercised in focusing and in handling the
+eye-piece and objective. A camel's-hair brush, clean dry chamois skin,
+or clean silk only should be used in polishing the lenses. Always put
+the microscope back in its case after using.
+
+
+Experiment No. 1
+
+Water in Flour
+
+Carefully weigh a porcelain or aluminum dish. (Porcelain must be used if
+the ash is to be determined on the same sample.) Place in it about 2 gm.
+of flour; record the weight; then place the dish in the water oven for
+at least 6 hours. After drying, weigh again, and from the loss of weight
+calculate the per cent of water in the flour. (Weight of flour and dish
+before drying minus weight of flour and dish after drying equals weight
+of water lost. Weight of water divided by weight of flour taken,
+multiplied by 100, equals the per cent of water in the flour.)
+
+How does the amount of water you obtained compare with the amount given
+in the tables of analysis?
+
+
+Experiment No. 2
+
+Water in Butter
+
+Carefully weigh a clean, dry aluminum dish, place in it about 2 gms. of
+butter, and weigh again. Record the weights. Place the dish containing
+butter in the water oven for 5 or 6 hours and then weigh. The loss in
+weight represents the water in the butter. Calculate the per cent of
+water. Care must be taken to get a representative sample of the butter
+to be tested; preferably small amounts should be taken with the butter
+trier from various parts of the package.
+
+
+Experiment No. 3
+
+Ash in Flour
+
+Place the porcelain dish containing flour from the preceding experiment
+in a muffle furnace and let it remain until the organic matter is
+completely volatilized. Cool, weigh, and determine the per cent of ash.
+The flour should be burned at the lowest temperature necessary for
+complete combustion.
+
+
+Experiment No. 4
+
+Nitric Acid Test for Nitrogenous Organic Matter
+
+To 3 cc. of egg albumin in a test tube add 2 cc. of HNO_{3} (conc.) and
+heat. When cool add NH_{4}OH. The nitric acid chemically reacts upon the
+albumin, forming yellow xanthoprotein. What change occurs in the
+appearance of the egg albumin when the HNO_{3} is added? Is this a
+physical or chemical change? What is the name of the compound formed?
+What change occurs on adding NH_{4}OH?
+
+
+Experiment No. 5
+
+Acidity of Lemons
+
+With a pipette measure into a small beaker 2 cc. of lemon juice. Add 25
+cc. of water and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator. From the
+burette run in N/10 KOH solution until a faint pink tinge remains
+permanently. Note the number of cubic centimeters of KOH solution
+required to neutralize the citric acid in the lemon juice. Calculate the
+per cent of citric acid.
+
+(1 cc. of N/10 KOH solution equals 0.00642 gm. citric acid. 1 cc. of
+H_{2}O weighs 1 gm. Because of sugar and other matter in solution 1 cc.
+of lemon juice weighs approximately 1.03 gm.)
+
+1. What is the characteristic acid of lemons? 2. What is the salt formed
+when the lemon juice is neutralized by the KOH solution? 3. Describe
+briefly the process for determining the acidity of lemon juice. 4. What
+per cent of acidity did you obtain? 5. How does this compare with the
+acidity of vinegar?
+
+
+Experiment No. 6
+
+Influence of Heat on Potato Starch Grains
+
+With the point of a knife scrape slightly the surface of a raw potato
+and place a drop of the starchy juice upon the microscopical slide.
+Cover with cover glass and examine under the microscope.
+
+In the evaporating dish cook a small piece of potato, then place a very
+small portion upon the slide, and examine with the microscope.
+
+Make drawings of the starch grains in raw and in cooked potatoes.
+
+
+Experiment No. 7
+
+Influence of Yeast on Starch Grains
+
+Moisten a small portion of the dough prepared with yeast and with the
+stirring rod place a drop of the starchy water upon the slide. Cover
+with cover glass and examine under the microscope.
+
+Repeat, examining a drop of starchy water washed from flour.
+
+Make drawing of wheat starch grain in flour and in dough prepared with
+yeast.
+
+
+Experiment No. 8
+
+Mechanical Composition of Potatoes
+
+Wash one potato. Weigh, then peel, making the peeling as thin as
+possible. Weigh the peeled potato and weigh the peeling or refuse.
+Calculate the per cent of potato that is edible and the per cent that is
+refuse.
+
+
+Experiment No. 9
+
+Pectose from Apples
+
+Reduce a small peeled apple to a pulp. Squeeze the pulp through a clean
+cloth into a beaker. Add 10 cc. H_{2}O and heat on a sand bath to
+coagulate the albumin. Filter, adding a little hot water if necessary.
+To the filtrate add 5 cc. alcohol. The precipitate is the pectose
+material.
+
+1. Is the pectose from the apple soluble? 2. Is it coagulated by heat?
+3. Is it soluble in alcohol?
+
+
+Experiment No. 10
+
+Lemon Extract
+
+To 5 cc. of the extract in a test tube add an equal volume of water. A
+cloudy appearance indicates the presence of lemon oil. If the solution
+remains clear after adding the water, the extract does not contain lemon
+oil.
+
+Why does the extract containing lemon oil become cloudy on adding water?
+
+
+Experiment No. 11
+
+Vanilla Extract
+
+Pour into a test tube 5 cc. of the extract to be tested. Evaporate to
+one third. Then add sufficient water to restore the original volume. If
+a brown, flocculent precipitate is formed, the sample contains pure
+vanilla extract. Resin is present in vanilla beans and is extracted in
+the essence. The resin is readily soluble in 50 per cent alcohol. If
+the alcohol is removed from the extract, the excess of resin is
+precipitated, or if free from alkali, it may be precipitated by diluting
+the original solution with twice its volume of water. Test the two
+samples and compare.
+
+  (Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+
+1. Describe the appearance of each sample after evaporating and adding
+water. 2. Which sample contains pure vanilla extract? 3. State the
+principle underlying this test.
+
+
+Experiment No. 12
+
+Testing Olive Oil for Cotton Seed Oil
+
+Pour into a test tube 5 cc. of the oil to be tested and 5 cc. of
+Halphen's Reagent. Mix thoroughly. Plug the test tube loosely with
+cotton, and heat in a bath of boiling saturated brine for 15 minutes. If
+cotton seed oil is present, a deep red or orange color is produced. Test
+two samples and compare.
+
+Halphen's Reagent.--Mix equal volumes of amyl alcohol and carbon
+disulphid containing about one per cent of sulphur in solution.
+
+  (Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+
+
+Experiment No. 13
+
+Testing for Coal Tar Dyes
+
+Dilute 20 to 30 cc. of the material to 100 cc.; boil for 10 minutes with
+10 cc. of a 10 per cent solution of potassium bisulphate and a piece of
+white woolen cloth which has previously been boiled in a 0.1 per cent
+solution of NaOH and thoroughly washed in water. Remove the cloth from
+the solution, wash in boiling water, and dry between pieces of filter
+paper. A bright red indicates coal tar dye. If the coloring matter is
+entirely from fruit, the woolen cloth will be either uncolored or will
+have a faint pink or brown color which is changed to green or yellow by
+ammonia and is not restored by washing. This is the Arata test.
+
+  (Adapted, Winston, Conn. Experiment Station Report.)
+
+1. Describe Arata's wool test for coal tar dyes. 2. What is the
+appearance of the woolen cloth when the coloring matter is entirely from
+fruit? 3. What effect has NH_{4}OH upon the color? 4. Why is NaOH used?
+5. Why may not cotton cloth be used instead of woolen? 6. What can you
+say of the use of coal tar dyes in foods?
+
+
+Experiment No. 14
+
+Determining the Per Cent of Skin in Beans
+
+Place in an evaporating dish 10 gm. of beans, 50 cc. of water, and 1/2
+gm. of baking soda. Boil 10 minutes or until the skins are loosened,
+then drain off the water. Add cold water and rub the beans together till
+the skins slip off. Collect the skins, place on a watch glass and dry in
+the water oven for 1/2 hour. Weigh the dried skins and calculate the per
+cent of "skin."
+
+1. What does the soda do? 2. What effect would hard limewater have upon
+the skins? 3. How does removal of skins affect food value of beans and
+digestibility?
+
+
+Experiment No. 15
+
+Extraction of Fat from Peanuts
+
+Shell three or four peanuts and with the mortar and pestle break them
+into small pieces. Place in a test tube and pour over them about 10 cc.
+of ether. Cork the test tube and allow it to stand 30 minutes, shaking
+occasionally. Filter on to a watch glass and let stand until the ether
+evaporates, and then observe the fat.
+
+1. What is the appearance of the peanut fat? 2. What is the solvent of
+the fat? 3. What becomes of the ether? 4. Why should the peanuts be
+broken into small pieces?
+
+
+Experiment No. 16
+
+Microscopic Examination of Milk
+
+Place a drop of milk on a microscopical slide and cover with cover
+glass. Examine the milk to detect impurities, as dust, hair, refuse,
+etc. Make drawings of any foreign matter present.
+
+
+Experiment No. 17
+
+Formaldehyde in Cream or Milk
+
+To 10 cc. of milk in a casserole add 10 cc. of the acid reagent. Heat
+slowly over the flame nearly to boiling, holding the casserole in the
+hand and giving it a slight rotary movement while heating. The presence
+of formaldehyde is indicated by a violet coloration varying in depth
+with the amount present. In the absence of formaldehyde the solution
+slowly turns brown.
+
+Acid Reagent.--Commercial hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) containing 2
+cc. per liter of 10 per cent ferric chlorid.
+
+  (Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+
+1. How may the presence of formaldehyde in milk be detected? 2. Why in
+this test is it necessary to use acid containing ferric chlorid? 3.
+Describe the appearance of the two samples of milk after adding the acid
+reagent and heating. 4. Which sample showed the presence of
+formaldehyde?
+
+
+Experiment No. 18
+
+Gelatine in Cream or Milk
+
+To 20 cc. of milk or cream in a beaker add 20 cc. of acid mercuric
+nitrate and about 40 cc. of H_{2}O. Let stand for a few minutes and
+filter. Filtrate will be cloudy if gelatine is present.
+
+Add 1/2 cc. of a dilute solution of picric acid--a heavy yellow
+precipitate indicates gelatine.
+
+Acid Mercuric Nitrate.--1 part by weight of Hg, 2 parts HNO_{3} (sp.
+gr. 1.42). Dilute 25 times with water.
+
+
+Experiment No. 19
+
+Testing for Oleomargarine
+
+Apply the following tests to two samples of the material:
+
+Boiling or Spoon Test.--Melt the sample to be tested--a piece about
+the size of a chestnut--in a large spoon, hastening the process by
+stirring with a splinter. Then, increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a
+boil as possible and stir thoroughly, not neglecting the outer edges.
+Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, sputtering like a
+mixture of grease and water, and produce no foam, or but very little.
+Genuine butter boils with less noise and produces an abundance of foam.
+
+Waterhouse Test.--Into a small beaker pour 50 cc. of sweet milk. Heat
+nearly to boiling and add from 5 to 10 gms. of butter or oleomargarine.
+Stir with a glass rod until fat is melted. Then place the beaker in cold
+water and stir the milk until the temperature falls sufficiently for the
+fat to congeal. At this point the fat, if oleomargarine, can easily be
+collected into one lump by means of the rod; while if butter, it will
+granulate and cannot be collected.
+
+  (From Farmers' Bul. 131, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
+
+1. Name two simple tests for distinguishing butter and oleomargarine. 2.
+Describe these tests. 3. Why do butter and oleomargarine respond
+differently to these tests? 4. Are these tests based upon chemical or
+physical properties of the fats?
+
+
+Experiment No. 20
+
+Testing for Watering or Skimming of Milk
+
+_a._ Fat Content of Milk by Means of Babcock Test.--Measure with
+pipette into test bottle 17.6 cc. of milk. Sample should be carefully
+taken and well mixed. Measure with cylinder 17.5 cc. commercial
+H_{2}SO_{4} and add to milk in test bottle. (See Fig. 25.) Mix acid and
+milk by rotating the bottle. Then place test bottles in centrifugal
+machine and whirl 5 minutes. Add sufficient hot water to test bottles to
+bring contents up to about the 8th mark on stem. Then whirl bottles 2
+minutes longer and read fat. Read from extreme lowest to highest point.
+Each large division as 1 to 2 represents a whole per cent, each small
+division 0.2 of a per cent.
+
+_b._ Determining Specific Gravity by Means of Lactometer.--Pour 150
+cc. of milk into 200 cc. cylinder. Place lactometer in milk and note
+depth to which it sinks as indicated on stem. Note also temperature of
+milk. For each 10° above 60° F. add 1 to the lactometer number, in order
+to make the necessary correction for temperature. For example, if milk
+has sp. gr. of 1.032 at temperature of 70°, it will be equivalent to sp.
+gr. of 1.033 at 60°. Ordinarily milk has a sp. gr. of 1.029 to 1.034. If
+milk has sp. gr. less than 1.029, or contains less than 3 per cent fat,
+it may be considered watered milk. If the milk has a high sp. gr. (above
+1.035) and a low content of fat, some of the fat has been removed.
+
+  (For extended direction for milk testing see Snyder's "Dairy Chemistry.")
+
+
+Experiment No. 21
+
+Boric Acid in Meat
+
+Cut into very small pieces 5 gms, of meat, removing all the fat
+possible. Place in an evaporating dish with 20 to 25 cc. of water to
+which a few drops of HCl have been added and warm slightly. Dip a piece
+of turmeric paper in the meat extract and dry. A rose-red color of the
+turmeric paper after drying (turned olive by a weak ammonia solution) is
+indicative of boric acid.
+
+1. How may meat be tested for boric acid? 2. Why is HCl added to the
+water? 3. Why is the water containing the meat warmed slightly? 4. What
+is the appearance of the turmeric paper after being dipped in the meat
+extract and dried? 5. What change takes place when it is moistened with
+ammonia, and why?
+
+
+Experiment No. 22
+
+Microscopic Examination of Cereal Starch Grains
+
+Make a microscopic examination and drawings of wheat, corn, rice, and
+oat starch grains, comparing them with the drawings of the different
+starch grains on the chart. If the material is coarse, pulverize in a
+mortar and filter through cloth. Place a drop or two of the starchy
+water on the slide, cover with a cover glass, and examine.
+
+
+Experiment No. 23
+
+Identification of Commercial Cereals
+
+Examine under the microscope two samples of cereal breakfast foods, and
+by comparison with the wheat, corn, and oat starch grains previously
+examined tell of what grains the breakfast foods are made and their
+approximate food value.
+
+
+Experiment No. 24
+
+Granulation and Color of Flour
+
+Arrange on glass plate, in order of color, samples of all the different
+grades of flour. Note the differences in color. How do these differences
+correspond with the grades of the flour? Examine the flour with a
+microscope, noting any coarse or dark-colored particles of bran or dust.
+Rub some of the flour between the thumb and forefinger. Note if any
+granular particles can be detected.
+
+
+Experiment No. 25
+
+Capacity of Flour to absorb Water
+
+Weigh out 15 gms. of soft wheat flour into an evaporating dish; then add
+from burette a measured quantity of water sufficient to make a stiff
+dough. Note the amount of water required for this purpose. Repeat the
+operation, using hard wheat flour.
+
+1. How may the absorptive power of a flour be determined? 2. To what is
+it due? 3. Why do some flours absorb more water than others?
+
+
+Experiment No. 26
+
+Acidity of Flour
+
+Weigh into a flask 20 gms. of flour and add 200 cc. distilled water.
+Shake vigorously. After letting stand 30 minutes, filter and then
+titrate 50 cc. of the filtrate against standard KOH solution, using
+phenolphthalein as indicator, 1 cc. of the alkali equals 0.009 gms.
+lactic acid. Calculate the per cent of acid present.
+
+1. How may the acidity of a flour be determined? 2. The acidity is
+expressed in percentage amounts of what acid? 3. What per cent of
+acidity is found in normal flours? 4. What does a high acidity of a
+flour indicate?
+
+
+Experiment No. 27
+
+Moist and Dry Gluten
+
+Weigh 30 gms. of flour into a porcelain dish. Make the flour into a
+stiff dough. After 30 minutes obtain the gluten by washing, being
+careful to remove all the starch and prevent any losses. Squeeze the
+water from the gluten as thoroughly as possible. Weigh the moist gluten
+and calculate the per cent. Dry the gluten in the water oven and
+calculate the per cent of dry gluten.
+
+
+Experiment No. 28
+
+Gliadin from Flour
+
+Place in a flask 10 gms. of flour, 30 cc. of alcohol, and 20 cc. of
+water. Cork the flask and shake, and after a few minutes shake again.
+Allow the alcohol to act on the flour for an hour, or until the next
+day. Then filter off the alcohol solution and evaporate the filtrate to
+dryness over the water bath. Examine the residue; to a portion add a
+little water; burn a small portion and observe odor.
+
+1. Describe the appearance of the gliadin. 2. What was the result when
+water was added? 3. When burned, what was the odor of the gliadin, and
+what does this indicate? 4. What is gliadin?
+
+
+Experiment No. 29
+
+Bread-making Test
+
+Make a "sponge" by mixing together:
+
+  12 gm. sugar,
+  12 gm. yeast (compressed),
+  4 gm. salt,
+  175 cc. water (temp. 32° C.).
+
+Let stand 1/2 hour at a temperature of 30° C. In a large bowl, mix with
+a knife or spatula 7.7 gms. of lard with 248.6 gms. of flour. Then add
+160 cc. of the "sponge," or as much as is needed to make a good stiff
+dough, and mix thoroughly, using the spatula. With some flours as small
+a quantity as 150 cc. of sponge may be used. If more moisture is
+necessary, add H_{2}O. Keep at temperature of 30° C. Allow the dough to
+stand 50 minutes to first pulling, 40 minutes to second pulling, and 30
+to 50 minutes to the pan. Let it rise to top of pan and then bake for
+1/2 hour in an oven at a temperature of 180° C. One loaf of bread is
+made of patent flour of known quality as a standard for comparison, and
+other loaves of the flours to be tested. Compare the loaves as to size
+(cubic contents), color, porosity, odor, taste, nature of crust, and
+form of loaf.
+
+
+Experiment No. 30
+
+Microscopic Examination of Yeast
+
+On a watch glass mix thoroughly a very small piece of yeast with about 5
+cc. of water and then with the stirring rod place a drop of this
+solution on the microscopical slide, adding a drop of very dilute methyl
+violet solution. Cover with the cover glass and examine under the
+microscope. The living active cells appear colorless while the decayed
+and lifeless ones are stained. Yeast cells are circular or oval in
+shape. (See Fig. 46.)
+
+  (Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+
+
+Experiment No. 31
+
+Testing Baking Powders for Alum
+
+Place about 2 gms. of flour in a dish with 1/2 gm. baking powder. Add
+enough water to make a dough and then 2 or 3 drops of tincture of
+logwood and 2 or 3 drops of ammonium carbonate solution. Mix well and
+observe; a blue color indicates alum. Try the same test, using flour
+only for comparison.
+
+1. How do you test a baking powder for alum? 2. What difference in color
+did you observe in the test with the baking powder containing alum and
+in that with the flour only? 3. Why is the (NH_{4})_{2}CO_{3} solution
+used?
+
+
+Experiment No. 32
+
+Testing Baking Powders for Phosphoric Acid
+
+Dissolve 1/2 gm. of baking powder in 5 cc. of H_{2}O and 3 cc. HNO_{3}.
+Filter and add 3 cc. ammonium molybdate. Heat gently. A yellow
+precipitate indicates phosphoric acid.
+
+1. How do you test a baking powder for phosphoric acid? 2. What is the
+yellow precipitate obtained in this test?
+
+
+Experiment No. 33
+
+Testing Baking Powders for Ammonia
+
+Dissolve 1/2 gm. of material in 10 cc. water; filter off any insoluble
+residue and to the filtrate add 2 or 3 cc. NaOH and apply heat. Test the
+gas given off with moistened turmeric paper. If NH_{3} is present, the
+paper will be colored brown. Do not allow the paper to come in contact
+with the liquid or sides of the test tube. (Perform the tests on two
+samples of baking powder.)
+
+1. How do you test a baking powder for ammonia? 2. Why do you add NaOH?
+3. Why must you be careful not to let the turmeric paper touch the sides
+of the test tube or the liquid?
+
+
+Experiment No. 34
+
+Vinegar Solids
+
+Into a weighed aluminum or porcelain dish pour 10 cc. of vinegar. Weigh
+and then evaporate over boiling water. To drive off the last traces of
+moisture dry in the water oven for an hour. Cool and weigh. Calculate
+the per cent of solids. Observe the appearance of the solids. Test both
+samples and compare.
+
+1. How may the per cent of solids in vinegar be determined? 2. Describe
+the appearance of the solids from the good and from the poor sample of
+vinegar. 3. What is the legal standard for vinegar solids in your state?
+
+
+Experiment No. 35
+
+Specific Gravity of Vinegar
+
+Pour 170 cc. vinegar into 200 cc. cylinder. Place a hydrometer for heavy
+liquids (sp. gr. 1 to 1.1) in the cylinder. Note the depth to which it
+sinks and the point registered on the scale on the stem. Note
+temperature of vinegar. Record specific gravity of vinegar.
+
+1. What effect would addition of water to vinegar have upon its specific
+gravity? 2. What effect would addition of such material as sugar have
+upon specific gravity? 3. Why should the specific gravity of vinegar be
+fairly constant? 4. What would be the weight of 1000 cc. of vinegar
+calculated from the specific gravity?
+
+
+Experiment No. 36
+
+Acidity of Vinegar
+
+Into a small beaker pour 6 cc. of vinegar and 10 cc. of water and a few
+drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Run in standard KOH solution from a
+burette until a faint pink tinge remains permanently. Note the number of
+cubic centimeters of KOH solution required to neutralize the acid.
+Divide this number by 10, which will give approximately the per cent of
+acetic acid.
+
+1. How may the per cent of acidity of vinegar be determined? 2. Why was
+phenolphthalein used? 3. Why was KOH used? 4. What acids does vinegar
+contain? 5. What is the legal requirement in this state for acetic acid
+in vinegar? 6. How did the acidity you obtained compare with this legal
+requirement?
+
+
+Experiment No. 37
+
+Deportment of Vinegar with Reagents
+
+To 10 cc. of vinegar in a test tube add 8 or 10 drops of lead
+sub-acetate and shake. Observe the precipitate. Lead sub-acetate
+precipitates mainly the malic acid which is always present in cider
+vinegar.
+
+1. How may the presence of malic acid in a vinegar be detected? 2.
+Describe the precipitate. 3. What does malic acid in a vinegar indicate?
+
+
+Experiment No. 38
+
+Testing Mustard for Turmeric
+
+Place 1 gm. of ground mustard on a small watch glass and moisten
+slightly with water. Add 2 or 3 drops of NH_{4}OH, stirring well with a
+glass rod. A brown color indicates turmeric present in considerable
+quantity.
+
+Test a sample of good mustard and one adulterated with turmeric and
+compare the results.
+
+
+Experiment No. 39
+
+Examination of Tea Leaves
+
+Soak a small amount of tea and unroll 8 or 10 of the leaves. Make a
+drawing of a tea leaf. Observe the proportion of stems in each of three
+samples of tea; also the relative proportion of large and small leaves.
+Observe if the leaves are even as to size and of a uniform color.
+
+
+Experiment No. 40
+
+Action of Iron Compounds upon Tannic Acid
+
+Make an infusion of tea by placing 3 gms. of tea in 100 cc. of hot water
+and stirring well. Filter off some of the infusion and test 5 cc. with
+ferrous sulphate solution made by dissolving 1 gm. FeSO_{4} in 10 cc.
+H_{2}O and filtering. Note the result.
+
+1. What change in color did you observe when the ferrous sulphate
+solution was added to the tea infusion? 2. What effect would waters
+containing iron have upon the tea infusion?
+
+
+Experiment No. 41
+
+Identification of Coffee Berries
+
+Examine Rio, Java, and Mocha coffee berries. Describe each. Note the
+characteristics of each kind of coffee berry.
+
+
+Experiment No. 42
+
+Detecting Chicory in Coffee
+
+Fill a beaker with water and place about a teaspoonful of ground coffee
+on the surface. If much of the ground material sinks and it imparts a
+dark brown color to the lower portion of the liquid, it is an indication
+of the presence of chicory. Pure coffee floats on water. Chicory has a
+higher specific gravity than coffee.
+
+1. How may the presence of chicory in ground coffee be detected? 2. Why
+does coffee float on the water while chicory sinks? 3. What effect does
+chicory have upon the color of water?
+
+
+Experiment No. 43
+
+Testing Hard and Soft Waters
+
+Partially fill a large cylinder with very hard water. This may be
+prepared by dissolving 0.1 to 0.2 gm. calcium chloride in 500 cc. of
+ordinary water. Add to this a measured quantity of soap solution. Mix
+well and notice how many cubic centimeters of soap solution must be used
+before a permanent lather is formed, also notice the precipitate of
+"lime soap." Repeat this experiment, using either rain or distilled
+water, and compare the cubic centimeters of soap solution used with that
+in former test. Repeat the test, using tap water.
+
+Soap Solution.--Scrape 10 gms. of castile soap into fine shavings and
+dissolve in a liter of alcohol, dilute with 1/3 water. Filter if not
+clear and keep in a tightly stoppered bottle.
+
+1. Why is more soap required to form a lather with hard water than with
+soft water? 2. What is meant by "lime soap"? Describe its appearance. 3.
+How may hard waters be softened for household purposes?
+
+
+Experiment No. 44
+
+Solvent Action of Water on Lead
+
+Put 1 gm. of clean bright lead shavings into a test tube containing 10
+cc. of distilled water. After 24 hours decant the clear liquid into a
+second test tube, acidify slightly with HCL, and add a little hydrogen
+sulphid water. A black or brownish coloration indicates lead in
+solution.
+
+  (Adapted from Caldwell and Breneman, "Introductory Chemical Practice.")
+
+Under what conditions may lead pipes be objectionable?
+
+
+Experiment No. 45
+
+Suspended Matter in Water
+
+Place a drop of water on the microscopical slide, cover with cover
+glass, and examine with the microscope. Note the occurrence and
+appearance of any suspended matter in the water.
+
+
+Experiment No. 46
+
+Organic Matter in Water
+
+Pour into the evaporating dish 100 cc. H_{2}O and evaporate to dryness
+over the sand bath. Ignite the solids. If the solids blacken when
+ignited, the water contains organic matter.
+
+
+Experiment No. 47
+
+Deposition of Lime by Boiling Water
+
+Boil for a few minutes about 200 cc. of water in a flask. After the
+water is cool, note any sediment of lime or turbidity of the water due
+to expelling the carbon dioxid.
+
+1. What is meant by a "hard" water? 2. What do the terms "temporary" and
+"permanent" hardness of water mean? 3. What acts as a solvent of the
+lime in water? 4. Why does boiling cause the lime to be deposited?
+
+
+Experiment No. 48
+
+Qualitative Tests for Minerals in Water
+
+Test for Chlorids.--To 10 cc. of H_{2}O add a few drops of HNO_{3} and
+2 cc. of AgNO_{3}. A white precipitate indicates the presence of
+chlorids, usually in the form of sodium chlorid.
+
+Test for Sulphates.--To 10 cc. of water add 2 cc. of dilute HCl and 2
+cc. of BaCl_{2}. A cloudiness or the formation of a white precipitate
+indicates the presence of sulphates.
+
+Test for Iron.--If a brown sediment is formed in water exposed to the
+air for some time, it is probably iron hydroxid. To 10 cc. of the water
+add a few drops of HNO_{3}, heat, and then add 1/2 cc. of NH_{4}CNS. A
+red color indicates the presence of iron.
+
+Test for CaO and MgO.--To 10 cc. of H_{2}O add 5 cc. NH_{4}OH. If a
+precipitate forms, filter it off, and to the filtrate add 3 cc. NH_{4}Cl
+and 5 cc. (NH_{4})_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. The precipitate is CaC{2}O_{4}, and
+the filtrate contains the magnesia. Filter and add 5 cc. Na_{3}PO_{4} to
+precipitate MgNH_{4}PO_{4}.
+
+1. How would you test a water to detect the presence of organic matter?
+2. Name some mineral impurities often found in water. 3. Describe the
+test for chlorids; for sulphates; for iron; for lime; for magnesium. 4.
+Of the two classes of impurities found in water, which is the more
+harmful? 5. Name three ways of purifying waters known to be impure, and
+tell which is the most effectual.
+
+
+Experiment No. 49
+
+Testing for Nitrites in Water
+
+To 50 cc. of water in a small beaker add with a pipette 2 cc. of
+naphthylamine hydrochloride and then 2 cc. of sulphanilic acid. Stir
+well and wait 20 minutes for color to develop. A pink color indicates
+nitrites.
+
+
+REAGENTS USED
+
+Sulphanilic Acid.--Dissolve 5 gm. in 150 cc. of dilute acetic acid;
+sp. gr. 1.04.
+
+Naphthylamine Hydrochloride.--Boil 0.1 gm. of solid [Greek:
+a]-amidonaphthaline (naphthylamine) in 20 cc. of water, filter the
+solution through a plug of absorbent cotton, and mix the nitrate with
+180 cc. of dilute acetic acid. All water used must be free from
+nitrites, and all vessels must be rinsed out with such water before
+tests are applied.
+
+1. Would a water showing the presence of nitrites be a safe drinking
+water? Why? 2. What are nitrites? 3. What does the presence of nitrites
+indicate? 4. Are small amounts of nitrites, when not associated with
+bacteria, injurious?
+
+
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GENERAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS
+
+1. To what extent is water present in foods? 2. What foods contain the
+most, and what foods the least water? 3. How does the water content of
+some foods vary with the hydroscopicity of the air? 4. How may changes
+in water content of foods affect their weight? 5. Why is it necessary to
+consider the water content of foods in assigning nutritive values? 6.
+How is the dry matter of a food determined? 7. Why is the determination
+of the water in a food often a difficult process? 8. What is the ash or
+mineral matter of a food? 9. How is it obtained? 10. What is its source?
+11. Of what is the ash of plants composed? 12. What part in plant life
+do these ash elements take? 13. Name the ash elements essential for
+plant growth. 14. Which of the mineral elements take the most essential
+part in animal nutrition? 15. In what form are these elements usually
+considered most valuable? 16. Why is sodium chloride or common salt
+necessary for animal life? 17. How do food materials differ in ash
+content? 18. Define organic matter of foods. 19. How is it obtained? 20.
+Of what is it composed? 21. Into what is the organic matter converted
+when it is burned? 22. Give the two large classes of organic compounds
+found in food materials. 23. Name the various subdivisions of the
+non-nitrogenous compounds. 24. What are the carbohydrates? 25. Give
+their general composition. 26. What is cellulose? 27. Where is it found?
+28. What is its function in plants? 29. What is its food value? 30. In
+what way may cellulose be of value in a ration? 31. In what way may it
+impart a negative value to a ration? 32. What is starch? 33. Where is
+it mainly found in plants? 34. Give the mechanical structure of the
+starch grain. 35. Why is starch insoluble in cold water? 36. How do
+starch grains from different sources differ in structure? 37. What
+effect does heat have upon starch? 38. Define hydration of starch. 39.
+Under what conditions does this change take place? 40. What value as a
+nutrient does starch possess? 41. What is sugar? 42. How does it
+resemble and how differ in composition from starch? 43. What are the
+pectose substances? 44. How are they affected by heat? 45. What food
+value do they possess? 46. What is nitrogen-free-extract? 47. How is it
+obtained? 48. How may the nitrogen-free-extract of one food differ from
+that of another? 49. What are the fats? 50. How do they differ in
+composition from the starches? 51. Why does fat when burned or digested
+produce more heat than starch or sugar? 52. Name the separate fats of
+which animal and vegetable foods are composed. 53. Give some of the
+physical characteristics of fat. 54. What is the iodine absorption
+number of a fat? 55. How does the specific gravity of fat compare with
+that of water? 56. Into what two constituents may all fats be separated?
+57. What is ether extract? 58. How does the ether extract in fats vary
+in composition and nutritive value? 59. What are the organic acids? 60.
+Name those most commonly met with in foods. 61. What nutritive value do
+they possess? 62. What dietetic value? 63. What value are they to the
+growing plant? 64. What organic acids are found in animal foods? 65.
+What are the essential oils? 66. How do they differ from the fixed oils,
+or fats? 67. What property do the essential oils impart to foods? 68.
+What food value do they possess? 69. What dietetic value? 70. What are
+the mixed compounds? 71. How may a compound impart a negative value to a
+food? 72. What is the nutritive value of the non-nitrogenous compounds,
+taken as a class? 73. Why is it necessary that nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds be blended in a ration? 74. What are the
+nitrogenous compounds? 75. How do they differ from the non-nitrogenous
+compounds? 76. Name the four subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds.
+77. What is protein? 78. What is characteristic as to its nitrogen
+content? 79. What are some of the derivative products that can be
+obtained from the protein molecule? 80. How does the protein content of
+animal bodies compare with that of plants? 81. Name the various
+subdivisions of the proteins. 82. What is albumin, and how may it be
+obtained from a food? 83. What is globulin, and how is it obtained from
+a food? 84. Give some examples of globulins. 85. What are the
+albuminates, and how are they affected by the action of acids and
+alkalies? 86. What are the peptones, and how do they differ from the
+albumins? 87. How are the peptones produced from other proteids? 88.
+What are the insoluble proteids? 89. Give an example. 90. Which of the
+proteids are found to the greatest extent in foods? 91. Why may proteids
+from different sources vary in their nutritive value? 92. What general
+change do the proteids undergo during digestion? 93. What is crude
+protein? 94. How is the crude protein content of a food calculated? 95.
+Why is the nitrogen content of a food more absolute than the crude
+protein content? 96. What food value do the proteins possess? 97. Why
+may proteins serve so many functions in the body? 98. Why is protein
+necessary as a nutrient? 99. What is the effect of an excess of protein
+in the ration? 100. What is the effect of a scant amount of protein in a
+ration? 101. What are the albuminoids? 102. Name borne materials that
+contain large amounts of albuminoids. 103. What food value do the
+albuminoids possess? 104. What are the amids? 105. How are they formed
+in plants? 106. What is their source in animals? 107. What general
+changes does the element nitrogen undergo in plant and animal bodies?
+108. What is the food value of the amids? 109. What are the alkaloids?
+110. What is their food value? 111. What effect do some alkaloids exert
+upon the animal body? 112. How may they be produced in animal foods?
+113. What general relationship exists between the various nitrogenous
+compounds? 114. Why is it essential that the animal body be supplied
+with nitrogenous food in the form of proteids? 115. Name the cycle of
+changes through which the element nitrogen passes in plant and animal
+bodies.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND PREPARATION
+
+116. How do raw and cooked foods compare in general composition? 117. In
+what ways are foods acted upon during cooking? 118. What causes chemical
+changes to take place during cooking? 119. What are the principal
+compounds that are changed during the process of cooking? 120. How does
+cooking affect the cellulose of foods? 121. What change does starch
+undergo during cooking? 122. When foods containing starch are baked,
+what change occurs? 123. How are the sugars acted upon when foods are
+cooked? 124. What effect does dry heat have upon sugar? 125. What change
+occurs to the fats during cooking? 126. How does this affect nutritive
+value? 127. What changes do the proteids undergo during cooking? 128.
+Why does the action of heat affect various proteids in different ways?
+129. Why are chemical changes, as hydration, often desirable in the
+cooking and preparation of foods? 130. What physical changes do
+vegetable and animal tissues undergo when cooked? 131. How do foods
+change in weight during cooking? 132. Why is a prolonged high
+temperature unnecessary to secure the best results in cooking? 133. To
+what extent is the energy of fuels utilized for producing mechanical and
+chemical changes in foods during cooking? 134. What effect does cooking
+have upon the bacterial flora of foods? 135. In what ways do bacteria
+exert a favorable influence in the preparation of foods? 136. How may
+certain classes of bacteria exert unfavorable changes in the preparation
+of foods? 137. What are the insoluble ferments? 138. What are the
+soluble ferments? 139. What part do they take in animal and plant
+nutrition? 140. Define aerobic ferments. 141. Define anaërobic ferments.
+142. What general relationship exists between the chemical, physical,
+and bacteriological changes that take place in foods? 143. Why should
+foods also possess an esthetic value? 144. What kinds of colors should
+be used in the preparation of foods? 145. What processes should be used
+for removal of coloring materials from foods?
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+VEGETABLE FOODS
+
+146. Give the general composition of vegetable foods as a class. 147.
+How do vegetable foods differ from animal foods? 148. Name some
+vegetables which contain the maximum, and some which contain the minimum
+percentage of protein. 149. Give the general composition of potatoes.
+150. Of what is the dry matter mainly composed? 151. How much of the
+crude protein of potatoes is true protein? 152. What ratio exists
+between the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in the potato?
+153. Give the chemical composition of the potato. 154. What influence do
+different methods of boiling have upon the crude protein content of
+potatoes? 155. To what extent are the nutrients of potatoes digested and
+absorbed by the body? 156. What value do potatoes impart to the ration?
+157. How do sweet potatoes differ in chemical composition and food value
+from white potatoes? 158. How do carrots differ in composition from
+potatoes? 159. What is characteristic of the dry matter of the carrot?
+160. How do carrots and milk differ in composition? 161. To what is the
+color of the carrot due? 162. To what extent are the nutrients removed
+in the cooking of carrots? 163. What is the value of carrots in a
+ration? 164. Give the characteristics of the composition of parsnips.
+165. How does the starch of parsnips differ from that of potatoes? 166.
+How does the mineral matter of parsnips differ from that of potatoes?
+167. How does the cabbage differ in general composition from many
+vegetables? 168. To what extent are nutrients extracted in the boiling
+of cabbage? 169. Give the nutritive value of cabbage. 170. How does the
+cauliflower differ from cabbage? 171. Give the general composition of
+beets. 172. Give the general composition of cucumbers. 173. What
+nutritive value has lettuce? 174. Give the composition and dietetic
+value of onions. 175. How does the ratio of nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds in spinach differ from that in many other
+vegetables? 176. Give the general composition and nutritive value of
+asparagus. 177. How much nutritive material do melons contain? 178. What
+are the principal compounds of tomatoes? 179. What nutrients do they
+supply to the ration? 180. In the canning of tomatoes, why is it
+desirable to conserve the juices? 181. How does sweet corn differ in
+composition from fully matured corn? 182. What nutritive value does the
+egg plant possess? 183. What are the principal nutrients of squash? 184.
+What nutritive material does celery contain? 185. To what does celery
+owe its dietetic value? 186. Why are vegetables necessary in a ration?
+187. Why is it not possible to value many vegetable foods simply on the
+basis of percentage of nutrients present? 188. Name the miscellaneous
+compounds which many vegetables contain, and the characteristics which
+these may impart. 189. Why is it necessary to consider the sanitary
+conditions of vegetables? 190. How do canned vegetables differ in
+composition and food value from fresh vegetables? 191. What proportion
+of vegetables is refuse and non-edible parts? 192. Why is it necessary
+to consider the refuse of a food in determining its nutritive value?
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+FRUITS
+
+193. To what extent do fruits contain water and dry matter? 194. Give
+the general composition of fruits. 195. What compounds impart taste and
+flavor? 196. How much nutrients do fruits add to a ration? 197. Why is
+it not right to determine the value of fruits entirely on the basis of
+nutrients? 198. Give the general composition of apples? 199. What
+compound is present to the greatest extent in the dry matter of apples?
+200. How do apples differ in composition? 201. Give the general physical
+composition of oranges. 202. What nutrients are present to the greatest
+extent in oranges? 203. How do lemons differ in composition from
+oranges? 204. How does grape fruit resemble and how differ in chemical
+composition from oranges and lemons? 205. What are the main compounds in
+strawberries? 206. In what ways are strawberries valuable in a ration?
+207. Of what is grape juice mainly composed? 208. What acid is in
+grapes, and what is its commercial value? 209. To what are the
+differences in flavor and taste due? 210. How do ripe olives differ in
+composition from green olives? 211. What is the food value of the olive?
+212. What physiological property does olive oil have? 213. What is the
+principal nutrient in peaches? 214. What compounds give flavor to
+peaches? 215. Of what does the dry matter of plums mainly consist? 216.
+How do plums differ in composition from many other fruits? 217. What are
+prunes? What is their food value? 218. How do dried fruits differ in
+composition from fresh fruits? 219. What should be the stage of ripeness
+of fruit in order to secure the best results in canning? 220. How do
+canned fruits differ in composition and nutritive value from fresh
+fruits? 221. To what extent are metals dissolved by fruit juices? 222.
+Why should tin in which canned goods are preserved be of good quality?
+223. What preservatives are sometimes used in the preparation of canned
+fruits? 224. What is the objection to their use? 225. Why are fruits
+necessary in the ration? 226. What change does heat bring about in the
+pectose substances of fruits?
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SUGAR, MOLASSES, SIRUPS, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS
+
+227. What is sugar? 228. From what sources are sugars obtained? 229.
+Name the two divisions into which sugars are divided. 230. How are
+sugars graded commercially? 231. What per cent of purity has granulated
+sugar? 232. How is the coloring material of sugar removed? 233. How is
+sugar treated to make it whiter? 234. What value as a nutrient does
+sugar possess? 235. Why should sugar be combined with other nutrients?
+236. What foods contain appreciable amounts of sugar? 237. Why is an
+excessive amount of sugar in a ration undesirable? 238. Does sugar
+possess more than condimental value? 239. What is the average quantity
+of sugar consumed in this country? 240. What is maple sugar? 241. How
+does it differ in composition from other sugar? 242. How is adulterated
+maple sugar detected? 243. To what extent is granulated sugar
+adulterated? 244. Why is it not easily adulterated? 245. What are the
+dextrose sugars? 246. How do they differ chemically from sucrose? 247.
+What is the inversion of sugar? 248. In what way does acid act upon
+sugar? 249. How are the acid products removed? 250. What is the food
+value of glucose? 251. What is molasses? 252. How is it obtained? 253.
+Of what is it composed? 254. What gives taste and flavor to molasses?
+255. How may molasses act upon metalware? 256. What is the food value of
+molasses? 257. What is sirup? 258. Name three kinds of sirup, and
+mention materials from which they are prepared. 259. What is the
+polariscope, and how is it employed in sugar work? 260. What is honey?
+261. How does it differ in composition from sugar? 262. How is strained
+honey adulterated? 263. What materials are used in the preparation of
+confections? 264. What changes take place in their manufacture? 265.
+What materials are used for imparting color? 266. What can you say in
+regard to the coal tar colors? 267. What should be the position of candy
+in the dietary? 268. What can you say of the comparative value of cane
+and beet sugar? 269. How do the commercial grades of sugar compare as to
+nutritive value? 270. What are some of the impurities in candy? 271.
+What is saccharine? 272. What are its properties?
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+LEGUMES AND NUTS
+
+273. What nutrients do the legumes contain in comparatively large
+amounts? 274. How does the amount of this nutrient compare with that
+found in meats? 275. Why are legumes valuable crops in general farming
+and for the feeding of farm animals? 276. Give the general composition
+of beans. 277. How do beans compare in protein content with cereals?
+278. How does the protein of beans differ from that of many other food
+materials? 279. To what extent are the nutrients of beans digested? 280.
+What influence does the combination of beans with other foods have upon
+digestibility? 281. What influence does removal of skins have upon
+digestibility? 282. In what part of the digestive tract are beans mainly
+digested? 283. How does the cost of the nutrients in beans compare with
+that of the nutrients in other foods? 284. How do string beans differ
+from green beans? 285. Give the general composition, digestibility, and
+nutritive value of peas. 286. What can you say of the use of copper
+sulphate in the preparation of canned peas? 287. What nutrients do
+peanuts contain in large amounts? 288. Give the general composition of
+nuts. 289. What are the characteristics of pistachio? 290. Give the
+general composition of the cocoanut. 291. What is cocoanut butter? 292.
+To what extent may nuts contribute to the nutritive value of a ration?
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
+
+293. What can you say as to the importance of dairy products in the
+dietary? 294. Give the general composition of milk. 295. What compound
+in milk is most variable? 296. To what extent are the nutrients in milk
+digestible? 297. What influence does milk have upon the digestibility of
+other foods? 298. Why is cheese cured in cold storage? 299. How can the
+tendency of a milk diet to produce costiveness be overcome? 300. Why is
+it necessary to consider the sanitary condition of milk? 301. What
+factors influence the sanitary condition of milk? 302. What is certified
+milk? 303. What is pasteurized milk? 304. How can milk be pasteurized
+for family use? 305. What is tyrotoxicon? 306. What is its source in
+milk? 307. To what is the color of milk due? 308. To what extent is
+color associated with fat content? 309. What causes souring of milk?
+310. What change occurs in the milk sugar? 311. What are the most
+favorable conditions for the souring of milk? 312. What are some of the
+preservatives used in milk. 313. What objection is urged against their
+use? 314. What is condensed milk? 315. What is buttermilk, and what
+dietetic value has it? 316. How does goats' milk differ from cows' milk?
+317. What is koumiss, and how is it prepared? 318. What are the prepared
+milks? 319. How does human milk differ in composition from cows' milk?
+320. Give the nutritive value of skim milk. 321. What content of fat
+should cream contain? 322. In what ways is milk adulterated? 323. How
+are these adulterations detected? 324. Give the general composition of
+butter. 325. What is the maximum amount of water that a butter may
+contain without being considered adulterated? 326. What can you say in
+regard to the digestibility of butter? 327. How is butter adulterated?
+328. How does oleomargarine compare in digestibility and food value with
+butter? 329. What is the food value of butter? 330. How does cheese
+differ in composition from butter? 331. Give the general composition of
+cheese. 332. To what are the flavor and odor of cheese due? 333. Why is
+cheese ripened? 334. What chemical changes take place during ripening?
+335. To what extent are the nutrients of cheese digested? 336. Why is
+cheese sometimes considered indigestible? 337. To what extent do the
+nutrients of different kinds of cheese vary in digestibility? 338. How
+does cheese compare in nutritive value and cost with meats? 339. What is
+cottage cheese? 340. What is Roquefort cheese? 341. Name four kinds of
+cheese, and say to what each owes its individuality. 342. How is cheese
+adulterated? 343. Why are dairy products in older agricultural regions
+generally cheaper than meats?
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS
+
+344. Give the general composition of meats. 345. How do meats differ in
+chemical composition from vegetable foods? 346. What is the principal
+non-nitrogenous compound of meats, and what of vegetables? 347. Name the
+different classes of proteins in meats. 348. Which class is present in
+largest amounts? 349. To what extent are amid compounds present in
+meats? 350. What characteristics do amids impart to meats? 351. How are
+alkaloids produced in meats? 352. In what ways does the lean meat of
+different kinds of animals vary chemically and physically? 353. Give the
+general composition of beef. 354. What relationship exists between the
+fat and water content of beef? 355. How much refuse have meats? 356. In
+what forms are the ash elements (mineral matter) present in meats? 357.
+How does veal differ in composition from beef? 358. What general changes
+in composition occur as animals mature? 359. How do these compare with
+the changes that take place when plants ripen and seeds are produced?
+360. How does mutton vary in composition from beef? 361. How does it
+compare in food value with beef? 362. How do lamb and mutton differ in
+composition? 363. To what extent do the various cuts differ in
+composition? 364. How do the more expensive cuts of lamb compare in
+nutritive value with the less expensive cuts? 365. How does pork differ
+in composition from other meats? 366. Give the general composition of
+ham. 367. Give the composition and nutritive value of bacon. 368. How
+does bacon compare in food value with other meats? 369. How does the
+character of the fat influence the composition and taste of the meat?
+370. What influences the texture or toughness of meats? 371. How do
+cooked meats compare in composition with raw meats? 372. To what extent
+are nutrients lost in the boiling of meats? 373. What influence does the
+temperature of the water in which the meat is placed for cooking have
+upon the amount of nutrients extracted? 374. To what is the shrinking of
+meats in cooking due? 375. Of what does meat extract mainly consist?
+376. To what do beef extracts owe their flavor? 377. What is their food
+value? 378. What is their dietetic value? 379. What is lard? 380. How
+does it differ in composition from other fats? 381. What is imparted to
+meats during the smoking process? 382. Why is saltpeter used in the
+preservation of meats? 383. Do vegetable foods contain nitrates and
+nitrites? 384. How does poultry resemble and how differ in composition
+from other meat? 385. Give the characteristics of sound poultry. 386.
+Give the general composition of fish. 387. How does the flesh of
+different kinds of fish vary in composition? 388. What influence does
+salting and preservation have upon composition? 389. How do fish and
+meat compare in digestibility? 390. How does the mineral matter and
+phosphate content of fish compare with that of other foods? 391. What
+are the main nutrients in oysters? 392. Give the general food value of
+oysters. 393. What is meant by the fattening of oysters? 394. What
+effect does the character of the water used in fattening have upon the
+sanitary value? 395. Give the general composition of the egg. 396. How
+do different parts of the egg differ in composition? 397. How does the
+egg differ in composition from the potato? 398. Is color an index to the
+composition of the egg? 399. What effect does cooking have upon the
+composition of the egg? 400. What factors influence the flavor of eggs?
+401. How do different ways of cooking affect the digestibility? 402.
+Under what conditions can eggs be used economically in the dietary? 403.
+Why should eggs be purchased and sold by weight? 404. How do canned
+meats differ in composition from fresh meats? 405. How do the nutrients
+of canned meats compare in cost with those of fresh meat? 406. What are
+the advantages of canned meats over fresh meats? 407. What are some of
+the materials used in the preservation of meats?
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CEREALS
+
+408. How are the cereals milled? 409. What are the cereals most commonly
+used for food purposes? 410. Give the general composition of cereals as
+a class. 411. What are the main nutrients in corn preparations? 412.
+What influence does the more complete removal of the bran and germ of
+corn have upon its digestibility? 413. How does the cost of nutrients in
+corn compare with other foods? 414. Why is corn alone not suitable for
+bread-making purposes? 415. Why should corn be combined in a ration with
+foods mediumly rich in protein? 416. What change takes place in corn
+meal from long storage? 417. Give the characteristics and composition of
+oat preparations. 418. How does removal of the oat hull affect the
+composition of the product? 419. To what extent do the various oat
+preparations on the market differ in composition and food value? 420. Do
+oats contain any special alkaloidal or stimulating principle? 421. Why
+should oatmeal receive longer and more-thorough cooking than many other
+foods? 422. To what extent are the nutrients in oatmeal digested? 423.
+How do wheat preparations differ in general composition from corn and
+oat preparations? 424. What influence upon the composition of the wheat
+breakfast foods has partial or complete removal of the bran? 425. What
+is the effect upon their digestibility and nutritive value? 426. What
+are the special diabetic flours, and how are they prepared? 427. What
+are the wheat middlings breakfast foods, and how do they compare in
+digestibility and food value with bread? 428. How do they differ
+mechanically? 429. How does barley differ from wheat in general
+composition? 430. What is barley water, and what nutritive material does
+it contain? 431. What cereal does rice resemble in composition? 432.
+With what food materials should rice be combined to make a balanced
+ration? 433. What can you say as to comparative ease and completeness
+of digestibility of rice? 434. Why are cereals valuable in the ration?
+435. In what way do they take a mechanical part in digestion? 436. What
+are predigested breakfast foods? 437. How would you determine the
+general nutritive value of a breakfast food, knowing the kind of cereal
+from which it was prepared? 438. To what extent are cereals modified or
+changed in composition by cooking? 439. To what extent are the nutrients
+of cereal foods digested and absorbed by the body? 440. To what extent
+do the cereals supply the body with mineral matter? 441. How does the
+phosphate content of cereals compare with that of meats and milk?
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+WHEAT FLOUR
+
+442. Why is wheat flour especially adapted to bread-making purposes?
+443. To what extent may wheat vary in protein content? 444. What are
+spring wheats? 445. What are winter wheats? 446. Give the general
+characteristics of each. 447. What are glutinous wheats? 448. What are
+starchy wheats? 449. Name the different proteids in wheat flour. 450.
+About how much starch does wheat flour contain? 451. What other
+carbohydrates are also present? 452. What is the roller process of flour
+milling? 453. What is meant by the first break? 454. How are the
+different products of the wheat kernel separated? 455. What is meant by
+middlings flour? 456. What is break flour? 457. What is patent flour?
+458. Name the high grade flours. 459. Name the low grade flours. 460.
+How are the impurities removed from wheat flour? 461. What per cent of
+the wheat kernel is returned as flour? As offals? 462. What becomes of
+the wheat germ during milling? 463. What sized bolting cloths are used
+in milling? 464. What is graham flour? 465. How does it differ in
+mechanical and chemical composition from white flour? 466. What is
+entire wheat flour? 467. How does it differ in physical and chemical
+composition from white flour? 468. What effect has the refining of
+flour upon the ash content? 469. How do low and high grade flours differ
+in chemical composition? 470. How do the wheat offals differ in
+composition from the flour? 471. What are the factors which influence
+the composition of flours? 472. What effect does storage have upon the
+bread-making value of flour? 473. What change takes place when new wheat
+is stored in an elevator? 474. What is durum wheat flour, and how does
+it differ from other flour? 475. What gives flour its color? 476. Why is
+color an index of grade? 477. How is the color of a flour determined?
+478. How do flours differ in granulation? 479. How does the granulation
+affect the physical properties of flour? 480. How is the granulation of
+flour approximately determined? 481. How is the absorptive capacity of a
+flour determined? 482. What factors cause a variation in the capacity of
+flours to absorb water? 483. Give the characteristics of a good gluten.
+484. What causes unsound flours? 485. How is the bread-making value of a
+flour determined? 486. How are flours bleached? 487. How does bleaching
+affect the chemical composition of flour? 488. What influence does
+bleaching have upon bread-making value? 489. Traces of what compounds
+are formed during bleaching? 490. Are these compounds injurious to
+health? 491. What effect does bleaching have upon the color of fiber and
+débris particles in flour? 492. Is it possible to bleach low grade
+flours and cause them to resemble high grade flours? 493. Are flours
+usually adulterated? 494. Why? 495. How would mineral adulterants be
+detected? 496. How would the presence of other cereals be detected? 497.
+How does flour compare in nutritive value with other foods? 498. How
+does the cost of flour compare with that of other foods? 499. What
+causes flours to vary so in bread-making value? 500. Why may flours
+produced from the same type of wheat vary slightly in character from
+year to year? 501. What relationship exists between the nutritive and
+bread-making value of a flour?
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BREAD AND BREAD MAKING
+
+502. Define leavened and unleavened bread. 503. Why is yeast used in
+bread making? 504. Give the characteristics of a good loaf of bread.
+505. Why is flour used for bread making purposes? 506. Name the eight
+chemical changes that take place during bread making. 507. To what
+extent do losses in dry matter occur during bread making? 508. What
+compounds suffer losses during bread making? 509. What is yeast? 510.
+What chemical changes does it produce? 511. What becomes of these
+products during bread making? 512. How is compressed yeast made? 513.
+What part does the alcohol take in bread making? 514. What temperature
+is reached in the interior of the loaf during bread making? 515. Through
+what chemical changes does starch pass during bread making? 516. To what
+extent are soluble carbohydrates formed? 517. In what way is starch
+acted upon mechanically? 518. Explain the structure of the starch grains
+in flour and in dough after they have been acted upon by the yeast
+ferments. 519. To what extent are acids produced in bread making? 520.
+What becomes of the acids formed? 521. How may the acids thus developed
+affect the properties of other chemical compounds? 522. To what extent
+are volatile carbon compounds, other than carbon dioxid and alcohol,
+liberated during bread making? 523. What changes occur to the various
+proteids during the process of bread making? 524. Why do flours vary in
+quality of gluten? 525. To what extent do losses of nitrogen occur
+during bread making? 526. How much of the total nitrogen of flour is
+present as proteids? 527. How is the fat of flour affected during the
+process of bread making? 528. What effect does the addition of 10 per
+cent of wheat starch to flour have upon the size of the loaf? 529. What
+effect does the addition of 10 per cent of wheat gluten to flour have
+upon the size of the loaf? 530. What relationship exists between gluten
+content and capacity of a flour to absorb water? 531. Give the general
+composition of bread. 532. What factors influence its composition? 533.
+What effect does the use of skim milk and lard in bread making have upon
+composition? 534. How does the temperature of the flour influence the
+bread-making process? 535. Why is it necessary to vary the process of
+bread making in order to get the best results with different kinds of
+flour? 536. To what extent are the nutrients of bread digested? 537. How
+does graham bread compare in digestibility with white bread? 538. How do
+graham and entire wheat breads compare in nutritive value with white
+bread? 539. What value do graham and entire wheat breads have in the
+dietary? 540. Why is white bread generally preferable in the dietary of
+the laboring man? 541. How do graham and entire wheat flours compare in
+chemical composition with white flour? 542. How do they compare in
+mechanical composition? 543. To what is the difference in digestibility
+supposed to be due? 544. Are graham and entire wheat breads necessary in
+a ration as a source of mineral elements? 545. What is the main
+difference in composition between old and new bread? 546. How do
+different kinds of bread made from the same flour compare in composition
+and nutritive value? 447. How does toast differ in composition from
+bread? 548. What influence does toasting have upon digestibility? 549.
+What is gained by toasting bread? 550. How does bread compare in
+nutritive value with other cereal foods? 551. How does bread compare in
+nutritive value with animal foods?
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BAKING POWDERS
+
+552. What is a baking powder? 553. What are the two kinds of materials
+which baking powders contain? 554. Name the different types of baking
+powders. 555. How does baking powder differ in its action from yeast?
+556. What are the cream of tartar baking powders? 557. What is the
+nature of the residue which they leave? 558. What are the phosphate
+baking powders? 559. What is the nature of the residue which they
+leave? 560. Why is the mineral phosphate not considered equally valuable
+with that naturally present in foods? 561. What are the alum baking
+powders? 562. What residue is left from the alum powders? 563. Which of
+the three classes of baking powders is considered the least
+objectionable? 564. Why is a new baking powder preferable to one that
+has been kept a long time? 565. Why should baking powders be kept in tin
+cans, and not in paper? 566. Why are fillers used in the manufacture of
+baking powders? 567. How may a baking powder be prepared at home? 568.
+How does such a baking powder compare in cost and efficiency with those
+purchased in the market?
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+VINEGARS, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS
+
+569. What is vinegar? 570. How is it made? 571. Give the three chemical
+changes that take place in its preparation. 572. Why is air necessary in
+the last stage of the process? 573. What ferments take part in the
+production of vinegar? 574. What is malt vinegar? 575. What materials
+other than apples can be used in the preparation of vinegar? 576. Give
+the characteristics of a good vinegar. 577. In what ways are vinegars
+adulterated? 578. What food value has vinegar? 579. Why should vinegars
+not be stored in metalware? 580. What dietetic value has vinegar? 581.
+To what materials do the spices owe their value? 582. What is pepper?
+583. What is the difference between white and black pepper? 584. What
+compounds give pepper its characteristics? 585. How are peppers
+adulterated? 586. What is mustard? 587. Give its general composition.
+588. How is it adulterated? 589. What is ginger? 590. How is it prepared
+for the market? 591. Give its general composition. 592. What is
+cinnamon? 593. What is cassia? 594. What gives these their taste and
+flavor? 595. What are cloves? 596. How are they prepared? 597. What is
+mace? 598. What is nutmeg? 599. Do the spices have any food value? 600.
+What is their dietetic value? 601. Why is excessive use of some of the
+spices objectionable?
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA
+
+602. What is tea? Name the two plants from which it is obtained, the
+countries where each grows best, and the number of flushes each yields.
+603. Upon what does the quality and grade of tea depend? 604. Give
+differences in the preparation and composition of green and black teas.
+605. The characteristic flavor of tea is imparted by what compound? 606.
+To what compound are its peculiar physiological properties due? 607.
+What can you say of the protein in tea as to amount and food value? 608.
+Why should tea--especially green tea--be infused for a very short time,
+never boiled? 609. What effect has tannin upon the digestion of
+proteids? 610. What three points are considered in judging a tea? 611.
+What is the most common form of tea adulteration? 612. Describe the
+coffee plant and fruit, and its method of preparation for market. 613.
+What is the difference in the chemical composition of tea and coffee?
+614. Name the characteristic alkaloid of coffee. How does it compare
+with theme? 615. Why may coffee not be considered a food? 616. Tell
+different ways in which coffee may be adulterated. 617. Which is more
+commonly practiced, tea or coffee adulteration? Why? 618. How may real
+coffee be distinguished from chicory? Why? 619. Name the three kinds of
+coffee in general use. Give distinguishing features of each. Which is
+usually considered best? 620. From what are cocoa and chocolate
+obtained? 621. Give the two methods of preparing cocoa. 622. What
+alkaloid similar to the theme and caffeine of tea and coffee is present
+in cocoa and chocolate? 623. What is the difference in preparation of
+cocoa and chocolate? 624. What are cereal coffee-substitutes? 625. What
+nutritive value have they? 626. How do they differ in composition from
+coffee? 627. To what extent does cocoa add to the nutritive value of a
+ration? 628. What is plain chocolate? 629. Why do chocolate preparations
+vary so widely in composition? 630. What treatment is given to the cocoa
+bean in its preparation for commerce? 631. What treatment is sometimes
+given to prevent separation of the cocoa fat? 632. In what ways may
+cocoa and chocolate preparations be adulterated?
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS
+
+633. Define the term nutrient. 634. Do all the nutrients of food have
+the same degree of digestibility? 635. What is a digestion coefficient?
+636. How is the digestibility of a food determined? 637. What volatile
+products are formed during the digestion of food? 638. Define digestible
+protein; digestible carbohydrates, digestible fat. 639. What is the
+available energy of a ration? 640. How is it determined? 641. How do the
+nutrients, protein, fat, and carbohydrates, compare as to available
+energy? 642. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a
+ration? 643. Is the protein molecule as completely oxidized in the body
+as starch or fat? 644. What residue is left from the digestion of
+protein? 645. What part do the soluble ferments take in digestion? 646.
+To what extent are the nutrients of animal foods digested? 647. Which
+nutrient, protein or fat, is the most completely digested? 648. How do
+vegetable foods compare in digestibility with animal foods? 649. What
+effect does cellulose have upon digestibility? 650. Which of the
+nutrients of vegetables, protein or carbohydrates, is more completely
+digested? 651. What mechanical value may cellulose have in a ration?
+652. Why must bulk be considered in a ration, as well as nutrient
+content? 653. Name the eight most important factors influencing the
+digestibility of foods. 654. To what extent does the combination of
+foods affect the digestibility of the nutrients? 655. Why does a mixed
+ration give better results than when only a single food is used? 656.
+How does the amount consumed affect the completeness of the digestive
+process? 657. To what extent does the method of preparing food affect
+digestibility? 658. What is gained, so far as digestibility is
+concerned, by the cooking of foods? 659. To what extent does the
+mechanical condition of food affect its digestibility? 660. Why is it
+desirable to have some coarsely granulated foods in a ration? 661. Why
+should the ration not be composed exclusively of finely granulated
+foods? 662. Why is some coarsely granulated food more essential in the
+dietary of the sedentary than in the dietary of the laborer? 663. How
+does palatability affect the digestive process? 664. Do psychological
+processes in any way affect digestion? 665. What physiological
+properties do some foods possess? 666. To what are these physiological
+properties due? 667. To what extent is individuality a factor in
+digestion? 668. To what extent does digestibility differ with
+individuals? 669. Why do some foods affect individuals in different
+ways? 670. Why is it necessary that the quantity, quality, and character
+of the food should vary with different individuals? 671. In what
+different ways is the expression "digestibility of a food" used? 672.
+Why is it necessary to consider the digestibility of food, as well as
+its composition? 673. Does the digestibility of a food necessarily
+indicate the economic uses that will be made of it by the body? 674. How
+is it possible for one food containing 10 per cent of digestible
+protein, and other nutrients in like amounts, to be more valuable than
+another food with the same per cent of digestible protein and other
+nutrients? 675. How is it possible for one food to contain less total
+protein than another food and yet be more valuable from a nutritive
+point of view? 676. Why is it necessary to consider the mechanical
+condition of a food and its combination with other foods, as well as its
+chemical composition? 677. What effect does lack of a good supply of air
+have upon the completeness of the digestion process? 678. In what ways
+does the digestion of food resemble the combustion of fuel? 679. What is
+gained by a study of the digestibility of foods? 680. Why may two foods
+of the same general character give different results when used for
+nutritive purposes?
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS
+
+681. To what extent do the nutritive value and the market price of foods
+vary? 682. How is the value of one food expressed in terms of another
+food? 683. How determine the amount of nutrients that can be procured in
+a food for a given sum of money? 684. How compare the amounts of
+nutrients that can be procured in two foods for a given sum of money?
+685. How is it possible to determine approximately which of two foods is
+cheaper, when the price and composition of the foods are known? 686. To
+what nutrient is preference usually given in assigning a value to a
+food? 687. When the difference in this nutrient between two foods is
+small, then the preference is given to what nutrients? 688. At ordinary
+prices, what are the cheapest vegetable foods? 689. What are among the
+cheapest animal foods? 690. Why is it not possible to determine the
+value of a food absolutely from its composition and digestibility? 691.
+Why is it necessary to consider the physical as well as the chemical
+composition of foods? 692. What proportion of the income of the laboring
+man is usually expended for food? 693. What are the most expensive
+foods? 694. What foods furnish the largest amount of nutrients at the
+least cost?
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+DIETARY STUDIES
+
+695. What is a dietary study? 696. How is a dietary study made? 697.
+What is the value of the dietary study of a family? 698. To what extent
+does the protein in the dietary range? 699. Why is a scant amount of
+protein in a ration undesirable? 700. Why is an excess of protein in the
+ration undesirable? 701. What are dietary standards? 702. How are such
+standards obtained? 703. Why is it desirable in a ration to secure the
+protein and other nutrients from a variety rather than from a few foods?
+704. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration? 705.
+How is this determined? 706. What is a wide nutritive ratio? 707. What
+is a narrow nutritive ratio? 708. Why should the amount of nutrients
+consumed vary with the work performed? 709. How should the nutrients be
+apportioned among the meals? 710. What are some of the most common
+dietary errors? 711. What analogy exists between human and animal
+feeding? 712. What is gained by the rational feeding of both humans and
+animals? 713. What use can be made of the results of dietary studies for
+improvement of the dietary? 714. Why is it not possible for animal foods
+to compete in economy with cereal and vegetable foods? 715. Is a
+well-balanced ration and one containing an ample supply of nutrients
+necessarily an expensive ration? 716. Show how it is possible for one
+family to spend less money for food than another family, and yet secure
+more digestible nutrients and energy. 717. What are some of the most
+erroneous ideas as to food values? 718. Why is it necessary to consider
+previously acquired food habits in the selection of foods? 719. In
+general, what portion of the nutrients of a ration should be derived
+from vegetable foods, and what portion from meats? 720. To what extent
+may a ration vary from the dietary standards? 721. Why are some
+inexpensive foods often expensive when prepared for the table? 722. What
+are some of the ways in which the cost of a ration can be decreased
+without sacrificing nutritive value? 723. Why do different nationalities
+acquire distinct food habits? 724. Why is it not possible to make sudden
+and radical changes in the dietary? 725. Why is it not possible for a
+dietary which gives ample satisfaction for one class of people to be
+applied to another class with equal satisfaction? 726. What relationship
+exists between the dietary of a nation and its physical development?
+727. What relationship exists between dietary habits and mental
+development and vigor? 728. Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to
+regulate absolutely the amount of nutrients consumed in the daily
+ration? 729. What is the general tendency as to quantity of food and
+amount of nutrients consumed? 730. Why do people of sedentary habits
+require a different dietary from those pursuing active, out-of-door
+occupations?
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+RATIONAL FEEDING OF MAN
+
+731. What is the object of the rational feeding of man? 732. On what is
+it based? 733. How does it compare with the rational feeding of animals?
+734. What is a standard ration? 735. How is it determined? 736. To what
+extent may the nutrients of a ration vary from the standard? 737. How do
+you combine foods to form a balanced ration? 738. What foods are
+valuable for supplying protein? 739. What foods supply fats? 740. What
+foods are rich in carbohydrates? 741. What other requisites should a
+ration have in addition to supplying the necessary nutrients? 742. Why
+is it necessary to consider the calorie value of a ration? 743. If a
+ration contained an excess of carbohydrates and a scant amount of
+protein, how could it be improved? 744. How do you calculate the
+nutrients in a fraction of a pound of food? 745. Give the amounts of the
+common food materials, as potatoes, bread, butter, milk, and cheese,
+ordinarily combined to form a ration. 746. To what extent may foods
+differ in composition from the average analysis given? 747. What foods
+are subject to the greatest and what foods to the least variation?
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+WATER
+
+748. Why is water regarded as a food? 749. Does it enter chemically into
+the composition of plants? Of animals? 750. In addition to serving as a
+food, why is water necessary for life processes? 751. In what ways may
+water be improved? 752. What are the most common forms of impurities?
+753. What are the mineral impurities of water? 754. What is their
+source? 755. What effect do some of these minerals have upon the value
+of the water? 756. What causes some waters to dissolve limestone? 757.
+What are permanently hard waters? 758. To what is temporary hardness in
+water due? 759. What is the best way to remove mineral matter from
+water? 760. What are the organic impurities of water? 761. What are the
+sources of the organic impurities? 762. What change does the organic
+matter of water undergo? 763. What becomes of the nitrogen of the
+organic matter? 764. What does the presence of nitrates in water
+indicate? Nitrites? 765. What is the total solid matter of a water, and
+how is it obtained? 766. Define the terms free ammonia; albuminoid
+ammonia. 767. What does the presence of chlorine in a surface well water
+indicate? 768. Explain natural purification of water. 769. Can natural
+purification always be relied upon? 770. Why does the character of the
+drinking water affect health? 771. What diseases are mainly caused by
+impure drinking water? 772. With what materials in water are the
+disease-producing organisms associated? 773. Why should a water of
+questionable purity be boiled? 774. State how the boiling should be
+done, to be effective. 775. Why should boiled water receive further care
+in its storage? 776. What effect does improvement of the water supply of
+a city have upon the death rate? 777. How may connections between
+cesspools and surface well waters be traced? 778. What impurities do
+rain waters contain? 779. Explain the workings of the Pasteur and
+Berkefeld water filters. 780. Why must special attention be given to
+cleaning the water filter? 781. Explain the processes employed for the
+removal of mechanical impurities of water by sedimentation and the use
+of chemicals. 782. Why should such purification be under the supervision
+of a chemist or bacteriologist? 783. What effect does freezing have upon
+the purity of water? 784. Why are precautions necessary in the use of
+ice for refrigeration? 785. What are mineral waters? 786. How are
+artificial mineral waters prepared? 787. What are the more common
+materials used in their preparation? 788. Why should mineral waters be
+extensively used only by the advice of a physician? 789. What are some
+of the materials used for softening water? 790. Which are the least
+objectionable of these materials? 791. Which are the most objectionable?
+792. What can you say of the use of ammonia and ammonium carbonate for
+softening waters? 793. In washing clothing after contagious diseases,
+what materials may be used for disinfecting? 794. Why, in softening
+waters for household purposes, must caustic soda, potash, and bleaching
+powder be used with caution? 795. Why is it necessary to determine by
+trial the material most suitable for softening water? 796. What
+advantage, from a pecuniary point of view, results from the improvement
+of the water supply of a community?
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND STORAGE
+
+797. What are the compounds usually determined in a food analysis? 798.
+Does such an analysis necessarily indicate the presence of injurious
+compounds? 799. What are the sources of the injurious organic compounds
+in foods? 800. Why is it necessary to consider sanitary condition as
+well as chemical composition? 801. What are the sources of contamination
+of foods? 802. What is the object of the sanitary inspection of food?
+803. How may flies carry germ diseases? 804. Why should food be
+protected from impure air and dust particles? 805. Why should places
+where vegetables are stored be well ventilated? 806. How may the dirt
+adhering to vegetables be the carrier of germ diseases? 807. Why should
+the cellar in which food is stored be in a sanitary condition? 808. What
+effect does the cleaning of streets and improvement of the sanitation of
+cities have upon the death rate? 809. Name the three natural
+disinfectants, and explain the action of each. 810. Why must dishes and
+utensils in which foods are placed be thoroughly cleaned? 811. Explain
+the principle of refrigeration. 812. What kind of ferment action may
+take place at a low temperature? 813. Why is some ventilation necessary
+in refrigeration? 814. What effect does refrigeration have upon the
+composition of food? 815. What relationship exists between unsanitary
+condition of soils about dwellings and contamination of the food? 816.
+Why should special attention be given to the sanitary disposal of
+kitchen refuse? 817. Name the ways in which this can be accomplished.
+818. How may foods become contaminated through imperfect plumbing? 819.
+Mention the conditions necessary in order to keep foods sanitary.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+
+The following list of references is given for the use of the student in
+case additional information is desired upon some of the subjects
+discussed in this work. The list is not intended as a complete
+bibliography of the subject of foods. The advanced student will find
+extended references in the Experiment Station Record and the various
+chemical, physiological, and bacteriological journals.
+
+1. SNYDER: The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life.
+
+2. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Human Food
+Investigations.
+
+3. CROSS AND BEVANS: Cellulose.
+
+4. WILEY: Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis,
+Vol. III.
+
+5. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 74: Human Food
+Investigations.
+
+6. PARRY: The Chemistry of Essential Oils, etc.
+
+7. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 142:
+Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food.
+
+8. MANN: Chemistry of the Proteids.
+
+9. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 85: Wheat and Flour
+Investigations.
+
+10. ARMSBY: Principles of Animal Nutrition.
+
+11. SHERMAN: Organic Analysis.
+
+12. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 43: Digestion Experiments with Potatoes and Eggs.
+
+13. Unpublished results of author.
+
+14. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
+No. 49: Cold Curing of Cheese.
+
+15. WILEY: Foods and Their Adulteration.
+
+16. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63: Miscellaneous
+Analyses.
+
+17. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 8: Canned Vegetables.
+
+18. LEACH: Food Inspection and Analysis.
+
+19. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 256:
+Preparation of Vegetables for the Table.
+
+20. U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1905: Fruit and its Uses
+as Food.
+
+21. Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 1893.
+
+22. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+94: Studies on Apples.
+
+23. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+69: Fruits and Fruit Products.
+
+24. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 203: Canned
+Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies.
+
+25. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+27: Sugar Beet Industry.
+
+26. SADTLER: A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry.
+
+27. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 86: The Food Value of
+Sugar. The Digestive Action of Milk.
+
+28. HUTCHISON: Food and Principles of Dietetics.
+
+29. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No 93: Sugar as
+Food.
+
+30. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 252: Maple Sugar and Sirup.
+
+31. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 6: Sugar, Molasses, Sirup, and Confections.
+
+32. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 121: Peas and
+Beans as Food.
+
+33. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 122: Nuts as
+Food.
+
+34. Maine Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Nuts as Food.
+
+35. California Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 107 and 132:
+Investigations among Fruitarians.
+
+36. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 74: Milk as
+Food.
+
+37. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 63: Care of
+Milk on the Farm.
+
+38. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 149:
+Digestibility of Milk.
+
+39. RUSSELL: Dairy Bacteriology.
+
+40. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13. Part 1: Dairy Products.
+
+41. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 131:
+Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter.
+
+42. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
+No 61: Relation of Bacteria to Flavor of Cheddar Cheese.
+
+43. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 92: The Digestibility and
+Nutritive Value of Cottage Cheese, etc.
+
+44. LAWES AND GILBERT: Experiments with Animals.
+
+45. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 34: Meats,
+Composition and Cooking.
+
+46. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 7: Lard and Lard Adulterants.
+
+47. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 193: Cooking of Meats as Affecting Digestibility.
+
+48. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 141: Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. See also
+Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 102: Losses in Cooking Meats.
+
+49. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 66: Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin.
+
+50. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 162: The Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of
+Meats.
+
+51. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 10: Preserved Meats.
+
+52. RICHARDSON, W. D., Journal of the American Chemical
+Society, December, 1907: The Occurrence of Nitrates in Vegetable Foods,
+in Cured Meats, and Elsewhere.
+
+53. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 182: Poultry as Food.
+
+54. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 85: Fish as
+Food.
+
+55. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, Experiment
+Station Work: Digestibility of Fish and Poultry.
+
+56. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 249: Cereal
+Breakfast Foods.
+
+57. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+50: Composition of Maize.
+
+58. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 305: Gluten Flour and Similar Foods.
+
+59. HAMMERSTON: Physiological Chemistry.
+
+60. EDGAR: The Wheat Berry.
+
+61. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 90: Composition and Value
+of Grains.
+
+62. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 101: Bread and Bread Making.
+
+63. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 156: Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and
+Macaroni Flour.
+
+64. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 67: Bread and Bread Making.
+
+65. University of Nebraska Bulletin No. 102: The Effect of Bleaching
+upon the Quality of Wheat Flour.
+
+66. SNYDER: Wheat Flour and Bread.
+
+67. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 126: Bread and Bread Making.
+
+68. LAWES AND GILBERT: Experiments on Some Points in the
+Composition of the Wheat Grain, of the Product in the Mill and Bread.
+
+69. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 5: Baking Powders.
+
+70. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 2: Spices and Condiments.
+
+71. Food Standards: U. S. Department of Agriculture. See Annual Reports
+of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
+
+72. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 21: Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry
+and Economy of Foods.
+
+73. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 7: Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Preparations.
+
+74. The Respiration Calorimeter: Year-book U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, 1904.
+
+75. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: Cost of Food as
+Related to its Nutritive Value.
+
+76. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletins Nos. 82, 71, 129, 116, 37, 55, 150. See also other bulletins
+of the Office of Experiment Stations.
+
+77. CHITTENDEN: Physiological Economy in Nutrition.
+
+78. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 98: Effect of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Work on Food
+Consumption.
+
+79. HENRY: Feeds and Feeding.
+
+80. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations:
+Dietary Studies in Chicago Bulletin No. 55.
+
+81. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 116: Dietary Studies in New York City.
+
+82. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 119: Banana
+Flour.
+
+83. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 159: Digest of Japanese Investigations on the Nutrition of
+Man.
+
+84. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 150: Dietary Studies at the Government Hospital for the
+Insane, Washington, D.C.
+
+85. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 149: Studies on the Food of Maine Lumbermen.
+
+86. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 143: Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of
+Bread at the Maine Experiment Station.
+
+87. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations,
+Experiment Station Work, Vol. III: Wells and Pure Water.
+
+88. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 88: Pure
+Water on the Farm.
+
+89 Mineral Impurities in Water. See various bulletins of the California
+and New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Stations.
+
+90. MASON: Examination of Water.
+
+91. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey: The Quality of
+Surface Waters in Minnesota.
+
+92. FUERTES: Water and Public Health.
+
+93. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 124:
+Distilled Drinking Water.
+
+94. TURNEAURE AND RUSSELL: Public Water Supplies.
+
+95. VAUGHAN AND NOVY: Ptomains and Lencomains.
+
+96. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Circular No.
+71: House Flies.
+
+97. ELLEN H. RICHARDS AND S. MARIA ELLIOTT: The Chemistry of
+Cooking and Cleaning.
+
+98. Dr. WOODS HUTCHINSON, _Saturday Evening Post_, 1908: The
+Real Angels of the House.
+
+99. HARRINGTON: Practical Hygiene.
+
+100. PRICE: Handbook of Sanitation.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Air, infection from impure, 287.
+    pure, disinfectant, 290.
+
+  Albuminoids, 23.
+
+  Alkaloids, 24.
+
+  Allspice, 202.
+
+  Almonds, 77.
+
+  Alum baking powder, 188.
+
+  Amids and Amines, 23.
+
+  Animal and vegetable foods, economy of, 250.
+
+  Animal foods, digestibility of, 220.
+
+  Apparatus used in experiments, 301.
+
+  Apples, 49.
+    pectose from, 307.
+
+  Ash, of foods, 4.
+    elements of plants, 5.
+
+  Asparagus, 43.
+
+  Available energy, 217.
+    nutrients, 216.
+
+
+  Bacteria in food, 32.
+
+  Baking powder, composition of, 186.
+    cream of tartar, 187.
+    phosphates, 189.
+    alum, 189.
+    inspection of, 191.
+    fillers, 191.
+    home-made, 191.
+    testing for alum, 315.
+    testing for ammonia, 316.
+    testing for phosphoric acid, 316.
+
+  Baking tests, 153-314.
+
+  Barley preparations, 128.
+
+  Beans, composition, 71.
+    digestibility, 72.
+    removal of skins, 72.
+    string, 73.
+    use of, in dietary, 74.
+
+  Beef, 101.
+    extracts, 110.
+
+  Beets, 41.
+
+  Beverages, composition, 213.
+
+  Bleaching of flour, 155.
+
+  Bolting cloth, 138.
+
+  Bread and bread making, 158-185.
+    leavened and unleavened bread, 158.
+    chemical changes during making, 159.
+    losses during bread making, 160.
+    production of carbon dioxide, 163.
+    production of alcohol, 163.
+    production of soluble carbohydrates, 165.
+    production of acids, 166.
+    production of volatile compounds, 167.
+    production of volatile nitrogenous compounds, 172.
+    wheat proteids, part taken by, 169.
+    oxidation of fat, 173.
+    starch, influence of, addition of, 173.
+    composition of bread, 174.
+    temperature of flour, 176.
+    use of skim milk, 176.
+    process of bread making, 177.
+    digestibility of bread, 178.
+    graham bread, use in the dietary, 179.
+    white and graham bread compared, 180.
+    mineral content of, 182.
+    new and old, 183.
+    action of heat on, 184.
+    different kinds of, 184.
+
+  Breakfast foods, 121-132.
+
+  Broth, 109.
+
+  Butter, composition, 91.
+    digestibility, 91.
+    adulteration, 92.
+    coloring, 92.
+    renovated, 92.
+    water in, 305.
+
+  Buttermilk, 88.
+
+
+  Cabbage, 41.
+
+  Candies, 69.
+
+  Canned meats, 118.
+    vegetables, 46.
+    peas, 75.
+
+  Carbohydrates defined, 8.
+
+  Carrots, 40.
+
+  Cauliflower, 41.
+
+  Cellars, storage of food in, 283.
+
+  Cellulose and properties, 8.
+
+  Cereals, 121-132.
+    preparation of, 121.
+    cost of, 121.
+    value of, 131.
+    use of, in dietary, 131.
+    corn preparations, 122.
+    oat preparations, 124.
+    wheat preparations, 126.
+    barley preparations, 128.
+    rice preparations, 129.
+    predigested, 130.
+    phosphates in, 131.
+    mineral matters of, 131.
+    coffees, 210.
+
+  Cesspools, 289.
+
+  Cheese, 92-96.
+    general composition, 92.
+    digestibility, 93.
+    use of, in dietary, 94.
+    cottage, 95.
+    different kinds of, 95.
+    adulteration, 96.
+
+  Chemical changes during cooking, 27-30.
+
+  Chemicals, use of, in preparation of foods permitted, 36.
+
+  Chestnuts, 76.
+
+  Chicory, detection in coffee, 319.
+
+  Chocolate, 212.
+    adulteration of, 213.
+
+  Cinnamon and cassia, 201.
+
+  Cloves, 201.
+
+  Coal tar dyes, testing for, 308.
+
+  Cocoa, 210.
+
+  Cocoanuts, 77.
+
+  Coffee, composition of, 207.
+    detection of chicory in, 319.
+    glazing of, 208.
+    substitutes, cereal, 210.
+    types of, 209.
+
+  Combustion of foods, 6.
+
+  Cooking, changes during, 27.
+    chemical, 27-30.
+    physical, 30-32.
+    bacteriological, 32.
+
+  Corn, sweet, 41.
+    preparations, 122.
+
+  Cream, 87.
+
+  Cream of tartar, 187.
+
+  Crude fiber of foods, 9.
+
+  Crude protein, 21.
+
+  Cucumbers, 42.
+
+
+  Dairy products, 80-97.
+    use of, in dietary, 96.
+
+  Dextrose, 64.
+
+  Dietary standards, 245.
+
+  Dietary studies, 244-260.
+    object of, 244.
+    mixed, desirable, 250.
+    of families compared, 253.
+    in public institutions, 259.
+
+  Digestibility of foods, 214.
+    of animal foods, 220.
+    of vegetable foods, 222.
+
+  Digestion, combination of foods, 223.
+    factors influencing, 223.
+    amount of food, 224.
+    method of preparation of food, 225.
+    mechanical condition of foods, 226.
+    psychological factors, 230.
+    individuality, 229.
+
+  Digestion and health, 219.
+
+  Dishcloth, unclean, 292.
+
+  Disinfectants, 281, 289, 295.
+
+  Drying of foods, 2.
+
+  Dry matter, 2.
+
+
+  Egg plant, 44.
+
+  Eggs, 114-118.
+    composition, 114.
+    digestibility, 116.
+    cooking of, 116.
+    use of, in dietary, 117.
+
+  Elements in foods, 7.
+
+  Energy, available, 217.
+
+  Energy value of rations, 246.
+
+  Entire wheat, 145.
+
+  Essential oils, 15.
+    occurrence, 15.
+    composition of, 16.
+    food value, 16.
+
+  Esthetic value of foods, 36.
+
+
+  Fat, occurrence in food, 12.
+    composition, 13.
+    physical properties, 14.
+    food value, 14.
+    individual fats, 14.
+    oxidation of, during bread making, 173.
+
+  Ferments, soluble, 34.
+    insoluble, 34.
+
+  Figs, 54.
+
+  Fish, 113.
+
+  Flavoring extracts, 56.
+
+  Flavors, composition of, 48.
+    occurrence of, 49.
+    food value, 49.
+
+  Flies, contamination of food by, 286, 295.
+
+  Foods, 215.
+    digestibility of, 215.
+    mechanical condition of, 226.
+    palatability of, 228.
+    physiological properties of, 228.
+    ash of, 4.
+    predigested, 130.
+    sodium chloride in, 4.
+    cost of, 231.
+    market price and nutritive value, 231-234.
+    composition of, 234-263.
+    comparative nutritive value, 231.
+    economy of production, 250.
+    habits, 250.
+    notions, 252.
+    relation to mental and physical vigor, 258.
+    amount consumed, 262.
+    injurious compounds in, 284.
+    contamination of, 284, 292.
+    sanitary inspection of, 286.
+    storage in cellars, 288.
+    infection from impure air, 287.
+    utensils for storage, 291.
+    raw, 27.
+    cheap and expensive, 252.
+
+  Fruits, composition of, 48.
+    canned, 54.
+    dried, 54.
+    canned and adulterated, 55.
+
+  Fruit extracts, 56.
+
+  Fruit flavors, 55.
+
+
+  Ginger, 200.
+
+  Gliadin, 314.
+
+  Gluten, addition of, to flour, 173.
+    moist and dry, 314.
+
+  Gluten properties of flour, 151.
+
+  Graham bread, 179.
+    use in dietary, 180.
+
+  Graham flour, 144.
+
+  Grape fruit, 51.
+
+  Grapes, 53.
+
+
+  Heat, action on foods, 30.
+
+  Hickory nuts, 77.
+
+  Honey, 68.
+
+
+  Ice, 279.
+
+  Inspection of food, 286.
+
+  Inversion of sugar, 64.
+
+
+  Kitchen refuse, 294.
+
+  Koumiss, 88.
+
+
+  Laboratory practice, 299.
+
+  Lard, 106.
+    substitutes, 107.
+
+  Legumes, 71-76.
+
+  Lemon extract, testing, 307.
+
+  Lemons, 51.
+    acidity of, 305.
+
+  Lettuce, 42.
+
+
+  Macaroni flour, 148.
+
+  Mace, 202.
+
+  Malted foods, 121.
+
+  Maple sugar, 62.
+
+  Meals, number of, per day, 248.
+
+  Measuring, directions for, 302.
+
+  Meat broth, 109.
+
+  Meats, 98-120.
+    general composition, 98.
+    proteids of, 99.
+    fat of, 100.
+    water of, 98.
+    texture of, 107.
+    cooking of, influence of, on composition, 108.
+    extractive materials, 110.
+    smoked, 111.
+    boric acid in, 312.
+    saltpeter in, 111.
+    canned, 118.
+
+  Melons, 43.
+
+  Microscope, use of, 304.
+
+  Milk, importance in dietary, 80.
+    general composition, 80.
+    souring of, 86.
+    condensed, 87.
+    digestibility, 81.
+    sanitary condition, 82.
+    certified milk, 84.
+    pasteurized, 84.
+    color of, 85.
+    preservatives in, 86.
+    goat's, 88.
+    human, 89.
+    adulteration of, 89.
+    prepared, 88.
+    formaldehyde in, 310.
+
+  Mineral matter, 4.
+    in ration, 5.
+
+  Mineral waters, 279.
+
+  Miscellaneous compounds, 16.
+
+  Mixed nitrogenous compounds, 25.
+
+  Mixed non-nitrogenous compounds, 16.
+
+  Moisture content of foods, variations in, 1.
+
+  Moisture in foods, how determined, 2.
+
+  Molasses, 65.
+
+  Mustard, 199.
+    testing for turmeric, 318.
+
+  Mutton, 103.
+
+
+  Nitrates in foods, 45.
+
+  Nitrites in foods, 111.
+
+  Nitrogen free extract, 11.
+    defined, 11.
+    composition, 12.
+    how determined, 12.
+    variable character of, 12.
+
+  Nitrogenous compounds, 17.
+    general composition, 17.
+
+  Non-nitrogenous compounds, classification of, 7.
+
+  Nutmeg, 202.
+
+  Nutrients, available, 216.
+
+  Nutritive value of nitrogenous compounds, 16.
+    starch, 9.
+    sugar, 11.
+    nitrogen free extract, 11.
+    fat, 12.
+    protein, 19.
+    amids, 23.
+
+  Nuts, 76-79.
+    use of, in dietary, 78.
+
+
+  Oat preparations, 124.
+
+  Oleomargarine, 92.
+    detecting, 310.
+
+  Olive oil, testing, 308.
+
+  Olives, 54.
+
+  Onions, 42.
+
+  Oranges, 50.
+
+  Organic acids, 15.
+    occurrence in foods, 15.
+    influence on digestion, 15.
+    use in plant economy, 15.
+    production during germination, 15.
+
+  Organic compounds, classification of, 7.
+
+  Organic matter, 6.
+
+  Oysters, 114.
+
+
+  Palatability of food, 228.
+
+  Parsnips, 40.
+
+  Peaches, 53.
+
+  Peanuts, 76.
+    fat from, 309.
+
+  Peas, 74.
+    canned, 75.
+
+  Pectose substances, 11.
+
+  Pepper, 198.
+
+  Phosphate baking powders, 189.
+
+  Physical changes during cooking, 30.
+
+  Physiological properties of foods, 228.
+
+  Pistachio, 77.
+
+  Plumbing, sanitary, 297.
+
+  Plums, 53.
+
+  Pork, 104.
+
+  Potatoes, 37.
+    composition, 39.
+    digestibility, 38.
+    nutritive value, 38.
+    sweet, 39.
+
+  Poultry, 112.
+
+  Predigested foods, 130.
+
+  Protein, composition of, 19.
+    properties of, 19.
+    combinations of, 20.
+    types of, 20.
+    crude, 21.
+    food value of, 22.
+    amount of, in ration, 246.
+
+  Psychological factors in digestion, 230.
+
+  Pumpkins, 45.
+
+
+  Rational feeding of man, 261-267.
+
+  Rations, wide and narrow, 245.
+    standard, 261.
+    object of, 261.
+    examples of, 264.
+    requisites of, 266.
+    protein requirements of, 246.
+    energy value of, 246.
+
+  References, 350.
+
+  Refrigeration, 292.
+
+  Refuse, disposal of, 294.
+
+  Renovated butter, 92.
+
+  Review questions, 323.
+
+  Rice preparations, 129.
+
+
+  Saccharine, 70.
+
+  Saltpeter in meats, 111.
+
+  Sanitary condition of vegetables, 45.
+
+  Sanitary inspection of food, 286.
+
+  Sausage, 111.
+
+  Sodium chloride in foods, 5.
+
+  Soil, sanitary condition of, 294.
+
+  Spices, 212.
+
+  Spinach, 42.
+
+  Squash, 45.
+
+  Starch, 9.
+    occurrence, 9.
+    composition, 9.
+    properties, 10.
+    food value, 10.
+    influence of heat on, 10.
+
+  Strawberries, 52.
+
+  Sugar, defined, 11.
+    beet, 58.
+    cane, 58.
+    commercial grades, 58.
+    manufacture of, 59.
+    sulphur in, 59.
+    digestibility of, 59.
+    value of, in dietary, 61.
+    adulteration of, 63.
+    maple, 62.
+    dextrose, 64.
+
+  Sunlight as a disinfectant, 290.
+
+  Sweet potatoes, 39.
+
+  Syrups, 66.
+    sorghum, 66.
+
+
+  Tea, 203-206.
+    black, 203.
+    green, 204.
+    composition of, 214.
+    judging of, 205.
+    adulteration of, 206.
+    physiological properties of, 206.
+    examination of leaves, 318.
+
+  Toast, 184.
+
+  Tomatoes, 43.
+
+
+  Underfed families, 251.
+
+
+  Vanilla extract, testing, 307.
+
+  Veal, 102.
+
+  Vegetable foods, 222.
+
+  Vegetables, 37-47.
+    edible portion, 47.
+    canned, 46.
+    sanitary condition of, 45.
+    digestibility of, 222.
+
+  Vinegar, 193-197.
+    preparation of, 193.
+    different kinds of, 195.
+    adulteration of, 196.
+    solids, 316.
+    specific gravity, 317.
+    acidity, 317.
+
+  Volatile matter, 6.
+
+
+  Water, drinking, 268-283.
+    importance, 268.
+    impurities in, 269.
+    mineral impurities, 270.
+    organic impurities, 271.
+    purification of, 272-278.
+    analysis, 271.
+    and typhoid fever, 273.
+    improvement of, 276.
+    boiling of, 276.
+    filtration of, 277.
+    distillation of, 278.
+    materials for softening water, 280.
+    testing purity of, 320.
+
+  Water in foods, 1.
+    how determined, 1.
+
+  Water supply, economic value, 282.
+
+  Waters, mineral, 279.
+
+  Weighing, directions for, 302.
+
+  Wheat cereal preparations, 126.
+
+  Wheat flour, 133.
+    spring and winter wheat flour, 133.
+    starchy and glutenous, 135.
+    composition of, 136.
+    process of milling, 136-140.
+    patent, 142.
+    grades of, 142.
+    composition of, 143.
+    ash content, 145.
+    graham, 145.
+    entire wheat, 145.
+    by-products, 146.
+    aging and curing, 147.
+    macaroni, 148.
+    color, 148.
+    granulation, 149.
+    capacity to absorb water, 150.
+    gluten, properties of, 151.
+    unsoundness of, 152.
+    baking tests, 153.
+    bleaching of, 155.
+    adulteration of, 156.
+    nutritive value of, 157.
+    water in, 304.
+    ash in, 305.
+    acidity of, 313.
+    moist and dry gluten, 314.
+
+
+  Yeast, action of, 161.
+    compressed, 162.
+    dry, 163.
+
+
+
+
+BY HARRY SNYDER, B.S.
+
+     Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Minnesota, and
+     Chemist of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station
+
+The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life
+
+_Illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. 406 pages. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_
+
+"The language is, as it should be, plain and simple, free from all
+needless technicality, and the story thus told is of absorbing interest
+to every one, man or woman, boy or girl, who takes an intelligent
+interest in farm life."--_The New England Farmer._
+
+"Although the book is highly technical, it is put in popular form and
+made comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer; it deals largely
+with those questions which arise in his experience, and will prove an
+invaluable aid in countless directions."--_The Farmer's Voice._
+
+
+Dairy Chemistry
+
+_Illustrated, 190 pages, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10_
+
+"The book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer, or, indeed, any one
+handling stock, may read with profit."--_Rural New Yorker._
+
+
+Soils and Fertilizers
+
+_Third Edition. Illustrated. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.38_
+
+A book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil fertility
+and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as outlined by the
+Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture. It contains 350 pages,
+with illustrations, and treats of a great variety of subjects, such as
+Physical Properties of Soils; Geological Formation, etc.; Nitrogen of
+the Soil and Air; Farm Manures; Commercial Fertilizers, several
+chapters; Rotation of Crops; Preparation of Soil for Crops, etc.
+
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+
+
+BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE
+
+
+  ON SELECTION OF LAND, Etc.
+
+  Thomas F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm             $1 75 net
+  E. W. Hilgard's Soils: Their Formation
+    and Relations to Climate and Plant Growth        4 00 net
+  Isaac P. Roberts's The Farmstead                   1 50 net
+
+
+  ON TILLAGE, Etc.
+
+  F. H. King's The Soil                              1 50 net
+  Isaac P. Roberts's The Fertility of the Land       1 50 net
+  Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions              1 25 net
+  F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage               1 50 net
+  William E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America   1 50 net
+  Edward B. Voorhees's Fertilizers                   1 25 net
+  Edward B. Voorhees's Forage Crops                  1 50 net
+  H. Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life     1 25 net
+  H. Snyder's Soil and Fertilizers. Third edition    1 25 net
+  L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture           1 25 net
+  W. C. Welborn's Elements of Agriculture,
+    Southern and Western                               75 net
+  J. F. Duggar's Agriculture for Southern Schools      75 net
+  G. F. Warren's Elements of Agriculture             1 10 net
+  T. L. Lyon and E. O. Fippin's The Principles of
+    Soil Management                                  1 75 net
+  Hilgard & Osterhout's Agriculture for Schools
+    on the Pacific Slope                             1 00 net
+  J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming                        1 50 net
+
+
+  ON GARDEN-MAKING
+
+  L. H. Bailey's Manual of Gardening                 2 00 net
+  L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening                 1 50 net
+  L. H. Bailey's Horticulturist's Rule Book            75 net
+  L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book                        1 25 net
+  A. French's How to Grow Vegetables                 1 75 net
+
+
+  ON FRUIT-GROWING, Etc.
+
+  L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book                        1 50 net
+  L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing                       1 50 net
+  L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book                    1 50 net
+  F. W. Card's Bush Fruits                           1 50 net
+  J. T. Bealby's Fruit Ranching in British Columbia  1 50 net
+
+
+  ON THE CARE OF LIVE STOCK
+
+  D. E. Lyon's How to Keep Bees for Profit           1 50 net
+  Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals           1 50 net
+  W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals              1 50 net
+  I. P. Roberts's The Horse                          1 25 net
+  George C. Watson's Farm Poultry                    1 25 net
+  C. S. Valentine's How to Keep Hens for Profit      1 50 net
+  O. Kellner's The Scientific Feeding of
+    Animals (trans.)                                 1 90 net
+  M. H. Reynolds's Veterinary Studies for
+    Agricultural Students                            1 75 net
+
+
+  ON DAIRY WORK
+
+  Henry H. Wing's Milk and its Products             $1 50 net
+  C. M. Aikman's Milk                                1 25 net
+  Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry                     1 00 net
+  W. D. Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary
+    Bacteriology                                     1 60 net
+  I. P. Sheldon's The Farm and the Dairy             1 00 net
+  Chr. Barthel's Methods Used in the Examination
+    of Milk and Dairy Products                       1 90 net
+
+
+  ON PLANT DISEASES, Etc.
+
+  George Massee's Diseases of Cultivated Plants
+    and Trees                                        2 25 net
+  J. G. Lipman's Bacteria in Relation
+    to Country Life                                  1 50 net
+  E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants             1 25 net
+  H. M. Ward's Disease in Plants (English)           1 60 net
+  A. S. Packard's A Text-book on Entomology          4 50 net
+
+
+  ON PRODUCTION OF NEW PLANTS
+
+  L. H. Bailey's Plant-Breeding                      1 25 net
+  L. H. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike          2 00 net
+  L. H. Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits  2 00 net
+  W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life        1 75 net
+
+
+  ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION
+
+  J. B. Green's Law for the American Farmer          1 50 net
+  J. McLennan's Manual of Practical Farming          1 50 net
+  L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer            1 25 net
+  Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics           1 25 net
+  I. P. Roberts's The Farmer's Business Handbook     1 25 net
+  George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare     1 25 net
+  S. E. Sparling's Business Organization             1 25 net
+    In the Citizen's Library. Includes a chapter
+    on Farming
+  Kate V. St. Maur's A Self-supporting Home          1 75 net
+  Kate V. St. Maur's The Earth's Bounty.             1 75 net
+  G. F. Warren and K. C. Livermore's Exercises
+    in Farm Management                                 80 net
+  H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene                        1 50 net
+
+
+  ON EVERYTHING AGRICULTURAL
+  L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture:
+    Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils.
+    Vol. II. Farm Crops.
+    Vol. III. Farm Animals.
+    Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community.
+    Complete in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2000 illustrations.
+    Price of sets: cloth, $20 net; half morocco, $32 net.
+
+_For further information as to any of the above, address the
+publishers._
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
+
+
+Cyclopedia of American Agriculture
+
+EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY
+
+     Of Cornell University, Editor of "Cyclopedia of American
+     Horticulture," Author of "Plant Breeding," "Principles of
+     Agriculture," etc.
+
+     WITH 100 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND MORE THAN 2000 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE
+     TEXT--FOUR VOLUMES--THE SET: CLOTH, $20 NET--HALF MOROCCO, $32
+     NET--CARRIAGE EXTRA
+
+
+Volume I--FARMS
+
+The Agricultural Regions--The Projecting of a Farm--The Soil
+Environment--The Atmosphere Environment.
+
+Volume II--CROPS
+
+The Plant and Its Relations--The Manufacture of Crop Products--North
+American Field Crops.
+
+Volume III--ANIMALS
+
+The Animal and Its Relations--The Manufacture of Animal Products--North
+American Farm Animals.
+
+Volume IV--THE FARM AND THE COMMUNITY
+
+Economics--Social Questions--Organizations--History--Literature, etc.
+
+"Indispensable to public and reference libraries ... readily
+comprehensible to any person of average education."--_The Nation._
+
+"The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on
+modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must pass
+before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, practical
+value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every library in the
+country."--_Record Herald_, Chicago.
+
+
+PUBLISHED BY
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+64 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE
+VALUE***
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value, by
+Harry Snyder</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value</p>
+<p>Author: Harry Snyder</p>
+<p>Release Date: March 22, 2007  [eBook #20871]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h1>HUMAN FOODS<br /><br />
+
+  AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE</h1>
+
+
+  <h4>BY</h4>
+  <h2>HARRY SNYDER, B.S.</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+  <p class='center'>New York<br />
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
+  1914<br /><br />
+
+  <i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+  <p class='center'>Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1908. Reprinted
+  October, 1909; September, 1910; February, 1911; September, 1912;
+  May, December, 1913; June, 1914.</p>
+
+
+  <p class='center'>Norwood Press
+  J. S. Cushing Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith Co.
+  Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Since 1897 instruction has been given at the University of Minnesota,
+College of Agriculture, on human foods and their nutritive value. With
+the development of the work, need has been felt for a text-book
+presenting in concise form the composition and physical properties of
+foods, and discussing some of the main factors which affect their
+nutritive value. To meet the need, this book has been prepared,
+primarily for the author's classroom. It aims to present some of the
+principles of human nutrition along with a study of the more common
+articles of food. It is believed that a better understanding of the
+subject of nutrition will suggest ways in which foods may be selected
+and utilized more intelligently, resulting not only in pecuniary saving,
+but also in greater efficiency of physical and mental effort.</p>
+
+<p>Prominence is given in this work to those foods, as flour, bread,
+cereals, vegetables, meats, milk, dairy products, and fruits, that are
+most extensively used in the dietary, and to some of the physical,
+chemical, and bacteriological changes affecting digestibility and
+nutritive value which take place during their preparation for the table.
+Dietary studies, comparative cost and value of foods, rational feeding
+of men, and experiments and laboratory practice form features of the
+work. Some closely related topics, largely of a sanitary nature, as the
+effect upon food of household sanitation and storage, are also briefly
+discussed. References are given in case more extended information is
+desired on some of the subjects treated. While this book was prepared
+mainly for students who have taken a course in general chemistry, it has
+been the intention to present the topics in such a way as to be
+understood by the layman also.</p>
+
+<p>This work completes a series of text-books undertaken by the author
+over ten years ago, dealing with agricultural and industrial subjects:
+"Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life," "Dairy Chemistry," "Soils and
+Fertilizers," and "Human Foods and their Nutritive Value." It has been
+the aim in preparing these books to avoid as far as possible repetition,
+but at the same time to make each work sufficiently complete to permit
+its use as a text independent of the series.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest uses that science can serve is in its application to
+the household and the everyday affairs of life. Too little attention is
+generally bestowed upon the study of foods in schools and colleges, and
+the author sincerely hopes the time will soon come when more prominence
+will be given to this subject, which is the oldest, most important, most
+neglected, and least understood of any that have a direct bearing upon
+the welfare of man.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+HARRY SNYDER.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER I</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">General Composition of Foods</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water; Dry Matter; Variations in Weight of Foods;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash; Function of Ash in Plant Life; Organic Matter;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Products of Combustion of Organic Matter; Classification</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Organic Compounds; Non-nitrogenous Compounds;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Carbohydrates; Cellulose; Amount of Cellulose in Foods;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Crude Fiber; Starch; Microscopic Structure of Starch;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dextrin; Food Value of Starch; Sugar; Pectose Substances;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nitrogen-free-extract; Fats; Fuel Value of Fats;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Iodine Number of Fats; Glycerol Content of Fats; Ether</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Extract and Crude Fat; Organic Acids; Dietetic Value</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Organic Acids; Essential Oils; Mixed Compounds;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nutritive Value of Non-nitrogenous Compounds; Nitrogenous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Compounds; General Composition; Protein; Sub-divisions</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Proteins; Crude Protein; Food Value of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protein; Albuminoids; Amids and Amines; Alkaloids;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General Relationship of the Nitrogenous Compounds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER II</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Changes in Composition of Foods during Cooking and Preparation</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Raw and Cooked Foods compared as to Composition;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chemical Changes during Cooking; General Changes</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>affecting Cellulose, Starch, Sugar, Pectin Bodies, Fats,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Proteids; Effect of Chemical Changes on Digestibility;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Physical Changes during Cooking; Action of Heat on</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Animal and Plant Tissues; Amount of Heat required for</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cooking; Bacteriological Changes; Insoluble Ferments;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Soluble Ferments; Bacterial Action Necessary in Preparation</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Some Foods; Injurious Bacterial Action; General</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Relationship of Chemical, Physical, and Bacteriological</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Changes; Esthetic Value of Foods; Color of Foods;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Natural and Artificial Colors; Conditions under which</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Use of Chemicals in Preparation of Foods is Justifiable.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER III</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Vegetable Foods</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General Composition; Potatoes; Chemical and Mechanical</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Composition; Uses of Potatoes in Dietary; Sweet</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes; Carrots; Parsnips; Cabbage; Cauliflower;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beets; Cucumbers; Lettuce; Onions; Spinach; Asparagus;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Melons; Tomatoes; Sweet Corn; Eggplant;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Squash; Celery; Dietetic Value of Vegetables; Nutrient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Content of Vegetables; Sanitary Condition of Vegetables;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Miscellaneous Compounds in Vegetables; Canned Vegetables;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Edible Portion and Refuse of Vegetables.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Fruits, Flavors and Extracts</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General Composition; Food Value; Apples; Oranges;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lemons; Grape Fruit; Strawberries; Grapes; Peaches;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Plums; Olives; Figs; Dried Fruits; Uses of Fruit in</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>the Dietary; Canning and Preservation of Fruits; Adulterated</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Canned Fruits; Fruit Flavors and Extracts; Synthetic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Preparation of Flavors.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER V</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Sugars, Molasses, Syrup, Honey, and Confections</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Composition of Sugars; Beet Sugar; Cane Sugar;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manufacture of Sugar; Sulphur Dioxid and Indigo, Uses</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of, in Sugar Manufacture; Commercial Grades of Sugar;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar in the Dietary; Maple Sugar; Adulteration of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar; Dextrose Sugars; Inversion of Sugars; Molasses;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Syrups; Adulteration of Molasses; Sorghum Syrup;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Maple Syrup; Analysis of Sugar; Adulteration of Syrups;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Honey; Confections; Coloring Matter in Candies; Coal</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tar Dyes; Saccharine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Legumes and Nuts</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General Composition of Legumes; Beans; Digestibility</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Beans; Use of Beans in the Dietary; String</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beans; Peas; Canned Peas; Peanuts; General Composition</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Nuts; Chestnuts; The Hickory Nut; Almonds;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pistachio; Cocoanuts; Uses of Nuts in the Dietary.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Milk and Dairy Products</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Importance in the Dietary; General Composition; Digestibility;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sanitary Condition of Milk; Certified Milk;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pasteurized Milk; Tyrotoxicon; Color of Milk; Souring</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Milk; Use of Preservatives in Milk; Condensed Milk;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Skim Milk; Cream; Buttermilk; Goat's Milk; Koumiss;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Prepared Milks; Human Milk; Adulteration of Milk;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Composition of Butter; Digestibility of Butter; Adulteration</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Butter; General Composition of Cheese;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Digestibility; Use in the Dietary; Cottage Cheese; Different</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Kinds of Cheese; Adulteration of Cheese; Dairy</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Products in the Dietary.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Meats and Animal Food Products</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General Composition; Mineral Matter; Fat; Protein;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Non-nitrogenous Compounds; Why Meats vary in Composition;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Amides; Albuminoids; Taste and Flavor of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Meats; Alkaloidal Bodies in Meats; Ripening of Meats</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>in Cold Storage; Beef; Veal; Mutton; Pork; Lard;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Texture and Toughness of Meat; Influence of Cooking</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>upon the Composition of Meats; Beef Extracts; Miscellaneous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Meat Products; Pickled Meats; Saltpeter in</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Meats; Smoked Meats; Poultry; Fish; Oysters, Fattening</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of; Shell Fish; Eggs, General Composition; Digestibility</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Eggs; Use of Eggs in the Dietary; Canned</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Meats, General Composition.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Cereals</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Preparation and Cost of Cereals; Various Grains used</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>in making Cereal Products; Cleanliness of; Corn Preparations;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Corn Flour; Use of Corn in Dietary; Corn Bread;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oat Preparations; Cooking of Oatmeal; Wheat Preparations;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flour Middlings; Breakfast Foods; Digestibility</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Wheat Preparations; Barley Preparations; Rice Preparations;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Predigested Foods; The Value of Cereals in the</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dietary; Phosphate Content of Cereals; Phosphorus Requirements</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of a Ration; Mechanical Action of Cereals</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>upon Digestion; Cost and Nutritive Value of Cereals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER X</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Wheat Flour</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Use for Bread Making; Winter and Spring Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flours; Composition of Wheat and Flour; Roller Process</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Flour Milling; Grades of Flour; Types of Flour; Composition</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Flour; Graham and Entire Wheat Flours;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Composition of Wheat Offals; Aging and Curing of Flour;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Macaroni Flour; Color; Granulation; Capacity of Flour</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>to absorb Water; Physical Properties of Gluten; Gluten</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>as a Factor in Bread Making; Unsoundness; Comparative</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Baking Tests; Bleaching; Adulteration of Flour; Nutritive</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Value of Flour.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Bread and Bread Making</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Leavened and Unleavened Bread; Changes during</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread Making; Loss of Dry Matter during Bread Making;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Action of Yeast; Compressed Yeast; Dry Yeast; Production</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Carbon Dioxid Gas and Alcohol; Production</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Soluble Carbohydrates; Production of Acids in Bread</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Making; Volatile Compounds produced during Bread</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Making; Behavior of Wheat Proteids in Bread Making;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Production of Volatile Nitrogenous Compounds; Oxidation</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Fat; Influence of the Addition of Wheat Starch</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>and Gluten to Flour; Composition of Bread; Use of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Skim Milk and Lard in Bread Making; Influence of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Warm and Cold Flours in Bread Making; Variations in</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>the Process of Bread Making; Digestibility of Bread;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary; Mineral</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Content of White Bread; Comparative Digestibility</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of New and Old Bread; Different Kinds of Bread; Toast.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Baking Powders</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General Composition; Cream of Tartar Powders; Residue</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>from Cream of Tartar Baking Powders; Tartaric</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Acid Powders; Phosphate Baking Powders; Mineral and</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Organic Phosphates; Phosphate Residue; Alum Baking</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Powders; Residue from Alum Baking Powders; Objections</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>urged against Alum Powders; Action of Baking</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Powders and Yeast Compared; Keeping Qualities of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Baking Powders; Inspection of Baking Powders; Fillers;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Home-made Baking Powders.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Vinegar, Spices, and Condiments</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vinegar; Chemical Changes during Manufacture of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vinegar; Ferment Action; Materials used in Preparation</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Vinegars; Characteristics of a Good Vinegar; Vinegar</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Solids; Acidity of Vinegar; Different Kinds of Vinegars;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Standards of Purity; Adulteration of Vinegar; Characteristics</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Spices; Pepper; Cayenne; Mustard; Ginger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cinnamon and Cassia; Cloves; Allspice; Nutmeg; Adulteration</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Spices and Condiments; Essential Oils of;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Uses of Condiments in Preparation of Foods; Action of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Condiments upon Digestion; Condiments and Natural</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flavors.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, and Cocoa</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tea; Sources of Tea Supply; Composition of Tea;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Black Tea and Green Tea; Judging Teas; Adulteration</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Tea; Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Composition of Coffee; Adulteration of Coffee; Chicory</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>in Coffee; Glazing of Coffee; Cereal Coffee Substitutes;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations; Composition of Cocoa;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chocolate; Cocoa Nibs; Plain Chocolate; Sweet Chocolate;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa Butter; Nutritive Value of Cocoa; Adulteration</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Chocolate and Cocoa; Comparative Composition</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Beverages.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XV</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">The Digestibility of Food</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Digestibility, how Determined; Completeness and Ease</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Digestion Process; Example of Digestion Experiment;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Available Nutrients; Available Energy; Caloric Value of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Foods; Normal Digestion and Health; Digestibility of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Animal Foods; Digestibility of Vegetable Foods; Factors</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>influencing Digestion; Combination of Foods; Amount</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Food; Method of Preparation of Food; Mechanical</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Condition of Foods; Mastication; Palatability of Foods;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Physiological Properties of Foods; Individuality; Psychological</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Factors.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Comparative Cost and Value of Foods</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods; How to compare</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Two Foods as to Nutritive Value; Cheap Foods; Expensive</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Foods; Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum; Examples;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Comparing Nutritive Value of Common Foods</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>at Different Prices; Cost and Value of Nutrients.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Dietary Studies</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Object of Dietary Studies; Wide and Narrow Rations;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dietary Standards; Number of Meals per Day; Mixed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dietary Desirable; Animal and Vegetable Foods;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Economy of Production; Food Habits; Underfed Families;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cheap and Expensive Foods; Food Notions;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dietary of Two Families Compared; Food in its Relation</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>to Mental and Physical Vigor; Dietary Studies in Public</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Institutions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XVIII</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Rational Feeling of Man</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Object; Human and Animal Feeding Compared; Standard</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rations; Why Tentative Dietary Standards; Amounts</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Food Consumed; Average Composition of Foods;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Variations in Composition of Foods; Example of a Ration;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Calculations of Balanced Rations; Requisites of a</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Balanced Ration; Examples; Calculations of Rations for</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Men at Different Kinds of Labor.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Water</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Importance; Impurities in Water; Mineral Impurities;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Organic Impurities; Interpretation of a Water Analysis;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Natural Purification of Water; Water in Relation to</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Health; Improvement of Waters; Boiling of Water; Filtration;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Purification of Water by Addition of Chemicals;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ice; Rain Waters; Waters of High and Low Purity;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chemical Changes which Organic Matter of Water Undergoes;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bacterial Content of Water; Mineral Waters;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Materials for Softening Water; Uses of; Economic Value</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of a Pure Water Supply.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XX</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Food as Affected by Household Sanitation and Storage</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Injurious Compounds in Foods; Nutrient Content and</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sanitary Condition of Food; Sources of Contamination</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Food; Unclean Ways of Handling Food; Sanitary Inspection</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Food; Infection from Impure Air; Storage</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Food in Cellars; Respiration of Vegetable Cells; Sunlight,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pure Water, and Pure Air as Disinfectants; Foods</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>contaminated from Leaky Plumbing; Utensils for Storage</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Food; Contamination from Unclean Dishcloths; Refrigeration;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chemical Changes that take Place in the</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Refrigerator; Soil; Disposal of Kitchen Refuse; Germ</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diseases spread by Unsanitary Conditions around Dwellings</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>due to Contamination of Food; General Considerations;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Relation of Food to Health.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Laboratory Practice</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Object of Laboratory Practice; Laboratory Note-book</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>and Suggestions for Laboratory Practice; List of Apparatus</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Used; Photograph of Apparatus Used; Directions</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>for Weighing; Directions for Measuring; Use of Microscope;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water in Flour; Water in Butter; Ash in Flour;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nitric Acid Test for Nitrogenous Organic Matter; Acidity</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Lemons; Influence of Heat on Potato Starch Grains;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Influence of Yeast on Starch Grains; Mechanical Composition</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Potatoes; Pectose from Apples; Lemon Extract;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vanilla Extract; Testing Olive Oil for Cotton Seed Oil;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Testing for Coal Tar Dyes; Determining the Per Cent of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Skin in Beans; Extraction of Fat from Peanuts; Microscopic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Examination of Milk; Formaldehyde in Cream or</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk; Gelatine in Cream or Milk; Testing for Oleomargarine;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Testing for Watering or Skimming of Milk; Boric</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Acid in Meat; Microscopic Examination of Cereal Starch</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Grains; Identification of Commercial Cereals; Granulation</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>and Color of Flour; Capacity of Flour to absorb</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water; Acidity of Flour; Moist and Dry Gluten; Gliadin</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>from Flour; Bread-making Test; Microscopic Examination</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Yeast; Testing Baking Powders for Alum; Testing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Baking Powders for Phosphoric Acid; Testing Baking</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Powders for Ammonia; Vinegar Solids; Specific Gravity</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Vinegar; Acidity of Vinegar; Deportment of Vinegar</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>with Reagents; Testing Mustard for Turmeric; Examination</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>of Tea Leaves; Action of Iron Compounds upon</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tannic Acid; Identification of Coffee Berries; Detecting</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chicory in Coffee; Comparative Amounts of Soap Necessary</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>with Hard and Soft Water; Solvent Action of Water</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>on Lead; Suspended Matter in Water; Organic Matter</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>in Water; Deposition of Lime by Boiling Water; Qualitative</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tests for Minerals in Water; Testing for Nitrites</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>in Water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Review Questions</span></th><td align='left'><a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">References</span></th><td align='left'><a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Index</span></th><td align='left'><a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="HUMAN_FOODS_AND_THEIR_NUTRITIVE_VALUE" id="HUMAN_FOODS_AND_THEIR_NUTRITIVE_VALUE"></a>HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE<br /><br /></h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>GENERAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Water.</b>&mdash;All foods contain water. Vegetables in their natural
+condition contain large amounts, often 95 per cent, while in meats there
+is from 40 to 60 per cent or more. Prepared cereal products, as flour,
+corn meal, and oatmeal, which are apparently dry, have from 7 to 14 per
+cent. In general the amount of water in a food varies with the
+mechanical structure and the conditions under which it has been
+prepared, and is an important factor in estimating the value, as the
+nutrients are often greatly decreased because of large amounts of water.
+The water in substances as flour and meal is mechanically held in
+combination with the fine particles and varies with the moisture
+content, or hydroscopicity, of the air. Oftentimes foods gain or lose
+water to such an extent as to affect their weight; for example, one
+hundred pounds of flour containing 12 per cent of water may be reduced
+in weight three pounds or more when stored in a dry place, or there may
+be an increase<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> in weight from being stored in a damp place. In tables
+of analyses the results, unless otherwise stated, are usually given on
+the basis of the original material, or the dry substance. Potatoes, for
+example, contain 2&frac12; per cent of crude protein on the basis of 75 per
+cent of water; or on a dry matter basis, that is, when the water is
+entirely eliminated, there is 10 per cent of protein.</p>
+
+<p>The water of foods is determined by drying the weighed material in a
+water or air oven at a temperature of about 100&deg; C, until all of the
+moisture has been expelled in the form of steam, leaving the dry matter
+or material free from water.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a> The determination of dry matter, while
+theoretically a simple process, is attended with many difficulties.
+Substances which contain much fat may undergo oxidation during drying;
+volatile compounds, as essential oils, are expelled along with the
+moisture; and other changes may occur affecting the accuracy of the
+work. The last traces of moisture are removed with difficulty from a
+substance, being mechanically retained by the particles with great
+tenacity. When very accurate dry matter determinations are desired, the
+substance is dried in a vacuum oven, or in a desiccator over sulphuric
+acid, or in an atmosphere of some non-oxidizing gas, as hydrogen.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>2. Dry Matter.</b>&mdash;The dry matter of a food is a mechanical mixture of
+the various compounds, as starch, sugar, fat, protein, cellulose, and
+mineral matter, and is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> obtained by drying the material. Succulent
+vegetable foods with 95 per cent of water contain only 5 per cent of
+dry matter, while in flour with 12 per cent of water there is 88 per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+cent, and in sugar 99 per cent. The dry matter is obtained by
+subtracting the per cent of water from 100, and in foods it varies from
+5 per cent and less in some vegetables to 99 per cent in sugar.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img-019.jpg" width="512" height="550"
+             alt="Fig. 1." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.&mdash;Apparatus used for the Determination of Dry
+Matter and Ash in Foods</span>.</h4>
+
+<h4>1, desiccator; 2, muffle furnace for combustion of foods and obtaining
+ash; 3, water oven for drying food materials.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>3. Ash.</b>&mdash;The ash, or mineral matter, is that portion obtained by
+burning or igniting the dry matter at the lowest temperature necessary
+for complete combustion. The ash in vegetable foods ranges from 2 to 5
+per cent and, together with the nitrogen, represents what was taken from
+the soil during growth. In animal bodies, the ash is present mainly in
+the bones, but there is also an appreciable amount, one per cent or
+more, in all the tissues. Ash is exceedingly variable in composition,
+being composed of the various salts of potassium, sodium, calcium,
+magnesium, and iron, as sulphates, phosphates, chlorides, and silicates
+of these elements. There are also other elements in small amounts. In
+the plant economy these elements take an essential part and are
+requisite for the formation of plant tissue and the production in the
+leaves of the organic compounds which later are stored up in the seeds.
+Some of the elements appear to be more necessary than others, and
+whenever withheld plant growth is restricted. The elements most
+essential for plant growth are potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron,
+phosphorus, and sulphur.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>In the animal body minerals are derived, either directly or indirectly,
+from the vegetable foods consumed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> The part which each of the mineral
+elements takes in animal nutrition is not well understood. Some of the
+elements, as phosphorus and sulphur, are in organic combination with the
+nitrogenous compounds, as the nucleated albuminoids, which are very
+essential for animal life. In both plant and animal bodies, the mineral
+matter is present as mineral salts and organic combinations. It is held
+that the ash elements which are in organic combination are the forms
+mainly utilized for tissue construction. While it is not known just what
+part all the mineral elements take in animal nutrition, experiments show
+that in all ordinary mixed rations the amount of the different mineral
+elements is in excess of the demands of the body, and it is only in rare
+instances, as in cases of restricted diet, or convalescence from some
+disease, that special attention need be given to increasing the mineral
+content of the ration. An excess of mineral matter in foods is equally
+as objectionable as a scant amount, elimination of the excess entailing
+additional work on the body.</p>
+
+<p>The composition of the ash of different food materials varies widely,
+both in amount, and form of the individual elements. When for any reason
+it is necessary to increase the phosphates in a ration, milk and eggs do
+this to a greater extent than almost any other foods. Common salt, or
+sodium chloride, is one of the most essential of the mineral
+constituents of the body. It is necessary for giving the blood its
+normal composition, furnishing acid and basic constituents for the
+pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>duction of the digestive fluids, and for the nutrition of the cells.
+While salt is a necessary food, in large amounts, as when the attempt is
+made to use sea water as a beverage, it acts as a poison, suggesting
+that a material may be both a food and a poison. When sodium chloride is
+entirely withheld from an animal, death from salt starvation ensues.
+Many foods contain naturally small amounts of sodium chloride.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>4. Organic Matter.</b>&mdash;That portion of a food material which is converted
+into gaseous or volatile products during combustion is called the
+organic matter. It is a mechanical mixture of compounds made up of
+carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur, and is composed of
+various individual organic compounds, as cellulose, starch, sugar,
+albumin, and fat. The amount in a food is determined by subtracting the
+ash and water from 100. The organic matter varies widely in composition;
+in some foods it is largely starch, as in potatoes and rice, while in
+others, as forage crops consumed by animals, cellulose predominates. The
+nature of the prevailing organic compound, as sugar or starch,
+determines the nutritive value of a food. Each has a definite chemical
+composition capable of being expressed by a formula. Considered
+collectively, the organic compounds are termed organic matter. When
+burned, the organic compounds are converted into gases, the carbon
+uniting with the oxygen of the air to form carbon dioxide, hydrogen to
+form water, sul<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>phur to form sulphur dioxide, and the nitrogen to form
+oxides of nitrogen and ammonia.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>5. Classification of Organic Compounds.</b>&mdash;All food materials are
+composed of a large number of organic compounds. For purposes of study
+these are divided into classes. The element nitrogen is taken as the
+basis of the division. Compounds which contain this element are called
+nitrogenous, while those from which it is absent are called
+non-nitrogenous.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[2]</sup></small></b></a> The nitrogenous organic compounds are composed of
+the elements nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and sulphur, while the
+non-nitrogenous compounds are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
+In vegetable foods the non-nitrogenous compounds predominate, there
+being usually from six to twelve parts of non-nitrogenous to every one
+part of nitrogenous, while in animal foods the nitrogenous compounds are
+present in larger amount.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NON-NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS</h4>
+
+<p><b>6. Occurrence.</b>&mdash;The non-nitrogenous compounds of foods consist mainly
+of cellulose, starch, sugar, and fat. For purposes of study, they are
+divided into subdivisions, as carbohydrates, pectose substances or
+jellies, fats, organic acids, essential oils, and mixed compounds. In
+plants the carbohydrates predominate, while in animal tissue the fats
+are the chief non-nitrogenous constituents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>7. Carbohydrates.</b>&mdash;This term is applied to a class of compounds
+similar in general composition, but differing widely in structural
+composition and physical properties. Carbohydrates make up the bulk of
+vegetable foods and, except in milk, are found only in traces in animal
+foods. They are all represented by the general formula CH_2n_2n, there
+being twice as many hydrogen as oxygen atoms, the hydrogen and oxygen
+being present in the same proportion as in water. As a class, the
+carbohydrates are neutral bodies, and, when burned, form carbon dioxide
+and water.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img024a.jpg" width="210" height="250"
+             alt="Fig. 2." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.&mdash;Cellular Structure<br />of Plant Cell</span>.</h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+
+<p><b>8. Cellulose</b> is the basis of the cell structure of plants, and is
+found in various physical forms in food materials.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[3]</sup></small></b></a> Sometimes it is
+hard and dense, resisting digestive action and mechanically inclosing
+other nutrients and thus preventing their being available as food. In
+the earlier stages of plant growth a part of the cellulose is in
+chemical combination with water, forming hydrated cellulose, a portion
+of which undergoes digestion and produces heat and energy in the body.
+Ordinarily, however, cellulose adds but little in the way of nutritive
+value, although it is often beneficial mechanically and imparts bulk to
+some foods otherwise too concentrated. The mechanical action of
+cellulose on the digestion of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> food is discussed in Chapter XV.
+Cellulose usually makes up a very small part of human food, less than 1
+per cent. In refined white flour there is less than .05 of a per cent;
+in oatmeal and cereal products from .5 to 1 per cent, depending upon the
+extent to which the hulls are removed, and in vegetable foods from .1 to
+1 per cent. The cellulose content of foods is included in the crude
+fiber of the chemist's report.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Starch</b> occurs widely distributed in nature, particularly in the
+seeds, roots, and tubers of some plants. It is formed in the leaves of
+plants as a result of the joint action of chlorophyll and protoplasm,
+and is generally held by plant physiologists to be the first
+carbohydrate produced in the plant cell. Starch is composed of a number
+of overlapping layers separated by starch cellulose; between these
+layers the true starch or amylose is found. Starch from the various
+cereals and vegetables differs widely in mechanical structure; in wheat
+it is circular, in corn somewhat angular, and in parsnips exceedingly
+small, while potato starch granules are among the largest.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[3]</sup></small></b></a> The nature
+of starch can be determined largely from its mechanical structure as
+studied under the microscope. It is insoluble in cold water because of
+the protecting action of the cellular layer, but on being heated it
+undergoes both mechanical and chemical changes; the grains are partially
+ruptured by pressure due to the conversion into steam of the moisture
+held mechanically. The cooking of foods is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> beneficial from a mechanical
+point of view, as it results in partial disintegration of the starch
+masses, changing the structure so that the starch is more readily acted
+upon by the ferments of the digestive tract. At a temperature of about
+120&deg; C. starch begins to undergo chemical change, resulting in the
+rearrangement of the atoms in the molecule with the production of
+dextrine and soluble carbohydrates. Dextrine is formed on the crust of
+bread, or whenever potatoes or starchy foods are browned. At a still
+higher temperature starch is decomposed, with the liberation of water
+and production of compounds of higher carbon content. When heated in
+contact with water, it undergoes hydration changes; gelatinous-like
+products are formed, which are finally converted into a soluble
+condition. In cooking cereals, the hydration of the starch is one of the
+main physical and chemical changes that takes place, and it simply
+results in converting the material into such a form that other chemical
+changes may more readily occur. Before starch becomes dextrose,
+hydration is necessary. If this is accomplished by cooking, it saves the
+body just so much energy in digestion. Many foods owe their value
+largely to the starch. In cereals it is found to the extent of 72 to 76
+per cent; in rice and potatoes in still larger amounts; and it is the
+chief constituent of many vegetables. When starch is digested, it is
+first changed to a soluble form and then gradually undergoes oxidation,
+resulting in the production of heat and energy, the same
+products&mdash;carbon dioxide and water&mdash;being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> formed as when starch is
+burned. Starch is a valuable heat-producing nutrient; a pound yields
+1860 calories. See Chapter XV.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Sugar.</b>&mdash;Sugars are widely distributed in nature, being found
+principally in the juices of the sugar cane, sugar beet, and sugar
+maple. They are divided into two large classes: the sucrose group and
+the dextrose group, the latter being produced from sucrose, starch, and
+other carbohydrates by inversion and allied chemical changes. Because of
+the importance of sugar in the dietary, Chapter V is devoted to the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. Pectose Substances</b> are jelly-like bodies found in fruits and
+vegetables. They are closely related in chemical composition to the
+carbohydrates, into which form they are changed during digestion; and in
+nutrition they serve practically the same function. In the early stages
+of growth the pectin bodies are combined with organic acids, forming
+insoluble compounds, as the pectin in green apples. During the ripening
+of fruit and the cooking of vegetables, the pectin is changed to a more
+soluble and digestible condition. In food analysis, the pectin is
+usually included with the carbohydrates.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. Nitrogen-free-extract.</b>&mdash;In discussing the composition of foods,
+the carbohydrates other then cellulose, as starch, sugar, and pectin,
+are grouped under the name of nitrogen-free-extract. Methods of
+chemi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>cal analysis have not yet been sufficiently perfected to enable
+accurate and rapid determination to be made of all these individual
+carbohydrates, and hence they are grouped together as
+nitrogen-free-extract. As the name indicates, they are compounds which
+contain no nitrogen, and are extractives in the sense that they are
+soluble in dilute acid and alkaline solutions. The nitrogen-free-extract
+is determined indirectly, that is, by the method of difference. All the
+other constituents of a food, as water, ash, crude fiber (cellulose),
+crude protein, and ether extract, are determined; the total is
+subtracted from 100, and the difference is nitrogen-free-extract. In
+studying the nutritive value of foods, particular attention should be
+given to the nature of the nitrogen-free-extract, as in some instances
+it is composed of sugar and in others of starch, pectin, or pentosan
+(gum sugars). While all these compounds have practically the same fuel
+value, they differ in composition, structure, and the way in which they
+are acted upon by chemicals and digestive ferments.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img001.jpg" width="215" height="400"
+             alt="Fig. 3." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.&mdash;Apparatus<br />used for the Determination<br />of
+Fat.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+
+<p><b>13. Fat.</b>&mdash;Fat is found mainly in the seeds of plants, but to some
+extent in the leaves and stems. It differs from starch in containing
+more carbon and less oxygen. In starch there is about 44 per cent of
+carbon, while in fat there is 75 per cent. Hence it is that when fat is
+burned or undergoes combustion, it yields a larger amount of the
+products of combustion&mdash;carbon dioxid and water&mdash;than does starch. A
+gram of fat produces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> 2&frac14; times as much heat as a gram of starch. Fat
+is the most concentrated non-nitrogenous nutrient. As found in food
+materials, it is a mechanical mixture of various fats, among which are
+stearin, palmitin, and olein. Stearin and palmitin are hard fats,
+crystalline in structure, and with a high melting point, while olein is
+a liquid. In addition to these three, there are also small amounts of
+other fats, as butyrin in butter, which give character or individuality
+to materials. There are a number of vegetable fats or oils which are
+used for food purposes and, when properly prepared and refined, have a
+high nutritive value. Occasionally one fat of cheaper origin but not
+necessarily of lower nutritive value is substituted for another. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+fats have definite physical and chemical properties which enable them to
+be readily distinguished, as iodine number, specific gravity, index of
+refraction, and heat of combustion. By iodine number is meant the
+percentage of iodine that will unite chemically with the fat. Wheat oil
+has an iodine number of about 100, meaning that one pound of wheat oil
+will unite chemically with one pound of iodine. Fats have a lower
+specific gravity than water, usually ranging from .89 to .94, the
+specific gravity of a fat being fairly constant. All fats can be
+separated into glycerol and a fatty acid, glycerol or glycerine being
+common constituents, while each fat yields its own characteristic acid,
+as stearin, stearic acid; palmitin, palmitic acid; and olein, oleic
+acid. The fats are soluble in ether, chloroform, and benzine. In the
+chemical analysis of foods, they are separated with ether, and along
+with the fat, variable amounts of other substances are extracted, these
+extractive products usually being called "ether extract" or "crude
+fat."<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> The ether extract of plant tissue contains in addition to fat
+appreciable amounts of cellulose, gums, coloring, and other materials.
+From cereal products the ether extract is largely fat, but in some
+instances lecithin and other nitrogenous fatty substances are present,
+while in animal food products, as milk and meat, the ether extract is
+nearly pure fat.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. Organic Acids.</b>&mdash;Many vegetable foods contain small amounts of
+organic acids, as malic acid found in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> apples, citric in lemons, and
+tartaric in grapes. These give characteristic taste to foods, but have
+no direct nutritive value. They do not yield heat and energy as do
+starch, fat, and protein; they are, however, useful for imparting flavor
+and palatability, and it is believed they promote to some extent the
+digestion of foods with which they are combined by encouraging the
+secretion of the digestive fluids. Many fruits and vegetables owe their
+dietetic value to the organic acids which they contain. In plants they
+are usually in chemical combination with the minerals, forming compounds
+as salts, or with the organic compounds, producing materials as acid
+proteins. In the plant economy they take an essential part in promoting
+growth and aiding the plant to secure by osmotic action its mineral food
+from the soil. Organic acids are found to some extent in animal foods,
+as the various lactic acids of meat and milk. They are also formed in
+food materials as the result of ferment action. When seeds germinate,
+small amounts of carbohydrates are converted into organic acids. In
+general the organic acids are not to be considered as nutrients, but as
+food adjuncts, increasing palatability and promoting digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. Essential Oils.</b>&mdash;Essential or volatile oils differ from fats, or
+fixed oils, in chemical composition and physical properties.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[6]</sup></small></b></a> The
+essential oils are readily volatilized, leaving no permanent residue,
+while the fixed fats are practically non-volatile. Various essen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>tial
+oils are present in small amounts in nearly all vegetable food
+materials, and the characteristic flavor of many fruits is due to them.
+It is these compounds which are used for flavoring purposes, as
+discussed in Chapter IV. The amount in a food material is very small,
+usually only a few hundredths of a per cent. The essential oils have no
+direct food value, but indirectly, like the organic acids, they assist
+in promoting favorable digestive action, and are also valuable because
+they impart a pleasant taste. Through poor methods of cooking and
+preparation, the essential oils are readily lost from some foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. Mixed Compounds.</b>&mdash;Food materials frequently contain
+compounds which do not naturally fall into the five groups
+mentioned,&mdash;carbohydrates, pectose substances, fats, organic acids, and
+essential oils. The amount of such compounds is small, and they are
+classed as miscellaneous or mixed non-nitrogenous compounds. Some of
+them may impart a negative value to the food, and there are others which
+have all the characteristics, as far as general composition is
+concerned, of the non-nitrogenous compounds, but contain nitrogen,
+although as a secondary rather than an essential constituent.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. Nutritive Value of Non-nitrogenous Compounds.</b>&mdash;The non-nitrogenous
+compounds, taken as a class, are incapable alone of sustaining life,
+because they do not contain any nitrogen, and this is necessary for
+produc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>ing proteid material in the animal body. They are valuable for
+the production of heat and energy, and when associated with the
+nitrogenous compounds, are capable of forming non-nitrogenous reserve
+tissue. It is equally impossible to sustain life for any prolonged
+period with the nitrogenous compounds alone. It is when these two
+classes are properly blended and naturally united in food materials that
+their main value is secured. For nutrition purposes they are mutually
+related and dependent. Some food materials contain the nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds blended in such proportion as to enable one
+food alone to practically sustain life, while in other cases it is
+necessary, in order to secure the best results in the feeding of animals
+and men, to combine different foods varying in their content of these
+two classes of compounds.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS</h4>
+
+<p><b>18. General Composition.</b>&mdash;The nitrogenous compounds are more complex
+in composition than the non-nitrogenous. They are composed of a larger
+number of elements, united in different ways so as to form a much more
+complex molecular structure. Foods contain numerous nitrogenous organic
+compounds, which, for purposes of study, are divided into four
+divisions,&mdash;proteids, albuminoids, amids, and alkaloids. In addition to
+these, there are other nitrogenous compounds which do not naturally fall
+into any one of the four divisions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img034a-tb.jpg"  width="550" height="523" alt="Fig. 4." title="" /></div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Apparatus used for Determining
+Total Nitrogen and Crude Protein in Foods.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The material is digested in the flask (3) with sulphuric acid and the
+organic nitrogen converted into ammonium sulphate, which is later
+liberated and distilled at 1, and the ammonia neutralized with standard
+acid (2).]<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Also in some foods there are small amounts of nitrogen in mineral forms,
+as nitrates and nitrites.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. Protein.</b>&mdash;The term "protein" is applied to a large class of
+nitrogenous compounds resembling each other in general composition, but
+differing widely in structural composition. As a class, the proteins
+contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen, 52 per cent of carbon, from 6 to
+7 per cent of hydrogen, 22 per cent of oxygen, and less than 2 per cent
+of sulphur. These elements are combined in a great variety of ways,
+forming various groups or radicals. In studying the protein molecule a
+large number of derivative products have been observed, as amid
+radicals, various hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and carbohydrate-like
+bodies.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[8]</sup></small></b></a> It would appear that in the chemical composition of the
+proteins there are all the constituents, or simpler products, of the
+non-nitrogenous compounds, and these are in chemical combination with
+amid radicals and nitrogen in various forms. The nitrogen of many
+proteids appears to be present in more than one form or radical. The
+proteids take an important part in life processes. They are found more
+extensively in animal than in plant bodies. The protoplasm of both the
+plant and animal cell is composed mainly of protein.</p>
+
+<p>Proteids are divided into various subdivisions, as albumins, globulins,
+albuminates, proteoses and peptones, and insoluble proteids. In plant
+and animal foods a large amount of the protein is present as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>soluble
+proteids; that is, they are not dissolved by solvents, as water and
+dilute salt solution. The albumins are soluble in water and coagulated
+by heat at a temperature of 157&deg; to 161&deg; F. Whenever a food material is
+soaked in water, the albumin is removed and can then be coagulated by
+the action of heat, or of chemicals, as tannic acid, lead acetate, and
+salts of mercury. The globulins are proteids extracted from food
+materials by dilute salt solution after the removal of the albumins.
+Globulins also are coagulated by heat and precipitated by chemicals. The
+amount of globulins in vegetable foods is small. In animal foods myosin
+in meat and vitellin, found in the yolk of the egg, and some of the
+proteids of the blood, are examples of globulins. Albuminates are
+casein-like proteids found in both animal and vegetable foods. They are
+supposed to be proteins that are in feeble chemical combination with
+acid and alkaline compounds, and they are sometimes called acid and
+alkali proteids. Some are precipitated from their solutions by acids and
+others by alkalies. Peas and beans contain quite large amounts of a
+casein-like proteid called legumin. Proteoses and peptones are proteins
+soluble in water, but not coagulated by heat. They are produced from
+other proteids by ferment action during the digestion of food and the
+germination of seeds, and are often due to the changes resulting from
+the action of the natural ferments or enzymes inherent in the food
+materials. As previously stated, the insoluble proteids are present in
+far the largest amount of any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> of the nitrogenous materials of foods.
+Lean meat and the gluten of wheat and other grains are examples of the
+insoluble proteids. The various insoluble proteids from different food
+materials each has its own composition and distinctive chemical and
+physical properties, and from each a different class and percentage
+amount of derivative products are obtained.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a> While in general it is
+held that the various proteins have practically the same nutritive
+value, it is possible that because differences in structural composition
+and the products formed during digestion there may exist notable
+differences in nutritive value. During digestion the insoluble proteids
+undergo an extended series of chemical changes. They are partially
+oxidized, and the nitrogenous portion of the molecule is eliminated
+mainly in the form of amids, as urea. The insoluble proteins constitute
+the main source of the nitrogenous food supply of both humans and
+animals.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. Crude Protein.</b>&mdash;In the analysis of foods, the term "crude protein"
+is used to designate the total nitrogenous compounds considered
+collectively; it is composed largely of protein, but also includes the
+amids, alkaloids, and albuminoids. "Crude protein" and "total
+nitrogenous compounds" are practically synonymous terms. The various
+proteins all contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen; that is, one part of
+nitrogen is equivalent to 6.25 parts of protein. In analyzing a food
+material, the total organic nitrogen is determined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> and the amount
+multiplied by 6.25 to obtain the crude protein. In some food materials,
+as cereals, the crude protein is largely pure protein, while in others,
+as potatoes, it is less than half pure protein, the larger portion being
+amids and other compounds. In comparing the crude protein content of one
+food with that of another, the nature of both proteids should be
+considered and also the amounts of non-proteid constituents. The factor
+6.25 for calculating the protein equivalent of foods is not strictly
+applicable to all foods. For example, the proteids of wheat&mdash;gliadin and
+glutenin&mdash;contain over 18 per cent of nitrogen, making the nitrogen
+factor about 5.68 instead of 6.25. If wheat contains 2 per cent of
+nitrogen, it is equivalent to 12.5 per cent of crude protein, using the
+factor 6.25; or to 11.4, using the factor 5.7. The nitrogen content of
+foods is absolute; the protein content is only relative.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[9]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>21. Food Value of Protein.</b>&mdash;Because of its complexity in composition,
+protein is capable of being used by the body in a greater variety of
+ways than starch, sugar, or fat. In addition to producing heat and
+energy, protein serves the unique function of furnishing material for
+the construction of new muscular tissue and the repair of that which is
+worn out. It is distinctly a tissue-building nutrient. It also enters
+into the composition of all the vital fluids of the body, as the blood,
+chyme, chyle, and the various digestive fluids. Hence it is that protein
+is required as a nutrient by the animal body, and it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> cannot be produced
+from non-nitrogenous compounds. In vegetable bodies, the protein can be
+produced synthetically from amids, which in turn are formed from
+ammonium compounds. While protein is necessary in the ration, an
+excessive amount should be avoided. When there is more than is needed
+for functional purposes, it is used for heat and energy, and as foods
+rich in protein are usually the most expensive, an excess adds
+unnecessarily to the cost of the ration. Excess of protein in the ration
+may also result in a diseased condition, due to imperfect elimination of
+the protein residual products from the body.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[10]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>22. Albuminoids</b> differ from proteids in general composition and, to
+some extent, in nutritive value. They are found in animal bodies mainly
+in the connective tissue and in the skin, hair, and nails. Some of the
+albuminoids, as nuclein, are equal in food value to protein, while
+others have a lower food value. In general, albuminoids are capable of
+conserving the protein of the body, and hence are called "protein
+sparers," but they cannot in every way enter into the composition of the
+body, as do the true proteins.</p>
+
+<p><b>23. Amids and Amines.</b>&mdash;These are nitrogenous compounds of simpler
+structure than the proteins and albuminoids. They are sometimes called
+compound ammonia in that they are derived from ammonia by the
+replacement of one of the hydrogen atoms with an organic radical. In
+plants, amids are intermediate compounds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> in the production of the
+proteids, and in some vegetables a large portion of the nitrogen is
+amids. In animal bodies amids are formed during oxidation, digestion,
+and disintegration of proteids. It is not definitely known whether or
+not a protein in the animal body when broken down into amid form can
+again be reconstructed into protein. The amids have a lower food value
+than the proteids and albuminoids. It is generally held that, to a
+certain extent, they are capable, when combined with proteids, of
+preventing rapid conversion of the body proteid into soluble form. When
+they are used in large amounts in a ration, they tend to hasten
+oxidation rather than conservation of the proteids.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. Alkaloids.</b>&mdash;In some plant bodies there are small amounts of
+nitrogenous compounds called alkaloids. They are not found to any
+appreciable extent in food plants. The alkaloids, like ammonia, are
+basic in character and unite with acids to form salts. Many medicinal
+plants owe their value to the alkaloids which they contain. In animal
+bodies alkaloids are formed when the tissue undergoes fermentation
+changes, and also during disease, the products being known as ptomaines.
+Alkaloids have no food value, but act physiologically as irritants on
+the nerve centers, making them useful from a medicinal rather than from
+a nutritive point of view. To medical and pharmaceutical students the
+alkaloids form a very important group of compounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img002.jpg" width="550" height="363"
+             alt="Fig. 5." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic Composition of Flour.</span></h4>
+
+<h4>1, flour; 2, starch; 3, gluten; 4, water; 5, fat; 6, ash.</h4>
+
+<p><b>25. General Relationship of the Nitrogenous Compounds.</b>&mdash;Among the
+various subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds there exists a
+relationship similar to that among the non-nitrogenous compounds. From
+proteids, amids and alkaloids may be formed, just as invert sugars and
+their products are formed from sucrose. Although glucose products are
+derived from sucrose, it is not possible to reverse the process and
+obtain sucrose or cane sugar from starch. So it is with proteins, while
+the amid may be obtained from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> proteid in animal nutrition, as far
+as known the process cannot be reversed and proteids be obtained from
+amids. In the construction of the protein molecule of plants, nitrogen
+is absorbed from the soil in soluble forms, as compounds of nitrates and
+nitrites and ammonium salts. These are converted, first, into amids and
+then into proteids. In the animal body just the reverse of this process
+takes place,&mdash;the protein of the food undergoes a series of changes, and
+is finally eliminated from the body as an amid, which in turn undergoes
+oxidation and nitrification, and is converted into nitrites, nitrates,
+and ammonium salts. These forms of nitrogen are then ready to begin
+again in plant and animal bodies the same cycle of changes. Thus it is
+that nitrogen may enter a number of times into the composition of plant
+and animal tissues. Nature is very economical in her use of this
+element.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND PREPARATION</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>26. Raw and Cooked Foods Compared.</b>&mdash;Raw and cooked foods differ in
+chemical composition mainly in the content of water. The amount of
+nutrients on a dry matter basis is practically the same, but the
+structural composition is affected by cooking, and hence it is that a
+food prepared for the table often differs appreciably from the raw
+material. Cooked meat, for example, has not the same percentage and
+structural composition as raw meat, although the difference in nutritive
+value between a given weight of each is not large. During cooking, foods
+are acted upon chemically, physically, and bacteriologically, and it is
+usually the joint action of these three agencies that brings about the
+desirable changes incident to their preparation for the table.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. Chemical Changes during Cooking.</b>&mdash;Each of the chemical compounds
+of which foods are composed is influenced to a greater or less extent by
+heat and modified in composition. The chemistry of cooking is mainly a
+study of the chemical changes that take place when compounds, as
+cellulose, starch, sugar, pectin, fat,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> and the various proteids, are
+subjected to the joint action of heat, moisture, air, and ferments. The
+changes which affect the cellulose are physical rather than chemical. A
+slight hydration of the cellular tissue, however, does take place. In
+human foods cellulose is not found to any appreciable extent. Many
+vegetables, as potatoes, which are apparently composed of cellular
+substances, contain but little true cellulose. Starch, as previously
+stated, undergoes hydration in the presence of water, and, at a
+temperature of 120&deg; C., is converted into dextrine. At a higher
+temperature disintegration of the starch molecule takes place, with the
+formation of carbon monoxid, carbon dioxid, and water, and the
+production of a residue richer in carbon than is starch. On account of
+the moisture, the temperature in many cooking operations is not
+sufficiently high for changes other than hydration and preliminary
+dextrinizing. In Chapter XI is given a more extended account of the
+changes affecting starch which occur in bread making.</p>
+
+<p>During the cooking process sugars undergo inversion to a slight extent.
+That is, sucrose is converted into levulose and dextrose sugars. At a
+higher temperature, sugar is broken up into its constituents&mdash;water and
+carbon dioxide. The organic acids which many fruits and vegetables
+contain hasten the process of inversion. When sugar is subjected to dry
+heat, it becomes a brown, caramel-like material sometimes called barley
+sugar. During cooking, sugars are not altered in solubility or
+digestibility; starches, however, are changed to a more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> soluble form,
+and pectin&mdash;a jelly-like substance&mdash;is converted from a less to a more
+soluble condition, as stated in Chapter I. Changes incident to the
+cooking of fruits and vegetables rich in pectin, as in the making of
+jellies, are similar to those which take place in the last stages of
+ripening.</p>
+
+<p>The fats are acted upon to a considerable extent by heat. Some of the
+vegetable oils undergo slight oxidation, resulting in decreased
+solubility in ether, but since there is no volatilization of the fatty
+matter, it is a change that does not materially affect the total fuel
+value of the food.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[11]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>There is a general tendency for the proteids to become less soluble by
+the action of heat, particularly the albumins and globulins. The protein
+molecule dissociates at a high temperature, with formation of volatile
+products, and therefore foods rich in protein should not be subjected to
+extreme heat, as losses of food value may result. During cooking,
+proteids undergo hydration, which is necessary and preliminary to
+digestion, and the heating need be carried only to this point, and not
+to the splitting up of the molecule. Prolonged high temperature in the
+cooking of proteids and starches is unnecessary in order to induce the
+desired chemical changes. When these nutrients are hydrated, they are in
+a condition to undergo digestion, without the body being compelled to
+expend unnecessary energy in bringing about this preliminary change.
+Hence it is that, while proper cooking does not materially affect the
+total<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> digestibility of proteids or starches, it influences ease of
+digestion, as well as conserves available energy, thereby making more
+economical use of these nutrients.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img003.jpg" width="250" height="250"
+             alt="Fig. 6." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cells of<br />a Partially Cooked<br />Potato</span>. (After <span class="smcap">K&ouml;nig</span>.)</h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>28. Physical Changes.</b>&mdash;The mechanical structure of foods is influenced
+by cooking to a greater extent than is the chemical composition. One of
+the chief objects of cooking is to bring the food into better mechanical
+condition for digestion.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[12]</sup></small></b></a> Heat and water cause partial disintegration
+of both animal and vegetable tissues. The cell-cementing materials are
+weakened, and a softening of the tissues results. Often the action
+extends still further in vegetable foods, resulting in disintegration of
+the individual starch granules. When foods are subjected to dry heat,
+the moisture they contain is converted into steam, which causes bursting
+of the tissues. A good example of this is the popping of corn. Heat may
+result, too, in mechanical removal of some of the nutrients, as the
+fats, which are liquefied at temperatures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> ranging from 100&deg; to 200&deg; F.
+Many foods which in the raw state contain quite large amounts of fat,
+lose a portion mechanically during cooking, as is the case with bacon
+when it is cut in thin slices and fried or baked until crisp. When foods
+are boiled, the natural juices being of somewhat different density from
+the water in which they are cooked, slight osmotic changes occur. There
+is a tendency toward equalization of the composition of the juices of
+the food and the water in which they are cooked. In order to achieve the
+best mechanical effects in cooking, high temperatures are not necessary,
+except at first for rupturing the tissues; softening of the tissues is
+best effected by prolonged and slow heat. At a higher temperature many
+of the volatile and essential oils are lost, while at lower temperatures
+these are retained and in some instances slightly developed. The cooking
+should be sufficiently prolonged and the temperature high enough to
+effectually disintegrate and soften all of the tissues, but not to cause
+extended chemical changes.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img004.jpg" width="250" height="244"
+             alt="Fig. 7." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cells of<br />Raw Potato, Showing Starch<br />Grains.</span> (After <span class="smcap">K&ouml;nig</span>.)</h4>
+
+    </div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There is often an unnecessarily large amount of heat lost through faulty
+construction of stoves and lack of judicious use of fuels, which greatly
+enhances the cost of preparing foods. Ovens are frequently coated with
+deposits of soot; this causes the heat to be thrown out into the room or
+lost through the chimney, rather than utilized for heating the oven. In
+an ordinary cook stove it is estimated that less than 7 per cent of the
+heat and energy of the fuel is actually employed in bringing about
+physical and chemical changes incident to cooking.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>29. Bacteriological Changes.</b>&mdash;The bacterial organisms of foods are
+destroyed in the cooking, provided a temperature of 150&deg; F. is reached
+and maintained for several minutes. The interior of foods rarely reaches
+a temperature above 200&deg; F., because of the water they contain which is
+not completely removed below 212&deg;. One of the chief objects in cooking
+food is to render it sterile. Not only do bacteria become innocuous
+through cooking, but various parasites, as trichina and tapeworm, are
+destroyed, although some organisms can live at a comparatively high
+temperature. Cooked foods are easily re-inoculated, in some cases more
+readily than fresh foods, because they are in a more disintegrated
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>In many instances bacteria are of material assistance in the preparation
+of foods, as in bread making, butter making, curing of cheese, and
+ripening of meat. All the chemical compounds of which foods are
+composed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> are subject to fermentation, each compound being acted upon by
+its special ferment body. Those which convert the proteids into soluble
+form, as the peptonizing ferments, have no action upon the
+carbohydrates. A cycle of bacteriological changes often takes place in a
+food material, one class of ferments working until their products
+accumulate to such an extent as to prevent their further activity, and
+then the process is taken up by others, as they find the conditions
+favorable for development. This change of bacterial flora in food
+materials is akin to the changes in the vegetation occupying soils. In
+each case, there is a constant struggle for possession. Bacteria take a
+much more important part in the preparation of foods than is generally
+considered. As a result of their workings, various chemical products, as
+organic acids and aromatic compounds, are produced. The organic acids
+chemically unite with the nutrients of foods, changing their composition
+and physical properties. Man is, to a great extent, dependent upon
+bacterial action. Plant life also is dependent upon the bacterial
+changes which take place in the soil and in the plant tissues. The
+stirring of seeds into activity is apparently due to enzymes or soluble
+ferments which are inherent in the seed. A study of the bacteriological
+changes which foods undergo in their preparation and digestion more
+properly belongs to the subject of bacteriology, and in this work only
+brief mention is made of some of the more important parts which
+micro&ouml;rganisms take in the preparation of foods.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>30. Insoluble Ferments.</b>&mdash;Insoluble ferments are minute, plant-like
+bodies of definite form and structure, and can be studied only with the
+microscope.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a> They are developed from spores or seeds, or from the
+splitting or budding of the parent cells. Under suitable conditions they
+multiply rapidly, deriving the energy for their life processes from the
+chemical changes which they induce. For example, in the souring of milk
+the milk sugar is changed by the lactic acid ferments into lactic acid.
+In causing chemical changes, the ferment gives none of its own material
+to the reacting substance. These ferment bodies undergo life processes
+similar to plants of a higher order.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img50a.jpg" width="250" height="184"
+             alt="Fig. 8." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lactic Acid<br />Bacteria, Much
+Enlarged</span>.<br />(After <span class="smcap">Russell</span>.)</h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+
+<p>All foods contain bacteria or ferments. In fact, it is impossible for a
+food stored and prepared under ordinary conditions, unless it has been
+specially treated, to be free from them. Some of them are useful, some
+are injurious, while others are capable of producing disease. The
+objectionable bacteria are usually destroyed by the joint action of
+sunlight, pure air, and water.</p>
+
+<p><b>31. Soluble Ferments.</b>&mdash;Many plant and animal cells have the power of
+secreting substances soluble in water and capable of producing
+fermentation changes; to these the term "soluble ferments," or
+"enzymes," is applied. These ferments have not a cell structure like
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> organized ferments. When germinated seed, as malted barley, is
+extracted, a soluble and highly nitrogenous substance, called the
+diastase ferment, is secured that changes starch into soluble forms. The
+soluble ferments induce chemical change by causing molecular disturbance
+or splitting up of the organic compounds, resulting in the production of
+derivative products. They take an important part in animal and plant
+nutrition, as by their action insoluble compounds are brought into a
+soluble condition so they can be utilized for nutritive purposes. In
+many instances ferment changes are due to the joint action of soluble
+and insoluble ferments. The insoluble ferment secretes an enzyme which
+induces a chemical change, modified by the further action of the soluble
+ferment. Many of the enzymes carry on their work at a low temperature,
+as in the curing of meat and cheese in cold storage.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[14]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>32. General Relationship of Chemical, Physical, and Bacteriological
+Changes.</b>&mdash;It cannot be said that the beneficial results derived from
+the cooking of foods are due to either chemical, physical, or
+bacteriological change alone, but to the joint action of the three. In
+order to secure a chemical change, a physical change must often precede,
+and a bacteriological change cannot take place without causing a change
+in chemical composition; the three are closely related and
+interdependent.</p>
+
+<p><b>33. Esthetic Value of Foods.</b>&mdash;Foods should be not only of good
+physical texture and contain the requisite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> nutrients, but they should
+also be pleasing to the eye and served in the most attractive manner.
+Some foods owe a part of their commercial value to color, and when they
+are lacking in natural color they are not consumed with a relish. There
+is no objection to the addition of coloring matter to foods, provided it
+is of a non-injurious character and does not affect the amount of
+nutrients, and that its presence and the kind of coloring material are
+made known. Some foods contain objectionable colors which are eliminated
+during the process of manufacture, as in the case of sugar and flour. As
+far as removal of coloring matter from foods during refining is
+concerned, there can be no objection, so long as no injurious reagents
+or chemicals are retained, as the removal of the color in no way affects
+the nutritive value or permits fraud, but necessitates higher
+purification and refining. The use of chemicals and reagents in the
+preparation and refining of foods is considered permissible in all cases
+where the reagents are removed by subsequent processes. In the food
+decisions of the United States Department of Agriculture, it is stated:
+"Not excluded under this provision are substances properly used in the
+preparation of food products for clarification or refining and
+eliminated in the further process of manufacture." <a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[15]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>VEGETABLE FOODS</h3>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img005.jpg" width="211" height="250"
+             alt="Fig. 9." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Transverse Section<br />of Potato</span>.
+(After <span class="smcap">Cowden</span><br />and <span class="smcap">Bussard</span>.) <i>a</i>, skin; <i>b</i>, cortical<br />
+layer; <i>c</i>, outer medullary<br />layer; <i>d</i>, inner medullary layer.</h4>
+
+    </div>
+<p><b>34. General Composition.</b>&mdash;Vegetable foods, with the exception of
+cereals, legumes, and nuts, contain a smaller percentage of protein than
+animal food products. They vary widely in composition and nutritive
+value; in some, starch predominates, while in others, sugar, cellulose,
+and pectin bodies are most abundant. The general term "vegetable foods"
+is used in this work to include roots, tubers, garden vegetables,
+cereals, legumes, and all prepared foods of vegetable origin.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>35. Potatoes</b> contain about 75 per cent of water and 25 per cent of dry
+matter, the larger portion being starch. There is but little nitrogenous
+material in the potato, only 2.25 per cent, of which about half is in
+the form of proteids. There are ten parts of non-nitrogenous substance
+to every one part of nitrogenous; or, in other words, the potato has a
+wide nutritive ratio, and as an article of diet needs to be supplemented
+with foods rich in protein. The mineral matter, cellu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>lar tissue, and
+fat in potatoes are small in amount, as are also the organic acids.
+Mechanically considered, the potato is composed of three parts,&mdash;outer
+skin, inner skin, and flesh. The layer immediately beneath the outer
+skin is slightly colored, and is designated the fibro-vascular layer.
+The outer and inner skins combined make up about 10 per cent of the
+weight of the potato.</p>
+
+
+<p>A large portion of the protein of the potato is albumin, which is
+soluble in water. When potatoes are peeled, cut in small pieces, and
+soaked in water for several hours before boiling, 80 per cent of the
+crude protein, or total nitrogenous material, is extracted, rendering
+the product less valuable as food. When potatoes are placed directly in
+boiling water, the losses of nitrogenous compounds are reduced to about
+7 per cent, and, when the skins are not removed, to 1 per cent.
+Digestion experiments show that 92 per cent of the starch and 72 per
+cent of the protein are digested.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[12]</sup></small></b></a> Compared with other foods,
+potatoes are often a cheap source of non-nitrogenous nutrients. If used
+in excessive amounts, however, they have a tendency to make the ration
+unbalanced and too bulky.<br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Mechanical Composition of the Potato</span></h4>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="45%" cellspacing="0" summary="Mechanical Composition of the Potato">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Unpeeled potatoes</td><td align='right'>100.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Outer, or true skin</td><td align='right'>2.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inner skin, or fibro-vascular layer<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td><td align='right'>8.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flesh</td><td align='right'>89.0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Chemical Composition of the Potato</span></h4>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="85%" cellspacing="0" summary="Chemical Composition of the Potato">
+<tr><td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td><th colspan="3" align='center'>Carbohydrates</th></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Crude<br />Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Nitrogen-<br />free-<br />extract</th><th align='right'>Fiber</th><th align='right'>Ash</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Outer, or true skin</td><td align='right'>80.1</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td colspan="2" align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;14.6</td><td align='right'>1.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inner skin, or fibro-vascular layer</td><td align='right'>83.2</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>12.6</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flesh</td><td align='right'>81.1</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>15.7</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>0.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Average of 86 American analyses<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></td><td align='right'>78.0</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td colspan="2" align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;18.8</td><td align='right'>0.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Average of 118 European analyses<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></td><td align='right'>75.0</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>21.0</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1.1</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Including a small amount of flesh.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> From an unpublished compilation of analyses of American
+food products.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> K&ouml;nig, "Chemie der Nahrungs-und Genussmittel," 3d ed., II,
+p. 626.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<p><br /><b>36. Sweet Potatoes</b> contain more dry matter than white potatoes, the
+difference being due mainly to the presence of about 6 per cent of
+sugar. There is approximately the same starch content, but more fat,
+protein,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> and fiber. As a food, they supply a large amount of
+non-nitrogenous nutrients.</p>
+
+<p><b>37. Carrots</b> contain about half as much dry matter as potatoes, and
+half of the dry matter is sugar, nearly equally divided between sucrose
+and levulose, or fruit sugar. Like the potato, carrots have some organic
+acids and a relatively small amount of proteids. In carrots and milk
+there is practically the same per cent of water. The nutrients in each,
+however, differ both as to kind and proportion. Experiments with the
+cooking of carrots show that if a large amount of water is used, 30 per
+cent or more of the nutrients, particularly of the more soluble sugar
+and albumin, are extracted and lost in the drain waters.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[12]</sup></small></b></a> The color
+of the carrot is due to the non-nitrogenous compound carrotin,
+C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>38</sub>. Carrots are valuable in a ration not because of the
+nutrients they supply, but for the palatability and the mechanical
+action which the vegetable fiber exerts upon the process of digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>38. Parsnips</b> contain more solid matter than beets or carrots, of which
+3 to 4 per cent is starch. The starch grains are very small, being only
+about one twentieth the size of the potato starch grains. There is 3 per
+cent of sugar and an appreciable amount of fat, more than in any other
+of the vegetables of this class, and seven times as much as in the
+potato. The mineral matter is of somewhat different nature from that in
+potatoes; in parsnips one half is potash and one quarter phosphoric<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+acid, while in potatoes three quarters are potash and one fifth
+phosphoric acid.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img057a.jpg" width="250" height="230"
+             alt="Fig. 10." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition of
+Cabbage.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>39. Cabbage</b> contains very little dry matter, usually less than 10 per
+cent. It is proportionally richer in nitrogenous compounds than many
+vegetables, as about two of the ten parts of dry matter are crude
+protein, which makes the nutritive ratio one to five. During cooking 30
+to 40 per cent of the nutrients are extracted. Cabbage imparts to the
+ration bulk but comparatively little nutritive material. It is a
+valuable food adjunct, particularly used raw, as in a salad, when it is
+easily digested and retains all of the nutrients.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[12]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>40. Cauliflower</b> has much the same general composition as cabbage, from
+which it differs mainly in mechanical structure.</p>
+
+<p><b>41. Beets.</b>&mdash;The garden beet contains a little more protein than
+carrots, but otherwise has about the same general composition, and the
+statements made in regard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> to the losses of nutrients in the cooking of
+carrots and to their use in the dietary apply also to beets.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. Cucumbers</b> contain about 4 per cent of dry matter. The amount of
+nutrients is so small as to scarcely allow them to be considered a food.
+They are, however, a valuable food adjunct, as they impart palatability.</p>
+
+<p><b>43. Lettuce</b> contains about 7 per cent of solids, of which 1.5 is
+protein and 2.5 starch and sugar. While low in nutrients, it is high in
+dietetic value, because of the chlorophyll which it contains. It has
+been suggested that it is valuable, too, for supplying iron in an
+organic form, as there is iron chemically combined with the chlorophyll.</p>
+
+<p><b>44. Onions</b> are aromatic bulbs, valuable for condimental rather than
+nutritive purposes. They contain essential and volatile oils, which
+impart characteristic odor and flavor. In the onion there are about 1.5
+per cent of protein and 9.5 per cent of non-nitrogenous material. Onions
+are often useful in stimulating the digestive tract to action.</p>
+
+<p><b>45. Spinach</b> is a valuable food, not to be classed merely as a relish.
+Its composition is interesting; for, although there is 90 per cent
+water, and less than 10 per cent dry matter, it still possesses high
+food value. Spinach contains 2.1 per cent crude protein, or about one
+part to every four parts of carbohydrates. In potatoes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> turnips, and
+beets there are ten or more parts of carbohydrates to every one part of
+protein.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. Asparagus</b> is composed largely of water, about 93 per cent. The dry
+matter, however, is richer in protein than that of many vegetables.
+Asparagus contains, too, an amid compound, asparagin, which gives some
+of the characteristics to the vegetable.</p>
+
+<p><b>47. Melons.</b>&mdash;Melons contain from 8 to 10 per cent of dry matter, the
+larger portion of which is sugar and allied carbohydrates. The flavor is
+due to small amounts of essential oils and to organic acids associated
+with the sugars. Melons possess condimental rather than nutritive value.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img059.jpg" width="250" height="142"
+             alt="Fig. 11." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition Of
+Tomato.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+<p><b>48. Tomatoes.</b>&mdash;The tomato belongs to the night-shade family, and for
+this reason was long looked upon with suspicion. It was first used for
+ornamental purposes and was called "love-apple." Gradually, as the idea
+of its poisonous nature became dispelled, it grew more and more popular
+as a food, until now in the United States it is one of the most common
+garden vegetables. It contains 7 per cent of dry matter, 4 per cent of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+which is sucrose, dextrose, and levulose. It also contains some malic
+acid, and a small amount of proteids, amids, cellulose, and coloring
+material. In the canning of tomatoes, if too much of the juice is
+excluded, a large part of the nutritive material is lost, as the sugars
+and albumins are all soluble and readily removed.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[16]</sup></small></b></a> If the seeds are
+objectionable, they may be removed by straining and the juice added to
+the fleshy portion. The product then has a higher nutritive value than
+if the juice had been discarded with the seeds.</p>
+
+<p><b>49. Sweet Corn.</b>&mdash;Fresh, soft, green, sweet corn contains about 75 per
+cent of water. The dry matter is half starch and one quarter sugar. The
+protein content makes up nearly 5 per cent, a larger proportional amount
+than is found in the ripened corn, due to the fact that the proteids are
+deposited in the early stages of growth and the carbohydrates mainly in
+the last stages. Sweet corn is a vegetable of high nutritive value and
+palatability.</p>
+
+<p><b>50. Eggplant</b> contains a high per cent of water,&mdash;90 per cent. The
+principal nutrients are starch and sugar, which make up about half the
+weight of the dry matter. It does not itself supply a large amount of
+nutrients, but the way in which it is prepared, by combination with
+butter, bread crumbs, and eggs, makes it a nutritious and palatable
+dish, the food value being derived mainly from the materials with which
+it is combined, the eggplant giving the flavor and palatability.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>51. Squash and Pumpkin.</b>&mdash;Squash has much the same general composition
+and food value as beets and carrots, although it belongs to a different
+family. Pumpkins contain less dry matter than squash. The dry matter of
+both is composed largely of starch and sugar and, like many other of the
+vegetables, they are often combined with food materials containing a
+large amount of nutrients, as in pumpkin and squash pies, where the food
+value is derived mainly from the milk, sugar, eggs, flour, and butter or
+other shortening used.</p>
+
+<p><b>52. Celery.</b>&mdash;The dry matter of celery is comparatively rich in
+nitrogenous material, although the amount is small, and the larger
+proportion is in non-proteid form. When grown on rich soil, celery may
+contain an appreciable quantity of nitrates and nitrites, which have not
+been converted into amids and proteids. The supposed medicinal value is
+probably due to the nitrites which are generally present. Celery is
+valuable from a dietetic rather than a nutritive point of view.</p>
+
+<p><b>53. Sanitary Condition of Vegetables.</b>&mdash;The conditions under which
+vegetables are grown have much to do with their value, particularly from
+a sanitary point of view. Uncooked vegetables often cause the spread of
+diseases, particularly those, as cholera and typhoid, affecting the
+digestive tract. Particles of dirt containing the disease-producing
+organisms adhere to the uncooked vegetable and find their way into the
+digestive tract, where the bacteria undergo incubation. When sewage has
+been used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> for fertilizing the land, as in sewage irrigation, the
+vegetables are unsound from a sanitary point of view. Such vegetables
+should be thoroughly cleaned and also well cooked, in order to render
+them sterile. Vegetables to be eaten in the raw state should be dipped
+momentarily into boiling water, to destroy the activity of the germs
+present upon the surface. They may then be immediately immersed in
+ice-cold water, to preserve the crispness.</p>
+
+<p><b>54. Miscellaneous Compounds in Vegetables.</b>&mdash;In addition to the general
+nutrients which have been discussed, many of the vegetables contain some
+tannin, glucosides, and essential oils; and occasionally those grown
+upon rich soils have appreciable amounts of nitrogen compounds, as
+nitrates and nitrites, which have not been built up into proteids.
+Vegetables have a unique value in the dietary, and while as a class they
+contain small amounts of nutrients, they are indispensable for promoting
+health and securing normal digestion of the food.</p>
+
+<p><b>55. Canned Vegetables.</b>&mdash;When sound vegetables are thoroughly cooked to
+destroy ferments, and then sealed in cans while hot, they can be kept
+for a long time without any material impairment of nutritive value.
+During the cooking process there is lost a part of the essential oils,
+which gives a slightly different flavor to the canned or tinned
+goods.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[17]</sup></small></b></a> In some canned vegetables preservatives are used, but the
+enactment and enforcement of national and state laws have greatly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+reduced their use. When the cans are made of a poor quality of tin, or
+the vegetables are of high acidity, some of the metal is dissolved in
+sufficient quantity to be objectionable from a sanitary point of
+view.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>56. Edible Portion and Refuse of Vegetables.</b>&mdash;Many vegetables have
+appreciable amounts of refuse,<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[19]</sup></small></b></a> or non-edible parts, as skin, pods,
+seeds, and pulp, and in determining the nutritive value, these must be
+considered, as in some cases less than 50 per cent of the weight of the
+material is edible portion, which proportionally increases the cost of
+the nutrients. Ordinarily, the edible part is richer in protein than the
+entire material as purchased. In some cases, however, the refuse is
+richer in protein, but the protein is in a less available form. See
+comparison of potatoes and potato skins.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>FRUITS, FLAVORS, AND EXTRACTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>57. General Composition.</b>&mdash;Fruits are characterized by containing a
+large amount of water and only a small amount of dry matter, which is
+composed mainly of sugar and non-nitrogenous compounds. Fruits contain
+but little fatty material and protein. A large portion of the total
+nitrogen is in the form of amid compounds. Organic acids, as citric,
+tartaric, and malic, are found in all fruits, and the essential oils
+form a characteristic feature. The taste of fruits is due mainly to the
+blending of the various organic acids, essential oils, and sugars.
+Although fruits contain a high per cent of water, they are nevertheless
+valuable as food.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[20]</sup></small></b></a> The constituents present to the greatest extent
+are sugars and acids. The sugar is not all like the common granulated
+sugar, but in ripe fruits a part is in the form known as levulose or
+fruit sugar, which is two and a half times sweeter than granulated
+sugar. Sugars are valuable for heat-and fat-producing purposes, but not
+for muscle repairing. Proteids are the muscle-forming nutrients. The
+organic acids, as malic acid in apples, citric acid in lemons and
+oranges, and tartaric acid in grapes, have characteristic medicinal
+properties. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> sugar, proteid, and acid content of some of our more
+common fruits is given in the following table:<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[21]</sup></small></b></a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Composition of Fruits</span></h4>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Fruits">
+<tr valign="top"><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Proteids</th><th align='right'>Sugar</th><td align='right'><b>Acid<br />in Juice</b></td><td>&nbsp;</td><th align='left'>Kind<br />Of Acid</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Apples (Baldwin)</td><td align='right'>85.0</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>10.75</td><td align='right'>0.92</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Malic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Apples, sweet</td><td align='right'>86.0</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>11.75</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Malic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Blackberries</td><td align='right'>88.9</td><td align='right'>0.90</td><td align='right'>11.50</td><td align='right'>0.75</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Malic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Currants</td><td align='right'>86.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1.96</td><td align='right'>5.80</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Tartaric</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Grapes</td><td align='right'>83.0</td><td align='right'>1.50</td><td align='right'>10 to 16</td><td align='right'>1.2 to 5</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Tartaric</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Strawberries</td><td align='right'>90.8</td><td align='right'>0.95</td><td align='right'>5.36</td><td align='right'>1.40</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Malic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oranges</td><td align='right'>85.0</td><td align='right'>1.10</td><td align='right'>10.00</td><td align='right'>1.30</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Citric</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lemons</td><td align='right'>84.0</td><td align='right'>0.95</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>7.20</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Citric</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><br />In addition to sugars, acids, and proteids, there are a great many other
+compounds in fruits. Those which give the characteristic taste are
+called essential or volatile oils.</p>
+
+<p><b>58. Food Value.</b>&mdash;When the nutrients alone are considered, fruits
+appear to have a low food value, but they should not be judged entirely
+on this basis, because they impart palatability and flavor to other
+foods and exercise a favorable influence upon the digestive process. In
+the human ration fruits are a necessary adjunct.</p>
+
+<p><b>59. Apples</b>.&mdash;Apples vary in composition with the variety and physical
+characteristics of the fruit. In general they contain from 10 to 16 per
+cent of dry matter, of which 75 per cent, or more, is sugar or allied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+carbohydrates. Among the organic acids malic predominates, and the
+acidity ranges from 0.1 to 0.8 per cent. Apples contain but little
+protein, less than 1 per cent. There is some pectin, or jelly-like
+substance closely related to the carbohydrates. The flavor of the apple
+varies with the content of sugar, organic acids, and essential oils.
+During storage some apples appear to undergo further ripening, resulting
+in partial inversion of the sucrose, and there is a slight loss of
+weight, due to the formation of carbon dioxide. The apple is an
+important and valuable adjunct to the dietary.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[22]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 148/149">
+<tr>
+<td align='center'><img src="images/img006.jpg" width="273" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 12." /><br />
+         </td>
+
+<td align='center'><img src="images/img007.jpg" width="294" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 13." /><br />
+         </td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic Composition of
+Apple.</span></h4></td><td align='center'><h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic Composition of
+Orange.</span></h4></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><b>60. Oranges</b> contain nearly the same proportion of dry matter as
+apples, the larger part of which is sugar. Citric acid predomi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>nates and
+ranges in different varieties from 1 to 2.5 per cent. The amounts of
+protein, fat, and cellulose are small. In some varieties of oranges
+there is more iron and sulphur than is usually found in fruits. All
+fruits, however, contain small amounts, but not as much as is found in
+green vegetables. The average composition of oranges is as follows:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="The average composition of oranges">
+<tr valign="top"><th colspan="2" align='right'>Physical Composition</th><td>&nbsp;</td><th colspan="2" align='right'>Chemical Composition<br />of Edible Portion</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rind</td><td align='right'>20 to 30</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Solids</td><td align='right'>10 to 16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pulp</td><td align='right'>25 to 35</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Sugars</td><td align='right'>8 to 12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Juice</td><td align='right'>35 to 50</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Citric acid</td><td align='right'>1 to 2.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>61. Lemons</b> differ from oranges in containing more citric acid and less
+sucrose, levulose, and dextrose. The ash of the lemon is somewhat
+similar in general composition to the ash of the orange, but is larger
+in amount. The average composition of the lemon is as follows:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="The average composition of lemons">
+<tr valign="top"><th colspan="2" align='right'>Physical Composition</th><td>&nbsp;</td><th colspan="2" align='right'>Chemical Composition<br />of Edible Portion</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rind</td><td align='right'>25 to 35</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Solids</td><td align='right'>10 to 12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pulp</td><td align='right'>25 to 35</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Sugars</td><td align='right'>2 to 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Juice</td><td align='right'>40 to 55</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Citric acid</td><td align='right'>6 to 9</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><br /><b>62. Grape Fruit.</b>&mdash;The rind and seed of this fruit make up about 25 per
+cent, leaving 75 per cent as edible portion. The juice contains 14 per
+cent solids, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> which nearly 10 per cent is sugar and 2.5 per cent is
+citric acid. There is more acid in grape fruit than in oranges and
+appreciably less than in lemons. The characteristic flavor is due to a
+glucoside-like material. Otherwise the composition and food value are
+about the same as of oranges.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img008.jpg" width="199" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 14." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition of
+Strawberry.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+
+<p><b>63. Strawberries</b> contain from 8 to 12 per cent of dry matter, mainly
+sugar and malic acid. The protein, fat, and ash usually make up less
+than 2 per cent. Essential oils and coloring substances are present in
+small amounts. It has been estimated that it would require 75 pounds of
+strawberries to supply the protein for a daily ration. Nevertheless they
+are valuable in the dietary. It has been suggested that the malic and
+other acids have antiseptic properties which, added to the appearance
+and palatability, make them a desirable food adjunct. Strawberries have
+high dietetic rather than high food value.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>64. Grapes</b> contain more dry matter than apples or oranges. There is no
+appreciable amount of protein or fat, and while they add some nutrients,
+as sugar, to the ration, they do not contribute any quantity. Their
+value, as in the case of other fruits, is due to palatability and
+indirect effect upon the digestibility of other foods. In the juice of
+grapes there is from 10 to 15 per cent or more of sugar, as sucrose,
+levulose, and dextrose. Grapes contain also from 1 to 1.5 per cent of
+tartaric acid, which, during the process of manufacture into wine, is
+rendered insoluble by the alcohol formed, and the product, known as
+argole, is used in the preparation of cream of tartar. Differences in
+flavor and taste of grapes are due to variations in the sugar, acid, and
+essential oil content.</p>
+
+<p><b>65. Peaches</b> contain about 12 per cent of dry matter, of which over 10
+per cent is sugar and other carbohydrates. There is less than 1.5 per
+cent of protein, fat, and mineral matter and about 0.5 per cent of acid.
+The peach contains also a very small amount of hydrocyanic acid, which
+is more liberally present in the kernel than in the fruit. Flavor is
+imparted mainly by the sugar and essential oils. Peaches vary in
+composition with variety and environment.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[23]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>66. Plums</b> contain the most dry matter of any of the fruits, about 22
+per cent, mainly sugar. About one per cent is acid and about 0.5 per
+cent are protein and ash. There are a great many varieties of plums,
+vary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>ing in composition. Dried plums (prunes) have mildly laxative
+properties.</p>
+
+<p><b>67. Olives.</b>&mdash;The ripe olive contains about 15 per cent of oil,
+exclusive of the pit, which makes up 20 per cent of the weight. In
+green, preserved olives there is considerably less oil. Because of the
+oil the olive has food value. Olive oil is slightly laxative and assists
+mechanically in the digestion of foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>68. Figs.</b>&mdash;Dried figs contain about 50 per cent of sugar and 3.5 per
+cent of protein. The fig has a mildly laxative action.</p>
+
+<p><b>69. Dried Fruits.</b>&mdash;Many fruits are prepared for market by drying. The
+dried fruit has a slightly different composition from the fresh fruit
+because of loss of the volatile and essential oils, and minor chemical
+changes which take place during the drying process. When free from
+preservatives, dried fruits are valuable adjuncts to the dietary and can
+be advantageously used when fresh fruits are not obtainable.</p>
+
+<p><b>70. Canning and Preservation of Fruits.</b>&mdash;To obtain the best results in
+canning, the fruit should not be overripe. After the ripened state has
+been reached fermentation and bacterial changes occur, and it is more
+difficult to preserve the fruit than when not so fully matured.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[24]</sup></small></b></a> When
+a fruit has begun to ferment, it is hard to destroy the ferment bodies
+and their spores so as to prevent further ferment action. The chemical
+changes that oc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>cur in the last stages of ripening are similar to those
+which take place during the cooking process whereby the pectin or
+jelly-like substances are rendered more soluble and digestible.</p>
+
+<p><b>71. Adulterated Canned Fruits.</b>&mdash;Analyses of a number of canned fruits,
+made by various Boards of Health, show the presence of small amounts of
+arsenic, tin, lead, and other poisonous metals. The quantity dissolved
+depends upon the kind, age, and condition of the canned goods and the
+state of the fruit when canned. The longer a can of fruit or vegetable
+has been kept in stock, the larger is the amount of tin or metal that
+has been dissolved. When fresh canned, there is usually very little
+dissolved tin, but in old goods the amount may be comparatively large.
+The tin used for the can is occasionally of poor quality and may contain
+some arsenic, which also is dissolved. The occasional use of canned
+goods preserved in tin is not objectionable, but they should not be used
+continually if it can be avoided. Preservatives, as borax, salicylic
+acid, benzoic acid, and sodium sulphate, are sometimes added to prevent
+fermentation and to preserve the natural appearance of the fruit or
+vegetable.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>72. Fruit Flavors and Extracts.</b>&mdash;Formerly all fruit extracts and
+flavors were obtained from vegetable sources; at present many are made
+in the chemical laboratory by synthetic methods; that is, by combining
+simpler organic compounds and radicals to produce the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> material having
+the desired flavor and odor. The various fruit flavors are definite
+chemical compounds, and can be produced in the laboratory as well as in
+the cells of plants. When properly made, there is no difference in
+chemical composition between the two. As prepared in the laboratory,
+however, traces of acids, alkalies, and other compounds, used in
+bringing about the necessary chemical combination, are often present,
+not having been perfectly removed. Hence it is that natural and
+artificial flavors differ mainly in the impurities which the artificial
+flavors may contain.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the flavoring materials have characteristic medicinal
+properties, as the flavor of bitter almond, which contains hydrocyanic
+acid, a poisonous substance. Flavors and extracts should not be
+indiscriminately used. In small amounts they often exert a favorable
+influence upon the digestion of foods, and the value of some fruits is
+in a large measure due to the special flavors they contain. A study of
+the separate compounds which impart flavor to fruits, as the various
+aldehydes, ethers, and organic salts, belongs to organic chemistry
+rather than to foods. Some of the simpler compounds of which flavors are
+composed may exist in entirely different form or combination in food
+products; as for example, pineapple flavoring is ethyl butrate. This can
+be prepared by combination of butyric acid from stale butter with
+alcohol which supplies the ethyl radical. The chemical union of the two
+produces the new compound, ethyl butrate, the distinctive flavoring
+substance of the pineapple.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> Banana flavor can be made from stale
+butter, caustic soda, and chloroform. None of these materials, as such,
+go into the flavor, but an essential radical is taken from each. These
+manufactured products, when properly made, are in every essential
+similar to the flavor made by the plant and stored up in the fruit. The
+plant combines the material in the laboratory of the plant cell, and the
+manufacturer of essences puts together these same constituents in a
+chemical laboratory. In the fruit, however, the essential oil is
+associated with a number of other compounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>SUGARS, MOLASSES, SYRUP, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>73. Composition of Sugars.</b>&mdash;The term "sugar" is applied to a large
+class of compounds composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
+oxygen. Sugars used for household purposes are derived mainly from the
+sugar cane and the sugar beet.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[25]</sup></small></b></a> At the present time about two fifths
+are obtained from the cane and about three fifths from the beet. When
+subjected to the same degree of refining, there is no difference in the
+chemical composition of the sugars from the two sources; they are alike
+in every respect and the chemist is unable to determine their origin.
+The production of sugar is an agricultural industry; the methods of
+manufacture pertain more to industrial chemistry than to the chemistry
+of foods, and therefore a discussion of them is omitted in this
+work.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[26]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img009.jpg" width="300" height="217"
+             alt="Fig. 15." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sugar Crystals.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>74. Commercial Grades of Sugar.</b>&mdash;Sugars are graded according to the
+size of the granule, the color and general appearance of the crystals,
+and the per cent of sucrose or pure sugar. Common granulated sugar is
+from 98.5 to 99.7 per cent pure sucrose. The impuri<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>ties consist mainly
+of moisture and mineral matter. In the process of refining, sulphur
+fumes are frequently used for bleaching and clarifying the solution.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[26]</sup></small></b></a>
+The sulphurous acid formed is neutralized with lime, which is rendered
+insoluble and practically all removed in subsequent filtrations. There
+are, however, traces of sulphates and sulphites in ordinary sugar, but
+these are in such small amounts as not to be injurious to health. When
+sugar is burned, as in the bomb calorimeter, so as to permit collection
+of all of the products of combustion, granulated sugar yields about 0.01
+of a per cent of sulphur dioxid.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a> Occasionally coloring substances,
+as a small amount of indigo, are added to yellow tinged sugars to impart
+a white color, much on the same principle as the bluing of clothes. The
+amount used is usually extremely small, and the effect on health has
+never been determined. Occasionally, however, bluing is used to such an
+extent that a blue scum appears when the sugar is boiled with water.
+Sugar has high value for the production of heat and energy. Digestion
+experiments show that when it is used in the dietary in not excessive
+amounts, it is directly absorbed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> the body and practically all
+available. It can advantageously be combined with other foods to form a
+part of the ration.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[27]</sup></small></b></a> When a ration contains the requisite amount of
+protein, sugar is used to the best advantage. Alone it is incapable of
+sustaining life, because it does not contain any nitrogen. When sugar
+was substituted for an excess of protein in a ration, it was found to
+produce heat and energy at much less expense. Many foods, as apples,
+grapes, and small fruits, contain appreciable amounts of sugar and owe
+their food value almost entirely to their sugar content. In the dietary,
+sugar is too frequently regarded as a condiment instead of a nutrient,
+to be used for imparting palatability rather than for purposes of
+nutrition. While valuable for improving the taste of foods, the main
+worth of sugar is as a nutritive substance; used in the preparation of
+foods it adds to the total heat and energy of the ration. Sugar is
+sometimes used in excessive amounts and, as is the case with any food or
+nutrient, when that occurs, nutrition disturbances result, due to misuse
+of the food. Statistics show that the average consumption of sugar in
+the United States is nearly 70 pounds a year per capita. In the dietary
+of the adult, sugar to the extent of four ounces per day can be consumed
+advantageously. The exclusion of sugar from the diet of children is a
+great mistake, as they need it for heat and energy and to conserve the
+protein for growth.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Sugar is one of the most important forms in which carbohydrates
+can be added to the diet of children. The great reduction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> in the
+price of sugar which has taken place in recent years is probably
+one of the causes of the improved physique of the rising
+generation. The fear that sugar may injure children's teeth is,
+largely illusory. The negroes who live largely on sugar cane have
+the finest teeth the world can show. If injudiciously taken, sugar
+may, however, injure the child's appetite and digestion. The
+craving for sweets which children show is no doubt the natural
+expression of a physiological need, but they should be taken with,
+and not between, meals."<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[28]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img077.jpg" width="550" height="145"
+             alt="Fig. 16." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nutrients of a Ration With
+Sugar.</span><br />The hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested.</h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+<p><b>75. Sugar in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;Sugar has an important place in the
+dietary. It not only serves for the production of heat and energy in the
+body, but is also valuable in enabling the proteids to be used more
+economically. In reasonable amounts, it is particularly valuable in the
+dietary of growing children, as the proteids of the food are then
+utilized to better advantage for growth. The unique value of sugar
+depends upon its intelligent use and its proper combination with other
+foods, particularly with those rich in the nitrogenous compounds or
+proteids. Sugar alone is incapable of sustaining life, but combined with
+other foods is a valuable nutrient. The amount which can be
+advantageously used depends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> largely upon the individual. Ordinarily
+three to five ounces per day is sufficient, although some persons cannot
+safely consume as much as this. In the case of diabetes mellitus, the
+amount of sugar in the ration must be materially reduced. Persons in
+normal health and engaged in outdoor work can use sugar to
+advantage.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[29]</sup></small></b></a> Many of the "harvest drinks," made largely from molasses
+with a little ginger, and used extensively in some localities, are not
+without merit, as they contain an appreciable amount of nutrients. Milk
+contains more sugar as lactose or milk sugar than any other nutrient.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img078.jpg" width="550" height="191"
+             alt="Fig. 17." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap"> Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nutrients of a Ration Without
+Sugar.</span><br />The hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested.</h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+<p>The craving for sugar by growing children and athletes is natural.
+Sugar, however, is often injudiciously used, and a perverted taste may
+be established which can be satisfied only by excessive amounts. This
+results in impaired digestion and malnutrition.</p>
+
+<p><b>76. Maple Sugar.</b>&mdash;Sugar obtained by evaporation from the sap of the
+maple tree (<i>Acer saccharinum</i>) is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> identical, except for the foreign
+substances which it contains, with that from the beet and sugar cane.
+The mottled appearance and characteristic color and taste of maple sugar
+are due to the various organic acids and other compounds present in the
+maple sap and recovered in the sugar. Maple sugar, as ordinarily
+prepared, has 0.4 of a per cent or more of ash or mineral matter, while
+refined cane sugar contains less than one tenth as much.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[30]</sup></small></b></a> Hence, when
+maple sugar is adulterated with cane and beet sugars, the ash content is
+noticeably lowered, as is also the content of organic acids. It is
+difficult, however, to determine with absolute certainty pure high grade
+maple sugar from the impure low grade to which a small amount of
+granulated sugar has been added.</p>
+
+<p><b>77. Adulteration of Sugar.</b>&mdash;Sugar at the present time is not
+materially adulterated. Other than the substances mentioned which are
+used for clarification and color, none are added during refining which
+remain in the sugar in appreciable amounts. Sugar does not readily lend
+itself to adulteration, as it has a definite crystalline structure, and
+materials that would be suitable for its adulteration are of entirely
+different physical character.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[31]</sup></small></b></a> Cane sugar is not easily blended with
+glucose, or starch sugar, because of the physical differences between
+the two. The question of the kind of sugar to use in the household, as
+granulated, loaf, or pulverized, is largely one of personal choice, as
+there is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> no appreciable difference in the nutritive value or purity of
+the different kinds.</p>
+
+<p><b>78. Dextrose Sugars.</b>&mdash;Products known as glucose and dextrose sugars
+are made from corn and other starches; they can also be prepared from
+cane sugar by the use of heat, chemicals, or ferments for carrying on
+the process known as inversion. The dextrose sugars differ from cane
+sugar in containing a dissimilar number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
+atoms in the molecule. The formula of the dextrose sugars is
+C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>, while that of cane sugar is C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>. By the
+addition of one molecule of water, H<sub>2</sub>O, to a molecule of sucrose, two
+molecules of invert sugar (dextrose and glucose) are produced:<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a>
+C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> = C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. In
+bringing about this change, acids are employed, but the acid in no way
+enters into the chemical composition of the final product; it is removed
+as described during the process of sugar manufacture. The action of the
+acid brings about a catalytic change, the acid being necessary only as a
+presence reagent to start the chemical reaction. When properly prepared
+and the acid product thoroughly removed, dextrose and glucose have
+practically the same food value as sugar. When they are digested, heat
+and energy are produced, and a given weight has about the same fuel
+value as an equal weight of sugar. Some of the glucose-yielding products
+can be made at less expense than sugar, and when they are sold under
+their right names there is no reason why<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> they should not be used in the
+dietary, as they serve the same nutritive purpose.</p>
+
+<p><b>79. Molasses</b> is a by-product obtained in the refining of sugar. It is
+a mixture of cane sugar and invert sugars, as levulose and dextrose.
+When in sugar making the sucrose is removed by crystallization, a point
+is finally reached where the solution, or mother liquid, as it is
+called, refuses to give up any further crystals;<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[31]</sup></small></b></a> then this product,
+consisting of various sugars and small amounts of organic acids and ash,
+is partially refined and clarified to form molasses. The term "New
+Orleans" molasses was formerly applied to the product obtained by the
+use of open kettles for the manufacture of sugar, but during recent
+years the vacuum pan process has been introduced, and "New Orleans"
+molasses is now an entirely different article. The terms first, second,
+and third molasses are applied to the liquids obtained after the removal
+of the first, second, and third crops of sugar crystals; first molasses
+being richer in sucrose, while third molasses is richer in dextrose and
+invert sugars. The ash in molasses ranges from 4 to 6.5 per cent. Some
+of the low grades of molasses are used in the preparation of animal
+foods.</p>
+
+<p>The taste and physical characteristics of molasses are due largely to
+the organic acids and impurities that are present, as well as to the
+proportion in which the various sugars occur. When used with soda in
+cooking and baking operations, the organic acid of the molasses
+lib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>erates carbon dioxide gas, which acts as a leavening agent. Because
+of the organic acids, molasses should not be stored in tin or metalware
+dishes, as the solvent action results in producing poisonous tin and
+other metallic salts.</p>
+
+<p>The food value of molasses is dependent entirely upon the amount of dry
+matter and the per cent of sugar. A large amount of water is considered
+an adulterant; ordinarily molasses contains from 20 to 33 per cent. If a
+sample of molasses contains 75 per cent of dry matter, it has slightly
+less than three fourths of the nutritive value of the same weight of
+sugar.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img010.jpg" width="189" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 18." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition of
+Syrup.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+<p><b>80. Syrups.</b>&mdash;The term "syrup" is applied to natural products obtained
+by evaporation and purification of the saccharine juices of plants.
+Sorghum syrup is from the sorghum plant, which is pressed by machinery
+and the juice clarified and evaporated so as to contain about 25 per
+cent of water. In sorghum syrups there are from 30 to 45 per cent of
+cane sugar, and from 12 to 20 per cent of glucose and invert sugars.
+Cane syrup is made from the clarified juice of the sugar cane, and has
+about the same general composition as sorghum syrup. Maple syrup,
+prepared from the juice of the sugar maple, is characteristically rich
+in sucrose and contains but little glucose or reducing sugars. The
+flavor of all the syrups is due mainly to organic acids, ethereal
+products, and impurities. In some instances the essential flavor can be
+produced synthetically, or derived from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> other and cheaper materials;
+and by the use of these flavors, mixed syrups can be prepared closely
+resembling many of the natural products. When properly made, they are
+equal in nutritive value to natural syrups. When sold under assumed
+names, they are to be considered and classified as adulterated, and not
+as syrups from definite and specific products. Low-grade syrups and
+molasses are often used for making fuel alcohol. They readily undergo
+alcoholic fermentation and are valuable for this purpose, rendering it
+possible for a good grade of fuel alcohol to be produced at low cost.
+The manufacture of sugar, syrups, and molasses has been brought to a
+high degree of perfection through the assistance rendered by industrial
+chemistry. Losses in the process are reduced to a minimum, and the
+various steps are all controlled by chemical analysis. Sugar has the
+physical property of deflecting a ray of polarized light, the amount of
+deflection depending upon the quantity of sugar in solution. This is
+measured by the polariscope, an instrument by means of which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> the sugar
+content of sugar plants is rapidly determined.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>81. Honey</b> is composed largely of invert sugars gathered by the
+honeybee from the nectar of flowers. It varies in composition and flavor
+according to its source. The color depends upon the flower from which it
+came, white clover giving a light-colored, pleasant-flavored honey,
+while that from buckwheat and goldenrod is dark and has a slightly rank
+taste. The comb is composed largely of wax, which has somewhat the same
+general composition as fat, but contains ethereal instead of glycerol
+bodies. On account of the predominance of invert sugars, pure honey has
+a levulo or left-handed rotation when examined by the polariscope. Honey
+contains from 60 to 75 per cent of invert sugars, and from 12 to 20 per
+cent of water, while the ash content is small, less than one tenth of
+one per cent. Strained honey is easily adulterated with glucose
+products. Adulteration with cane sugar is readily detected, as pure
+honey contains only a very small amount of sucrose. Honey can be made by
+feeding bees on sugar; the sugar undergoes inversion, with the
+production of dextrose. Such honey, although not adulterated, is
+inferior in quality and lacking in natural flavor.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>82. Confections.</b>&mdash;By blending various saccharine products, confections
+are made. Usually sucrose (cane and beet sugar) is used as the basis for
+their prepa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>ration. Sucrose has definite physical properties, as
+crystalline structure, and forms chemical and mechanical combinations
+with acid, alkaline, and other substances; it also unites with water,
+and when heated undergoes changes in structural composition. The
+presence of small amounts of acid substances, or variations in the
+concentration of the sugar solution, materially affect the mechanical
+relation of the sugar particles to each other, and their
+crystallization. Usually crystallization takes place when there is less
+than 25 per cent of water present. The form, size, and arrangement of
+the crystals are influenced by agitation during cooling. To secure
+desired results, often small quantities of various other substances are
+employed for their mechanical action. Glucose is frequently used, and is
+said to be necessary for the production of some kinds of candy.</p>
+
+<p>Candies are colored with various dyes and pigments, many of which are
+harmless, although some are injurious. Coal tar dyes are frequently
+employed for this purpose. Objection has generally been urged against
+their use, as it is believed many of them are injurious to health. It
+cannot be said, however, that all are poisonous, as some are known to be
+harmless. The use of a few coal tar dyes is allowed by the United States
+government. Mineral colors are now rarely, if ever, used.</p>
+
+<p>Impure candies result from objectionable ingredients, as starch,
+paraffin, and large amounts of injurious color<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>ing substances. Coal tar
+coloring materials are identified in the way described in Experiment No.
+13. Confectionery, when properly prepared and unadulterated, has the
+same nutritive value as sugar and the other ingredients, and is entitled
+to a place in the dietary for the production of heat and energy. Much
+larger amounts of candies are sold and consumed during the winter than
+the summer months, suggesting that in cold weather candy is most needed
+in the dietary.</p>
+
+<p><b>83. Saccharine</b> is an artificial sweetening, five hundred times sweeter
+than cane sugar. It contains in its molecule, chemically united,
+benzine, sulphuric acid, and ammonia radicals. It is employed for
+sweetening purposes in cases of diabetes mellitus, where physicians
+advise against the use of sugar. It has no food value. A small amount is
+sometimes added to canned corn and tomatoes to impart a sweet taste. The
+physiological properties of saccharine have not been extensively
+investigated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>LEGUMES AND NUTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>84. General Composition of Legumes.</b>&mdash;Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts
+are the legumes most generally used for human food. As a class, they are
+characterized by high protein content and a comparatively low per cent
+of starch and carbohydrates. They contain the largest amount of
+nitrogenous compounds of any of the vegetable foods, and hence are
+particularly valuable in the human ration as a substitute for meats.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[32]</sup></small></b></a>
+For feeding animals the legumes are highly prized, particularly the
+forage crops, clover and alfalfa. These secure their nitrogen, which is
+the characteristic element of protein, from the free nitrogen of the
+air, through the workings of bacterial organisms found in the nodules on
+the roots of the plants. The legumes appear to be the only plants
+capable of making use of the nitrogen of the air for food purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>85. Beans</b> contain about 24 per cent of protein and but little fat,
+less than is found in any of the grain or cereal products. The protein
+of the bean differs from that of cereals in its general and structural
+composition. It is a globulin known as legumin, and is acted upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+mainly by ferments working in alkaline solutions, as in the lower part
+of the digestive tract. Beans have about the same amount of ash as the
+cereals, but the ash is richer in potash and lime.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img011.jpg" width="211" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 19." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition of Beans.</span><br />
+Hacked Part Indigestible.</h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>86. Digestibility of Beans.</b>&mdash;Beans are usually considered
+indigestible, but experiments show they are quite completely digested,
+although they require more work on the part of the digestive tract than
+many other foods. The digestibility was found to vary with individuals,
+86 per cent of the protein being digested in one case, and only 72 per
+cent in another. The protein of beans is not as completely digested as
+that of meats. When beans were combined with other foods, forming a part
+of a ration, they were more completely digested than when used in large
+amounts and with only a few other foods. The presence of the skin is in
+part responsible for low digestibility. When in the preparation of beans
+the skins, which contain a large amount of cellulose, are removed, the
+beans are more completely digested. By cooking from twenty minutes to
+half an hour in rapidly boiling water containing a small amount of soda,
+the skins are softened and loosened and are then easily re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>moved by
+rubbing in cold water. Some of the soda enters into combination with the
+legumin. Along with the skins a portion of the germ is lost. The germ
+readily ferments, which is probably the cause of beans producing
+flatulence with some individuals during digestion. After the skins are
+removed the nutrients are more susceptible to the action of the
+digestive fluids. Experiments show that 42 per cent of the protein of
+baked skinned beans is soluble in pepsin and pancreatin solutions, while
+under similar conditions there is only 3.85 per cent of the protein
+soluble from beans baked without removal of the skins.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>87. Use of Beans in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;There is no vegetable food capable
+of furnishing so much protein at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> such low cost as beans; from a pound
+costing five cents about one fifth of a pound of protein and three
+fifths of a pound of carbohydrates are obtained. Beans can, to a great
+extent, take the place of meats in the dietary. There is more protein in
+beans than in beef. Four ounces of uncooked beans or six ounces of baked
+beans are as much as can conveniently be combined in the dietary, and
+these will furnish a quarter of the protein of the ration. In the case
+of active out-of-door laborers over a pound of baked beans per day is
+often consumed with impunity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img012.jpg" width="550" height="319"
+             alt="Fig. 20." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Beans, Raw and Cooked. Skins, Wet
+and Dry.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>88. String Beans.</b>&mdash;String beans&mdash;green beans with pod&mdash;contain a large
+amount of water, 85 to 88 per cent. The dry matter is rich in protein,
+nearly 20 per cent, although in the green beans as eaten, containing 85
+per cent water, there is less than 2&frac12; per cent. Lima beans are richer
+in protein than string beans, as the green pod is not included. String
+beans are valuable both for the nutrients they contain and for the
+favorable influence they exert upon the digestibility of other foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>89. Peas.</b>&mdash;In general composition and digestibility, peas are quite
+similar to beans. They belong to the same family, Leguminos&aelig;, and the
+protein of each is similar in quantity and general properties. The
+statements made in regard to the composition, digestibility, and use of
+beans in the dietary apply with minor modifications to peas. When used
+in the preparation of soups, they add appreciable amounts of nutrients.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img013.jpg" width="407" height="500"
+             alt="Fig. 21." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pea Starch Granules.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>90. Canned Peas.</b>&mdash;In order to impart a rich green color, copper
+sulphate has been used in the canning of peas. Physiologists differ as
+to its effect upon health. While a little may not be particularly
+injurious, much interferes with normal digestion of the food and forms
+insoluble copper proteids. In some countries a small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> amount of copper
+sulphate is tolerated, while in others it is prohibited.</p>
+
+<p><b>91. Peanuts.</b>&mdash;Peanuts differ from peas and beans in containing more
+fat. They should be considered a food, for at ordinary prices they
+furnish a large amount of protein and fat. Like the other members of the
+legume family, the peanut is rather slow of digestion and requires
+considerable intestinal work for completion of the process.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NUTS</h4>
+
+<p><b>92. General Composition.</b>&mdash;Nuts should be regarded as food, for they
+contribute to a ration appreciable amounts of nutrients. The edible
+portion of nearly all is rich in fat; pecans, for example, contain as
+high as 70 per cent. In protein content nuts range from 3 per cent in
+cocoanuts to 30 per cent in peanuts. The carbohydrate content is usually
+comparatively low, less than 5 per cent in hickory nuts, although there
+is nearly 40 per cent in chestnuts. On account of high fat content, nuts
+supply a large amount of heat and energy.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[33]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>93. Chestnuts</b> are characterized by containing less fat and protein and
+much more carbohydrate material, especially starch, than is found in
+other nuts. In southern Europe chestnuts are widely used as food; the
+skins are removed, and the nuts are steamed, boiled, or roasted, and
+sometimes they are dried and ground into flour. Chestnuts are less
+concentrated in protein and fat, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> form a better balanced food used
+alone than do other nuts.</p>
+
+<p><b>94. The Hickory Nut</b>, which is a characteristically American nut,
+contains in the edible portion about 15 per cent protein, 65 per cent
+fat, and 12 per cent carbohydrates.</p>
+
+<p><b>95. The Almonds</b> used in the United States come chiefly from southern
+Europe, although they are successfully raised in California. They
+contain about 55 per cent fat and 22 per cent protein. The flavor of
+almonds is due to a small amount of hydrocyanic acid.</p>
+
+<p><b>96. Pistachio.</b>&mdash;Some nuts are used for imparting color and flavor to
+food products, as the pistachio nut, the kernel of which is greenish in
+color and imparts a flavor suggestive of almonds. The pistachio has high
+food value, as it is rich in both fat and protein. It is employed in the
+manufacture of confectionery and in ice cream for imparting flavor and
+color.</p>
+
+<p><b>97. Cocoanuts</b> grow luxuriantly in many tropical countries, and have a
+high food value. They are characteristically rich in fat, one half of
+the edible portion being composed of this nutrient. For tropical
+countries they supply the fat of a ration at less expense than any other
+food. When used in large amounts they should be supplemented with foods
+rich in carbohydrates, as rice, and in proteids, as beans. Cocoanut milk
+is proportionally richer in carbohydrates and poorer in fat and protein<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+than the meat of the cocoanut. In discussing the cocoanut, Woods
+states:<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[34]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The small, green, and immature nuts are grated fine for medicinal
+use, and when mixed with the oil of the ripe nut it becomes a
+healing ointment. The jelly which lines the shell of the more
+mature nut furnishes a delicate and nutritious food. The milk in
+its center, when iced, is a most delicious luxury. Grated cocoanut
+forms a part of the world-renowned East India condiment, curry.
+Dried, shredded (desiccated) cocoanut is an important article of
+commerce. From the oil a butter is made, of a clear, whitish color,
+so rich in fat, that of water and foreign substances combined there
+are but O.0068. It is better adapted for cooking than for table
+use. At present it is chiefly used in hospitals, but it is rapidly
+finding its way to the tables of the poor, particularly as a
+substitute for oleomargarine."</p></div>
+
+<p><b>98. Use of Nuts in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;When nuts can be secured at a low
+price per pound, ten cents or less, they compare favorably in nutritive
+value with other staple foods. Digestion experiments with rations
+composed largely of nuts show that they are quite thoroughly digested.
+Professor Jaffa of the California Experiment Station, in discussing the
+nutritive value of nuts and fruits, says:<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[35]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is certainly an error to consider nuts merely as an accessory
+to an already heavy meal, and to regard fruit merely as something
+of value for its pleasant flavor, or for its hygienic or medicinal
+virtues. The agreement of one food or another with any person is
+more or less a personal idiosyncrasy, but it seems fair to say that
+those with whom nuts and fruits agree, can, if they desire, readily
+secure a considerable part of their nutritive material from such
+sources."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Average Composition of Nuts</span></h4>
+
+<p class='center'>(From Fifteenth Annual Report, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Average Composition of Nuts">
+<tr valign="top"><td>&nbsp;</td><th>Refuse</th><th>Edible<br />Portion</th><th colspan="5" align="center">Edible Portion</th><th>Value<br />per lb.<a name="FNanchor_A_4" id="FNanchor_A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_4" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Water</td><td>Prot.</td><td>Fat</td><td>Carb.</td><td>Ash</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Almonds</td><td align='right'>64.8</td><td align='right'>35.2</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>7.3</td><td align='right'>19.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1065</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Almonds, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>21.0</td><td align='right'>54.9</td><td align='right'>17.3</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>3030</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Brazil nuts</td><td align='right'>49.6</td><td align='right'>50.4</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>8.6</td><td align='right'>33.6</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>1545</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Filberts</td><td align='right'>52.1</td><td align='right'>47.9</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>7.5</td><td align='right'>31.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1575</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Filberts, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>3.7</td><td align='right'>15.6</td><td align='right'>65.3</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>3290</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hickory nuts</td><td align='right'>62.2</td><td align='right'>37.8</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>5.8</td><td align='right'>25.5</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1265</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pecans</td><td align='right'>49.7</td><td align='right'>50.3</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>35.6</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1733</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pecans, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>10.3</td><td align='right'>70.8</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>3445</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Walnuts</td><td align='right'>58.0</td><td align='right'>42.0</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>27.0</td><td align='right'>6.1</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1385</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Walnuts, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>2.8</td><td align='right'>16.7</td><td align='right'>64.4</td><td align='right'>14.8</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>3305</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chestnuts</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>83.9</td><td align='right'>31.0</td><td align='right'>5.7</td><td align='right'>6.7</td><td align='right'>39.0</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1115</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Acorns</td><td align='right'>35.6</td><td align='right'>64.4</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>24.1</td><td align='right'>30.9</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>1690</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beechnuts</td><td align='right'>40.8</td><td align='right'>59.2</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>34.0</td><td align='right'>7.8</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1820</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Butternuts</td><td align='right'>86.4</td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>8.3</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>430</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Litchi nuts</td><td align='right'>41.6</td><td align='right'>58.4</td><td align='right'>10.5</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>45.2</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>875</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Piñon, <i>P. edulis</i></td><td align='right'>40.6</td><td align='right'>59.4</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>8.7</td><td align='right'>36.8</td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1905</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Piñon, <i>P. monophylla</i></td><td align='right'>41.7</td><td align='right'>58.3</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>35.4</td><td align='right'>15.3</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>1850</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Piñon, <i>P. sabiniana</i></td><td align='right'>77.0</td><td align='right'>23.0</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>6.5</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>675</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pistachio, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>4.2</td><td align='right'>22.6</td><td align='right'>54.5</td><td align='right'>15.6</td><td align='right'>3.1</td><td align='right'>3010</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Peanuts, raw</td><td align='right'>26.4</td><td align='right'>73.6</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>20.6</td><td align='right'>30.7</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>1935</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Peanuts, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>9.3</td><td align='right'>27.9</td><td align='right'>42.0</td><td align='right'>18.7</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>2640</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Roasted peanuts</td><td align='right'>32.6</td><td align='right'>67.4</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>20.6</td><td align='right'>33.1</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1985</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Shelled peanuts</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>30.5</td><td align='right'>49.2</td><td align='right'>16.2</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>2955</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Peanut butter</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>29.3</td><td align='right'>46.6</td><td align='right'>17.1</td><td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_B_5" id="FNanchor_B_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_5" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>5.0</td><td align='right'>2830</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cocoanuts</td><td align='right'>48.8</td><td align='right'>51.2</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1415</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cocoanuts, shredded</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>6.3</td><td align='right'>57.3</td><td align='right'>31.6</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>3125</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cocoanut milk</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>92.7</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>97</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_4" id="Footnote_A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_4"><span class="label">[A]</span></a>Calculated from analyses.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_5" id="Footnote_B_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_5"><span class="label">[B]</span></a>Including salt, 4.1.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>99. Importance in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;There is no article of food which
+enters so extensively into the dietary as milk, and it is one of the few
+foods which supply all the nutrients,&mdash;fats, carbohydrates, and
+proteids.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[36]</sup></small></b></a> Milk alone is capable of sustaining life for comparatively
+long periods, and it is the chief article of food during many diseases.
+An exclusive milk diet for a healthy adult, however, would be
+unsatisfactory; in the case of young children, milk is essential,
+because the digestive tract has not become functionally developed for
+the digestion of other foods.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to consider not only the composition and nutritive value
+of milk, but also its purity or sanitary condition.</p>
+
+<p><b>100. General Composition.</b>&mdash;Average milk contains about 87 per cent
+water and 13 per cent dry matter. The dry matter is composed
+approximately of:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2"  width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="The dry matter is composed
+approximately of">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>3.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Casein</td><td align='right'>3.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Albumin</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk sugar</td><td align='right'>5.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p>Fat is the most variable constituent of milk. Occasionally it is found
+as low as 2 per cent and as high as 6 per cent or more. The poorest and
+richest milks differ mainly in fat content, as the sugar, ash, casein,
+and albumin, or "solids of the milk serum," are fairly constant in
+amount and composition. Variations in the content of fat are due to
+differences in feed and in the breed and individuality of the animal.</p>
+
+<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img014.jpg" width="433" height="450"
+             alt="Fig. 22." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Milk Fat Globules.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+<p><b>101. Digestibility.</b>&mdash;Milk is one of the most completely digested of
+foods, about 95 per cent of the pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>tein and fat and 97 per cent of the
+carbohydrates being absorbed and utilized by the body.</p>
+
+<p>In a mixed ration, the nutrients of milk are practically all absorbed.
+Milk also exerts a favorable influence upon the digestibility of other
+foods with which it is combined. This is doubtless due to the digestive
+action of the special ferments or enzymes which milk contains. In milk
+there is a soluble ferment material or enzyme which has the power of
+peptonizing proteids. It is this ferment which carries on the ripening
+process when cheese is cured in cold storage, and it is believed to be
+this body which promotes digestion of other foods with which milk is
+combined.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[27]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>Milk is not easily digested by some persons. The tendency to costiveness
+caused by a milk diet can be largely overcome by the use of salt with
+the milk, or of some solid food, as toast or crackers, to prevent
+coagulation and the formation of masses resistant to the digestive
+fluids. Barley water and lime water in small amounts are also useful for
+assisting mechanically in the digestion of milk. Milk at ordinary prices
+is one of the cheapest foods that can be used.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img015.jpg" width="250" height="249"
+             alt="Fig. 23." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dirt in a Sample<br />of Unsanitary
+Milk.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>102. Sanitary Condition of Milk.</b>&mdash;Equally as important as composition
+is the sanitary condition or wholesomeness of milk. Milk is a food
+material which readily undergoes fermentation and is a medium for the
+distribution of germ diseases. The conditions under which it is produced
+and the way in which it is han<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>dled determine largely its sanitary
+value, and are of so much importance in relation to public health that
+during recent years city and state boards of health have introduced
+sanitary inspection and examination of milk along with the chemical
+tests for detecting its adulteration. Some of the more frequent causes
+of contaminated and unsound milk are: unhealthy animals, poor food and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+water, unsanitary surroundings of the animals, and lack of cleanliness
+and care in the handling and transporting of the milk. Outbreaks of
+typhoid and scarlet fevers and other germ diseases have frequently been
+traced to a contaminated milk supply.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[37]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>103. Certified Milk.</b>&mdash;When milk is produced under the most sanitary
+conditions, the number of bacterial bodies per cubic centimeter is
+materially reduced. In order to supply high grade milk containing but
+few bacteria, special precautions are taken in the care of the animals,
+and in the feeding and milking, and all sources of contamination of the
+milk are eliminated as far as possible. Such milk, when sold in
+sterilized bottles, is commonly called "certified milk," indicating that
+its purity is guaranteed by the producer and that the number of bacteria
+per unit does not exceed a certain standard, as 8000 per cubic
+centimeter. Ordinary market milk contains upwards of 50,000.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img101.jpg" width="273" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 24." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pasteurizing Milk.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>104. Pasteurized Milk.</b>&mdash;In order to destroy the activity of the
+bacterial organisms, milk is subjected to a temperature of 157&deg; F. for
+ten minutes or longer, which process is known as pasteurization. When
+milk is heated to a temperature above 180&deg;, it is sterilized. Below
+157&deg;, the albumin is not coagulated. By pasteurizing, milk is much
+improved from a sanitary point of view, and whenever the milk supply is
+of unknown purity, it should be pasteurized.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[38]</sup></small></b></a> After the milk has been
+thus treated, the same care should be exercised in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> keeping it protected
+to prevent fresh inoculation or contamination, as though it were
+unpasteurized milk. For family use milk can be pasteurized in small
+amounts in the following way: Before receiving the milk, the receptacle
+should be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized with boiling water or dry
+heat, as in an oven. The milk is loosely covered and placed in a pan of
+water, a false bottom being in the pan so as to prevent unequal heating.
+The water surrounding the milk is gradually heated until a temperature
+of 159&deg; F. is registered, and the milk is kept at this temperature for
+about ten minutes. It is then cooled and placed in the refrigerator.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>105. Tyrotoxicon.</b>&mdash;Tyrotoxicon is a chemical compound produced by a
+ferment body which finds its way into milk when kept in unsanitary
+surroundings. It induces digestion disorders similar to cholera, and
+when present in large amounts, may prove fatal. It sometimes develops in
+cream, ice cream, or cheese, but only when they have been kept in
+unclean places or produced from infected milk.</p>
+
+<p><b>601. Color of Milk</b> is often taken as a guide to its purity and
+richness in fat. While a yellow tinge is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> usually characteristic of
+milks rich in fat, it is not a hard and fast rule, for frequently
+light-colored milks are richer in fat than yellow-tinged ones. The
+coloring material is independent of the percentage of fat, and it is not
+always safe to judge the richness of milk on the basis of color.</p>
+
+<p><b>107. Souring of Milk.</b>&mdash;Souring of milk is due to the action of the
+lactic acid organism, which finds its way into the milk through
+particles of dust carried in the air or from unclean receptacles which
+contain the spores of the organism.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[39]</sup></small></b></a> When milk sours, a small amount
+of sugar is changed to lactic acid which reacts upon the casein,
+converting it from a soluble to an insoluble condition. When milk is
+exposed to the air at a temperature of from 70&deg; to 90&deg; F., lactic acid
+fermentation readily takes place. At a low temperature the process is
+checked, and at a high temperature the organisms and spores are
+destroyed. In addition to lactic acid ferments, there are large numbers
+of others which develop in milk, changing the different compounds of
+which milk is composed. In the processes of butter and cheese making,
+these fermentation changes are controlled so as to develop the flavor
+and secure the best grades of butter and cheese.</p>
+
+<p><b>108. Use of Preservatives in Milk.</b>&mdash;In order to check fermentation,
+boric acid, formalin, and other preservatives have been proposed.
+Physiologists object to their use because the quantity required to
+prevent fer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>mentation is often sufficient to have a medicinal effect.
+The tendency is to use excessive amounts, which may interfere with
+normal digestion of the food. Milk that is cared for under the most
+sanitary conditions has a higher dietetic value and is much to be
+preferred to that which has been kept sweet by the use of preservatives.</p>
+
+<p><b>109. Condensed Milk</b> is prepared by evaporating milk in vacuum pans
+until it is reduced about one fourth in bulk, when it is sealed in cans,
+and it will then keep sweet for a long time. Occasionally some cane
+sugar is added to the evaporated product. When diluted, evaporated milk
+has much the same composition as whole milk. When a can of condensed
+milk has been opened, the same care should be exercised to prevent
+fermentation as if it were fresh milk.</p>
+
+<p><b>110. Skim Milk</b> differs in composition from whole milk in fat content.
+When the fat is removed by the separator, there is often left less than
+one tenth of a per cent. Skim milk has a much higher nutritive value
+than is generally conceded, and wherever it can be procured at a
+reasonable price it should be used in the dietary as a source of
+protein.</p>
+
+<p><b>111. Cream</b> ranges in fat content from 15 to 35 per cent. It is
+generally preferred to whole milk, although it is not as well balanced a
+food, because it is deficient in protein. Cream should contain at least
+25 per cent of fat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>112. Buttermilk</b> is the product left after removal of the fat from
+cream by churning. It has about the same amount of nutrients as skim
+milk. The casein is in a slightly modified form due to the development
+of lactic acid during the ripening of the cream, and on this account
+buttermilk is more easily digested and assimilated by many individuals
+than milk in other forms. The development of the acid generally reduces
+the number of species of other than the lactic organisms, and these are
+increased.</p>
+
+<p><b>113. Goat's Milk</b> is somewhat richer in solids than cow's milk,
+containing about one per cent more proteids, a little more fat, and less
+sugar. When used as a substitute for human or cow's milk, it generally
+needs to be slightly diluted, depending, however, upon the composition
+of the individual sample.</p>
+
+<p><b>114. Koumiss</b> is a fermented beverage made from milk by the use of
+yeast to secure alcoholic fermentation. Koumiss contains about one per
+cent each of lactic acid and alcohol, and the casein and other nutrients
+are somewhat modified by the fermentation changes. Koumiss is generally
+considered a non-alcoholic beverage possessing both food and dietetic
+value.</p>
+
+<p><b>115. Prepared Milks.</b>&mdash;Various preparations are made to resemble milk
+in general composition. These are mechanical mixtures of sugar, fats,
+and proteids. Milk sugar, casein, or malted proteids are generally the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+materials employed in their preparation. Often the dried and pulverized
+solids of skim milk are used. Many of the prepared milks are deficient
+in fat. While they are not equal to cow's milk, their use is often made
+necessary from force of circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><b>116. Human Milk</b> is not as rich in solid matter as cow's milk. It
+contains about the same amount of fat, one per cent more sugar, and one
+per cent less proteids. In human milk nearly one half of the protein is
+in the form of albumins, while in cow's milk there is about one fifth in
+this form. The fat globules are much smaller than those of cow's milk.
+In infant feeding it is often necessary to modify cow's milk by the
+addition of water, cream, and milk sugar, so as to make it more nearly
+resemble in composition human milk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img106.jpg" width="327" height="550"
+             alt="Fig. 25." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Apparatus Used in Testing
+Milk.</span></h4>
+
+<h4>1, pipette; 2, lactometer; 3, acid measure; 4, centrifuge; 5, test
+bottle.</h4>
+
+<p><b>117. Adulteration of Milk.</b>&mdash;Milk is not as extensively adulterated as
+it was before the passage and enforcement of the numerous state and
+municipal laws regulating its inspection and sale. The most frequent
+forms of adulteration are addition of water and removal of cream. These
+are readily detected from the specific gravity and fat content of the
+milk. The specific gravity of milk is determined by means of the
+lactometer, an instrument which sinks to a definite point in pure milk.
+In watered milk it sinks to greater depth, depending upon the amount of
+water added. The fat content of milk is readily and accurately
+determined by the Babcock test, in which the fat is separated by
+cen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>trifugal action. For the detection of adulterated milk the student
+is referred to Chapter VI, "Chemistry of Dairying," by Snyder.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BUTTER</h4>
+
+<p><b>118. Composition.</b>&mdash;Butter is made by the churning or agitation of
+cream and is composed mainly of milk fats and water, together with
+smaller amounts of ash, salt, casein, milk sugar, and lactic acid.
+Average butter has the following composition:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="Average butter has the following composition">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>10.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash and salt</td><td align='right'>2.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Casein and albumin</td><td align='right'>1.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>86.0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><br />When butter contains an abnormal amount of water, it is considered
+adulterated. According to act of Congress standard butter should not
+contain over 16 per cent of water nor less than 82.5 per cent of fat.</p>
+
+<p><b>119. Digestibility of Butter.</b>&mdash;Digestion experiments show that
+practically all of the fat, 98 per cent, is digestible and available for
+use by the body. Butter is valuable only for the production of heat and
+energy. Alone, it is incapable of sustaining life, because it contains
+no proteid material. It is usually one of the more expensive items of
+food, but it is generally considered quite necessary in a ration.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> It
+has been suggested<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> that it takes an important part mechanically in the
+digestion of food.</p>
+
+<p><b>120. Adulteration of Butter.</b>&mdash;In addition to containing an excess of
+water, butter is adulterated in other ways. Old, stale butter is
+occasionally melted, washed, salted, and reworked. This product is known
+as renovated butter, and has poor keeping qualities. Frequently
+preservatives are added to such butter to delay fermentation changes.
+Oleomargarine and butterine are made by mixing vegetable and animal
+fats.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[40]</sup></small></b></a> Highly colored stearin, cotton-seed oil, and lard are the
+usual materials from which oleomargarine is made. It has practically the
+same composition, digestibility, and food value as butter. When sold
+under its true name and not as butter, there is no objection, as it is a
+valuable food and supplies heat and energy at less cost than butter. The
+main objection to oleomargarine and butterine is that they are sold as
+butter.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[41]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>The coloring of butter is not generally looked upon as adulteration, for
+butter naturally has a more or less yellow tinge. According to an act of
+Congress, butter colors of a non-injurious character are allowed to be
+used.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CHEESE</h4>
+
+<p><b>121. General Composition.</b>&mdash;Cheese, is made by the addition of rennet
+to ripened milk, resulting in coagulation of the casein, which
+mechanically combines with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> the fat. It differs from butter in
+composition by containing, in addition to fat, casein and appreciable
+amounts of mineral matter. The composition varies with the character of
+the milk from which the cheese was made. Average milk produces cheese
+containing a larger amount of fat than proteids, while cheese from
+skimmed or partially skimmed milk is proportionally poorer in fat.
+Ordinarily there is about 35 per cent of water, 33 per cent of fat, and
+27 per cent of casein, and albumin or milk proteids, the remainder being
+ash, salt, milk sugar, and lactic acid. Cheese is characterized by its
+large percentage of both fat and protein, and has high food value. It
+contains more fat and protein than any of the meats; in fact, there are
+but few foods which have such liberal amounts of these nutrients as
+cheese.</p>
+
+<p>The odor and flavor of cheese are due to workings of bacteria which
+result in the production of aromatic compounds. The purity and condition
+of the milk, as well as the method of manufacture and the kind of
+ferment material used, determine largely the flavor and odor. Cheese is
+generally allowed to undergo a ripening or curing process before it is
+used as food. The changes resulting consist mainly in increased
+solubility of the proteids, with the formation of a small amount of amid
+and aromatic compounds.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[42]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>122. Digestibility.</b>&mdash;Cheese is popularly considered an indigestible
+food, but extended experiments show that it is quite completely
+digested, although in the case of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> some individuals not easily digested.
+In general, about 95 per cent of the fat and 92 per cent and more of the
+protein is digested, depending upon the general composition of the
+cheese and the digestive capacity of the individual. As far as total
+digestibility is concerned, there appears to be but little difference
+between green and well-cured cheese. So far as ease of digestion is
+concerned, it is probable that some difference exists. There is also but
+little difference in digestibility resulting from the way in which milk
+is made into cheese, the nutrients of Roquefort, Swiss, Camembert, and
+Cheddar being about equally digestible.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a> The differences in odor and
+taste are due to variations in kind and amount of bacterial action. When
+combined with other foods, cheese may exercise a beneficial influence
+upon digestion in the same way as noted from the use of several foods in
+a ration. No material differences were observed in digestibility when
+cheese was used in small amounts, as for condimental purposes, or when
+used in large amounts to furnish nutrients. Artificial digestion
+experiments show that cheese is more readily acted upon by the
+pancreatic than by the gastric fluids, suggesting that cheese undergoes
+intestinal rather than gastric digestion. It is possible this is the
+reason that cheese is slow of digestion in the case of some individuals.</p>
+
+<p><b>123. Use in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;Cheese should be used in the dietary
+regularly and in reasonable amounts, rather than irregularly and then in
+large amounts. Cheese is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> not a luxury, but ordinarily it is one of the
+cheapest and most nutritious of human foods. A pound of cheese costing
+15 cents contains about a quarter of a pound of protein and a third of a
+pound of fat; at the same price, beef yields only about half as much fat
+and less protein. Cheese at 18 cents per pound furnishes more available
+nutrients and energy than beef at 12 cents per pound. In the dietary of
+European armies, cheese to a great extent takes the place of beef. See
+Chapter XVI.</p>
+
+<p><b>124. Cottage Cheese</b> is made by coagulating milk and preparing the curd
+by mixing with it cream or melted butter and salt or sugar as desired.
+When milk can be procured at little cost, cottage cheese is one of the
+cheapest and most valuable foods.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[43]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>125. Different Kinds of Cheese.</b>&mdash;By the use of different kinds of
+ferments and variations in the process of manufacture different types or
+kinds of cheese are made, as Roquefort, Swiss, Edam, Stilton, Camembert,
+etc. In the manufacture of Roquefort cheese, which is made from goats'
+and ewes' milk, bread is added and the cheese is cured in caves,
+resulting in the formation of a green mold which penetrates the cheese
+mass, and produces characteristic odor and flavor. Stilton is an English
+soft, rich cheese of mild flavor, made from milk to which cream is
+usually added. It is allowed to undergo an extended process of ripening,
+often resulting in the formation of bluish green threads of fungus.
+Limburger owes its characteristic odor and flavor to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> action of
+special ferment bodies which carry on the ripening process. Neufchatel
+is a soft cheese made from sweet milk to which the rennet is added at a
+high temperature. After pressing, it is kneaded and worked, and then put
+into packages and covered with tin foil.</p>
+
+<p><b>126. Adulteration of Cheese.</b>&mdash;The most common forms of adulteration
+are the manufacture of skim-milk cheese by the removal of the fat from
+the milk, and substitution of cheaper and foreign fats, making a product
+known as filled cheese. When not labeled whole milk cheese, or sold as
+such, there is no objection to skim-milk cheese. It has a high food
+value and is often a cheap source of protein. The manufacture of filled
+cheese is now regulated by the national government, and all such cheese
+must pay a special tax and be properly labeled. As a result, the amount
+of filled cheese upon the market has very greatly decreased, and cheese
+is now less adulterated than in former years. The national dairy law
+allows the use of coloring matter of a harmless nature in the
+manufacture of cheese.</p>
+
+<p><b>127. Dairy Products in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;The nutrients in milk are
+produced at less expense for grain and forage than the nutrients in
+beef, hence from a pecuniary point of view, dairy products, as milk and
+cheese, have the advantage. In the case of butter, however, the cost
+usually exceeds that of meat. In older agricultural regions, where the
+cost of beef production reaches the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> maximum, dairying is generally
+resorted to, as it yields larger financial returns, and as a result more
+cheese and less beef are used in the dietary. As the cost of meats is
+enhanced, dairy products, as cheese, naturally take their place.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>128. General Composition.</b>&mdash;Animal tissue is composed of the same
+classes of compounds as plant tissue. In each, water makes up a large
+portion of the weight, and the dry matter is composed of nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds, and ash or mineral matter. Plants and animals
+differ in composition not so much as to the kinds of compounds, although
+there are differences, but more in the percentage amounts of these
+compounds. In plants, with the exception of the legumes, the protein
+rarely exceeds 14 per cent, and in many vegetable foods, when prepared
+for the table, there is less than 2 per cent. In meats the protein
+ranges from 15 to 20 per cent. The non-nitrogenous compounds of plants
+are present mainly in the form of starch, sugar, and cellulose, while in
+animal bodies there are only traces of carbohydrates, but large amounts
+of fat. Fat is the chief non-nitrogenous compound of meats; it ranges
+between quite wide limits, depending upon kind, age, and general
+condition of the animal. Meats contain the same general classes of
+proteins as the vegetable foods; in each the proteins are made up of
+albumins, glubulins, albu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>minates, peptone-like bodies, and insoluble
+proteids. The larger portion of the protein of meats and cereals is in
+insoluble forms. The meat juices, which contain the soluble portion of
+the proteins, constitute less than 5 percent of the nitrogenous
+compounds. Meats contain less amid substances than plants, in which the
+amids are produced from ammonium compounds and are supposed to be
+intermediate products in the formation of proteids, while in the animal
+body they are derived from the proteids supplied in the food and, it is
+generally believed, cannot form proteids. Albuminoids make up the
+connective tissue, hair, and skin, and are more abundant in animal than
+in plant tissue. One of the chief albuminoids is gelatine. Both plant
+and animal foods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> undergo bacterial changes resulting in the production
+of alkaloidal bodies known as ptomaines, of which there are a large
+number. These are poisonous and are what cause putrid and stale meat to
+be unwholesome. The protein in meat differs little in general
+composition from that of vegetable origin; differences in structure and
+cleavage products between the two are, however, noticeable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img016.jpg" width="500" height="297"
+             alt="Fig. 26." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Meat and Extractive
+Substances.</span></h4>
+
+<p>While meats from different kinds of animals have somewhat the same
+general composition, they differ in physical properties, and also in the
+nature of the various nutrients. For example, pork contains less protein
+than beef, but the protein of pork is materially different from that of
+beef, as a larger portion is in the form of soluble proteids, while in
+beef more is present in an insoluble form. Not only are differences in
+the percentage of individual proteins noticeable, but there are equally
+as great differences in the fats. As for example: some of the meats have
+a larger proportion of the fat as stearin than do others. Hence meats
+differ in texture and taste more than in nutritive value, due to the
+variations in the percentage of the different proteins, fats, and
+extractive material, rather than to differences in the total amounts of
+these compounds. The taste and flavor of meat is to a large extent
+influenced by the amount of extractive material.</p>
+
+<p>While the nutrients of meats are divided into classes, as proteins and
+fats, there are a large number of separate compounds which make up each
+of the individual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> classes, and there are also small amounts of
+compounds which are not included in these groups.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img017.jpg" width="500" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 27." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Standard Cuts of Beef.</span></h4>
+
+<h5>(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)</h5>
+
+<p><b>129. Beef.</b>&mdash;About one half of the weight of beef is water; the lean
+meat contains a much larger amount than the fat. As a rule, the parts of
+the animal that contain the most fat contain the least water. In some
+meats there is considerable refuse, 25 to 30 per cent. In average meat
+about 12 per cent of the butcher's weight is refuse and non-edible
+parts.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[44]</sup></small></b></a> A pound of average butcher's meat is about one half water,
+and over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> 10 per cent waste and refuse, which leaves less than 40 per
+cent fat and protein. Meat is generally considered to have a high
+nutritive value, due to the comparatively large amounts of fat and
+protein. Beef contains more protein than any vegetable food, except the
+legumes, and from 1 to 1.5 per cent mineral matter, exclusive of bone.
+Some of the mineral matter is chemically united with the protein and
+other compounds. While figures are given for average composition of
+beef, it is to be noted that wide variations are frequently to be met
+with, some samples containing a much larger amount of waste and
+trimmings than others, and this influences the percent of the nutritive
+substances. In making calculations of nutrients consumed, as in dietary
+studies, the figures for average composition of meat should be used only
+in cases where the samples do not contain an excess either of fat or
+trimmings.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[45]</sup></small></b></a> When very lean, there is often a large amount of refuse,
+and the meat contains less dry matter and is of poorer flavor than from
+animals in prime condition. In the case of very fat animals, a large
+amount of waste results, and the flavor is sometimes impaired.</p>
+
+<p><b>130. Veal</b> differs from beef in containing a smaller amount of dry
+matter, richer in protein, but poorer in fat. Animals differ in
+composition at different stages of growth in much the same way as
+plants. In the earlier stages protein predominates in the plant tissue,
+while later the carbohydrates are added in larger amounts,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> reducing the
+percentage content of protein. In animals the same is noticeable. Young
+animals are, pound for pound, richer in protein than old animals. While
+in the case of vegetables the increase in size, or rotundity, is due to
+starch and carbohydrates, in animals it is due to the addition of fat.
+But plants, like animals, observe the same general laws as to changes in
+composition at different stages of growth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img018.jpg" width="500" height="320"
+             alt="Fig. 28." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Standard Cuts of Mutton.</span></h4>
+
+<h5>(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)</h5>
+
+<p>131. Mutton.&mdash;There is about the same amount of refuse matter in mutton
+as in beef. In a side of mutton about 19 percent: are trimmings and
+waste, and in a side of beef 18.5 per cent. Mutton, as a rule, contains
+a little more fat and dry matter than beef, and somewhat less protein. A
+side of beef, as purchased, con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>tains about 50 per cent of water, 14.5
+per cent protein, and 16.8 per cent of fat, while a side of mutton, as
+purchased, contains 42.9 per cent water, 12.5 per cent protein, and 24.7
+per cent fat. A pound of beef yields a smaller number of calories by 25
+per cent than a pound of mutton. At the same price per pound more
+nutrients can be purchased as mutton than as beef. The differences in
+composition between lamb and mutton are similar to those between veal
+and beef; viz. a larger amount of water and protein and a smaller amount
+of fat in the same weight of the young animals. Differences in
+composition between the various cuts of lamb are noticeable. The leg
+contains the least fat and the most protein, while the chuck is richest
+in fat and poorest in protein. As in the case of beef, many of the
+cheaper cuts contain as much or more nutrients than the more expensive
+cuts. They are not, however, as palatable and differ as to toughness and
+other physical characteristics.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img019.jpg" width="500" height="307"
+             alt="Fig. 29." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Standard Cuts of Pork.</span></h4>
+
+<h5>(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)</h5>
+
+<p><b>132. Pork</b> is characterized by a high per cent of fat and a
+comparatively low per cent of protein. It is generally richest in fat of
+any of the meats. The per cent of water varies with the fatness of the
+animal; in very fat animals there is a smaller amount, while lean
+animals contain more. In lean salt pork there is about 20 per cent
+water, and in fat salt pork about 7 per cent. There is less refuse and
+waste in pork than in either beef or mutton. Ham contains from 14 to 15
+per cent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> of refuse, and bacon about 7 per cent. Bacon has nearly twice
+as much fat and a smaller amount of protein than ham. A pound of bacon,
+as purchased, will yield nearly twice as much energy or fuel value as a
+pound of ham. Digestion experiments show that bacon is quite readily and
+completely digested and is often a cheaper source of fat and protein
+than other meats. There is about three times as much fat in bacon as in
+beef. When prepared for the table bacon contains, from 40 to 50 per cent
+of fat. A pound of high grade, lean bacon furnishes from 0.1 to 0.3 of a
+pound of digestible protein and from 0.4 to 0.6 of a pound of digestible
+fat, which is about two thirds as much fat as is found in butter. Bacon
+contains nearly as much digestible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> protein as other meats and from two
+to three times as much fat, making it, at the same price per pound, a
+cheaper food than other meats. In salt pork there is from 60 to 85 per
+cent of fat, and less protein than in bacon. The protein and fat of pork
+differ from those in beef not only in percentage amounts, but also in
+the nature of the individual proteins and fats. The composition of pork
+varies with the nature of the food that is consumed by the animal.
+Experiments show that it is possible by judicious feeding in the early
+stages of growth to produce pork with the maximum of lean meat and the
+minimum of fat. After the animal has passed a certain period, it is not
+possible by feeding to materially influence the percentage of nutrients
+in the meat. The flavor, too, of pork, as of other meats, is dependent
+largely upon the nature of the food the animal consumes. When there is a
+scant amount of available protein in the ration, the meat is dry, nearly
+tasteless, and contains less of the soluble nitrogenous compounds which
+impart flavor and individuality.</p>
+
+<p><b>133. Lard</b> is prepared from the fat of swine, and is separated from
+associated tissue by the action of heat. A large amount of fat is found
+lining the back of the abdominal cavity, and this is known as leaf lard.
+Slight differences are noticeable in the composition and quality of lard
+made from different parts of the hog. Leaf lard is usually considered
+the best. Lard is composed of the three fats, olein, stearin, and
+palmatin, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> has a number of characteristic physical properties, as
+specific gravity, melting point, iodine absorption number, as well as
+behavior with various reagents, and these enable the mixing of other
+fats with lard to be readily detected. Lard is used in the preparation
+of oleomargarine, and it is also combined with various vegetable oils,
+as cotton-seed oil, in the making of imitation or compound lards.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[46]</sup></small></b></a>
+Lard substitutes differ little in general composition from pure lard,
+except in the structure of the crystals and the percentage of the
+various individual fats.</p>
+
+<p><b>134. Texture and Toughness of Meats.</b>&mdash;In discussing the texture of
+meats, Professor Woods states:<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[45]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Whether meats are tough or tender depends upon two things: the
+character of the walls of the muscle tubes and the character of the
+connective tissues which bind the tubes and muscles together. In
+young and well-nourished animals the tube walls are thin and
+delicate, and the connective tissue is small in amount. As the
+animals grow older or are made to work (and this is particularly
+true in the case of poorly nourished animals), the walls of the
+muscle tubes and the connective tissues become thick and hard. This
+is the reason why the flesh of young, well-fed animals is tender
+and easily masticated, while the flesh of old, hard-worked, or
+poorly fed animals is often so tough that prolonged boiling or
+roasting seems to have but little effect on it.</p>
+
+<p>"After slaughtering, meats undergo marked changes in texture. These
+changes can be grouped under three classes or stages. In the first
+stage, when the meat is just slaughtered, the flesh is soft, juicy,
+and quite tender. In the next stage the flesh stiffens and the meat
+becomes hard and tough. This condition is known as <i>rigor mortis,</i>
+and continues until the third stage, when the first changes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+decomposition set in. In hot climates the meat is commonly eaten in
+either the first or second stage. In cold climates it is seldom
+eaten before the second stage, and generally, in order to lessen
+the toughness, it is allowed to enter the third stage, when it
+becomes soft and tender, and acquires added flavor. The softening
+is due in part to the formation of lactic acid, which acts upon the
+connective tissue. The same effect may be produced, though more
+rapidly, by macerating the meat with weak vinegar. Meat is
+sometimes made tender by cutting the flesh into thin slices and
+pounding it across the cut ends until the fibers are broken."</p></div>
+
+<p><b>135. Influence of Cooking upon the Composition of Meats.</b><a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[47]</sup></small></b></a>&mdash;It is
+believed by many that losses are prevented and the nutritive value
+conserved when, in the cooking of meat, it is placed directly into
+boiling water rather than into cold water and then brought to the
+boiling point and cooked. Extensive experiments have been made by Dr.
+Grindley in regard to this and other points connected with the cooking
+of meats, and in general it was found that the temperature of the water
+in which the meat was placed made little difference in its nutritive
+value or the amount of material extracted. It was found that by both
+methods there was dissolved 2.3 percent of the protein matter, 1 percent
+of the nitrogenous extractives, 1.6 per cent of non-nitrogenous
+material, and 0.8 per cent of ash, of the raw meat, which was equivalent
+to about 13 per cent of the total proteid material and 81 percent of the
+ash. The cold water extract contained bodies coagulated by heat. Cold
+water did not extract any of the fat, but during the process of cooking,
+appreciable amounts were lost mechani<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>cally. Cooked meats were found to
+be less soluble in cold water than raw meats. During the process of
+boiling, meat shrinks in weight about 40 or 45 per cent, depending
+mainly upon the size of the pieces and the content of fat. The loss in
+weight is practically a loss of water, and the loss of nutrients, all
+told, amounts to about 4 per cent, or more, depending upon the
+mechanical loss.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[48]</sup></small></b></a> But slight differences were found in the
+composition of the meats cooked three and five hour periods.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Careful study in this laboratory has shown that when meat is
+cooked in water at 80&deg; to 85&deg; C., placing meat in hot or cold water
+at the start has little effect on the amount of nutrients in the
+meat which passes into the broth. The meat was in the form of
+cubes, one to two inches, and in pieces weighing from one to two
+pounds.</p>
+
+<p>"It is commonly supposed that when meat is plunged into boiling
+water, the albumin coagulates and forms a crust, which prevents the
+escape of nutritive materials into the broth. It is also believed
+that if a rich broth is desired, to be used either as a soup or
+with the meat as a stew, it is more desirable to place the meat in
+cold water at the start. From the results of these experiments,
+however, it is evident that, under these conditions, there can be
+little advantage in using hot or cold water at the beginning. When
+meats were cooked by dry heat, as in roasting, a larger amount of
+nutrients was rendered soluble in water than during boiling. The
+losses of nutrients were much smaller when meats were cooked by dry
+heat than when cooked in water, being on the average, water 35 per
+cent, nitrogenous extractives 9 per cent, non-nitrogenous
+extractives 17 per cent, fat 7 per cent, ash 12 per cent, and a
+small loss of protein."</p></div>
+
+<p>The nutrients in the broth of the meat started in hot water amounted to
+about 1 per cent of protein,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> 1 per cent of fat, and O.5 per cent of
+ash, the amount of nutrients being directly proportional to the length
+of time and temperature of the cooking. In general, the larger the
+pieces, the smaller the losses. Beef that has been used in the
+preparation of beef tea loses its extractive materials, which impart
+taste and flavor, but there is only a small loss of actual nutritive
+value. Clear meat broth contains little nutriment&mdash;less than unfiltered
+broth. Most of the nitrogenous material of the broth is in the form of
+creatin, sarkin, and xanthin, nitrogenous extractives or amid substances
+having a much lower food value than proteids. Experiments show that some
+of these extractives have physiological properties slightly stimulating
+in their action, and it is believed the stimulating effect of a meat
+diet is in part due to these.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[49]</sup></small></b></a> They are valuable principally for
+imparting taste and flavor, and cannot be regarded as nutrients. The
+variations in taste and flavor of meats from different sources are due
+largely to differences in extractive material.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"In general, the various methods of cooking materially modify the
+appearance, texture, and flavor of meat, and hence its
+palatability, but have little effect on total nutritive value.
+Whether it be cooked in hot water, as in boiling or stewing, or by
+dry heat, as in roasting, broiling, or frying, meat of all kinds
+has a high food value, when judged by the kind and amount of
+nutrient ingredients which are present." <a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[50]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<p>Beef extracts of commerce contain about 50 per cent of extractive
+matters, as amids, together with smaller amounts of soluble proteids;
+ash, mainly added salt, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> also present in liberal amounts (20 per
+cent). Beef extracts have condimental value imparting taste and flavor,
+which make them useful for soup stocks, but they furnish little in the
+way of nutritive substance.</p>
+
+<p><b>136. Miscellaneous Meat Products.</b>&mdash;By combining different parts of the
+same animal, or different meats, a large number of products known as
+sausage are made. These vary in composition with the ingredients used.
+In general, they are richer in fat than beef and contain about the same
+amount of protein. Potato flour and flour from cereals are sometimes
+used in their preparations, but the presence of any material amount,
+unless so stated on the package, is considered an adulterant.</p>
+
+<p>Pickled meats are prepared by the use of condiments, as salt, sugar,
+vinegar, and saltpeter. During the smoking and curing of meats, no
+appreciable losses of nutrients occur.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[51]</sup></small></b></a> The smoke acts as a
+preservative, and imparts condimental properties. Saltpeter (potassium
+nitrate) has been used from earliest times in the preparation of meats;
+it preserves color and delays fermentation changes. When used in
+moderate amounts it cannot be regarded as a preservative or injurious to
+health. Excessive amounts, however, are objectionable. Smoked meats,
+prepared with or without saltpeter, give appreciable reactions for
+nitrites, compounds formed during combustion of the wood by which the
+meat was smoked. Many vegetables contain naturally much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> larger amounts
+of nitrates, taken from the soil as food, than meat that has been
+preserved with saltpeter.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[52]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>137. Poultry.</b>&mdash;The refuse and waste from chickens, as purchased on the
+market, ranges from 15 to 30 per cent. The fat content is much lower
+than in turkeys or ducks, the largest amount being found in geese. The
+edible portion of all fowls is rich in protein, particularly the dark
+meat, and the food value is about equal to that of meat in general. When
+it is desired to secure a large amount of protein with but little fat,
+chicken supplies this, perhaps, better than any other animal food. A
+difference is observed in the composition of the meat of young and old
+fowls similar to that between beef and veal. The physical composition
+and, to a slight extent, the solubility of the proteids are altered by
+prolonged cold storage, the difference being noticeable mainly in the
+appearance of the connective tissue of the muscles. In discussing
+poultry as food, Langworthy states:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[53]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A good, fresh bird shows a well-rounded form, with neat, compact
+legs, and no sharp, bony angles on the breast, indicating a lack of
+tender white meat. The skin should be a clear color (yellow being
+preferred in the American market) and free from blotches and pin
+feathers; if it looks tight and drawn, the bird has probably been
+scalded before being plucked. The flesh should be neither flabby
+nor stiff, but should give evenly and gently when pressed by the
+finger."</p></div>
+
+<p><b>138. Fish.</b>&mdash;From 30 to 60 per cent of the weight of fresh fish is
+refuse. The edible portion contains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> from 35 to 50 per cent, and in some
+cases more, of water. The dry matter is rich in protein; richer than
+many meats. The nutrients in fish range between comparatively wide
+limits, the protein in some cases being as low as 6 per cent, in
+flounder, and in others as high as 30 per cent, in dried codfish. The
+amount of fat, except in a few cases, as salmon and trout, is small.
+Salmon is the richest in fat of any of the fishes. When salted and
+preserved, the proportion of water is lessened and that of the nutrients
+is increased. Fish can take the place of meat in the dietary, but it is
+necessary to add a larger amount of fat to the ration because of the
+deficiency of most fish in this ingredient. Fish has about the same
+digestibility as meats. It is believed by many to be valuable because it
+supplies a large amount of available phosphates. Analyses, however, show
+that the flesh of fish contains no more phosphorus compounds than meats
+in general, and its food value is due to protein rather than to
+phosphates.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[54]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>Fish appears to be as completely and easily digested as meats.
+Differences in flavor, taste, and palatability are due to small amounts
+of flavors and extractive materials, varying according to the food
+consumed by the fish and the conditions under which they lived. The
+flesh of fish decays more readily than that of other meats and produces
+ptomaines, or toxic substances, which are the result of fermentation
+changes usually associated with putrefaction. Cases of poisoning from
+eating unsound fish are not infrequent.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[55]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Shellfish have about the same general composition as fish. In clams
+there is a larger amount of dry matter than in oysters, which contain
+about 12 per cent, half of which is protein. When placed in fresh water,
+the oyster increases in size and undergoes the process known as
+"fattening." Oftentimes impure water is used for this purpose, which
+makes the eating of raw oysters a questionable practice from a sanitary
+point of view, as the water in which they are floated often contains
+disease-producing germs, as typhoid. During the process of fattening,
+although the oyster increases in size and weight, it decreases in
+percentage of nutrients. In discussing the composition of oysters,
+Atwater states:<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"They come nearer to milk than almost any other food material as
+regards both the amounts and relative proportions of nutrients."</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img020.jpg" width="287" height="400"
+             alt="Fig. 30." /><br />
+ <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graphic Composition of an
+Egg.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+<p><b>139. Eggs, General Composition.</b>&mdash;Eggs are a type of concentrated
+nitrogenous food. About 75 per cent (shell removed) is water, about one
+third is yolk, and a little over 50 per cent is albumin or white. The
+shell makes up from 10 to 12 per cent of the weight. The yolk and white
+differ widely in composition. The yolk contains a much larger per cent
+of solids than the white, and is rich in both fat and protein, from a
+third to a half of the weight being fat. The white has about the same
+amount of water, 88 per cent, as average milk, but, unlike milk, the dry
+matter is mainly albumin. The entire egg (edible portion) contains
+about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> equal parts of fat and protein; 12 to 13 per cent of each and an
+appreciably large amount of ash or mineral matter,&mdash;from 0.8 to 1 per
+cent, consisting mainly of phosphates associated with the albumin. There
+is no material difference in chemical composition between white and dark
+shelled eggs, or between eggs with different colored yolks. It is simply
+a question of coloring matter. The egg is influenced to an appreciable
+extent by feed and general care of the fowls. The egg and the potato
+contain about the same amount of water. They are, however, distinct
+types of food, the potato being largely composed of carbohydrates and
+the egg of protein and fat. Eggs resemble meat somewhat in general
+composition, although they contain rather less of protein and fat. When
+eggs are boiled there is a loss of weight due to elimination of water;
+otherwise the composition is unaltered, the coagulation of the albumin,
+as stated in Chapter I, consisting simply in a rearrangement of the
+atoms of the molecule. The egg is particularly valuable in the dietary
+of the convalescent, when it is desired to secure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> the maximum amount of
+phosphorus in organic combination.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>The flavor of eggs is in part due to the food supplied to the fowls, as
+well as the age of the egg. Experiments show that onions and some other
+vegetables, when fed to fowls, impart odors and taste to the eggs. The
+keeping qualities of eggs are also dependent upon the food supplied. In
+experiments at the Cornell Experiment Station, when hens were fed on a
+narrow, nitrogenous ration, a large number of eggs were produced
+containing the minimum amount of solid matter and of poor keeping
+quality, while a larger sized egg of better keeping quality was obtained
+when a variety of foods, nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous, was supplied.</p>
+
+<p><b>140. Digestibility of Eggs.</b>&mdash;Digestion experiments show that there is
+but little difference in the digestibility of eggs cooked in different
+ways. A noticeable difference, however, is observed in the rapidity with
+which the albumin and proteids are dissolved in a pepsin solution. In
+general, it was found that, when the albumin was coagulated at a
+temperature of 180&deg;, it was more rapidly and completely dissolved in the
+pepsin than when coagulated at a temperature of 212&deg;. When eggs were
+cooked at a temperature of 212&deg;, the hard-boiled eggs appeared to be
+slightly more digestible than the soft-boiled eggs, but the digestion
+was not as complete as when the cooking was done at a temperature of
+180&deg;; then no difference in digestibility was found between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> eggs cooked
+for a short or a long time. The egg is one of the most completely
+digested of all foods, practically all the protein and fat being
+absorbed and available to the body. Langworthy, in discussing
+Jorissenne's investigations on the digestibility of eggs, states:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[53]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The yolk of raw, soft-boiled, and hard-boiled eggs is equally
+digestible. The white of soft-boiled eggs, being semi-liquid,
+offers little more resistance to the digestive juices than raw
+white. The white of a hard-boiled egg is not generally very
+thoroughly masticated. Unless finely divided, it offers more
+resistance to the digestive juices than the fluid or semi-fluid
+white, and undigested particles may remain in the digestive tract
+many days and decompose. From this deduction it is obvious that
+thorough mastication is a matter of importance. Provided
+mastication is thorough, marked differences in the completeness of
+digestion of the three sorts of eggs, in the opinion of the writer
+cited, will not be found."</p></div>
+
+<p><b>141. Use of Eggs in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;When eggs are at the same price per
+dozen as meat is per pound, they furnish a larger amount of nutrients.
+In general, a dozen eggs have a little higher food value than a pound of
+meat. Eggs are usually a cheaper source of food because a smaller amount
+is served than of meat. When eggs are 25 cents per dozen, the cost of
+ten eggs for a family of five is less than that of a pound or a pound
+and a quarter of beef at 22 cents per pound. The meat, however, would
+furnish the larger amount of nutrients. Eggs are valuable, too, in the
+dietary because they are frequently combined with flour, cereal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+products, and vegetables, which contain a large amount of starch, and
+some of which contain small amounts of protein. This combination
+furnishes a balanced ration, as well as secures palatability and good
+mechanical combination of the foods. Eggs in combination with flour,
+sugar, butter, and other materials have equally as great a value as when
+used alone and as a substitute for meat.</p>
+
+<p>Eggs vary in weight from 17.5 to 28 ounces, and more per dozen. They
+should be purchased and sold by weight. When stored, eggs lose weight.
+The egg cannot be considered as entirely germ proof, and care is
+necessary in its handling and use, the same as with other food articles.
+The cause of the spoiling of eggs is due largely to exterior bacterial
+infection.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CANNED MEATS</h4>
+
+<p><b>142. General Composition.</b>&mdash;Canned meats differ but little in
+composition from fresh meats. Usually during the process of cooking and
+canning there is a slight increase in the amount of dry matter, but the
+relative proportion of protein and fat is about the same as in fresh
+meat. It is frequently stated that the less salable parts are used in
+the preparation of canned meats, as it is possible by cooking and the
+addition of condiments to conceal the inferior physical properties. As
+to the accuracy of these statements, the author is unable to say. The
+shrinkage or loss in weight during canning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> amounts to from 30 to 40 per
+cent. The liquids in which the cooking and parboiling are done are
+sometimes used in the preparation of beef extracts. Salt, saltpeter, and
+condiments are generally added during the canning process. Saltpeter is
+used, as it assists in retaining the natural color and prevents some
+objectionable fermentation changes. In moderate amounts it is not
+generally considered an adulterant. An extensive examination by Wiley
+and Bigelow of packing-house products and preserved meats showed that of
+the latter only a small amount contained objectionable preservatives.
+The authors, after an extended investigation, reported favorably upon
+their composition and sanitary value, saying they found "so little to
+criticise and so much to commend in these necessary products." In this
+bulletin they do not classify saltpeter as an adulterant.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[51]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>Where fresh meats cannot be secured, canned meats are often
+indispensable. Usually the nutrients of canned meats cost more than
+those of fresh meats, and in their use as food much care should be
+exercised to prevent contamination after opening the cans. Occasionally
+the meat contains ferment materials that have not been entirely
+destroyed during cooking, and these, when the cans are stored in warm
+places, develop and cause deleterious changes to occur. Consequently
+canned meats should be stored at a low temperature. By recent
+congressional act, these preparations are now made under the
+super<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>vision of government inspectors. All diseased animals are
+rejected, and the sanitary conditions under which the meat is prepared
+have been greatly improved. Formerly, the most frequent forms of
+adulteration were substitution of one meat for another, as the mixing of
+veal with chicken, and the use of preservatives, as borax and sulphites.
+While the cost of the nutrients in canned meats is generally much higher
+than in fresh meats, the latter are not always easily obtained, or
+capable of being kept for any length of time, and hence canned meats are
+often indispensable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>CEREALS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>143. Preparation and Cost of Cereals.</b>&mdash;The grains used in the
+preparation of cereal foods are wheat, oats, corn, rice, and, to a less
+extent, barley and rye. For some of these the entire cleaned grain is
+ground or pulverized, while for others the bran and germ are first
+removed. In order to improve their keeping qualities, they are often
+sterilized before being put up in sealed packages. Special treatment, as
+steaming or malting, is sometimes given to impart palatability and to
+lessen the time required for cooking. As a class, the cereal foods are
+clean, nutritious, and free from adulteration. Extravagant claims are
+sometimes made as to their food value, and frequently excessive prices
+are charged, out of proportion to the cost of the nutrients in the raw
+material. Within recent years the number of cereal preparations has
+greatly increased, due to improvements and variations in the methods of
+manufacture.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>Cereal foods are less expensive than meats and the various animal food
+products. They contain no refuse, are easily prepared for the table, and
+may be kept without appreciable deterioration. Some of the
+ready<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>&mdash;to-eat brands are cooked, dried, and crushed, and sugar,
+glucose, salt, and various condimental materials added to impart taste.
+Others contain malt, or are subjected to a malting or germinating
+process to develop the soluble carbohydrates, and such foods are
+sometimes called predigested. It is believed that the cereals are being
+more extensively used in the dietary, which is desirable both from an
+economic and a nutritive point of view. Special care is necessary in the
+cooking and preparation of cereals for the table, in order to develop
+flavor and bring about hydration and rupturing of the tissues, as
+explained in Chapter II.</p>
+
+<p><b>144. Corn Preparations.</b>&mdash;Corn or maize is characterized by a high
+percent of fat and starch, and, compared with wheat and oats, a low
+content of protein.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[57]</sup></small></b></a> Removal of the bran and germ lessens the per
+cent of fat. The germ is removed principally because it imparts poor
+keeping qualities. Many of the corn breakfast foods contain 1 per cent
+or less of fat and from 8 to 9 per cent of protein. Coarsely ground corn
+foods are not as completely digested and assimilated as those more
+finely ground. As in the case of wheat products, the presence of the
+bran and germ appears to prevent the more complete absorption of the
+nutrients. Finely ground corn meal compares favorably in digestibility
+with wheat flour. Corn flour is prepared by removal of the bran and germ
+and granulation of the more starchy portions of the kernel, and has
+better keeping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> qualities than corn meal from which the bran and germ
+have not been so completely removed. At times corn flour has been
+sufficiently low in price to permit its use for the adulteration of
+wheat flour. The mixing of corn and wheat flours, however, is prohibited
+by law unless the product is so labeled. When combined with wheat flour,
+corn bread and various other articles of food are prepared, but used
+alone corn flour is not suitable for bread making, because its gluten
+lacks the binding properties imparted to wheat flour by the gliadin. It
+is essential that corn be used with foods of high protein content so as
+to make a balanced ration; for when it forms a large part of the
+dietary, the ration is apt to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> deficient in protein. In a mixed
+dietary, corn is one of the cheapest and best cereals that can be used.
+Too frequently, however, excessive prices are charged for corn
+preparations that contain no more nutrients than ordinary corn meal.
+There is no difference between yellow and white corn meal so far as
+nutritive value is concerned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img021.jpg" width="500" height="322"
+             alt="Fig. 31." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Corn Starch.</span></h4>
+
+<p><b>145. Oat Preparations</b> are characterized by large amounts of both
+protein and fat. Because of the removal of the hulls, they contain more
+protein than the original grain. The oat preparations differ little in
+chemical composition. They all have about 16 per cent of protein, 7 per
+cent of fat, and 65 per cent of starch, and are richer in ash or mineral
+matter than other cereals. The main difference is in method of
+preparation and mechanical composition. Some are partially cooked and
+then dried. Those costing 7 cents or more per pound do not contain any
+greater amount of nutritive substance than those purchased in bulk at
+about half the price. At one time it was believed that oats contained a
+special alkaloid having a stimulating effect when fed to animals. Recent
+investigations, however, show that there is no alkaloidal material in
+oats, and whatever stimulating effect they may have results from the
+nutrients they contain. Occasionally there is an appreciable amount of
+cellulose, or fiber, left in the oat preparations, due to imperfect
+milling. This noticeably lowers the digestibility. Oatmeal requires much
+longer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> and more thorough cooking than many other cereals, and it is
+frequently used as food when not well prepared. Digestion experiments
+show that when oatmeal is cooked for four hours or more, it is more
+readily acted upon by the diastase ferment and digested in a shorter
+time than oatmeal cooked only a half hour.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> Oatmeal is one of the
+cheapest sources from which protein is obtained, and when well cooked it
+can advantageously form an essential part of the ration. Unless
+thoroughly cooked, the oat preparations do not appear to be quite so
+completely or easily digested as some of the other cereals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img022.jpg" width="500" height="406"
+             alt="Fig. 32." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Oat Starch Granules.</span></h4>
+
+
+<p><b>146. Wheat Preparations</b> differ in chemical composition more than those
+from oats or corn, because wheat is prepared in a greater variety of
+ways. They are made either from the entire kernel, including the bran
+and germ, or from special parts, as the granular middlings, as in the
+case of some of the breakfast foods, and a few are made into a dough and
+baked, then dried and toasted. Some special flours are advertised as
+composed largely of gluten, but only those that have been prepared by
+washing out the starch are entitled to be classed as gluten flours.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[58]</sup></small></b></a>
+For the food of persons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> suffering from diabetes mellitus physicians
+advise the use of flour low in starch, and this can be made by washing
+and thus removing a portion of the starch from wheat flour, as directed
+in Experiment No. 30. The glutinous residue is then used for preparing
+articles of food. Analyses of some of the so-called gluten flours show
+that they contain no more gluten than ordinary flour, particularly the
+low grades. A number of wheat breakfast foods are prepared by
+sterilizing the flour middlings obtained after removal of the bran and
+germ. These middlings are the same stock or material from which the
+patent grades of flour are made, and they differ from wheat flour only
+in mechanical structure and size of the particles. Where granular wheat
+middlings can be secured in bulk at the same price as flour they furnish
+a valuable and cheap cereal breakfast food.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img023.jpg" width="500" height="379"
+             alt="Fig. 33." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wheat Starch Grains.</span></h4>
+
+<p>As to the digestibility and food value, the wheat breakfast foods have
+practically the same as graham, entire wheat, or ordinary patent flour,
+depending upon the stock which they contain. Those with large amounts of
+bran and germ are not as completely digested as when these parts of the
+kernel are not included. Wheat preparations, next to oats, have the most
+protein of any of the cereal foods. Occasionally they are prepared from
+wheats low in gluten and not suitable for bread-making purposes. When
+purchased in bulk the wheat preparations are among the cheapest foods
+that can be used in the dietary.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img024.jpg" width="500" height="365"
+             alt="Fig. 34." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Barley Starch.</span></h4>
+
+<p><b>147. Barley Preparations</b> are not so extensively used as wheat, oats,
+and corn. Barley contains a little more protein than corn, but not quite
+so much as wheat; otherwise it is quite similar to wheat in general
+composition. Sometimes in the preparation of breakfast foods barley meal
+is mixed with wheat or corn. Barley is supposed to be more readily
+digested than some of the other cereals, because of the presence of
+larger amounts of active ferment bodies, and it is frequently used for
+making an extract known as "barley water," which, although it contains
+very little nutritive value, as less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> than one per cent of the weight of
+the barley is rendered soluble, is useful in its soothing influence and
+mechanical action upon the mucous membrane of the digestive tract.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img025.jpg" width="500" height="523"
+             alt="Fig. 35." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rice Starch.</span></h4>
+
+<p><b>148. Rice Preparations.</b>&mdash;Rice varies somewhat in composition, but
+usually contains a slightly lower percentage of protein than corn and
+also a smaller amount of fat. It is particularly rich in starch, and has
+the least<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> ash or mineral matter of any of the cereals. In order to make
+a balanced ration, rice should be supplemented with legumes and other
+foods rich in proteids. It is a valuable grain, but when used alone it
+is deficient in protein. Rice is digested with moderate ease, but is not
+as completely absorbed by the body as other cereals, particularly those
+prepared by fine grinding or pulverization. Of late years rice culture
+has been extensively introduced into some of the southern states, and
+the domestic rice seems to have slightly higher protein content than the
+imported. Rice contains less protein than other cereals, and the starch
+grain is of different construction. Rice does not require such prolonged
+cooking as oatmeal; it needs, however, to be thoroughly cooked.</p>
+
+<p><b>149. Predigested Foods.</b><a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is questionable whether it would be of advantage to a healthy
+person to have his food artificially digested. The body under
+normal conditions is well adapted to utilize such foods as the
+ordinary mixed diet provides, among them the carbohydrates from the
+cereals. Moreover, it is generally believed that for the digestive
+organs, as for all others of the body, the amount of exercise they
+are normally fitted to perform is an advantage rather than the
+reverse. It has been said that 'a well man has no more need of
+predigested food than a sound man has for crutches.' If the
+digestive organs are out of order, it may be well to save them
+work, but troubles of digestion are often very complicated affairs,
+and the average person rarely has the knowledge needed to prescribe
+for himself. In general, those who are well should do their own
+work of digestion, and those who are ill should consult a competent
+physician."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Woods and Snyder.</span></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>150. The Value of Cereals in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;Cereals are valuable in the
+dietary because of the starch and protein they supply, and the heat and
+energy they yield. They are among the most inexpensive of foods and,
+when properly prepared, have a high degree of palatability; then, too,
+they are capable of being blended in various ways with other foods. Some
+are valuable for their mechanical action in digestion, rather than for
+any large amount of nutrients. They do not furnish the quantity of
+mineral matter and valuable phosphates that is popularly supposed. They
+all contain from 0.5 to 1.5 percent of mineral matter, of which about
+one third is phosphoric anhydrid. In discussing the phosphate content of
+food, Hammersten states:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[59]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Very little is known in regard to the need of phosphates or
+phosphoric acid.... The extent of this need is most difficult to
+determine, as the body shows a strong tendency, when increased
+amounts of phosphorus are introduced, to retain more than is
+necessary. The need of phosphates is relatively smaller in adults
+than in young developing animals."</p></div>
+
+<p>In the coarser cereals, which include the bran and germ, there is the
+maximum amount of mineral matter, but, as in the case of graham bread,
+it is not as completely digested and absorbed by the body as the more
+finely granulated products which contain less. The kind of cereal to use
+in the dietary is largely a matter of personal choice. As only a small
+amount is usually eaten at a meal, there is little difference in the
+quantity of nutrients supplied by the various breakfast cereals.<br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+
+           <h4>Total and Digestible Nutrients and Fuel Value of Cereals</h4>
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Total and Digestible Nutrients and Fuel Value of Cereals">
+
+<tr><th align="center" rowspan="3">KIND OF FOOD</th><th align="center" colspan="6">TOTAL NUTRIENTS</th><th align="center" colspan="5">DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td><th align="center" colspan="2">C. H.</th><td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Pro.</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>N.F. Ext</th><th align='right'>Fiber</th><th align='right'>Ash</th><th align='right'>Pro.</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>C. H.</th><th align='right'>Ash</th><th align='right'>Value<br />per lb.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Cal.</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Oat Preparations:</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oats, whole grain</td><td align='right'>11.0</td><td align='right'>11.8</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>59.7</td><td align='right'>9.5</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal, raw</td><td align='right'>7.3</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>66.6</td><td align='right'>9.9</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>12.5</td><td align='right'>6.5</td><td align='right'>65.5</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1767</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rolled, steam-cooked</td><td align='right'>8.2</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>7.4</td><td align='right'>65.2</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>12.5</td><td align='right'>6.7</td><td align='right'>64.5</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1759</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Wheat:</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Whole grain</td><td align='right'>10.5</td><td align='right'>11.9</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>71.9</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cracked wheat</td><td align='right'>10.1</td><td align='right'>11.1</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>73.8</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>8.1</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>68.7</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>1501</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rolled, steam-cooked</td><td align='right'>10.6</td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>74.4</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>8.5</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>70.7</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1541</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Shredded wheat</td><td align='right'>8.1</td><td align='right'>10.6</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>76.6</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>7.7</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>71.1</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1521</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Crumbed and malted</td><td align='right'>5.6</td><td align='right'>12.2</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>77.6</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>9.1</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>73.7</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1623</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Farina</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>11.0</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>75.9</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>8.9</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>72.9</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>1609</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Rye:</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Whole grain</td><td align='right'>11.6</td><td align='right'>10.6</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>72.5</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Flaked, to be eaten raw</td><td align='right'>11.1</td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td colspan="2" align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;75.8</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>7.8</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>71.1</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1516</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Barley:</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Whole grain</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>12.4</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>69.8</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pearled barley</td><td align='right'>11.5</td><td align='right'>8.5</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>77.5</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>6.6</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>73.0</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>1514</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Buckwheat:</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flour</td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>6.4</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>77.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>73.1</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1471</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Corn:</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Whole grain</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>10.5</td><td align='right'>5.4</td><td align='right'>69.6</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Corn meal, unbolted</td><td align='right'>11.6</td><td align='right'>8.4</td><td align='right'>4.7</td><td colspan="2" align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;74.0</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>4.2</td><td align='right'>73.2</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1728</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Corn meal, bolted</td><td align='right'>12.5</td><td align='right'>9.2</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>74.4</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>74.6</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1602</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hominy</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>8.6</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>79.2</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>6.4</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>78.7</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>1671</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pop corn, popped</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>10.7</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>77.3</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>77.8</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1882</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hulled corn</td><td align='right'>74.1</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td colspan="2" align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;22.2</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>21.8</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>492</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Rice:</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Whole rice, polished</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td colspan="2" align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;80.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>5.8</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>78.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>1546</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Puffed rice</td><td align='right'>7.1</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td colspan="2" align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;85.7</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>5.1</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>84.0</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>1639</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Crackers</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>10.7</td><td align='right'>8.8</td><td align='right'>71.4</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>9.1</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>70.5</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1905</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Macaroni</td><td align='right'>10.3</td><td align='right'>13.4</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td colspan="2" align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;74.1</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>11.6</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>72.2</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1660</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>WHEAT FLOUR</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>151. Use for Bread Making.</b>&mdash;Wheat is particularly adapted to
+bread-making purposes because of the physical properties of the gliadin,
+one of its proteids. It is the gliadin which, when wet, binds together
+the flour particles, enabling the gas generated during bread making to
+be retained, and the loaf to expand and become porous. Wheat varies in
+chemical composition between wide limits; it may contain as high as 16
+per cent of protein, or as low as 8 per cent; average wheat has from 12
+to 14 per cent; and with these differences in composition, the
+bread-making value varies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img026.jpg" width="356" height="550"
+             alt="Fig. 36." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Starchy (light-colored) and
+Glutinous (dark-colored) Wheats.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img027.jpg" width="127" height="220"
+             alt="Fig. 37." /><br />
+ <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Longitudinal<br />Section of Wheat
+Kernel</span>: <br /><i>a</i>, pericarp;<br /><i>b</i>, bran layers; <i>c</i>, aleurone cells;<br /><i>d</i>,
+germ. (After <span class="smcap">K&ouml;nig</span>.)</h4>
+    </div>
+<p><b>152. Winter and Spring Wheat Flours.</b>&mdash;There are two general classes of
+wheat: spring wheat and winter wheat. The winter varieties are seeded in
+the fall, and the spring varieties, which are grown mainly in the
+Northwestern states, Minnesota, and North and South Dakota, and the
+Canadian Northwest, are seeded in the spring and mature in the late
+summer. Winter wheat is confined to more southern latitudes and regions
+of less severe winter, and matures in the early summer. There are many
+varieties of both spring and winter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> wheat, although wheats are
+popularly characterized only as hard or soft, depending upon the
+physical properties. The winter wheats are, as a rule, more soft and
+starchy than the spring wheats, which are usually corneous or flinty to
+different degrees. There is a general tendency for wheats to become
+either starchy or glutinous, owing to inherited individuality of the
+seed and to environment. There are often found in the same field wheat
+plants yielding hard glutinous kernels, and other plants producing
+starchy kernels containing 5 per cent less proteids. Wheats of low
+protein content do not make high-grade flour; neither do wheats of the
+maximum protein content necessarily make the best flour. For a more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+extended discussion of wheat proteids, the student is referred to
+Chapter XI.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>153. Composition of Wheat and Flour.</b>&mdash;In addition to 12 to 14 per cent
+proteids, wheat contains 72 to 76<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> per cent of starch and small amounts
+of other carbohydrates, as sucrose, dextrose, and invert sugar. The ash
+or mineral matter ranges from 1.7 to 2.3 per cent. There is also about 2
+per cent fiber, 2.25 per cent ether extract or crude fat, and about 0.2
+per cent organic acids.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<h4><b>Summary:</b></h4>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Composition of Wheat Flour</span></h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="MORE COSTS OF AN HOSPITAL FOR INCURABLES">
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Water</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">Per Cent<br />12.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right" rowspan="9" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap">
+     </td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+   <td valign="top" class="tdleft" rowspan="9" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 110pt">
+     {</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Ash</td>
+<td align="left">Potash<br />Soda<br />Lime<br />Magnesia<br />Phosphoric anhydrid<br />
+Sulphuric anhydrid<br />Other Substances</td>
+<td align="right">Per Cent<br />2.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right" rowspan="6" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap">
+     </td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+   <td valign="top" class="tdleft" rowspan="6" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 100pt">
+     {</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="middle" align="right" rowspan="5">Protein</td>
+<td align="left">Albumin</td>
+<td align="right">0.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Globulin</td>
+<td align="right">0.9</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Gliadin</td>
+<td align="right">6.0</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">Per Cent<br />13.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Glutenin</td>
+<td align="right">5.3</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Other proteids</td>
+<td align="right">0.4</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="MORE COSTS OF AN HOSPITAL FOR INCURABLES">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">Per Cent</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Other nitrogenous bodies, as amids, lecethin</td>
+<td align="right">0.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Crude fat, ether extract</td>
+<td align="right">2.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Cellulose</td>
+<td align="right">2.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Starch</td>
+<td align="right">66.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Sucrose, dextrose, soluble carbohydrates, etc.</td>
+<td align="right">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img028.jpg" width="250" height="248"
+             alt="Fig. 38." /><br />
+ <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Granular<br />Wheat Flour
+Particles.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+<p><br /><b>154. Roller Process of Flour Milling.</b>&mdash;Flours vary in composition,
+food value, and bread-making qualities with the character of the wheat
+and the process of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> milling employed. Prior to 1870 practically all
+wheat flour was prepared by grinding the wheat between millstones; but
+with the introduction of the roller process, steel rolls were
+substituted for millstones.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[60]</sup></small></b></a> By the former process a smaller amount
+of flour was secured from the wheat, but with the present improved
+systems about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> 75 per cent of the weight of the grain is recovered as
+merchantable flour and 25 per cent as wheat offals, bran, and
+shorts<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[61]</sup></small></b></a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The wheat is first screened and cleaned, then passed on to the
+corrugated rolls, or the first break, where it is partially flattened
+and slightly crushed and a small amount of flour, known as the break
+flour, is separated by means of sieves, while the main portion is
+conveyed through elevators to the second break, where the kernels are
+more completely flattened and the granular flour particles are partially
+separated from the bran. The material passes over several pairs of rolls
+or breaks, each succeeding pair being set a little nearer together. This
+is called the gradual reduction process, because the wheat is not made
+into flour in one operation. More complete removal of the bran and other
+impurities from the middlings is effected by means of sieves,
+aspirators, and other devices, and the purified middlings are then
+passed on to smooth rolls, where the granulation is completed. The flour
+finally passes through silk bolting cloths, containing upwards of 12,000
+meshes per square inch. The dust and fine d&eacute;bris particles are removed
+at various points in the process. The granulation of the middlings is
+done after the impurities are removed, the object being first to
+separate as perfectly as possible the middlings from the branny portions
+of the kernel. If the wheat were first ground into a fine meal, it would
+be impossible to secure complete sepa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>ration of the flour from the
+offal portions of the kernel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img029.jpg" width="550" height="346"
+             alt="Fig. 39." /><br />
+ <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Exterior of Flour Mill and Wheat
+Elevator.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+<p>Flour milling is entirely a mechanical process; the flour stock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> passes
+from roll to roll by means of elevators. According to the number of
+reductions which the middlings and stock undergo, the milling is
+designated as a long or a short reduction system; the term 4, 6, 8, or
+10 break process means that the stock has been subjected to that number
+of reductions. With an 8-break system of milling, the process is more
+gradual than with a 4-break, and greater opportunity is afforded for
+complete removal of the bran. In some large flour mills, the wheat is
+separated into forty or more different products, or streams, as they are
+called, so as to secure a better granulation and more complete removal
+of the offals, after which many of these streams are brought together to
+form the finished flour. What is known as patent flour is derived from
+the reduction of the middlings, while the break flours are recovered
+before the offals are completely removed; hence they are not of so high
+a grade. No absolute definition can be given, however, of the term
+"patent flour," as usage varies the meaning in different parts of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p><b>155. Grades of Flour.</b>&mdash;Flour is the purified, refined, and bolted
+product obtained by reduction and granulation of wheat during and after
+the removal of the branny portions of the wheat kernel. It is defined by
+proclamation of the Secretary of Agriculture, under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> authority of an
+act of Congress, as: "Flour is the fine, sound product made by bolting
+wheat meal, and contains not more than thirteen and one half (13.5) per
+cent of moisture, not less than one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25)
+per cent of nitrogen, not more than one (1) per cent of ash, and not
+more than fifty hundredths (0.50) per cent of fiber."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img030.jpg" width="550" height="330"
+             alt="Fig. 40." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Grinding Floor of Flour Mill,
+Russell-Miller Milling Co., Minneapolis, Minn.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img031.jpg" width="250" height="241"
+             alt="Fig. 41." /><br />
+ <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Silk Bolting<br />Cloth Used in
+Manufacture<br />of Flour, Magnified.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+<p>Generally speaking, flour may be divided into two classes, high grade
+and low grade. To the first class belong the first and second patents
+and, according to some authorities, a portion of the straight grade, or
+standard patent flour, and to the second class belong the second clear
+and "red dog." About 72 per cent of the cleaned wheat as milled is
+recovered in the higher grades of flour, and about 2 or 3 per cent as
+low grades, a large portion of which is sold as animal food. The high
+grades are characterized by a lighter color, more elastic gluten, better
+granulation, and a smaller number of d&eacute;bris particles. Although the
+lower grade flours contain a somewhat higher percentage of protein, they
+are not as valuable for bread-making purposes because the gluten is not
+as elastic, and consequently they do not make as good bread. If the
+impurities from the low grades could be further eliminated, it is
+believed that less difference would exist between high and low grade
+flours.</p>
+
+
+<p>Various trade names are used to designate flours, as a 95 per cent
+patent, meaning that 95 per cent of the total flour is included in the
+patent; or an 85 per cent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> patent, when 85 per cent of all the flour is
+included in that particular patent. If all the flour streams were
+purified and blended, and only one grade of flour made, it would be
+called a 100 per cent patent. An 85 per cent patent is a higher grade
+flour than a 95 per cent patent.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>156. Composition of Flour.</b>&mdash;The composition of the different grades of
+flour made from the same wheat is given in the following table:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a><br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Composition, Acidity, and Heats of Combustion of Flours And Other
+Milled Products of Wheat</span></h4>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="95%" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Flour">
+
+<tr><th align='left'>Milled Product</th><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='center'>Protein<br />(N&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;5.7)</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohydrates</th><th align='right'>Ash</th><th align='right'>Acidity<br />calcualted as<br />Lactic Acid</th><th align='right'>Heat of<br />Combustion<br />Per Gram<br />Determined</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>First patent flour</td><td align='right'>10.55</td><td align='right'>11.08</td><td align='right'>1.15</td><td align='right'>76.85</td><td align='right'>0.37</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>4032</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Second patent flour</td><td align='right'>10.49</td><td align='right'>11.14</td><td align='right'>1.20</td><td align='right'>76.75</td><td align='right'>0.42</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>4006</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Straight<a name="FNanchor_A_6" id="FNanchor_A_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_6" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> or standard patent flour</td><td align='right'>10.54</td><td align='right'>11.99</td><td align='right'>1.61</td><td align='right'>75.36</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>4050</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>First clear grade flour</td><td align='right'>10.13</td><td align='right'>13.74</td><td align='right'>2.20</td><td align='right'>73.13</td><td align='right'>0.80</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>4097</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Second clear grade flour</td><td align='right'>10.08</td><td align='right'>15.03</td><td align='right'>3.77</td><td align='right'>69.37</td><td align='right'>1.75</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>4267</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>"Red dog" flour</td><td align='right'>9.17</td><td align='right'>18.98</td><td align='right'>7.00</td><td align='right'>61.37</td><td align='right'>3.48</td><td align='right'>0.59</td><td align='right'>4485</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Shorts</td><td align='right'>8.73</td><td align='right'>14.87</td><td align='right'>6.37</td><td align='right'>65.47</td><td align='right'>4.56</td><td align='right'>0.14</td><td align='right'>4414</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bran</td><td align='right'>9.99</td><td align='right'>14.02</td><td align='right'>4.39</td><td align='right'>65.54</td><td align='right'>6.06</td><td align='right'>0.23</td><td align='right'>4198</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Entire-wheat flour</td><td align='right'>10.81</td><td align='right'>12.26</td><td align='right'>2.24</td><td align='right'>73.67</td><td align='right'>1.02</td><td align='right'>0.32</td><td align='right'>4032</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Graham flour</td><td align='right'>8.61</td><td align='right'>12.65</td><td align='right'>2.44</td><td align='right'>74.58</td><td align='right'>1.72</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>4148</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat</td><td align='right'>8.50</td><td align='right'>12.65</td><td align='right'>2.36</td><td align='right'>74.69</td><td align='right'>1.80</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>4140</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_6" id="Footnote_A_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_6"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Straight flour includes the first and second patents and
+first clear grade.</p></div>
+
+<p><br />In the table it will be noted that there is a gradual increase in
+protein content from first patent to "red dog," the largest amount being
+in the "red dog" flour. Although "red dog" contains the most protein, it
+is by far the poorest flour in bread-making qualities, and in the
+milling of wheat often it is not separated from the offals, but is sold
+as an animal food. It will also be seen that there is a gradual increase
+in the ash content from the highest to the lowest grades of flour, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+increase being practically proportional to the grade,&mdash;the most ash
+being in the lowest grade. The grade to which a flour belongs can be
+determined more accurately from the ash content than from any other
+constituent. Patent grades of flour rarely contain more than 0.55 per
+cent of ash,&mdash;the better grades less than 0.5 per cent. The more
+completely the bran and offals are removed during the process of
+milling, the lower the per cent of ash. The ash content, however, cannot
+be taken as an absolute guide in all cases, as noticeable variations
+occur in the amount of mineral matter or ash in different wheats;
+starchy wheats that have reached full maturity often contain less than
+hard wheats grown upon rich soil where the growing season has been
+short, and from such wheats a soft, straight flour may have as low a per
+cent of ash as a hard first patent flour. When only straight or standard
+patent flour is manufactured by a mill, all of the flour is included
+which would otherwise be designated first and second patents and first
+clear.</p>
+
+<p><b>157. Graham and Entire Wheat Flours.</b>&mdash;When the germ and a portion of
+the bran are retained in the flour, and the particles are not completely
+reduced, the product is called "entire wheat flour." The name does not
+accurately describe the product, as it includes all of the flour and
+only a portion of the bran, and not the entire wheat kernel. Graham
+flour is coarsely granulated wheat meal. No sieves or bolting cloths
+are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> employed in its manufacture, and many coarse, unpulverized
+particles are present in the product<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>158. Composition of Wheat Offals.</b>&mdash;Bran and shorts are characterized
+by a high percentage of fiber, or cellulose. The ash, fat, and protein
+content of bran are all larger than of flour. The protein, however, is
+not in the form of gluten, but is largely albumin and globulins,<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[16]</sup></small></b></a>
+which are mainly in the aleurone layer of the wheat kernel, and are
+inclosed in branny capsules, and consequently are in a form not readily
+digested by man.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img032.jpg" width="550" height="181"
+             alt="Fig. 42." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Flour and Gluten.</span></h4>
+
+<h4>1, flour; 2, dough; 3, moist gluten; 4, dry gluten.</h4>
+
+<p>The germ is generally included in the shorts, although occasionally it
+is removed for special commercial purposes. It is sometimes sterilized
+and used in breakfast food products. The germ is rich in oil and is
+excluded from the flour mainly because it has a tendency to become
+rancid and to impart to the flour poor keeping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> qualities. Wheat oil has
+cathartic properties, and it is believed the physiological action of
+whole wheat and graham bread is in part due to the oil. The germ is also
+rich in protein, mainly in the form of globulins and proteoses. A dough
+cannot be made of pure germ, because it contains so little of the
+gliadin and glutenin.</p>
+
+<p><b>159. Aging and Curing of Flour.</b>&mdash;Flours well milled and made from
+high-grade, cleaned wheat generally improve in bread-making value when
+stored in clean, ventilated warehouses for periods of three to six
+months<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[9]</sup></small></b></a>. High-grade flour becomes drier and whiter and produces bread
+of slightly better quality when properly cured by storage. If the flour
+is in any way unsound, it deteriorates during storage, due to the action
+of ferment bodies. Wheat also, when properly cleaned and stored,
+improves in milling and bread-making value. Certain enzymic changes
+appear to take place which are beneficial. Wheats differ materially from
+year to year in bread-making value, and those produced in seasons when
+all the conditions for crop growth are normal do not seem to be so much
+improved by storing and aging, either of the wheat or the flour, as when
+the growing season has been unfavorable. When wheat is stored, specific
+changes occur in both the germ and the cells of the kernel; these
+changes are akin to the ripening process, and appear to be greater if,
+for any reason, the wheat has failed to fully mature or is abnormal in
+composition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The flour yield of wheat is in general proportional to the weight per
+bushel of the grain, well-filled, heavy grain producing more flour than
+light grain.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[61]</sup></small></b></a> The quality of the flour, however, is not necessarily
+proportional to the weight of the grain. It is often necessary to blend
+different grades and types of wheat in order to secure good flour.</p>
+
+<p><b>160. Macaroni Flour</b> is made from durum wheat, according to Saunders a
+variety of hard, spring wheat. It is best grown in regions of restricted
+rainfall. Durum and other varieties of hard spring wheat grown under
+similar conditions, differ but little in general chemical composition,
+except that the gluten of durum appears to have a different percentage
+of gliadin and glutenin, and the flour has a more decided yellow color.
+Durum wheats are not generally considered as valuable for bread making
+as other hard wheat. They differ widely in bread-making value, some
+being very poor, while others produce bread of fair quality.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[68]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>161. Color.</b>&mdash;The highest grades of flour are white in color, or of a
+slight creamy tinge. Dark-colored, slaty, and gray flours are of
+inferior quality, indicating a poor grade of wheat, poor milling, or a
+poor quality of gluten. Flours, after being on the market for a time,
+bleach a little and improve to a slight degree in color. Color is one of
+the characteristics by which the commercial value of flour is
+determined; the whiter the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> flour, the better the grade, provided other
+properties are equal<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[9]</sup></small></b></a>. The color, however, should be a pure or cream
+white. Some flours have what is called a dead white color, and, while
+not objectionable as far as color is concerned, they are not as valuable
+for bread-making and general commercial purposes. One of the principal
+trade requirements of a flour is that it possess a certain degree of
+whiteness and none of the objectionable shades mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>To determine the color of a flour, it is compared with a standard. If it
+is a winter wheat flour, one of the best high-grade winter patents to be
+found on the market is selected, and the sample in question is compared
+with this; if it is a spring wheat patent flour, one of the best spring
+wheat patent grades is taken as the standard. In making the comparison,
+the flours should be placed side by side on a glass plate and smoothed
+with the flour trier, the comparison being made preferably by a north
+window. Much experience and practice are necessary in order to determine
+with accuracy the color value of a flour.</p>
+
+<p><b>162. Granulation.</b>&mdash;The best patent grades of flour contain an
+appreciable amount of granular middlings, which have a characteristic
+"feel" similar to fine, sharp sand. A flour which has no granular
+feeling is not usually considered of the highest grade, but is generally
+a soft wheat flour of poor gluten. However, a flour should not be too
+coarsely granulated. The percentage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> amounts of the different grades of
+stock in a flour can be approximately determined by means of sieves and
+different sized bolting cloths. To test a flour, ten grams are placed in
+a sieve containing a No. 10 bolting cloth; with a camel's-hair brush and
+proper manipulation, the flour is sieved, and that which passes through
+is weighed. The percentage amount remaining on the No. 10 cloth is
+coarser middlings. Nearly all high-grade flours leave no residue on the
+No. 10 cloth. The sifted flour from the No. 10 cloth is also passed
+through Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14 cloths<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[63]</sup></small></b></a>. In this way the approximate
+granulation of any grade of flour may be determined, and the granulation
+of an unknown sample be compared with that of a standard flour. In
+determining the granulation of a flour, if there are any coarse or
+discolored particles of bran or dust, they should be noted, as it is an
+indication of poor milling. When the flour is smoothed with a trier,
+there should be no channels formed on the surface of the flour, due to
+fibrous impurities caught under the edge of the trier. A hand magnifying
+glass is useful for detecting the presence of abnormal amounts of dirt
+or fibrous matter in the flour.</p>
+
+<p><b>163. Capacity of Flour to absorb Water.</b>&mdash;The capacity of a flour to
+absorb water is determined by adding water from a burette to a weighed
+amount of flour until a dough of standard consistency is obtained. Low
+absorption is due to low gluten content. A good flour should absorb from
+60 to 65 per cent of its weight of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> water. In making the test, it is
+advisable to determine the absorption of a flour of known baking value
+at the same time that an unknown flour is being tested. Flours of low
+absorption do not make breads of the best quality; also there are a
+smaller number of loaves per barrel, and the bread dries out more
+readily.</p>
+
+<p><b>164. Physical Properties of Gluten.</b>&mdash;The percentages of wet and dry
+gluten in a flour are determined as outlined in Experiment No. 27.
+Flours of good character should show at least 30 per cent moist gluten
+and from 10 to 12 per cent dry gluten. The quality of a flour is not
+necessarily proportional to its gluten content, although a flour with
+less than 10&frac12; per cent of dry gluten will not make the best quality
+of bread, and flours with excessive amounts are sometimes poor bread
+makers. The color of the gluten is also important; it should be white or
+creamy. The statements made in regard to color of flour apply also to
+color of the gluten. A dark, stringy, or putty-like gluten is of little
+value for bread-making purposes.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a> In making the gluten test, it is
+advisable to compare the gluten with that from a flour of known
+bread-making value. Soft wheat flours have a gluten of different
+character from hard wheat flours.</p>
+
+<p><b>165. Gluten as a Factor in Bread Making.</b>&mdash;The bread-making value of a
+flour is dependent upon the character of the wheat and the method of
+milling. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> is not necessarily dependent upon the amount of gluten, as
+the largest volume and best quality of bread are often made from flour
+of average rather than maximum gluten content. But flours with low
+gluten do not produce high-grade breads. When a flour contains more than
+12 or 13 per cent of proteids, any increase does not necessarily mean
+added bread-making value. The quality of the gluten, equally with the
+amount, determines the value for bread-making purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img033.jpg" width="250" height="242"
+             alt="Fig. 43." /><br />
+ <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fungous Growth<br />in Unsound
+Flour.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>166. Unsoundness.</b>&mdash;A flour with more than 14 per cent of moisture is
+liable to become unsound. High acidity also is an indication of
+unsoundness or of poor keeping qualities. The odor of a sample of flour
+should always be carefully noted, for any suggestion of fermentation
+sufficient to affect the odor renders the flour unsuited for making the
+best bread. Any abnormal odor in flour is objectionable, as it is due to
+contamination of some sort, and most frequently to fermentation changes.
+A musty odor is always an indication of unsoundness. Some flours which
+have but a slight suggestion of mustiness will, when baked into bread,
+have it more pronounced; on the other hand, some odors are removed
+during bread making. Flours may absorb odors because of being stored in
+contaminated places or being shipped in cars in which oil or other
+ill-smelling products with strong odors have previously been shipped.
+Unsoundness is often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> due to faulty methods in handling, as well as to
+poor wheat, or to lack of proper cleaning of the wheat or flour.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>167. Comparative Baking Tests.</b>&mdash;To determine the bread-making value of
+a flour, comparative baking tests, as outlined in Experiment No. 29, are
+made; the flour in question is thus compared as to bread-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>making value
+with a flour of known baking quality. In making the baking tests, the
+absorption of the flour, the way in which it responds in the doughing
+process, and the general properties of the dough, are noted. The details
+should be carried out with care, the comparison always being made with a
+similar flour of known baking value, and the bread should be baked at
+the same time and under the same conditions as the standard. The color
+of the bread, the size and weight of the loaf, and its texture and odor,
+are the principal characteristics to be noted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img034.jpg" width="550" height="390"
+             alt="Fig. 44." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Comparative Baking Tests.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The quality of flour for bread-making purposes is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> strictly
+dependent upon any one factor, but appears to be the aggregate of a
+number of desirable characteristics. The commercial grade of a flour can
+be accurately determined from the color, granulation, absorption, gluten
+and ash content, and the quality of the bread. Technical flour testing
+requires much experience and a high degree of skill.</p>
+
+<p><b>168. Bleaching.</b>&mdash;In the process of manufacture, flours are often
+subjected to air containing traces of nitrogen peroxide gas, generated
+by electrical action and resulting in the union of the oxygen and
+nitrogen of the air. This whitens and improves the color of the flour.
+Bleached flours differ neither in chemical composition nor in nutritive
+value from unbleached flours, except that bleached flours contain a
+small amount (about one part to one million parts of flour) of nitrite
+reacting material, which is removed during the process of bread making.
+The amount of nitrites produced in flour during bleaching is less than
+is normally present in the saliva, or is found naturally in many
+vegetable foods, or in smoked or cured meats, or in bread made from
+unbleached flour and baked in a gas oven where nitrites are produced
+from combustion of the gas. The bleaching of flour cannot be regarded as
+in any way injurious to health or as adulteration, and a bleached flour
+which has good gluten and bread-making qualities is entirely
+satisfactory. It is not possible to successfully bleach low-grade flours
+so they will re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>semble the high grades, because the bran impurities of
+the low grades blacken during bleaching and become more prominent.
+Alway, of the Nebraska Experiment Station, has shown that there is no
+danger to apprehend from over-bleaching, for when excess of the
+bleaching reagent is used, flours become yellow in color<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[65]</sup></small></b></a>. Similar
+results have been obtained at the Minnesota Experiment Station. As
+bleaching is not injurious to health, and as it is not possible through
+bleaching to change low grades so as to resemble the patent grades,
+bleaching resolves itself entirely into the question of what color of
+flour the consumer desires. Pending the settlement of the status of
+bleaching the practice has been largely discontinued.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img035.jpg" width="241" height="250"
+             alt="Fig. 45." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wheat<br />Hairs and D&eacute;bris in<br />Low
+Grade Flours.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+<p><b>169. Adulteration of Flour.</b>&mdash;Flour is not easily adulterated, as the
+addition of any foreign material interferes with the expansion and
+bread-making qualities and hence is readily detected. The mixing of
+other cereals, as corn flour, with wheat flour has been attempted at
+various times when wheat commanded a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> high price, but this also is
+readily detected, by microscopic examination, as the corn starch and
+wheat starch grains are quite different in mechanical structure. Such
+flours are required to be labeled, in accord with the congressional act
+of 1898, when Congress passed, in advance of the general pure food bill,
+an act regulating the labeling and sale of mixed and adulterated flours.
+Various statements have been made in regard to the adulteration of flour
+with minerals, as chalk and barytes, but such adulteration does not
+appear to be at all general.</p>
+
+<p><b>170. Nutritive Value of Flour.</b>&mdash;From a nutritive point of view, wheat
+flour and wheat bread have a high value.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[66]</sup></small></b></a> A larger amount of
+nutrients can be secured for a given sum of money in the form of flour
+than of any other food material except corn meal. According to
+statistics, the average per capita consumption of wheat in the United
+States is about 4&frac12; bushels, or, approximately, one barrel per year,
+and from recent investigations it would appear that the amount of flour
+used in the dietary is on the increase. According to the Bureau of
+Labor, flour costs the average laborer about one tenth as much as all
+other foods combined, although he secures from it a proportionally
+larger amount of nutritive material than from any other food.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>BREAD AND BREAD MAKING</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>171. Leavened and Unleavened Bread.</b>&mdash;To make unleavened bread the
+flour is moistened and worked into a stiff dough, which is then rolled
+thin, cut into various shapes, and baked, forming a brittle biscuit or
+cracker.</p>
+
+<p>The process of making raised or leavened bread consists, in brief, of
+mixing the flour and water in proper proportions for a stiff dough,
+together with some salt for seasoning, and yeast (or other agent) for
+leavening. The moistened gluten of the flour forms a viscid, elastic,
+tenacious mass, which is thoroughly kneaded to distribute the yeast. The
+dough is then set in a warm place and the yeast begins to grow, or
+"work," causing alcoholic fermentation, with the production of carbon
+dioxid gas, which expands the dough, or causes it to "rise," thus
+rendering it porous. After the yeast has grown sufficiently, the dough
+is baked in a hot oven, where further fermentation is stopped because of
+destruction of the yeast by the heat, which also causes the gas to
+expand the loaf and, in addition, generates steam. The gas and steam
+inflate the tenacious dough and finally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> escape into the oven. At the
+same time the gluten of the dough is hardened by the heat, and the mass
+remains porous and light, while the outer surface is darkened and formed
+into a crust.</p>
+
+<p>When the flour is of good quality, the dough well prepared, and the
+bread properly baked, the loaf has certain definite characteristics. It
+should be well raised and have a thin, flinty crust, which is not too
+dark in color nor too tough, but which cracks when broken; the crumb, as
+the interior of the loaf is called, should be porous, elastic, and of
+uniform texture, without large holes, and should have good flavor, odor,
+and color.</p>
+
+<p>Meal or flour from any of the cereals may be used for unleavened bread,
+but leavened bread can be made only from those that contain gluten, a
+mixture of vegetable proteids which when moistened with water becomes
+viscid, and is tenacious enough to confine the gas produced in the
+dough. Most cereals, as barley, rice, oats, and corn, some of which are
+very frequently made into forms of unleavened bread, are deficient or
+wholly lacking in gluten, and hence cannot be used alone for making
+leavened bread. For the leavened bread, wheat and rye, which contain an
+abundance of gluten, are best fitted, wheat being in this country by far
+the more commonly used.</p>
+
+<p><b>172. Changes during Bread Making.</b>&mdash;In bread making complex physical,
+chemical, and biological changes occur. Each chemical compound of the
+flour undergoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> some change during the process. The most important
+changes are as follows<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a>:</p>
+
+<p>1. Production of carbon dioxid gas, alcohol, and soluble carbohydrates
+as the result of ferment action.</p>
+
+<p>2. Partial rupturing of the starch grains and formation of a small
+amount of soluble carbohydrates due to the action of heat.</p>
+
+<p>3. Production of lactic and other organic acids.</p>
+
+<p>4. Formation of volatile carbon compounds, other than alcohol and carbon
+dioxid.</p>
+
+<p>5. Change in the solubility of the gluten proteins, due to the action of
+the organic acids and fermentation.</p>
+
+<p>6. Changes in the solubility of the proteids due to the action of heat,
+as coagulation of the albumin and globulin.</p>
+
+<p>7. Formation and liberation of a small amount of volatile, nitrogenous
+compounds, as ammonia and amids.</p>
+
+<p>8. Partial oxidation of the fat.</p>
+
+<p><b>173. Loss of Dry Matter during Bread Making.</b>&mdash;As many of the compounds
+formed during bread making are gases resulting from fermentation action,
+and as these are volatile at the temperature of baking, appreciable
+losses necessarily take place. Experiments show about 2 per cent of loss
+of dry matter under ordinary conditions. These losses are not confined
+to the carbohydrates alone, but also extend to the proteids and other
+compounds. When 100 pounds of flour containing 10 per cent of water and
+90 per cent of dry matter are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> made into bread, the bread contains about
+88 pounds of dry matter. In exceptional cases, where there has been
+prolonged fermentation, the losses exceed 2 per cent<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img036.jpg" width="500" height="475"
+             alt="Fig. 46." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Brewers' Yeast.</span></h4>
+
+<p><b>174. Action of Yeast.</b>&mdash;Yeast is a monocellular plant requiring sugar
+and other food materials for its nourishment. Under favorable conditions
+it rapidly increases by budding, and as a result produces the well-known
+alcoholic fermentation. It requires mineral food, as do plants of a
+higher order, and oftentimes the fermentation process is checked for
+want of sufficient soluble<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> mineral food. The yeast plant causes a
+number of chemical changes to take place, as conversion of starch to a
+soluble form and alcoholic fermentation.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O = C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> = 2 C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + 2 CO<sub>2</sub>.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Alcoholic fermentation cannot occur until the starch has been converted
+into dextrose sugar. The yeast plant is destroyed at a temperature of
+131&deg; F. It is most active from 70&deg; to 90&deg; F. At a low temperature it is
+less active, and when it freezes the cells are ruptured. A number of
+different kinds of fermentation are associated with the growth of the
+yeast plant, and there are many varieties of yeast, some of which are
+more active than others. For bread making an active yeast is desirable
+to prevent the formation of acid bodies. If the work proceeds quickly,
+the rising process is completed before the acid fermentation is far
+advanced. If fermentation is too prolonged, some of the products of the
+yeast plant impart an undesirable taste and odor to the bread, and
+hinder the development of the gluten and expansion of the loaf.</p>
+
+<p><b>175. Compressed Yeast.</b>&mdash;The yeast most commonly used in bread making
+is compressed yeast, a product of distilleries. The yeast floating on
+the surface of the wort is skimmed off and that remaining is allowed to
+settle to the bottom, and is obtained by running the wort into shallow
+tanks or settling trays. It is then washed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> with cold water, and the
+impurities are removed either by sieving through silk or wire sieves,
+or, during the washing, by fractional precipitation. The yeast is then
+pressed, cut into cakes, and wrapped in tinfoil. When fresh, it is of
+uniform creamy color, moist, and of a firm, even texture<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a>. It should
+be kept cold, as it readily decomposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>176. Dry Yeast</b> is made by mixing starch or meal with fresh yeast until
+a stiff dough is formed. This is then dried, either in the sun or at a
+moderate temperature, and cut into cakes. By drying, many of the yeast
+cells are rendered temporarily inactive, and so it is a slower acting
+leaven than the compressed yeast. A dry yeast will keep indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p><b>177. Production of Carbon Dioxid Gas and Alcohol.</b>&mdash;Carbon dioxid and
+alcohol are produced in the largest amounts of any of the compounds
+formed during bread making. When the alcoholic ferments secreted by the
+yeast plant act upon the invert sugars and produce alcoholic
+fermentation, carbon dioxid is one of the products formed. Ordinarily
+about 1 per cent of carbon dioxid gas is generated and lost during bread
+making. About equal weights of carbon dioxid and alcohol are produced
+during the fermentation. In baking, the alcohol is vaporized and aids
+the carbon dioxid in expanding the dough and making the bread porous. If
+all of the moisture given off during bread making be collected it will
+be found that from a pound loaf of bread there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> are about 40 cubic
+centimeters of liquid; when this is submitted to chemical analysis,
+small amounts of alcohol are obtained. Alcoholic fermentation sometimes
+fails to take place readily, because there are not sufficient soluble
+carbohydrates to undergo inversion, or other food for the yeast plant.
+Starch cannot be converted directly into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas;
+it must first be changed into dextrose sugars, and these undergo
+alcoholic fermentation. Bread gives no appreciable reaction for alcohol
+even when fresh.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img037.jpg" width="500" height="278"
+             alt="Fig. 47." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wheat Starch Granules after
+Fermentation with Yeast, as in Bread Making.</span></h4>
+
+<p>If the gluten is of poor quality, or deficient in either gliadin or
+glutenin, the dough mass fails to properly expand because the gas is not
+all retained. The amount of gas formed is dependent upon temperature,
+rapidity of the ferment action, and quality of the yeast and flour. If
+the yeast is inactive, other forms of fermentation than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> the alcoholic
+may take place and, as a result, the dough does not expand. Poor yeast
+is a frequent cause of poor bread.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature reached in bread making is not sufficient to destroy all
+the ferment bodies associated with the yeast, as, for example, bread
+sometimes becomes soft and stringy, due to fermentation changes after
+the bread has been baked and stored. Both bread and flour are subject to
+many bacterial diseases, and one of the objects of thorough cleaning of
+the wheat and removal of the bran and d&eacute;bris particles during the
+process of flour manufacture is to completely eliminate all ferment
+bodies mechanically associated with the exterior of the wheat kernel,
+which, if retained in the flour, would cause it readily to become
+unsound.</p>
+
+<p><b>178. Production of Soluble Carbohydrates.</b>&mdash;Flour contains naturally a
+small amount of soluble carbohydrates, which are readily acted upon by
+the alcoholic ferments. The yeast plant secretes soluble ferments, which
+act upon the starch, forming soluble carbohydrates, and the heat during
+baking brings about similar changes. In fact, soluble carbohydrates are
+both consumed and produced by ferment action during the bread-making
+process. Flour contains, on an average, 65 per cent of starch, and
+during bread making about 10 per cent is changed to soluble forms.
+Bread, on a dry matter basis, contains approximately 6 per cent of
+soluble carbohydrates, including dextrine, dextrose, and sucrose
+sugars.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The physical changes which the starch grains undergo are also
+noticeable. Wheat starch has the structure shown in illustration No. 33.
+The starch grains are circular bodies, concave, with slight markings in
+the form of concentric rings. When the proteid matter of bread is
+extracted with alcohol and the starch grains are examined, it will, be
+seen that some of them are partially ruptured, like those in popped
+corn, while others have been slightly acted upon or eaten away by the
+organized ferments, the surface of the starch grains being pitted, as
+shown in the illustration. The joint action of heat and ferments on the
+starch grains changes them physically so they may more readily undergo
+digestion. The brown coating or crust formed upon the surface of bread
+is mainly dextrine, produced by the action of heat on the starch.
+Dextrine is a soluble carbohydrate, having the same general composition
+as starch, but differing from it in physical properties and ease of
+digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>179. Production of Acids in Bread Making.</b>&mdash;Wheat bread made with yeast
+gives an acid reaction. The acid is produced from the carbohydrates by
+ferment action. Flour contains about one tenth of 1 per cent of acid;
+the dough contains from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent, while the baked bread
+contains from 0.14 to 0.3 per cent, but after two or three days slightly
+more acid is developed.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a> During the process of bread making, a small
+portion of the acid is volatilized, but the larger part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> enters into
+chemical combination with the gliadin, forming an acid proteid. When the
+alcoholic fermentation of bread making becomes less active, acid
+fermentations begin, and sour dough results. It is not definitely known
+what specific organic acids are developed in bread making. Lactic and
+butyric acids are known to be formed, and for purposes of calculation,
+the total acidity is expressed in terms of lactic acid.</p>
+
+<p>The acidity is determined by weighing 20 grams of flour into a flask,
+adding 200 cubic centimeters of distilled water, shaking vigorously, and
+leaving the flour in contact with the water for an hour; 50 cubic
+centimeters of the filtered solution are then titrated with a tenth
+normal solution of potassium hydroxid. Phenolphthalein is used as the
+indicator. It cannot be said that all of the alkali is used for
+neutralizing the acid, as a portion enters into chemical combination
+with the proteids. If the method for determining the acid be varied,
+constant results are not secured. Unsound or musty flours usually show a
+high per cent of acidity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img038.jpg" width="550" height="315"
+             alt="Fig. 48." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Apparatus Used in Study of Losses
+in Bread Making.</span></h4>
+
+<p><b>180. Volatile Compounds produced during Bread Making.</b>&mdash;In addition to
+carbon dioxid and alcohol, there is lost during bread making a small
+amount of carbon in other forms, as volatile acids and hydrocarbon
+products equivalent to about one tenth of one per cent of carbon dioxid.
+The aroma of freshly baked bread is due to these compounds. Both the
+odor and flavor of bread are caused in part by the volatile acids<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> and
+hydrocarbons. The amount and kind of volatile products formed can be
+somewhat regulated through the fermentation process by the use of
+special flours and the addition of materials that produce specific
+fermentation changes and desirable aromatic compounds. Some of the
+ferment bodies left in flour from the imperfect removal of the dirt
+adhering to the exterior of the wheat kernels impart characteristic
+flavors to the bread. The so-called nutty flavor of some bread is due to
+the action of these ferment bodies and, when intensified, it becomes
+objectionable. Fungous growths in unsound flour and bread result in the
+liberation of volatile products, which impart a musty odor. Good odor
+and flavor are very desirable in both flour and bread.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>181. Behavior of Wheat Proteids in Bread Making.</b>&mdash;Gluten is an
+ingredient of the flour on which its bread-making properties largely
+depend. The important thing, however, is not entirely the quantity of
+gluten, but more particularly its character. Two flours containing the
+same amounts of carbohydrates and proteid compounds, when converted into
+bread by exactly the same process, may produce bread of entirely
+different physical characteristics because of differences in the nature
+of the gluten of the two samples. Gluten is composed of two bodies
+called gliadin and glutenin. The gliadin, a sort of plant gelatin, is
+the material which binds the flour particles together to form the dough,
+thus giving it tenacity and adhesiveness; and the glutenin is the
+material to which the gliadin adheres. If there is an excess of gliadin,
+the dough is soft and sticky, while if there is a deficiency, it lacks
+expansive power. Many flours containing a large amount of gluten and
+total proteid material and possessing a high nutritive value, do not
+yield bread of the best quality, because of an imperfect blending of the
+gliadin and glutenin. This question is of much importance in the milling
+of wheats, especially in the blending of the different types of wheat.
+An abnormally large amount of gluten does not yield a correspondingly
+large loaf.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img039.jpg" width="500" height="335"
+             alt="Fig. 49." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bread from Normal Flour (1);
+Gliadin Extracted Flour (2);<br />and from Flour after Extraction of Sugar
+and Soluble Proteids (3).</span></h4>
+
+<p>Experiments were made at the Minnesota Experiment Station to determine
+the relation between the nature of the gluten and the character of the
+bread. This was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> done by comparing bread from normal flour with that
+from other flour of the same lot, but having part or all of its gliadin
+extracted.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a> Dough made from the latter was not sticky, but felt like
+putty, and broke in the same way. The yeast caused the mass to expand a
+little when first placed in the oven; then the loaf broke apart at the
+top and decreased in size. When baked it was less than half the size of
+that from the same weight of normal flour, and decidedly inferior in
+other respects. The removal of part of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> the gliadin produced nearly the
+same effect as the extraction of the whole of it, and even when an equal
+quantity of normal flour was mixed with that from which part of the
+gliadin had been extracted, the bread was only slightly improved. In
+flour of the highest bread-making properties the two constituents,
+gliadin and glutenin, are present in such proportions as to form a
+well-balanced gluten.</p>
+
+<p>The proteids of wheat flour are mainly in an insoluble form, although
+there are small amounts of albumins and globulins; these are coagulated
+by the action of heat during the bread-making process, and rendered
+insoluble. A portion of the acid that is developed unites with the
+gliadin and glutenin, forming acid proteids, which change the physical
+properties of the dough. Both gliadin and glutenin take important parts
+in bread making. The removal of gliadin from flour causes complete loss
+of bread-making properties. Ordinarily from 45 to 65 per cent of the
+total nitrogen of the flour is present in alcohol soluble or gliadin
+form. Proteids also undergo hydration during mixing, some water being
+chemically united with them, changing their physical properties. This
+hydration change is necessary for the full development of the physical
+properties of the gluten. The water and salt soluble proteids appear to
+take no important part in the bread-making process, as their removal in
+no way affects the size of the loaf or general character of the bread.
+Because of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> action of the acids upon the gliadin, bread contains a
+larger amount of alcohol soluble nitrogen or gliadin than the flour from
+which the bread was made. It is believed that this action changes the
+molecular structure of the protein so that it is more readily separated
+into its component parts when it undergoes digestion and assimilation.</p>
+
+<p><b>182. Production of Volatile Nitrogenous Compounds.</b>&mdash;When fermentation
+is unnecessarily prolonged, an appreciable amount of nitrogen is
+volatilized in the form of ammonia and allied bodies, as amids. During
+the process of bread making, the yeast appears to act upon the protein,
+as well as upon the carbohydrates, and, as previously stated, losses of
+dry matter fall alike upon these two classes of compounds, nitrogenous
+and non-nitrogenous. Analyses of the flours and materials used in bread
+making, and of the bread, show that ordinarily about 1.5 per cent of the
+total nitrogen is liberated in the form of gas during the bread-making
+process, and analyses of the gases dispelled in baking show
+approximately the same per cent of nitrogen. When bread is dried, as in
+a drying oven, a small amount of volatile nitrogen appears to be given
+off,&mdash;probably as ammonium compounds formed during fermentation. The
+nitrogen lost in bread making under ordinary conditions is not
+sufficient to affect the nutritive value of the product. The losses of
+both nitrogen and carbon are more than offset by the in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>creased
+solubility of the proteids and carbohydrates, the preliminary changes
+they have undergone making them more digestible and valuable for food
+purposes. The nitrogen volatilized in bread making appears to be mainly
+that present in the flour in amid forms or liberated as the result of
+fermentation processes. The more stable proteids undergo only limited
+changes in solubility and are not volatilized.</p>
+
+<p><b>183. Oxidation of Fat.</b>&mdash;Flour contains about 1.25 per cent of fat
+mechanically mixed with a small amount of yellow coloring matter. During
+the process of bread making the fat undergoes slight oxidation,
+accompanied by changes in both physical and chemical properties. The fat
+from bread, when no lard or shortening has been added, is darker in
+color, more viscous, less soluble in ether, and has a lower iodine
+number, than fat from flour. The change in solubility of the fat is not,
+however, such as to affect food value, because the fat is not
+volatilized, and is only changed by the addition of a small amount of
+oxygen from the air. When wheat fat and other vegetable and animal fats
+are exposed to the air, they undergo changes known as aging, similar to
+the slight oxidation changes in bread making.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>184. Influence of the Addition of Wheat Starch and Gluten to
+Flour.</b>&mdash;Ten per cent or more of starch may be added to normal flour
+containing a well-balanced gluten, without decreasing the size of the
+loaf. When moist gluten was added to flour, thus increasing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> total
+amount of gluten, the size of the loaf was not increased<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[67]</sup></small></b></a>.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Influence of Addition of Starch and Gluten to Flour</span></h4>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Influence of Addition of Starch and Gluten to Flour">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='left'>Size of Loaf</th><th align='right'>Weight</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 14 ounces</td><td align='left'>22&frac12; &times; 17&frac12;</td><td align='right'>18.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 10% wheat starch</td><td align='left'>23&frac12; &times; 17</td><td align='right'>18.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 12.2% wheat starch</td><td align='left'>21&frac12; &times; 17</td><td align='right'>18.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 210 grams, about 8 ounces</td><td align='left'>12&frac34; &times; 9</td><td align='right'>12.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 10% gluten added, 210 grams</td><td align='left'>12&frac12; &times; 9</td><td align='right'>12.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 20% gluten added</td><td align='left'>12 &times; 8&frac34;</td><td align='right'>13.00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><br />So long as the quality of the gluten is not destroyed, the addition of a
+small amount of either starch or gluten to flour does not affect the
+size of the loaf, but removal of the gluten affects the moisture content
+and physical properties of the bread. The addition of starch to flour
+has the same effect upon the bread as the use of low gluten
+flour,&mdash;lessening the capacity of the flour to absorb water and
+producing a dryer bread of poorer quality.</p>
+
+<p><b>185. Composition of Bread.</b>&mdash;The composition of bread depends primarily
+upon that of the flour from which it was made. If milk and butter (or
+lard) are used in making the dough, as is commonly the case, their
+nutrients are, of course, added to those of the flour; but when only
+water and flour are used, the nutrients of the bread<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> are simply those
+of the flour. In either case the amount of nutrients in the bread is
+smaller than in the same weight of flour, because a considerable part of
+the water or milk used in making the dough is present in the bread after
+baking; that is, a pound of bread contains less of any of the nutrients
+than a pound of the flour from which the bread was made, because the
+proportion of water in the bread is greater. The following table shows
+how the composition of flour compares with that of bread, the different
+kinds of bread all having been made from the flour with which they are
+compared:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Composition of Flour, and Bread Made from it in Different Ways</span></h4>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Flour, and Bread Made from it in Different Ways">
+<tr><th align='left'>Material</th><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>C.H.</th><th align='right'>Ash</th></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flour</td><td align='right'>10.11</td><td align='right'>12.47</td><td align='right'>0.86</td><td align='right'>76.09</td><td align='right'>0.47</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread from flour and water</td><td align='right'>36.12</td><td align='right'>9.46</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>53.70</td><td align='right'>0.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread from flour, water, and lard</td><td align='right'>37.70</td><td align='right'>9.27</td><td align='right'>1.02</td><td align='right'>51.70</td><td align='right'>0.31</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread from flour and skim milk</td><td align='right'>36.02</td><td align='right'>10.57</td><td align='right'>0.48</td><td align='right'>52.63</td><td align='right'>0.30</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br />Thus it may be seen that the proportion of water is larger and of each
+nutrient smaller in bread than in flour, and that the nutrients of the
+flour are increased by those in the materials added in making the bread.</p>
+
+<p>It is apparent that two breads of the same lot of flour may differ,
+according to the method used in making,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> and also that two loaves of
+bread made by exactly the same process but from different lots of flour,
+even when of the same grade or brand, do not necessarily have the same
+composition, because of possible variation in the flours. In bread made
+from flour of low gluten content, the per cent of protein is
+correspondingly low.</p>
+
+<p><b>186. Use of Skim Milk and Lard in Bread Making.</b>&mdash;When flours low in
+gluten are used, skim milk may be employed advantageously in making the
+bread, to increase the protein content. Tests show that such bread
+contains about 1 per cent more protein than that made with water.
+Ordinarily there is no gain from a nutritive point of view in adding an
+excessive amount of lard or other shortening, as it tends to widen the
+nutritive ratio.</p>
+
+<p><b>187. Influence of Warm and Cold Flours on Bread Making.</b>&mdash;When flour is
+stored in a cold closet or storeroom, it is not in condition to produce
+a good quality of bread until it has been warmed to a temperature of
+about 70&deg; F. Cold flour checks the fermentation process, and is
+occasionally the cause of poor bread. On the other hand, when flour is
+too warm (98&deg; F.) the influence upon fermentation is unfavorable.
+Heating of flour does not affect the bread-making value, provided the
+flour is not heated above 158&deg; F. and is subsequently cooled to a
+temperature of 70&deg; F. Wheat flour contains naturally a number of
+ferment substances, some of which are de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>stroyed by the action of heat.
+The natural ferments, or enzymes, of flour appear to take a part in
+bread making, imparting characteristic odors and flavors to the product.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img040.jpg" width="500" height="268"
+             alt="Fig. 50." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>-<span class="smcap">Bread from (1) Graham, (2) Entire
+Wheat, and (3) White Flour.</span></h4>
+
+<h4>The same amounts of flour were used in making all of the breads.</h4>
+
+<p><b>188. Variations in the Process of Bread Making.</b>&mdash;Since flours differ
+so in chemical composition, and the yeast plant acts upon all the
+compounds of flour, it naturally follows that bread making is not a
+simple but a complex operation, resulting in a number of intricate
+chemical reactions, which it is necessary to control and many of which
+are only imperfectly understood. Bread<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> of the best physical quality and
+commercial value is made of flour from fully matured, hard wheats,
+containing a low per cent of acid, no foreign ferment materials or their
+products, and at least 12&frac12; per cent of proteids, of which the larger
+portion is in the form of gliadin. It is believed that a better quality
+of bread could be produced from many flours by slight changes or
+modifications in the process of bread making. It cannot be expected that
+the same process will give the best results alike with all types and
+kinds of flour. The kind of fermentation process that will produce the
+best bread from a given type of flour can be determined only by
+experimentation. Poor bread making is due as often to lack of skill on
+the part of the bread maker, and to poor yeast, as it is to poor quality
+of flour. Frequently the flour is blamed when the poor bread is due to
+other factors. Lack of control of the fermentation process, and the
+consequent development of acid and other organisms which check the
+activity of the alcoholic ferments, is a frequent cause of poor bread.</p>
+
+<p><b>189. Digestibility of Bread.</b>&mdash;Extensive experiments have been made by
+the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States Department of
+Agriculture, at the Minnesota and Maine Experiment Stations, to
+determine the digestibility and nutritive value of bread. Different
+kinds and types of wheat were milled so as to secure from each three
+flours: graham, entire wheat, and standard patent. The flours were made
+into bread, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> bread fed to workingmen, and its digestibility
+determined. The experiments taken as a whole show that bread is an
+exceedingly digestible food, nearly 98 per cent of the starch or
+carbohydrate nutrients and about 88 per cent of the gluten or proteid
+constituents being assimilated by the body. In the case of the graham
+and entire wheat flours, although they contained a larger total amount
+of protein, the nutrients were not as completely digested and absorbed
+by the body as were those of the white flour. The body secured a larger
+amount of nutrients from the white than from the other grades of flour,
+the digestibility of the three types being as follows: standard patent
+flour, protein 88.6 per cent and carbohydrates 97.7 per cent; entire
+wheat flour, protein 82 percent and carbohydrates 93.5 per cent; graham
+flour, protein 74.9 per cent and carbohydrates 89.2 per cent. The low
+digestibility of the protein of the graham and entire wheat flours is
+supposed to be due to the coarser granulation; the proteins, being
+embedded and surrounded with cellular tissue, escape the action of the
+digestive fluids. Microscopic examination of the feces showed that often
+entire starch grains were still inclosed in the woody coverings and
+consequently had failed to undergo digestion.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a>, <a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a>, <a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[67]</sup></small></b></a>, <a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[86]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>190. Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary.</b>&mdash;Entire wheat and
+graham flours should be included in the dietary of some persons, as they
+are often valuable because of their physiological action, the branny<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+particles stimulating the process of digestion and encouraging
+peristaltic action. In the diet of the overfed, they are valuable for
+the smaller rather than the larger amount of nutrients they contain.
+Also they supply bulk and give the digestive tract needed exercise. For
+the laboring man, where it is necessary to obtain the largest amount of
+available nutrients, bread from white flour should be supplied; in the
+dietary of the sedentary, graham and entire wheat flours can, if found
+beneficial, be made to form an essential part. The kind of bread that it
+is best to use is largely a matter of personal choice founded upon
+experience.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"When we pass on to consider the relative nutritive values of white
+and whole-meal bread, we are on ground that has been the scene of
+many a controversy. It is often contended that whole-meal is
+preferable to white bread, because it is richer in proteid and
+mineral matter, and so makes a better balanced diet. But our
+examination of the chemical composition of whole-meal bread has
+shown that as regards proteid at least, this is not always true,
+and even were it the case, the lesser absorption of whole-meal
+bread, which we have seen to occur, would tend to annul the
+advantage.... On the whole, we may fairly regard the vexed question
+of whole-meal <i>versus</i> white bread as finally settled and settled
+in favor of the latter."<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[28]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The higher percentage of nitrogen in bran than in fine flour has
+frequently led to the recommendation of the coarser breads as more
+nutritious than the finer. We have already seen that the more
+branny portions of the grain also contain a much larger percentage
+of mineral matter. And, further, it is in the bran that the largest
+proportion of fatty matter&mdash;the non-nitrogenous substance of higher
+respiratory capacity which the wheat contains&mdash;is found. It is,
+however, we think, very questionable whether upon such data alone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+a valid opinion can be formed of the comparative values of bread
+made from the finer or courser flours ground from one and the same
+grain. Again, it is an indisputable fact that branny particles when
+admitted into the flour in the degree of imperfect division in
+which our ordinary milling processes leave them very considerably
+increase the peristaltic action, and hence the alimentary canal is
+cleared much more rapidly of its contents. It is also well known
+that the poorer classes almost invariably prefer the whiter bread,
+and among some of those who work the hardest and who consequently
+soonest appreciate a difference in nutritive quality (navvies, for
+example) it is distinctly stated that their preference for the
+whiter bread is founded on the fact that the browner passes through
+them too rapidly; consequently, before their systems have extracted
+from it as much nutritious matter as it ought to yield them.... In
+fact, all experience tends to show that the state as well as the
+chemical composition of our food must be considered; in other
+words, that the digestibility and aptitude for assimilation are not
+less important qualities than its ultimate composition.</p>
+
+<p>"But to suppose that whole-wheat meal as ordinarily prepared is, as
+has generally been assumed, weight for weight more nutritious than
+ordinary bread flour is an utter fallacy founded on theoretical
+text-book dicta, not only entirely unsupported by experience, but
+inconsistent with it. In fact, it is just the poorer fed and the
+harder working that should have the ordinary flour bread rather
+than the whole-meal bread as hitherto prepared, and it is the
+overfed and the sedentary that should have such whole-meal bread.
+Lastly, if the whole grain were finely ground, it is by no means
+certain that the percentage of really nutritive nitrogenous matters
+would be higher than in ordinary bread flour, and it is quite a
+question whether the excess of earthy phosphates would not then be
+injurious."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lawes and Gilbert.</span><a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[68]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"According to the chemical analysis of graham, entire wheat, and
+standard patent flours milled from the same lot of hard Scotch Fife
+spring wheat, the graham flour contained the highest and the
+patent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> flour the lowest percentage of total protein. But according
+to the results of digestion experiments with these flours the
+proportions of digestible or available protein and available energy
+in the patent flour were larger than in either the entire wheat or
+the graham flour. The lower digestibility of the protein of the
+latter is due to the fact that in both these flours a considerable
+portion of this constituent is contained in the coarser particles
+(bran), and so resists the action of the digestive juices and
+escapes digestion. Thus while there actually may be more protein in
+a given amount of graham or entire wheat flour than in the same
+weight of patent flour from the same wheat, the body obtains less
+of the protein and energy from the coarse flour than it does from
+the fine, because, although the including of the bran and germ
+increases the percentage of protein, it decreases its
+digestibility. By digestibility is meant the difference between the
+amounts of the several nutrients consumed and the amount excreted
+in the feces.</p>
+
+<p>"The digestibility of first and second patent flours was not
+appreciably different from that of standard patent flour. The
+degree of digestibility of all these flours is high, due largely to
+their mechanical condition; that is, to the fact that they are
+finely ground."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Snyder.</span><a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<p>For a more extended discussion of the subject, the student is referred
+to Bulletins 67, 101, and 126, Office of Experiment Stations, United
+States Department of Agriculture.</p>
+
+<p><b>191. Mineral Content of White Bread.</b>&mdash;Average flour contains from 0.4
+to 0.5 of 1 per cent of ash or mineral matter, the larger portion being
+lime and magnesia and phosphate of potassium. It is argued by some that
+graham and entire wheat flours should be used liberally because of their
+larger mineral content and their greater<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> richness in phosphates. In a
+mixed dietary, however, in which bread forms an essential part, there is
+always an excess of phosphates, and there is nothing to be gained by
+increasing the amount, as it only requires additional work of the
+kidneys for its removal. Few experiments have been made to determine the
+phosphorus requirements of the human body, but these indicate that it is
+unnecessary to increase the phosphate content of a mixed diet. It is
+estimated that less than two grams per day of phosphates are required to
+meet all of the needs of the body, and in an average mixed ration there
+are present from three to five grams and more. A large portion of the
+phosphate compounds of white bread is present in organic combinations,
+as lecithin and nucleated proteids, which are the most available forms,
+and more valuable for purposes of nutrition than the mineral phosphates.
+In the case of graham and entire wheat flours, a proportionally smaller
+amount of the phosphates are digested and assimilated than from the
+finer grades of flour.</p>
+
+<p><b>192. Comparative Digestibility of New and Old Bread.</b>&mdash;With healthy
+persons there is no difference whatever in the completeness of
+digestibility of old and new bread; one appears to be as thoroughly
+absorbed as the other. In the case of some individuals with impaired
+digestion there may be a difference in the ease and comfort with which
+the two kinds of bread are digested, but this is due mainly to
+individuality and does not apply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> generally. The change which bread
+undergoes when it is kept for several days is largely a loss of moisture
+and development of a small amount of acid and other substances from the
+continued ferment action.</p>
+
+<p><b>193. Different Kinds of Bread.</b>&mdash;According to variations in method of
+preparation, there are different types and varieties of bread, as the
+"flat bread" of Scandinavian countries, unleavened bread, Vienna bread,
+salt rising bread, etc. Bread made with baking powder differs in no
+essential way from that made with yeast, except in the presence of the
+residue from the baking powder, discussed in Chapter XII. Biscuits,
+wheat cakes, crackers, and other food materials made principally from
+flour, have practically the same food value as bread. It makes but
+little difference in what way flour is prepared as food, for in its
+various forms it has practically the same digestibility and nutritive
+value.</p>
+
+<p><b>194. Toast.</b>&mdash;When bread is toasted there is no change in the
+percentage of total nutrients on a dry matter basis. The change is in
+solubility and form, and not in amount of nutrients available. Some of
+the starch becomes dextrine, which is more soluble and digestible.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a>
+Proteids, on the other hand, are rendered less soluble, which appears to
+slightly lower the digestion coefficient. They are somewhat more readily
+but not quite so completely digested as those of bread. Digestion
+experiments show that toast more readily yields to the diastase and
+other ferments than does wheat bread. Toasting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> brings about ease of
+digestion rather than increased completeness of the process. Toast is a
+sterile food, while bread often contains various ferments which have not
+been destroyed by baking. These undergo incubation during the process of
+digestion, particularly in the case of individuals with diseases of the
+digestive tract. With normal digestion, however, these ferment bodies do
+not develop to any appreciable extent, as the digestive tract disinfects
+itself. When the flour is prepared from well cleaned wheat and the
+ferment substances which are present mainly in the bran particles have
+been removed, a flour of higher sanitary value is secured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h4>BAKING POWDERS</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>195. General Composition.</b>&mdash;All baking powders contain at least two
+materials; one of these has combined carbon dioxid in its composition,
+the other some acid constituent which serves to liberate the gas. The
+material from which the gas is obtained is almost invariably sodium
+bicarbonate, NaHCO<sub>3</sub>, commonly known as "soda" or "saleratus."
+Ammonium carbonate has been used to some extent, but is very seldom used
+at the present time. The acid constituent may be one of several
+materials, the most common being cream of tartar, tartaric acid, calcium
+phosphate, or alum. These may be used separately or in combination. The
+various baking powders are designated according to the acid constituent,
+as "cream of tartar," "phosphate," and "alum" powders. All of them
+liberate carbon dioxid gas, but the products left in the food differ
+widely in nature and amount<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[69]</sup></small></b></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Baking powder is a chemical preparation which, when brought in contact
+with water, liberates carbon dioxid gas. The baking powder is mixed dry
+with flour, and when this is moistened the carbon dioxid that is
+liberated expands the dough. The action is simi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>lar to that of yeast
+except that in the case of yeast the gas is given off much more slowly
+and no residue is left in the bread. When baking powder is used, there
+is a residue left in the food which varies with the material in the
+powder. It is the nature and amount of this residue that is important
+and makes one baking powder more desirable than another.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img041.jpg" width="550" height="309"
+             alt="Fig. 51." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ingredients of a Baking
+Powder.</span></h4>
+
+<h4>1, baking powder; 2, cream of tartar; 3, baking soda; 4, starch.</h4>
+
+<p><b>196. Cream of Tartar Powders.</b>&mdash;The acid ingredient of the cream of
+tartar powders is tartaric acid, H<sub>2</sub>C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. Cream of tartar
+is potassium acid tartrate, KHC<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>; it contains one atom of
+replaceable hydrogen, which imparts the acid properties, and it is
+prepared from crude<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> argol, a deposit of grape juice when wine is made.
+The residue from this powder is sodium potassium tartrate,
+NaKC<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>, commonly known as Rochelle salt. This is the active
+ingredient of Seidlitz powders and has a purgative effect when taken
+into the body. The dose as a purgative is from one half to one ounce. A
+loaf of bread as ordinarily made with cream of tartar powder contains
+about 160 grains of Rochelle salt, which is 45 grains more than is found
+in a Seidlitz powder, but the amount actually eaten at any one time is
+small and its physiological effect can probably be disregarded. When a
+cream of tartar baking powder is used, the reaction takes place
+according to the following equation:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="the reaction takes place
+according to the following equation">
+<tr><td align='center'>188</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;84</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;210</td><td align='center'>44</td><td align='center'>18</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align='left'>HKH<sub>4</sub>C<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + NaHCO<sub>3</sub> = KNaC<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The crystallized Rochelle salt contains four molecules of water, so
+that, even allowing for some starch filler, there is very nearly as much
+weight of material (Rochelle salt) left in the food as there was of the
+original powder. If free tartaric acid were used instead of potassium
+acid tartrate, the reaction would be as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="the reaction would be as follows">
+<tr><td align='center'>150</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;168</td><td align='left'>230</td><td align='center'>88</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align='left'>H2C4H4O<sub>6</sub> + <small>2</small> NaHCO<sub>3</sub> = Na<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>.<small>2</small> H<sub>2</sub>O + <small>2</small> CO<sub>2</sub>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>But the residue, sodium tartrate, is less in proportion. It has
+physiological properties very similar to Rochelle salt. Tartaric acid is
+seldom used alone, but very often in combination with cream of tartar.
+It is more expensive than cream of tartar; but not so much is required,
+and it is more rapid in action.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>197. Phosphate Baking Powders.</b>&mdash;Here the acid ingredient is phosphoric
+acid and the compound usually employed is mono-calcium phosphate,
+CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO-{4})<sub>2</sub>. This is made by the action of sulphuric acid on
+ground bone (Ca<sub>3</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> = CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> +
+2 CaSO<sub>4</sub>), and it is difficult to free it from the calcium phosphate
+formed at the same time; hence such powders contain more or less of this
+inert material. The reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as
+follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="The reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as
+follows">
+<tr><td align='center'>234</td><td align='center'>168</td><td align='center'>136</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 2 NaHCO<sub>3</sub> = CaHPO<sub>4</sub></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;88</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;36</td><td align='left'>142</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align='center'>+ 2 CO<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O + Na<sub>2</sub>HPO<sub>4</sub>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Sodium phosphate, according to the United States Dispensatory, is
+"mildly purgative in doses of from 1 to 2 ounces." The claim is made by
+the makers of phosphate baking powders that the phosphates of sodium and
+calcium, products left after the baking, restore the phosphates which
+have been lost from the flour in the bran. This baking powder residue
+does not restore the phosphates in the same form in which they are
+present in grains and it does furnish them in larger amounts&mdash;nearly
+tenfold. However, the residue from these powders is probably less
+objectionable than that from alum powders. The chief drawback to the
+phosphate powders is their poor keeping qualities.</p>
+
+<p><b>198. Alum Baking Powders.</b>&mdash;Sulphuric acid is the acid constituent of
+these powders. The alums are double<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> sulphates of aluminium and an
+alkali metal, and have the general formula <i>x</i>Al(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> in which
+<i>x</i> may be K, Na, or NH<sub>4</sub>, producing respectively a potash, soda, or
+ammonia alum. Potash alum is most commonly used, soda and ammonia alums
+to a less extent. The reaction takes place as follows:</p>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="The reaction takes place as follows">
+<tr><td align='center'>475</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;504</td><td align='center'>157</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>2 NH<sub>4</sub>Al(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 6 NaHCO<sub>3</sub> = Al<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>6</sub></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;426</td><td align='center'>132</td><td align='center'>264</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">+ 3 Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 6 CO<sub>2</sub></span>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>If it is a potash or soda alum, simply substitute K or Na for NH<sub>4</sub>
+throughout the equation. The best authorities regard alum baking powders
+as the most objectionable. Ammonia alum is without doubt the worst form,
+since all of the ammonium compounds have an extremely irritating effect
+on animal tissue. Sulphates of sodium and potassium are also
+objectionable. Aluminium hydroxide is soluble in the slightly acid
+gastric juice and has an astringent action on animal tissue, hindering
+digestion in a way similar to the alum itself. Many of the alum powders
+contain also mono-calcium phosphate; the reaction is as follows:</p>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Many of the alum powders
+contain also mono-calcium phosphate; the reaction is as follows">
+<tr><td align='center'>475</td><td align='center'>234</td><td align='center'>336</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>2 NH<sub>4</sub>Al(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 4 NaHCO<sub>3</sub></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>245</td><td align='left'>136</td><td align='left'>132</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>= Al<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + CaSO<sub>4</sub> + (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>284</td><td align='center'>176</td><td align='left'>72</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">+ 2 Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 4 CO<sub>2</sub> + 4 H<sub>2</sub>O.</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>These are probably less injurious than the straight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> alum powders,
+although the residues are, in general, open to the same objection.</p>
+
+<p><b>199. Inspection of Baking Powders.</b>&mdash;Many of the states have enacted
+laws seeking to regulate the sale of alum baking powders. Some of these
+laws simply require the packages to bear a label setting forth the fact
+that alum is one of the ingredients; others require the baking powder
+packages to bear a label naming all the ingredients of the powder.</p>
+
+<p><b>200. Fillers.</b>&mdash;All baking powders contain a filler of starch. This is
+necessary to keep the materials from acting before the powder is used.
+The amount of filler varies from 15 to 50 per cent; the least is found
+in the tartrate powders and the most in the phosphate powders. The
+amount of gas which a powder gives off regulates its value; it should
+give off at least &#8539; of its weight.</p>
+
+<p><b>201. Home-made Baking Powders.</b>&mdash;Baking powders can be made at home for
+about one half what they usually cost and they will give equal
+satisfaction. The following will make a long-keeping powder: cream of
+tartar, 8 ounces; baking soda, 4 ounces; corn starch, 3 ounces. For a
+quick-acting powder use but one ounce of starch. The materials should be
+thoroughly dry. Mix the soda and starch first by shaking well in a glass
+or tin can. Add the cream of tartar last and shake again. Thorough
+mixing is essential to good results. Cream<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> of tartar is often
+adulterated, but it can be obtained pure from a reliable druggist. To
+insure baking powders remaining perfectly dry, they should always be
+kept in glass or tin cans, never in paper.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>VINEGAR, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>202. Vinegar.</b>&mdash;Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid produced by
+fermentation, and contains, in addition to acetic acid, small amounts of
+other materials in solution, as mineral matter and malic acid, according
+to the material from which the vinegar was made. Unless otherwise
+designated, vinegar in this country is generally considered to be made
+from apples. Other substances, however, are used, as vinegar can be
+manufactured from a variety of fermentable materials, as molasses,
+glucose, malt, wine, and alcoholic beverages in general. The chemical
+changes which take place in the production of vinegars are: (1)
+inversion of the sugar, (2) conversion of the invert sugars into
+alcohol, and (3) change of alcohol into acetic acid. All these chemical
+changes are the result of ferment action. The various invert ferments
+change the sugar into dextrose and glucose sugars; then the alcoholic
+ferment produces alcohol and carbon dioxid from the invert sugars, and
+finally the acetic acid ferment completes the work by converting the
+alcohol into acetic acid. The chemical changes which take place in these
+different steps are:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="The chemical changes which take place in these
+different steps are">
+<tr><td align='center'>sucrose</td><td align='center'>dextrose</td><td align='center'>levulose</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>(1) C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O = C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="The chemical changes which take place in these
+different steps are">
+<tr><td align='center'>dextrose</td><td align='left'>alcohol</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='left'>(2) C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> = 2 C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + 2 CO<sub>2</sub>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>alcohol</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='left'>(3) C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + 2 O = HC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>The acetic acid organism, <i>Mycoderma aceti</i>, can work only in the
+presence of oxygen. It is one of the aerobic ferments, and is present in
+what is known as the "mother" of vinegar and is secreted by it. When
+vinegar is made in quantity, the process is hastened by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> allowing the
+alcoholic solution to pass through a narrow tank rilled with shavings
+containing some of the ferment material, and at the same time air is
+admitted so as to secure a good supply of oxygen. When vinegar is made
+by allowing cider or wine to stand in a warm place until the
+fermentation process is completed, a long time is required&mdash;the length
+of time depending upon the supply of air and other conditions affecting
+fermentation.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img042.jpg" width="250" height="237"
+             alt="Fig. 52." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Acetic Acid<br />Ferments.</span><br />(After
+<span class="smcap">K&ouml;nig</span>.)</h4>
+    </div>
+
+<p>In some countries malt vinegar is common. This is produced by allowing a
+wort made from malt and barley to undergo acetic acid fermentation,
+without first distilling the alcohol as is done in the preparation of
+spirit vinegar. In various European countries wine vinegar is in general
+use and is made by acetification of the juice of grapes. Sometimes
+spirit vinegar is made from corn or barley malt. Alcoholic fermentation
+takes place, the alcohol is distilled so that a weak solution remains,
+which is acetified in the ordinary way. Such a vinegar can be produced
+very cheaply and is much inferior in flavor to genuine wine or cider
+vinegar.</p>
+
+<p>Vinegar, when properly made, should remain clear, and should not form a
+heavy deposit or produce any large amount of the fungous growth,
+commonly called the "mother" of vinegar. In order to prevent the vinegar
+from becoming cloudy and forming deposits, it should be strained and
+stored in clean jugs and protected from the air. So long as air is
+excluded further acetic acid fermentation and production of "mother" of
+vinegar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> cannot take place. When the vinegar is properly made and the
+fermentation process has been completed, the acid already produced
+prevents all further development of acetic acid ferments. When vinegar
+becomes cloudy and produces deposits, it is an indication that the
+acetic fermentation has not been completed.</p>
+
+<p>The national standard for pure apple cider vinegar calls for not less
+than 4 grams acetic acid, 1.6 grams of apple solids, and 0.25 grams of
+apple ash per 100 cubic centimeters, along with other characteristics,
+as acidity, sugar, and phosphoric acid content. Many states have special
+laws regarding the sale of vinegar.</p>
+
+<p><b>203. Adulteration of Vinegar.</b>&mdash;Vinegar is frequently adulterated by
+the addition of water, or by coloring spirit vinegar, thus causing it to
+resemble cider vinegar. Formerly vinegar was occasionally adulterated by
+the use of mineral acids, as hydrochloric or sulphuric, but since acetic
+acid can be produced so cheaply, this form of adulteration has almost
+entirely disappeared. Colored spirit vinegar contains merely a trace of
+solid matter and can be readily distinguished from cider vinegar by
+evaporating a small weighed quantity to dryness and determining the
+weight of the solids. Occasionally, however, glucose and other materials
+are added so as to give some solids to the spirit vinegar, but such a
+vinegar contains only a trace of ash<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a>. Attempts have also been made
+to carry the adulteration still further by adding lime and soda to give
+the colored spirit vin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>egar the necessary amount of ash. Malt, white
+wine, glucose, and molasses vinegars when properly manufactured and
+unadulterated are not objectionable, but too frequently they are made to
+resemble and sell as cider vinegar. This is a fraud which affects the
+pocketbook rather than the health. For home use apple cider vinegar is
+highly desirable. There is no food material or food adjunct, unless
+possibly ground coffee and spices, so extensively adulterated as
+vinegar.</p>
+
+<p>Vinegar has no food value whatever, and is valuable only for giving
+flavor and palatability to other foods, and to some extent for the
+preservation of foods. It is useful in the household in other ways, as
+it furnishes a dilute acid solution of aid in some cooking and baking
+operations for liberating gas from soda, and also when a dilute acid
+solution is required for various cleaning purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Vinegar should never be kept in tin pails, or any metallic vessel,
+because the acetic acid readily dissolves copper, tin, iron, and the
+ordinary metals, producing poisonous solutions. Earthenware jugs,
+porcelain dishes, glassware, or wooden casks are all serviceable for
+storing vinegar.</p>
+
+<p><b>204. Characteristics of Spices.</b><a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[70]</sup></small></b></a>&mdash;Spices are aromatic vegetable
+substances characterized as a class by containing some essential or
+volatile oil which gives taste and individuality to the material. They
+are used for the flavoring of food and are composed of mineral matter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+and the various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds found in all
+plant bodies. Since only a comparatively small amount of a spice is used
+for flavoring purposes, no appreciable nutrients are added to the food.
+Some of the spices have characteristic medicinal properties.
+Occasionally they are used to such an extent as to mask the natural
+flavors of foods, and to conceal poor cooking and preparation or poor
+quality. For the microscopic study of spices the student is referred to
+Winton, "Microscopy of Vegetable Foods," and Leach, "Food Inspection and
+Analysis."</p>
+
+<p><b>205. Pepper.</b>&mdash;Black and white pepper are the fruit of the pepper plant
+(<i>Piper nigrum</i>), a climbing perennial shrub which grows in the East and
+West Indies, the greatest production being in Sumatra. For the black
+pepper, the berry is picked before thoroughly ripe; for the white
+pepper, it is allowed to mature. White pepper has the black pericarp or
+hull removed. Pepper owes its properties to an alkaloid, piperine, and
+to a volatile oil. In the black pepper berries there is present ash to
+the extent of about 4.5 per cent, it ought not to be above 6.5 per cent;
+ether extract, including piperine and resin, not less than 6.5 per cent;
+crude fiber not more than 16 per cent; also some starch and nitrogenous
+material. The white pepper contains less ash and cellulose than the
+black pepper. Ground pepper is frequently grossly adulterated; common
+adulterants being: cracker crumbs, roasted nut shells and fruit stones,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
+charcoal, corn meal, pepper hulls, mustard hulls, and buckwheat
+middlings. The pepper berries wrinkle in drying, and this makes it
+difficult to remove the sand which may have adhered to them. An
+excessive amount of sand in the ash should be classed as adulteration.
+Adulterants in pepper are detected mainly by the use of the microscope.
+The United States standard for pepper is: not more than 7 per cent total
+ash, 15 per cent fiber, and not less than 25 per cent starch and 6 per
+cent non-volatile ether extract.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[71]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>206. Cayenne.</b>&mdash;Cayenne or red pepper is the fruit pod of a plant,
+<i>capsicum</i>, of which there are several varieties,&mdash;the small-fruited
+kind, used to make cayenne or red pepper; and the tabasco sort, forming
+the basis of tabasco sauce. It is grown mainly in the tropics, and was
+used there as a condiment before the landing of Columbus, who took
+specimens back to Europe. Cayenne pepper contains 25 per cent of oil,
+about 7 per cent of ash, and a liberal amount of starch. The adulterants
+are usually of a starchy nature, as rice or corn meal, and the product
+is often colored with some red dye.</p>
+
+<p><b>207. Mustard.</b>&mdash;Mustard is the seed of the mustard plant, and is most
+often found in commerce in the ground form. The black or brown mustard
+has a very small seed and the most aroma. White mustard is much larger
+and is frequently used unground. For the ground mustard, only the
+interior of the seed is used, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> husk being removed in the bolting.
+Mustard contains a large amount of oil, part of which is usually
+expressed before grinding, and this is the form in which spice grinders
+buy it. In mustard flour there is: ash from 4 to 6 per cent, volatile
+oil from 0.5 to 2 per cent, fixed oil from 15 to 25 per cent, crude
+fiber from 2 to 5 per cent, albuminoids from 35 to 45 per cent, and a
+little starch. The principal adulterants are wheat, corn, and rice
+flour. When these are used, the product is frequently colored with
+turmeric, a harmless vegetable coloring material.</p>
+
+<p><b>208. Ginger.</b>&mdash;Ginger is the rhizome or root of a reed-like plant
+(<i>Zingiber officinale</i>), native in tropical Asia, chiefly India. It is
+cultivated in nearly all tropical countries. When unground it usually
+occurs in two forms: dried with the epidermis, or with the epidermis
+removed, when it is called scraped ginger. Very frequently a coating of
+chalk is given, as a protection against the drug store beetle. Jamaica
+ginger is the best and most expensive. Cochin, scraped, African, and
+Calcutta ginger range in price in the order given. Ginger contains from
+3.6 to 7.5 per cent of ash, from 1.5 to 3 per cent of volatile oil, and
+from 3 to 5.5 per cent of fixed oil. There is a large amount of starch.
+The chief adulterants are rice, wheat, and potato starch, mustard hulls,
+exhausted ginger from ginger-ale and extract factories, sawdust and
+ground peanut-shells, and turmeric is frequently used for coloring the
+product. The United States standard for ginger is not more than 42<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> per
+cent starch, 8 per cent fiber, and 6 per cent total ash.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[71]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>209. Cinnamon and Cassia.</b>&mdash;The bark of several species of plants
+growing in tropical countries furnishes these spices. True cinnamon is a
+native of Ceylon, while the cassias are from Bengal and China. In this
+country there is more cassia used than cinnamon&mdash;cinnamon being rarely
+found except in drug stores. Cassia bark is much thicker than cinnamon
+bark. The ground spice contains about 1.5 per cent volatile oil and the
+same amount of fixed oil, 4 per cent of ash, and some fiber, nitrogenous
+matter, and starch. Cereals, cedar sawdust, ground nutshells, oil meal,
+and cracker crumbs are the chief adulterants.</p>
+
+<p><b>210. Cloves.</b>&mdash;Cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree that
+grows in the tropics. These are picked by hand and dried in the sun. In
+the order of value, Penang, Sumatra, Amboyna, and Zanzibar furnish the
+chief varieties. Cloves rarely contain more than 8 per cent ash, or less
+than 10 per cent volatile oil and 4 per cent fixed oil, and 16 to 20 per
+cent of tannin-yielding bodies. No starch is present. The chief
+adulterants of ground cloves are spent cloves, allspice, and ground
+nutshells. Clove stems are also sometimes used and may be detected by a
+microscopical examination, since they contain many thick-walled cells
+and much fibrous tissue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>211. Allspice.</b>&mdash;Allspice, or pimento, is the fruit of an evergreen
+tree common in the West Indies. It is a small, dry, globular berry,
+two-celled, each cell having a single seed. Allspice contains about 2.5
+per cent volatile oil, 4 per cent fixed oil, and 4.5 per cent ash.
+Because of its cheapness, it is not generally adulterated, cereal
+starches being the most common adulterants.</p>
+
+<p><b>212. Nutmeg.</b>&mdash;Nutmeg is the interior kernel of the fruit of a tree
+growing in the East Indies. The fruit resembles a small pear. A fleshy
+mantle of crimson color, which is mace, envelopes the seed. Nutmeg
+contains about 2.2 per cent ash, 2.5 to 5 per cent volatile oil, and 25
+to 35 per cent fixed oil. Mace has practically the same composition.
+Extensive adulteration is seldom practiced. The white coating on the
+surface of the nutmeg is lime, used to prevent sprouting of the germ.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA</h3>
+
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img043.jpg" width="148" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 53." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tea Leaf.</span><br />(After
+<span class="smcap">Winton</span>.)</h4>
+    </div>
+
+
+<p><b>213. Tea</b> is the prepared leaf of an evergreen shrub or small tree
+cultivated chiefly in China and Japan. There are two varieties of
+plants. The Assamese, which requires a very moist, hot climate, yields
+in India and Ceylon about 400 pounds per acre, and may produce as high
+as 1000 pounds. From this plant a number of flushes or pickings are
+secured in a year. The Chinese plant grows in cooler climates and has a
+smaller, tougher, and darker leaf, which is more delicate than that of
+the Assamese and is usually made into green tea. The Chinese tea plant
+yields only four or five flushes a year. About 40 per cent of the tea
+used in this country comes from Japan and 50 per cent from China. The
+tea industry of India and Ceylon has developed rapidly in late years,
+and is now second only to that of China. Tea has been raised upon a
+small scale in the United States. The quality or grade of the tea
+depends upon the leaves used and the method of curing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>214. Composition of Tea.</b>&mdash;Black and green teas are produced from the
+same species of plant, but owe their difference in color as well as
+flavor and odor to methods of preparation. The same plant may yield
+several grades of both green and black tea. To produce black tea, the
+leaves are bruised to liberate the juices, allowed to ferment a short
+time, which develops the color, and then dried.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[73]</sup></small></b></a> For green tea the
+fresh leaves are roasted or steamed, then rolled and dried as quickly as
+possible to prevent fermentation. The smaller leaves and the first
+picking produce the finest quality of tea. The characteristic flavor and
+odor of tea are imparted by a volatile oil, although the odor is
+sometimes altered by the tea being brought in contact with orange
+flowers, jessamine, or the fragrant olive. There are also present in tea
+an alkaloid, theine, which gives the peculiar physiological properties,
+and tannin, upon which depends largely the strength of the tea infusion.
+The composition of tea is as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="The composition of tea is as follows">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Original<br />Tea</th><th align='right'>Green<br />Tea</th><th align='right'>Black<br />Tea</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tannin, per cent</td><td align='right'>12.91</td><td align='right'>10.64</td><td align='right'>4.89</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Theine, per cent</td><td align='right'>3.30</td><td align='right'>3.20</td><td align='right'>3.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash, per cent</td><td align='right'>4.97</td><td align='right'>4.92</td><td align='right'>4.93</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fiber, per cent</td><td align='right'>10.44</td><td align='right'>10.06</td><td align='right'>10.07</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protein, per cent (all insoluble)</td><td align='right'>37.33</td><td align='right'>37.43</td><td align='right'>38.90</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>It will be noticed that green tea contains twice as much tannin as black
+tea; during the fermentation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> which the black tea undergoes, some of the
+tannin is decomposed. There is a large amount of protein in tea, but it
+is of no food value, because of its insolubility. About half of the ash
+is soluble. The tannin is readily soluble, and for this reason green tea
+especially should be infused for a very short time and never boiled.
+Tannin in foods in large amounts may interfere with the normal digestion
+of the protein compounds, because it coagulates the albumin and peptones
+after they have become soluble, and thus makes additional work for the
+digestive organs.</p>
+
+<p><b>215. Judging Teas.</b>&mdash;Teas are judged according to: (1) the tea as it
+appears prepared for market, (2) the infusion, and (3) the out-turn
+after infusion. The color should be uniform; if a black tea, it should
+be grayish black, not a dead black. The leaves should be uniform in size
+or grade. The quality and grade are dependent upon flavor, and, with the
+strength of the infusion, are determined by tasting. This work is
+rapidly done by the trained tea taster. The out-turn should be of one
+color; no bright green leaves should be present; evenness of make is
+judged by the out-turn. The flavor of a tea is largely a matter of
+personal judgment, but from a physiological point of view black teas are
+given the preference.</p>
+
+<p><b>216. Adulteration of Tea.</b>&mdash;A few years ago tea was quite extensively
+adulterated, but the strict regulation of the government regarding
+imported tea has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> greatly lessened adulteration. The most common form
+was the use of spent leaves, <i>i.e.</i> leaves which had been infused.
+Leaves of the willow and other plants which resemble tea were also used,
+as well as large quantities of tea stems. Facing or coloring is also an
+adulteration, since it is done to give poor or damaged tea a brighter
+appearance. "Facing consists in treating leaves damaged in manufacture
+or which from age are inferior, with a mixture containing Prussian blue,
+turmeric, indigo, or plumbago to impart color or gloss, and with a
+fraudulent intent. There is no evidence that the facing agents are
+deleterious to health in the small quantities used, but as they are used
+for purposes of deception, they should be discouraged."<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[73]</sup></small></b></a> Facing and
+the addition of stems are the chief adulterations practiced at present.</p>
+
+<p><b>217. Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea.</b>&mdash;Tea infusion
+does not contain sufficient nutrients to entitle it to be classed as a
+food. It is with some persons a stimulant. The caffein or theine in tea
+is an alkaloid that has characteristic physiological properties. In
+doses of from three to five grains, according to the United States
+Dispensatory, "it produces peculiar wakefulness." Larger doses produce
+intense physical restlessness, mental anxiety, and obstinate
+sleeplessness. "It has no effect upon the motor nerves, but is believed
+to have a visible effect upon the sensatory nerves." (United States
+Dispensatory.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> Experiments with animals show that it causes elevation
+of the arterial pressure. It is used as a cardiac stimulant. The
+quantity of theine consumed in a cup of tea is about 4/5 of a grain, or
+&frac14; of a medicinal dose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img044.jpg" width="500" height="440"
+             alt="Fig. 54." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Coffee Berries.</span></h4>
+
+<h4>1, Mocha; 2, Java; 3, Rio.</h4>
+
+<p><b>218. Composition of Coffee.</b>&mdash;The coffee tree is an evergreen
+cultivated in the tropics. It grows to a height of 30 feet, but when
+cultivated is kept pruned to from 6 to 10 feet. The fruit, which
+resembles a small cherry, with two seeds or coffee grains embedded in
+the pulp, is dried and the seeds removed, cleaned, and graded. Coffee
+has an entirely different composition from tea;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> it is characterized by
+a high per cent of fat and soluble carbohydrates, and also contains an
+essential oil and caffein, an alkaloid identical with theine. Tannic
+acid, not as free acid, is combined with caffein as a tannate.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="Tannic
+acid, not as free acid, is combined with caffein as a tannate">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Raw<br />Coffee</th><th align='right'>Roasted<br />Coffee</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>11.23</td><td align='right'>1.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>3.92</td><td align='right'>4.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>12.27</td><td align='right'>14.48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar, etc.</td><td align='right'>0.66</td><td align='right'>8.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protein</td><td align='right'>12.07</td><td align='right'>13.98</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Caffein</td><td align='right'>1.21</td><td align='right'>1.24</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The high per cent of sugar and other soluble carbohydrates in roasted
+coffee is caused by the action of heat upon the non-nitrogenous
+compounds. Coffee cannot be considered a food, because only a
+comparatively small amount of the nutrients are soluble and available.
+It is a mildly stimulating beverage. With some individuals it appears to
+promote the digestive process, while with others its effect is not
+beneficial. Coffee is more extensively used in this country than tea,
+and is subject to greater adulteration. It is adulterated by facing and
+glazing; <i>i.e.</i> coloring the berries to resemble different grades and
+coating them with caramel and dextrine. Spent coffee grains and coffee
+that has been extracted without grinding are also used as adulterants.
+Imitation berries made of rye, corn, or wheat paste, molded, colored
+with caramel, and baked have been found mixed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> with genuine coffee
+berries. Roasted cereals and chicory are used extensively to adulterate
+ground coffee. Chicory is prepared from the root of the chicory plant,
+which belongs to the same family as the dandelion. It is claimed by some
+that a small amount of chicory improves the flavor of coffee. However,
+when chicory is added to coffee, it should be so stated on the label and
+the amount used given. The dextrine and sugar used in glazing are
+browned or caramelized during roasting and impart a darker color to the
+infusion, making it appear better than it really is. The glazing also
+makes the coffee retain moisture which would otherwise be driven off
+during roasting. Coffee contains such a large per cent of oil that the
+berries generally float when thrown on water, while the imitation
+berries sink. Chicory also sinks rapidly and colors the water brown,
+while the coffee remains floating for some time.</p>
+
+<p>There are three kinds of coffee in general use: Java, Mocha, and Rio or
+Brazil. The Brazil coffee has the largest berry and is usually styled by
+dealers as "low" or "low middlings." The Java coffee berries are smaller
+and paler in color, the better grades being brown. Mocha usually
+commands the highest price in commerce. The seeds are small and dark
+yellow before roasting.</p>
+
+<p><b>219. Cereal Coffee Substitutes.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A few of these preparations contain a little true coffee, but for
+the most part they appear to be made of parched grains of barley,
+wheat, etc., or of grain mixed with pea hulls, ground corncobs, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+wheat middlings. It is said that barley or wheat parched, with a
+little molasses, in an ordinary oven, makes something
+indistinguishable in flavor from some of the cereal coffees on the
+market. If no coffee is used in the cereal preparations, the claim
+that they are not stimulating is probably true. As for the
+nutritive value, parching the cereals undoubtedly renders some of
+the carbohydrates soluble, and a part of this soluble matter passes
+into the decoction, but the nutritive value of the infusion is
+hardly worth considering in the dietary."<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<p><b>220. Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations.</b>&mdash;Cocoa and chocolate are
+manufactured from the "cocoa bean," the seed of a tree native to
+tropical America. The beans are inclosed in a lemon-yellow, fleshy pod.
+They are removed from the pulp, allowed to undergo fermentation, and
+dried by exposure to the air and light, which hardens them and gives
+them a red color. This method produces what is known as the "fermented
+cocoa." For the "unfermented cocoa," the beans are dried without
+undergoing fermentation. Fermentation removes much of the acidity and
+bitterness characteristic to the unfermented bean, and when properly
+regulated develops flavor. The original bean contains about 50 per cent
+fat, part of which is removed in preparing the cocoa. This fat is sold
+as cocoa butter. In the preparation of some brands of cocoa, alkalies,
+such as soda and potash, are used to form a combination with the fat to
+prevent its separating in oily globules. This treatment improves the
+appearance of the cocoa, but experiments show the albumin to be somewhat
+less digestible and the soap-like product resulting not as valuable a
+food as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> fat. Such preparations have a high per cent of ash. There
+is no objection from a nutritive point of view to a cocoa in which the
+fat separates in oily globules.</p>
+
+<p><b>221. Composition of Cocoa.</b>&mdash;The cocoa bean, when dried or roasted and
+freed from its husk and ground, is sold as cracked cocoa, or cocoa nibs.
+From cocoa nibs the various cocoa and chocolate preparations are made.
+Cocoas vary in composition according to the extent to which the fat is
+removed during the process of manufacture and the nature and extent to
+which other ingredients are added. An average cocoa contains about 20
+per cent of proteids, and 30 per cent fat, also starch, sugar, gums,
+fiber, and ash, as well as theobromine, a material very similar to
+theine and caffein in tea and coffee, but not such an active stimulant.
+Cocoa is not easily soluble, but it may be ground so fine that a long
+time is required for its sedimentation; or sugar or other soluble
+material may be added during the process of manufacture to increase the
+specific gravity of the liquid to such an extent that the same object is
+attained without such fine grinding. The first method is to be
+preferred. Cocoa and its preparations are richer in nutritive substances
+than tea and coffee and have this added advantage that both the soluble
+and insoluble portions become a part of the beverage. Owing to the small
+amount used for a cup of cocoa, independent of the milk it does not add
+much in the way of nutrients to the ration.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>222. Chocolate.</b>&mdash;Plain chocolate is prepared from cocoa nibs without
+"removal of the fat or other constituents except the germ." It differs
+in chemical composition from cocoa by containing more fat and less
+protein; it has nearly the same chemical composition as the cocoa nibs.
+It is officially defined as containing "not more than 3 per cent of ash
+insoluble in water, 3&frac12; per cent of crude fiber and 9 per cent of
+starch, and less than 45 per cent cocoa fat."<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[71]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>By the addition of sugar, sweet chocolates are made. They vary widely in
+composition according to the flavors and amounts of sugar added during
+their preparation. The average composition of cocoa nibs, standard
+cocoa, and plain chocolate is as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="The average composition of cocoa nibs, standard
+cocoa, and plain chocolate is as follows">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Cocoa Nibs</th><th align='right'>Composition of<br />Standard Cocoa</th><th align='right'>Composition of<br />Plain Chocolate</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>3.00</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>3.09</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>3.50</td><td align='right'>4.20</td><td align='right'>3.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Theobromine</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Caffein</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Crude Protein</td><td align='right'>12.00</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Crude fiber</td><td align='right'>2.50</td><td align='right'>5.02</td><td align='right'>2.63</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>50.00</td><td align='right'>32.52</td><td align='right'>49.81</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Starch and other non-nitrogenous matter</td><td align='right'>27.50</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>223. Adulteration of Chocolate and Cocoa.</b>&mdash;The various chocolate and
+cocoa preparations offer an enticing field for sophistication; they are
+not, however, so exten<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>sively adulterated as before the enforcement of
+national and state pure food laws. The most common adulterants are
+starch, cocoa shells, and occasionally iron dioxid and other pigments to
+give color, also foreign fats to replace the fat removed and to give the
+required plasticity for molding.</p>
+
+<p><b>224. Comparative Composition of Beverages.</b>&mdash;Tea and coffee as
+beverages contain but little in the way of nutrients other than the
+cream and sugar used in them. The solid matter in tea and coffee
+infusions amounts to less than 1.2 per cent. When cocoa is made with
+milk, it is a beverage of high nutritive value due mainly to the milk.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Composition of Beverages</span><a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="95%" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Beverages">
+<tr valign="top"><th align='left'>Kind of Beverage</th><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohydrates</th><th align='right'>Fuel<br />Value<br />per Lb.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Cal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Commercial cereal coffee (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>98.2</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>30</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Parched corn coffee (1.6 ounces to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>99.5</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal water (1 ounce to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>99.7</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Coffee (1 ounce 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>98.9</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tea (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>99.5</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa (0.5 ounce to 1 pint milk)</td><td align='right'>84.5</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>4.7</td><td align='right'>6.0</td><td align='right'>365</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>97.1</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>65</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Skimmed milk</td><td align='right'>90.5</td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>5.1</td><td align='right'>170</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>225. Digestibility, How Determined.</b>&mdash;The term "digestibility," as
+applied to foods, is used in two ways: (1) meaning the thoroughness of
+the process, or the completeness with which the nutrients of the food
+are absorbed and used by the body, and (2) meaning the ease or comfort
+with which digestion is accomplished. Cheese is popularly termed
+indigestible, and rice digestible, when in reality the nutrients of
+cheese are more completely although more slowly digested than those of
+rice. In this work, unless otherwise stated, digestibility is applied to
+the completeness of the digestion process.</p>
+
+<p>The digestibility of a food is ascertained by means of digestion
+experiments, in which all of the food consumed for a certain period,
+usually two to four days, is weighed and analyzed, and from the weight
+and composition is determined the amount, in pounds or grams, of each
+nutrient consumed.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[72]</sup></small></b></a> In like manner the nutrients in the indigestible
+portion, or feces, are determined from the weight and composition of the
+feces. The indigestible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> nutrients in the feces are deducted from the
+total nutrients of the food, the difference being the amount digested,
+or oxidized in the body. When the food is digested, the various
+nutrients undergo complete or partial oxidation, with the formation of
+carbon dioxid gas, water, urea (CH<sub>4</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O), and other compounds. The
+feces consist mainly of the compounds which have escaped digestion. The
+various groups of compounds of foods do not all have the same
+digestibility; for example, the starch of potatoes is 92 per cent
+digestible, while the protein is only 72 per cent. The percentage amount
+of a nutrient that is digested is called the digestion coefficient.</p>
+
+<p>In the following way the digestibility of a two-days ration of bread and
+milk was determined: 773.5 grams of bread and 2000 grams of milk were
+consumed by the subject. The dried feces weighed 38.2 grams. The foods
+and feces when analyzed were found to have the following
+composition:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="55%" cellspacing="0" summary="The foods
+and feces when analyzed were found to have the following
+composition">
+<tr><th align='left'>Composition</th><th align='right'>Bread</th><th align='right'>Milk</th><td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_A_7" id="FNanchor_A_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_7" class="fnanchor">[A]</a><b>Feces</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>44.13</td><td align='right'>86.52</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Crude protein</td><td align='right'>7.75</td><td align='right'>3.15</td><td align='right'>25.88</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ether extract</td><td align='right'>0.90</td><td align='right'>4.63</td><td align='right'>18.23</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>0.32</td><td align='right'>0.70</td><td align='right'>26.35</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Carbohydrates</td><td align='right'>46.90</td><td align='right'>5.00</td><td align='right'>29.54</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Calories per gram</td><td align='right'>2.450</td><td align='right'>0.79</td><td align='right'>5.083</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_7" id="Footnote_A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_7"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Results on dry-matter basis.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Statement of Results of a Digestion Experiment</span></h4>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="90%" cellspacing="0" summary="Statement of Results of a Digestion Experiment">
+<tr><th align='left'>Food Consumed</th><th align='left'>Weight of<br />Material</th><th align='right'>Protein<br />N &times; 6.25</th><th align='right'>Ether<br />Extract</th><th align='right'>Carbo-<br />hydrates</th><th align='right'>Ash</th><th align='right'>Heat of<br />Combustion</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align='right'>773.5</td><td align='right'>60.0</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>362.8</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>1895</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>2000.0</td><td align='right'>63.0</td><td align='right'>92.6</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>14.0</td><td align='right'>1585</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total</span></td><td align='right'>38.2</td><td align='right'>123.0</td><td align='right'>99.5</td><td align='right'>462.8</td><td align='right'>16.5</td><td align='right'>3480</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Feces</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>9.9</td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>11.3</td><td align='right'>10.1</td><td align='right'>194</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Total amount digested</td><td align='right'>113.1</td><td align='right'>92.5</td><td align='right'>451.5</td><td align='right'>6.4</td><td align='right'>3286</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Per cent digested or coefficients of digestibility</td><td align='right'>92.0</td><td align='right'>93.0</td><td align='right'>97.5</td><td align='right'>38.8</td><td align='right'>94.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Available energy</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>90.0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>In this experiment 92 per cent of the crude protein, 93 per cent of the
+ether extract, and 97.5 per cent of the carbohydrates of the bread and
+milk ration were digested and absorbed by the body. In calculating the
+available energy, correction is made for the unoxidized residue, as urea
+and allied forms. It is estimated that for each gram of protein in the
+ration there was an indigestible residue yielding 1.25 calories.</p>
+
+<p><b>226. Available Nutrients.</b>&mdash;A food may contain a comparatively large
+amount of a compound, and yet, on account of its low digestibility, fail
+to supply much of it to the body in an available form. Hence it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> that
+the value of a food is dependent not alone on its composition, but also
+on its digestibility. The digestible or available nutrients of a food
+are determined by multiplying the per cent of each nutrient which the
+food contains by its digestion coefficient. For example, a sample of
+wheat flour contains 12 per cent protein, 88 per cent of which is
+digestible, making 10.56 per cent of available or digestible protein (12
+&times; 0.88-10.56). Graham flour made from similar wheat contains 13 per cent
+total protein, and only 75 per cent of the protein is digestible, making
+9.75 per cent available (13 &times; 0.75 = 9.75). Thus one food may contain a
+larger total but a smaller available amount of a nutrient than another.</p>
+
+<p><b>227. Available Energy.</b>&mdash;The available energy of a food or a ration is
+expressed in calories. A ration for a laborer at active out-of-door work
+should yield about 3200 calories. The calory is the unit of heat, and
+represents the heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of
+water 1&deg; C., or four pounds of water 1&deg; F. The caloric value of foods is
+determined by the calorimeter, an apparatus which measures heat with
+great accuracy. A pound of starch, or allied carbohydrates, yields 1860
+calories, and a pound of fat 4225 (see Section 13). While a gram of
+protein completely burned produces 7.8 calories, digested it yields only
+about 4.2 calories, because, as explained in the preceding section, not
+all of the carbon and oxygen are oxidized.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[59]</sup></small></b></a> The caloric value or
+available energy of a ration can be calculated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> from the digestible
+nutrients by multiplying the pounds of digestible protein and
+carbohydrates by 1860, the digestible fat by 4225, and adding the
+results. For determination of the available energy of foods under
+different experimental conditions, and where great accuracy is desired,
+a specially constructed respiration calorimeter has been devised, which
+is built upon the same principle as an ordinary calorimeter, except it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+is large enough to admit a person, and is provided with appliances for
+measuring and analyzing the intake and outlet of air.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[74]</sup></small></b></a> The heat
+produced by the combustion of the food in the body warms the water
+surrounding the calorimeter chamber, and this increase in temperature is
+determined by thermometers reading to 0.005 of a degree or less.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img234.jpg" width="270" height="500"
+             alt="Fig. 55." /><br />
+         <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Calorimeter.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+
+<p><b>228. Normal Digestion and Health.</b>&mdash;While the process of digestion has
+been extensively studied, it is not perfectly understood. Between the
+initial compounds of foods and their final oxidation products a large
+number of intermediate substances are formed, and when digestion fails
+to take place in a normal way, toxic or poisonous compounds are produced
+and various diseases result. It is probable that more diseases are due
+to imperfect or malnutrition than to any other cause. There is a very
+close relationship between health and normal digestion of the food.</p>
+
+<p>The cells in the different parts of the digestive tract secrete fluids
+containing substances known as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> soluble ferments, or enzymes, which act
+upon the various compounds of foods, changing them chemically and
+physically so that they can be absorbed and utilized by the body. (See
+Section 31.) Some of the more important ferments are: ptyolin of the
+saliva, pepsin of the stomach, and pancreatin and diastase of the
+intestines. In order that these ferments may carry on their work in a
+normal way, the acidity and alkalinity of the different parts of the
+digestive tract must be maintained. The gastric juice contains from 0.1
+to 0.25 per cent of hydrochloric acid, imparting mildly antiseptic
+properties; and while the peptic ferment works in a slightly acid
+solution, the tryptic ferment requires an alkaline solution. To secrete
+the necessary amount and quality of digestive fluids, the organs must be
+in a healthy condition. Many erroneous ideas regarding the digestion of
+foods are based upon misinterpretation of facts by persons suffering
+from impaired digestion, and attempts are frequently made to apply to
+normal digestion generalizations applicable only to diseased conditions.</p>
+
+<p><b>229. Digestibility of Animal Foods.</b>&mdash;The proteids and fats in animal
+foods, as meats, are more completely digested than the same class of
+nutrients in vegetables. In general, about 95 per cent of the proteids
+of meats is digestible, while those in vegetables are often less than 85
+percent digestible. The amount of indigestible residue from animal foods
+is small; while from vegetables it is large, for the cellulose prevents
+complete<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> absorption of the nutrients and, as a result, there is much
+indigestible residue. Animal foods are concentrated, in that they
+furnish large amounts of nutrients in digestible forms. There is less
+difference in the completeness with which various meats are digested
+than in their ease of digestion; the proteins all have about the same
+digestion coefficients, but vary with individuals as to ease of
+digestion and time required. It is generally considered that the
+digestible proteins, whether of animal or vegetable origin, are equally
+valuable for food purposes. This is an assumption, however, that has not
+been well established by experimental evidence. In a mixed ration, the
+proteins from different sources appear to have the same nutritive value,
+but as each is composed of different radicals and separated into
+dissimilar elementary compounds during the process of digestion, they
+would not necessarily all have the same food value.</p>
+
+<p>There is but little difference between the fats and proteins of meats as
+to completeness of digestion,&mdash;the slight difference being in favor of
+the proteins. Some physiologists claim that the fat, which in some meats
+surrounds the bundles of fiber (protein), forming a protecting coat,
+prevents the complete solvent action of the digestive fluid. Very fat
+meats are not as completely digested as those moderately fat. It is also
+claimed that the digestibility of the meat is influenced by the
+mechanical character, as toughness of the fiber.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>230. Digestibility of Vegetable Foods.</b>&mdash;Vegetable foods vary in
+digestibility with their mechanical condition and the amount of
+cellulose or fiber. In some the nutrients are so embedded in cellular
+tissue as to be protected from the solvent action of the digestive
+fluids, and in such cases the digestibility and availability are low.
+The starches and sugars are more completely digested than any other of
+the nutrients of vegetables; in some instances they are from 95 to 98
+per cent digestible. Some cellular tissue, but not an excess, is
+desirable in a ration, as it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon
+the organs of digestion, encourages peristalsis, and is an absorbent and
+dilutant of the waste products formed during digestion. For example, in
+the feeding of swine, it has been found that corn and cob meal often
+gives better results than corn fed alone. The cob contains but little in
+the way of nutrients, but it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon
+digestion. Occasionally too many bulky foods are combined, containing
+scant amounts of nutrients, so that the body receives insufficient
+protein. This is liable to be the case in the dietary of the strict
+vegetarian. Many of the vegetables possess special dietetic value, due
+to the organic acids and essential oils, as cited in the chapter on
+fruits and vegetables. The value of such foods cannot always be
+determined from their content of digestible protein, fat, and
+carbohydrates. This is particularly evident when they are omitted from
+the ration, as in the case of a restricted diet consisting mainly of
+animal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> foods. Many vegetables have low nutritive value on account of
+their bulky nature and the large amount of water and cellulose which
+they contain, which tends to decrease digestibility and lower the amount
+of available nutrients. Because of their bulk and fermentable nature,
+resulting in the formation of gases, a diet of coarse vegetables has a
+tendency to cause distention and enlargement of the intestinal organs.
+The carbohydrates, which are the chief constituents of vegetables, are
+digested mainly in the intestines, and require special mechanical
+preparation in the stomach, hence the nutrients of vegetables are not,
+as a rule, as easily digested as those of animal foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>231. Factors influencing Digestion.</b>&mdash;There are a number of factors
+which influence completeness as well as ease of digestion, as: (1)
+combination of foods; (2) amount of food; (3) method of preparation; (4)
+mechanical condition of the food; (5) palatability; (6) physiological
+properties; (7) individuality of the consumer; and (8) psychological
+influences.</p>
+
+<p><b>232. Combination of Foods.</b>&mdash;In a mixed ration the nutrients are
+generally more completely digested than when only one food is used. For
+example, milk is practically all digested when it forms a part of a
+ration, and it also promotes digestibility of the foods with which it is
+combined, but when used alone it is less digestible.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[27]</sup></small></b></a> Bread alone and
+milk alone are not as completely digested as bread and milk combined.
+The same in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> general way has been observed in the feeding of farm
+animals,&mdash;better results are secured from combining two or more foods
+than from the use of one alone. The extent to which one food influences
+the digestibility of another has not been extensively studied.</p>
+
+<p>In a mixed ration, consisting of several articles of food of different
+mechanical structure, the work of digestion is more evenly distributed
+among the various organs. A food often requires special preparation on
+the part of the stomach before it can be digested in the intestines, and
+if this food is consumed in small amounts and combined with others of
+different structure, the work of gastric digestion is lessened so that
+the foods are properly prepared and normal digestion takes place. The
+effect which one food exerts upon the digestibility of another is
+largely mechanical.</p>
+
+<p><b>233. Amount of Food.</b>&mdash;Completeness as well as ease of digestion is
+influenced by the amount of food consumed. In general, excessive amounts
+are not as completely digested as moderate amounts. In digestion
+experiments with oatmeal and milk, it was found that when these foods
+were consumed in large quantities the fat and protein were not as
+completely absorbed by the body as when less was used, the protein being
+7 per cent and the fat 6 per cent more digestible in the medium ration.
+Experiments with animals show that economical results are not secured
+from an excess of food.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> Some individuals consume too much food, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
+with them a restricted diet would be beneficial, while others err in not
+consuming enough to meet the requirements of the body. Quite frequently
+it is those who need more food who practice dieting. When there is
+trouble with digestion, it is not always the amount or kind of food
+which is at fault, but other habits may be such as to affect digestion.
+The active out-of-door laborer can with impunity consume more food,
+because there is greater demand for nutrients, and the food is more
+completely oxidized in the body and without the formation of poisonous
+waste products. The amount of food consumed should be sufficient to meet
+all the demands of the body and maintain a normal weight.</p>
+
+<p><b>234. Method of Preparation of Food.</b>&mdash;The extent to which methods of
+cooking and preparation influence completeness of digestion has not been
+extensively investigated. As is well known, they have great influence
+upon ease and comfort of digestion. During cooking, as discussed in
+Chapter II, extensive physical and chemical changes occur, and these in
+turn affect digestibility. When the cooking has not been sufficient to
+mechanically disintegrate vegetable tissue, the digestive fluids fail to
+act favorably upon the food. Cooking is also beneficial because it
+renders the food sterile and destroys all objectionable micro&ouml;rganisms
+which, if they remain in food, readily undergo incubation in the
+digestive tract, interfering with normal digestion. Prolonged heat
+causes some foods to become less digestible, as milk,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> which digestion
+experiments show to be more completely digested when fresh than when
+sterilized. Pasteurized milk, which is not subjected to so high a
+temperature as sterilized milk, is more completely digested. See Chapter
+VII for discussion of sterilizing and pasteurizing milk.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[38]</sup></small></b></a> The
+benefits derived from the destruction of the objectionable bacteria in
+foods are, however, greater than the losses attendant on lessened
+digestibility due to the action of heat. The method of preparation of a
+food affects its digestibility mainly through change in mechanical
+structure, and modification of the forms in which the nutrients are
+present.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>235. Mechanical Condition of Foods.</b>&mdash;The mechanical condition of foods
+as to density and structure of the particles and the extent to which
+they are disintegrated in their preparation for the table influences
+digestibility to a great extent. The mechanics of digestion is a subject
+that has not been extensively investigated, and it is one of great
+importance, as biological and chemical changes cannot take place if the
+food is not in proper mechanical condition. In general, the finer the
+food particles, the more completely the nutrients are acted upon by the
+digestive fluids and absorbed by the body. Nevertheless, the diet should
+not consist entirely of finely granulated foods. Some foods are valuable
+mainly because of the favorable action they exert mechanically upon
+digestion, rather than for the nutrients they contain.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a> Coarsely
+granulated breakfast foods, whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> wheat flour, and many vegetables
+contain sufficient cellular tissue to give special value from a
+mechanical rather than a chemical point of view. The extent to which
+coarsely and finely granulated foods should enter into the ration is a
+question largely for the individual to determine. Experiments with pigs
+show that if large amounts of coarse, granular foods are consumed, the
+tendency is for the digestive tract to become inflamed and less able to
+exercise its normal functions. Coarsely granulated foods have a tendency
+to pass through the digestive tract in less time than those that are
+finely granulated, due largely to increased peristaltic action, and the
+result is the food is not retained a sufficient length of time to allow
+normal absorption to take place. In the feeding of farm animals, it has
+been found that the mechanical condition of the food has a great
+influence upon its economic use. Rations that are either too bulky or
+too concentrated fail to give the best results. In the human ration, the
+mechanical condition of the food is equally as important as its chemical
+composition.</p>
+
+<p><b>236. Mastication</b> is an important part of digestion, and when foods are
+not thoroughly masticated, additional work is required of the stomach,
+which is usually an overworked organ because of doing the work of the
+mouth as well. Although much of the mechanical preparation and mixing of
+foods is of necessity done in the stomach, some of it may advantageously
+be done in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> the mouth. The stomach should not be required to perform the
+function of the gizzard of a fowl.</p>
+
+<p><b>237. Palatability of Foods.</b>&mdash;Many foods naturally contain essential
+oils and other substances which impart palatability. These have but
+little in the way of nutritive value, but they assist in rendering the
+nutrients with which they are associated more digestible. Palatability
+of a food favorably influences the secretion of the gastric and other
+digestive fluids, and in this way the natural flavors of well-prepared
+foods aid in digestion. In the feeding of farm animals it has been found
+that when foods are consumed with a relish better returns are secured
+than when unpalatable foods are fed. To secure palatability the
+excessive use of condiments is unnecessary. It is possible to a great
+extent during preparation to develop and conserve the natural flavors.
+Some foods contain bitter principles which are removed during the
+cooking, while in others pleasant flavors are developed. Palatability is
+an important factor in the digestibility of foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>238. Physiological Properties of Food.</b>&mdash;Some food materials,
+particularly fruits and vegetables, contain compounds which have
+definite physiological properties, as tannin which is an astringent,
+special oils which exert a cathartic action, and the alkaloids which
+serve as irritants to nerve centers. Wheat germ oil is laxative, and it
+is probable that the physiological properties of graham and whole wheat
+breads are due in some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> degree to the oil which they contain.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[67]</sup></small></b></a> The
+use of fruits, herbs, and vegetables for medicinal purposes is based
+upon the presence of compounds possessing well-defined medicinal
+properties. As a rule food plants do not contain appreciable amounts of
+such substances, and the use of food for medicinal effect should be by
+the advice of a physician. The physiological properties of some foods
+are due to bacterial products. See Chapter XX.</p>
+
+<p><b>239. Individuality.</b>&mdash;Material difference in digestive power is
+noticeable among individuals. Digestion experiments show that one person
+may digest 5 per cent more of a nutrient than another. This difference
+appears to be due to a number of factors, as activity of the organs, as
+affected by exercise and kind of labor performed; abnormal composition
+of the digestive fluids; or failure of the different parts of the
+digestive tract to act in harmony. Individuality is one of the most
+important factors in digestion. Persons become accustomed to certain
+foods through long usage, and the digestive tract adapts itself to those
+foods, rendering sudden and extreme changes in the dietary hazardous.
+Common food articles may fail to properly digest in the case of some
+individuals, while with others they are consumed with benefit. What is
+food to one may prove to be a poison to another, and while general
+statements can be made in regard to the digestibility of foods,
+individual differences must be recognized.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>240. Psychological Factors.</b>&mdash;Previously conceived ideas concerning
+foods influence digestibility. Foods must be consumed with a relish in
+order to secure the best results, as flow of the digestive fluids and
+activity of the organs are to a certain extent dependent upon the nerve
+centers. If it is believed that a food is poisonous or injurious, even
+when the food is wholesome, normal digestion fails to take place. In
+experiments by the author, in which the comparative digestibility of
+butter and oleomargarine was being studied, it was found that when the
+subjects were told they were eating oleomargarine, its digestibility was
+depressed 5 per cent, and when they were not told the nature of the
+material, but assumed that butter was oleomargarine, the digestibility
+of the butter was lowered about 6 per cent.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a> Preconceived notions in
+regard to foods, not founded upon well-established facts, but due to
+prejudice resulting from ignorance, cause many valuable foods to be
+excluded from the dietary. Many persons, like the foreign lady who,
+visiting this country, said she ate only acquaintances, prefer foods
+that have a familiar taste and appearance, and any unusual taste or
+appearance detracts from the value because of the psychological
+influence upon digestion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3>COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>241. Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods.</b>&mdash;The market price and the
+nutritive value of foods are often at variance, as those which cost the
+most frequently contain the least nutrients.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[75]</sup></small></b></a> It is difficult to make
+absolute comparisons as to the nutritive value of foods at different
+prices, because they differ not only in the amounts, but also in the
+kinds of nutrients. While it is not possible to express definitely the
+value of one food in terms of another, approximate comparisons may be
+made as to the amounts of nutrients that can be secured for a given sum
+of money when foods are at different prices, and tables have been
+prepared making such comparisons.</p>
+
+<div class="trans-note">
+           Transcriber's Note: Fig. 56. is not of good quality,<br />but has been placed for information.
+      </div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="images/img045a.jpg"><img src="images/img045a-tb.jpg" alt="Fig. 56" title="" /></a></div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.&mdash;Composition of Foods.</span></h4>
+
+<h5>(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)</h5>
+
+<p><b>242. Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum.</b><a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a>&mdash;To ascertain the
+nutrients procurable for a given sum first determine the amount in
+pounds that can be obtained, say, for ten cents, and then multiply by
+the percentages of fat, protein, carbohydrates, and calories in the
+food. The results are the amounts, in pounds, of nutrients procurable
+for that sum of money. For example: if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> milk is 5 cents per quart, two
+quarts or approximately four pounds, can be procured for 10 cents. If
+the milk contains fat, 4 per cent, protein, 3.3 per cent, carbohydrates,
+5 per cent, and fuel value, 310 calories per pound, multiplying each of
+these by 4 gives the nutrients and fuel value in four pounds, or 10<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+cents worth of milk, as follows:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="gives the nutrients and fuel value in four pounds, or 10
+cents worth of milk, as follows">
+<tr><td align='left'>Protein</td><td align='right'>0.13 lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>0.16 lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Carbohydrates</td><td align='right'>0.2 lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Calories</td><td align='right'>1240</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br />If it is desired to compare milk at 5 cents per quart with round steak
+at 15 cents per pound, 10 cents will procure 0.66, or two thirds of a
+pound of round steak containing on an average (edible portion) 19 per
+cent protein, 12.8 per cent fat, and yielding 890 calories per pound. If
+10 per cent is refuse, there is edible about 0.6 of a pound. The amounts
+of nutrients in the 0.6 of a pound of steak, edible portion, or 0.66 lb.
+as purchased would be:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="amounts
+of nutrients in the 0.6 of a pound of steak">
+<tr><td align='left'>Protein</td><td align='right'>0.11 lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>0.08 lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Calories</td><td align='right'>534</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br />It is to be observed that from the 10 cents' worth of milk a little more
+protein, 0.08 of a pound more fat, and nearly two and one half times as
+many calories can be secured as from the 10 cents' worth of meat. This
+is due to the carbohydrates and the larger amount of fat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> which the milk
+contains. At these prices, milk should be used liberally in the dietary,
+as it furnishes more of all the nutrients than does meat. It would not
+be advisable to exclude meat entirely from the ration, but milk at 5
+cents per quart is cheaper food than meat at 15 cents per pound. In
+making comparisons, preference cannot always be given to one food
+because of its containing more of any particular nutrient, for often
+there are other factors that influence the value.</p>
+
+<p><b>243. Comparing Foods as to Nutritive Value.</b>&mdash;In general, preference
+should be given to foods which supply the most protein, provided the
+differences between the carbohydrates and fats are not large. When the
+protein content of two foods is nearly the same, but the fats and
+carbohydrates differ materially, the preference may safely be given to
+the food which supplies the larger amount of total nutrients. A pound of
+protein in a ration is more valuable than a pound of either fat or
+carbohydrates, although it is not possible to establish an absolute
+scale as to the comparative value of these nutrients, because they serve
+different functional purposes in the body. It is sometimes necessary to
+use small amounts of foods rich in protein in order to secure a balanced
+ration; excessive use of protein, however, is not economical, as that
+which is not needed for functional purposes is converted into heat and
+energy which could be supplied as well by the carbohydrates, and they
+are less expensive nutrients.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="trans-note">
+           Transcriber's Note: Fig. 57. is not of good quality,<br />but has been placed for information.
+      </div>
+<div class="figcenter"><a href="images/img046a.jpg"><img src="images/img046a-tb.jpg" alt="Fig. 57" title="Fig. 57" /></a></div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pecuniary Economy of Food.</span></h4>
+
+<h5>(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)</h5><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Ten Cents will Purchase:</span></h4>
+<p class='center'>(From Farmer's Bulletin No. 142, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" width="85%" cellspacing="0" summary="Ten Cents will Purchase">
+<tr valign="top"><th align='left'>KIND OF FOOD MATERIAL</th><th align='right'>Price per<br />Pound</th><th align='right'>Total Weight<br />of Food<br />Material</th><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th><th align='right'>Energy</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Cents</td><td align='right'>Pounds</td><td align='right'>Pound</td><td align='right'>Pound</td><td align='right'>Pounds</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, sirloin</td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>410</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>515</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>15</td><td align='right'>0.67</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>685</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, round</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>560</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>14</td><td align='right'>0.71</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>630</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.15</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>740</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, shoulder clod</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>595</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Do.</td><td align='right'>9</td><td align='right'>1.11</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>795</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, stew meat</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.29</td><td align='right'>0.23</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1530</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, dried, chipped</td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>315</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mutton chops, loin</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.17</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>890</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mutton, leg</td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>445</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>560</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Roast pork, loin</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>0.19</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1035</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pork, smoked ham</td><td align='right'>22</td><td align='right'>0.45</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>0.14</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>735</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>915</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pork, fat salt</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.68</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>2950</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Codfish, dressed, fresh</td><td align='right'>10</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>220</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Halibut, fresh</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>265</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cod, salt</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='right'>1.43</td><td align='right'>0.22</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>465</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mackerel, salt, dressed</td><td align='right'>10</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1135</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Salmon, canned</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>760</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oysters, solids, 50 cents per quart</td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>90</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oysters, solids, 35 cents per quart</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>125</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lobster, canned</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>225</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Butter</td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1705</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.32</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1365</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>30</td><td align='right'>0.33</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.27</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1125</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eggs, 36 cents per dozen</td><td align='right'>24</td><td align='right'>0.42</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>260</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eggs, 24 cents per dozen</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>385</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eggs, 12 cents per dozen</td><td align='right'>8</td><td align='right'>1.25</td><td align='right'>0.14</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>770</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cheese</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.16</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>1185</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk, 7 cents per quart</td><td align='right'>3½</td><td align='right'>2.85</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>0.14</td><td align='right'>885</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk, 6 cents per quart</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='right'>3.33</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.17</td><td align='right'>1030</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='right'>3.33</td><td align='right'>0.32</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>2.45</td><td align='right'>5440</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>2½</td><td align='right'>4.00</td><td align='right'>0.39</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>2.94</td><td align='right'>6540</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Corn meal, granular</td><td align='right'>2½</td><td align='right'>4.00</td><td align='right'>0.31</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>2.96</td><td align='right'>6540</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat breakfast food</td><td align='right'>7½</td><td align='right'>1.33</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.98</td><td align='right'>2235</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oat breakfast food</td><td align='right'>7½</td><td align='right'>1.33</td><td align='right'>0.19</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>0.86</td><td align='right'>2395</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align='right'>4</td><td align='right'>2.50</td><td align='right'>0.34</td><td align='right'>0.16</td><td align='right'>1.66</td><td align='right'>4500</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rice</td><td align='right'>8</td><td align='right'>1.25</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.97</td><td align='right'>2025</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheat bread</td><td align='right'>6</td><td align='right'>1.67</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.87</td><td align='right'>2000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.16</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>1.04</td><td align='right'>2400</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>4</td><td align='right'>2.50</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>1.30</td><td align='right'>3000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rye bread</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.15</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>1.04</td><td align='right'>2340</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beans, white, dried</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.35</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>1.16</td><td align='right'>3040</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="85%" cellspacing="0" summary="Ten Cents will Purchase">
+<tr valign="top"><th align='left'> KIND OF FOOD MATERIAL</th><th align='right'>Price per<br />Pound</th><th align='right'>Total Weight<br />of Food<br />Material</th><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th><th align='right'>Energy</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cabbage</td><td align='right'>2&frac12;</td><td align='right'>4.00</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>460</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Celery</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>130</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Corn, canned</td><td align='right'>10</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>430</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes, 90 cents per bushel</td><td align='right'>1&frac12;</td><td align='right'>6.67</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.93</td><td align='right'>1970</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes, 60 cents per bushel</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>10.00</td><td align='right'>0.15</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>1.40</td><td align='right'>2950</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes, 45 cents per bushel</td><td align='right'>&frac34;</td><td align='right'>13.33</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>1.87</td><td align='right'>3935</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Turnips</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>10.00</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.54</td><td align='right'>1200</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Apples</td><td align='right'>1&frac12;</td><td align='right'>6.67</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.65</td><td align='right'>1270</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bananas</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='right'>1.43</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>370</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oranges</td><td align='right'>6</td><td align='right'>1.67</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>250</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Strawberries</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='right'>1.43</td><td align='right'>.01</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>215</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>6</td><td align='right'>1.67</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1.67</td><td align='right'>2920</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br />It is to be noted in the table that, ordinarily, for the same amount of
+money the most nutrients can be obtained in the form of milk, cheese,
+sugar, and beans, corn meal, wheat flour, oatmeal, and cereals in bulk.
+While meats supply protein liberally, they fail to furnish carbohydrates
+as the vegetables. As discussed in the chapter on Dietary Studies of
+Families, unnecessarily expensive foods are often used, resulting either
+in lack of nutrients or unbalanced rations.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EXAMPLES</h3>
+
+<p>1. Compute the calories and the amounts of protein, fat, and
+carbohydrates that can be procured for 25 cents in cheese selling for 18
+cents per pound; how do these compare with the nutrients in eggs at 20
+cents per dozen?</p>
+
+<p>2. Which food furnishes the larger amount of nutrients, potatoes at 50
+cents per bushel or flour at $6 per barrel?</p>
+
+<p>3. How do beans at 10 cents per quart compare in nutritive value with
+beef at 15 Cents per pound?</p>
+
+<p>4. How does salt codfish at 10 cents per pound compare in nutritive
+value with lamb chops at 15 cents per pound?</p>
+
+<p>5. Compare in nutritive value cream at 25 cents per quart with butter at
+30 cents per pound.</p>
+
+<p>6. Calculate the composition and nutritive value of a cake made of
+sugar, 8 oz.; butter, 4 oz.; eggs, 8 oz.; flour, 8 oz.; and milk, 4 oz.;
+the baked cake weighs one and three fourths pounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Average Composition of Common American Food Products</span></h4>
+
+<p class='center'>(From Farmer's Bulletin, No. 142, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="95%" cellspacing="0" summary="Average Composition of Common American Food Products">
+<tr valign="top"><th align='left'>FOOD MATERIAL (as purchased)</th><th align='left'>Refuse</th><th align='left'>Water</th><th align='left'>Protein</th><th align='left'>Fat</th><th align='left'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th><th align='left'>Ash</th><th align='left'>Fuel Value<br />per Pound</th></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'>ANIMAL FOOD</th><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Beef, fresh:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chuck ribs</span></td><td align='right'>16.3</td><td align='right'>52.6</td><td align='right'>15.5</td><td align='right'>15.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>910</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Flank</span></td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>54.0</td><td align='right'>17.0</td><td align='right'>19.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1105</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Loin</span></td><td align='right'>13.3</td><td align='right'>52.5</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>17.5</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1025</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porterhouse steak</span></td><td align='right'>12.7</td><td align='right'>52.4</td><td align='right'>19.1</td><td align='right'>17.9</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1100</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Sirloin steak</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>54.0</td><td align='right'>16.5</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>975</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Neck</span></td><td align='right'>27.6</td><td align='right'>45.9</td><td align='right'>14.5</td><td align='right'>11.9</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1165</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ribs</span></td><td align='right'>20.8</td><td align='right'>43.8</td><td align='right'>13.9</td><td align='right'>21.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1135</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rib rolls</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>63.9</td><td align='right'>19.3</td><td align='right'>16.7</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1055</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Round</span></td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>60.7</td><td align='right'>19.0</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>890</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rump</span></td><td align='right'>20.7</td><td align='right'>45.0</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>20.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1090</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shank, fore</span></td><td align='right'>36.9</td><td align='right'>42.9</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>7.3</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>545</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shoulder and clod</span></td><td align='right'>16.4</td><td align='right'>56.8</td><td align='right'>16.4</td><td align='right'>9.8</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>715</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fore quarter</span></td><td align='right'>18.7</td><td align='right'>49.1</td><td align='right'>14.5</td><td align='right'>17.5</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>995</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hind quarter</span></td><td align='right'>15.7</td><td align='right'>50.4</td><td align='right'>15.4</td><td align='right'>18.3</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1045</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Beef, corned, canned,</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">pickled, dried:</span></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corned beef</span></td><td align='right'>8.4</td><td align='right'>49.2</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>23.8</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>1245</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tongue, pickled</span></td><td align='right'>6.0</td><td align='right'>58.9</td><td align='right'>11.9</td><td align='right'>19.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>1010</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dried, salted, and smoked</span></td><td align='right'>4.7</td><td align='right'>53.7</td><td align='right'>26.4</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>8.9</td><td align='right'>790</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Canned boiled beef</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>51.8</td><td align='right'>25.5</td><td align='right'>22.5</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1410</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Canned corned beef</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>51.8</td><td align='right'>26.3</td><td align='right'>18.7</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>4.0</td><td align='right'>1270</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Veal:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Breast</span></td><td align='right'>21.3</td><td align='right'>52.0</td><td align='right'>15.4</td><td align='right'>11.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>745</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leg</span></td><td align='right'>14.2</td><td align='right'>60.1</td><td align='right'>15.5</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>625</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leg cutlets</span></td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>68.3</td><td align='right'>20.1</td><td align='right'>7.5</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>695</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fore quarter</span></td><td align='right'>24.5</td><td align='right'>54.2</td><td align='right'>15.1</td><td align='right'>6.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>535</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hind quarter</span></td><td align='right'>20.7</td><td align='right'>56.2</td><td align='right'>16.2</td><td align='right'>6.6</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>580</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mutton:</span></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Flank</span></td><td align='right'>9.9</td><td align='right'>39.0</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>36.9</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>1770</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leg, hind</span></td><td align='right'>18.4</td><td align='right'>51.2</td><td align='right'>15.1</td><td align='right'>14.7</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>890</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Loin chops</span></td><td align='right'>16.0</td><td align='right'>42.0</td><td align='right'>13.5</td><td align='right'>28.3</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1415</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fore quarter</span></td><td align='right'>21.2</td><td align='right'>41.6</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>24.5</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1235</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hind quarter, without tallow</span></td><td align='right'>17.2</td><td align='right'>45.4</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>23.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1210</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Lamb:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Breast</span></td><td align='right'>10.1</td><td align='right'>45.5</td><td align='right'>15.4</td><td align='right'>19.1</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1075</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leg, hind</span></td><td align='right'>17.4</td><td align='right'>52.9</td><td align='right'>15.9</td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>860</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Pork, fresh:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ham</span></td><td align='right'>10.7</td><td align='right'>48.0</td><td align='right'>13.5</td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1320</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Loin chops</span></td><td align='right'>19.7</td><td align='right'>41.8</td><td align='right'>13.4</td><td align='right'>24.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1245</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shoulder</span></td><td align='right'>12.4</td><td align='right'>44.9</td><td align='right'>12.0</td><td align='right'>29.8</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1450</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tenderloin</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>66.5</td><td align='right'>18.9</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>895</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Pork, salted, cured, pickled:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ham, smoked</span></td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>34.8</td><td align='right'>14.2</td><td align='right'>33.4</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>4.2</td><td align='right'>1635</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shoulder, smoked</span></td><td align='right'>18.2</td><td align='right'>36.8</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>26.6</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>5.5</td><td align='right'>1335</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Salt pork</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>86.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>3.9</td><td align='right'>3555</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bacon, smoked</span></td><td align='right'>7.7</td><td align='right'>17.4</td><td align='right'>9.1</td><td align='right'>62.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>4.1</td><td align='right'>2715</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Sausage:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bologna</span></td><td align='right'>3.3</td><td align='right'>55.2</td><td align='right'>18.2</td><td align='right'>19.7</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>1155</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pork</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>39.8</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>44.2</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>2075</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Frankfort</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>57.2</td><td align='right'>19.6</td><td align='right'>18.6</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>1155</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Soups:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Celery, cream of</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>88.6</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>2.8</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>235</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beef</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>92.9</td><td align='right'>4.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>120</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Meat stew</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>84.5</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>5.5</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>365</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tomato</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>90.0</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>5.6</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>185</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Poultry:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chicken, broilers</span></td><td align='right'>41.6</td><td align='right'>43.7</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>305</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fowls</span></td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>47.1</td><td align='right'>13.7</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>765</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Goose</span></td><td align='right'>17.6</td><td align='right'>38.5</td><td align='right'>13.4</td><td align='right'>29.8</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1475</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turkey</span></td><td align='right'>22.7</td><td align='right'>42.4</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>18.4</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1060</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Fish:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cod, dressed</span></td><td align='right'>29.9</td><td align='right'>58.5</td><td align='right'>11.1</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>220</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Halibut, steaks or sections</span></td><td align='right'>17.7</td><td align='right'>61.9</td><td align='right'>15.3</td><td align='right'>4.4</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>475</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mackerel, whole</span></td><td align='right'>44.7</td><td align='right'>40.4</td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>4.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>370</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Perch, yellow dressed</span></td><td align='right'>35.1</td><td align='right'>50.7</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>275</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shad, whole</span></td><td align='right'>50.1</td><td align='right'>35.2</td><td align='right'>9.4</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>380</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shad, roe</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>71.2</td><td align='right'>20.9</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>600</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Fish, preserved:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cod, salt</span></td><td align='right'>24.9</td><td align='right'>40.2</td><td align='right'>16.0</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>18.5</td><td align='right'>325</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Herring, smoked</span></td><td align='right'>44.4</td><td align='right'>19.2</td><td align='right'>20.5</td><td align='right'>8.8</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>7.4</td><td align='right'>755</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Fish, canned</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Salmon</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>63.5</td><td align='right'>21.8</td><td align='right'>12.1</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>915</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sardines</span><a name="FNanchor_A_8" id="FNanchor_A_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_8" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td><td align='right'>[A]5.0</td><td align='right'>53.6</td><td align='right'>23.7</td><td align='right'>12.1</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>5.3</td><td align='right'>950</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Shellfish:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clams</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>80.8</td><td align='right'>10.6</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>340</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crabs</span></td><td align='right'>52.4</td><td align='right'>36.7</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>200</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lobsters</span></td><td align='right'>61.7</td><td align='right'>30.7</td><td align='right'>5.9</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>145</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Eggs: Hen's eggs</td><td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_B_9" id="FNanchor_B_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_9" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>11.2</td><td align='right'>65.5</td><td align='right'>13.1</td><td align='right'>9.3</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>635</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Dairy products, etc.:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Butter</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>11.0</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>85.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>3410</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Whole milk</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>87.0</td><td align='right'>3.3</td><td align='right'>4.0</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>310</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Skim milk</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>90.5</td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>5.1</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>165</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buttermilk</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>91.0</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>160</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Condensed milk</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>26.9</td><td align='right'>8.8</td><td align='right'>8.3</td><td align='right'>54.1</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>1430</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cream</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>74.0</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>18.5</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>865</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cheese, Cheddar</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>27.4</td><td align='right'>27.7</td><td align='right'>36.8</td><td align='right'>4.1</td><td align='right'>4.0</td><td align='right'>2075</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cheese, full cream</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>34.2</td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>33.7</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>1885</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>  <th align='left'>VEGETABLE FOOD</th></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Flour, meal, etc.:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Entire wheat flour</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>11.4</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>71.9</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1650</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Graham flour</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>11.3</td><td align='right'>13.3</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>71.4</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>1645</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wheat flour, patent roller process</span></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">High-grade and medium</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>12.0</td><td align='right'>11.4</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>75.1</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>1635</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Low grade</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>12.0</td><td align='right'>14.0</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>71.2</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1640</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Macaroni, vermicelli, etc</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>10.3</td><td align='right'>13.4</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>74.1</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1645</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wheat breakfast food</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>9.6</td><td align='right'>12.1</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>75.2</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1680</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buckwheat flour</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>6.4</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>77.9</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1605</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rye flour</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>12.9</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>78.7</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1620</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corn meal</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>12.5</td><td align='right'>9.2</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>75.4</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1635</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oat breakfast food</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>7.7</td><td align='right'>16.7</td><td align='right'>7.3</td><td align='right'>66.2</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1800</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rice</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>8.0</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>79.0</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>1620</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tapioca</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>11.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>88.0</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>1650</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Starch</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>90.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1675</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Bread, pastry, etc.:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">White bread</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>35.3</td><td align='right'>9.2</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>53.1</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1200</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brown bread</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>43.6</td><td align='right'>5.4</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>47.1</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1040</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Bread, pastry, etc.:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Graham bread</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>35.7</td><td align='right'>8.9</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>52.1</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1195</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Whole wheat bread</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>38.4</td><td align='right'>9.7.</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>49.7</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1130</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rye bread</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>35.7</td><td align='right'>9.0.</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>53.2</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1170</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cake</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>19.9</td><td align='right'>6.3.</td><td align='right'>9.0</td><td align='right'>63.3</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1630</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cream crackers</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>9.7.</td><td align='right'>12.1</td><td align='right'>69.7</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1925</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oyster crackers</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>11.3.</td><td align='right'>10.5</td><td align='right'>70.5</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>1910</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Soda crackers</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>5.9</td><td align='right'>9.8.</td><td align='right'>9.1</td><td align='right'>73.1</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1875</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Sugars, etc.:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Molasses</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>70.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1225</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Candy</span><a name="FNanchor_C_10" id="FNanchor_C_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_10" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>96.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1680</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Honey</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>81.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1420</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sugar, granulated</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1750</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Maple sirup</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>71.4</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1250</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Vegetables:<a name="FNanchor_D_11" id="FNanchor_D_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_11" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beans, dried</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>12.6</td><td align='right'>22.5.</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>59.6</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>1520</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beans, Lima, shelled</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>68.5</td><td align='right'>7.1.</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>22.0</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>540</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beans, string</span></td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>83.0</td><td align='right'>2.1.</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>170</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beets</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>70.0</td><td align='right'>1.3.</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>7.7</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>160</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cabbage</span></td><td align='right'>15.0</td><td align='right'>77.7</td><td align='right'>1.4.</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>115</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Celery</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>75.6</td><td align='right'>0.9.</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>65</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corn, green (sweet), edible portion</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>75.4</td><td align='right'>3.1</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>19.7</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>440</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cucumbers</span></td><td align='right'>15.0</td><td align='right'>81.1</td><td align='right'>0.7.</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>65</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lettuce</span></td><td align='right'>15.0</td><td align='right'>80.5</td><td align='right'>1.0.</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>65</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mushrooms</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>88.1</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>185</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Onions</span></td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>78.9</td><td align='right'>1.4.</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>8.9</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>190</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parsnips</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>66.4</td><td align='right'>1.3.</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>10.8</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>230</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peas (<i>Pisum sativum</i>), dried.</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>9.5</td><td align='right'>24.6</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>62.0</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>1565</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peas (<i>Pisum sativum</i>), shelled</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>74.6</td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>16.9</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>440</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cowpeas, dried</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>21.4.</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>60.8</td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>1505</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Potatoes</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>62.6</td><td align='right'>1.8.</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>14.7</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>295</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rhubarb</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></td><td align='right'>40.0</td><td align='right'>56.6</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sweet potatoes</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>55.2</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>21.9</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>440</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spinach</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>92.3</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>3.2</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>95</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Squash</span></td><td align='right'>50.0</td><td align='right'>44.2</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>100</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tomatoes</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>94.3</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>3.9</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>100</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turnips</span></td><td align='right'>30.0</td><td align='right'>62.7</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>5.7</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>120</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Vegetables, canned:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Baked beans</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>68.9</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>19.6</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>555</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peas <i>(Pisum sativum), </i>green</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>85.3</td><td align='right'>3.6</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>9.8</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>235</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corn, green</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>76.1</td><td align='right'>2.8</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>19.0</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>430</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Succotash</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>75.9</td><td align='right'>3.6</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>18.6</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>425</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tomatoes</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>94.0</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>4.0</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>95</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Fruits, berries, etc., fresh:<a name="FNanchor_E_12" id="FNanchor_E_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_12" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apples</span></td><td align='right'>25.0</td><td align='right'>63.3</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>10.8</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>190</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bananas</span></td><td align='right'>35.0</td><td align='right'>48.9</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>260</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Grapes</span></td><td align='right'>25.0</td><td align='right'>58.0</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>14.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>295</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lemons</span></td><td align='right'>30.0</td><td align='right'>62.5</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>5.9</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>125</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Muskmelons</span></td><td align='right'>50.0</td><td align='right'>44.8</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>80</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oranges</span></td><td align='right'>27.0</td><td align='right'>63.4</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>8.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>150</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pears</span></td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>76.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>12.7</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>230</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Persimmons, edible portion</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>66.1</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>31.5</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>550</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Raspberries</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>85.8</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>12.6</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>220</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Strawberries</span></td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>85.9</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>150</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Watermelons</span></td><td align='right'>59.4</td><td align='right'>37.5</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>50</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Fruits, dried:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apples</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>28.1</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>66.1</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>1185</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apricots</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>29.4</td><td align='right'>4.7</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>62.5</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>1125</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dates</span></td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>70.6</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>1275</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rhubarb</span></td><td align='right'>40.0</td><td align='right'>56.6</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Figs</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>18.8</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>74.2</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>1280</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Raisins</span></td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>13.1</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>68.5</td><td align='right'>3.1</td><td align='right'>1265</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Nuts:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Almonds</span></td><td align='right'>45.0</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>11.5</td><td align='right'>30.2</td><td align='right'>9.5</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1515</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brazil nuts</span></td><td align='right'>49.6</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>8.6</td><td align='right'>33.7</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>1485</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Butternuts</span></td><td align='right'>86.4</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>8.3</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>385</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chestnuts, fresh</span></td><td align='right'>16.0</td><td align='right'>37.8</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>35.4</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>915</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chestnuts, dried</span></td><td align='right'>24.0</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>8.1</td><td align='right'>5.3</td><td align='right'>56.4</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1385</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cocoanuts</span></td><td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_F_13" id="FNanchor_F_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_13" class="fnanchor">[F]</a>48.8</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1295</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cocoanut, prepared</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>6.3</td><td align='right'>57.4</td><td align='right'>31.5</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>2865</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Filberts</span></td><td align='right'>52.1</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>7.5</td><td align='right'>31.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1430</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hickory nuts</span></td><td align='right'>62.2</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>5.8</td><td align='right'>25.5</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1145</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pecans, polished</span></td><td align='right'>53.2</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>33.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1465</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peanuts</span></td><td align='right'>24.5</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>19.5</td><td align='right'>29.1</td><td align='right'>18.5</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1775</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Piñon <i>(Pinus edulis)</i></span></td><td align='right'>40.6</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>8.7</td><td align='right'>36.8</td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1730</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Walnuts, black</span></td><td align='right'>74.1</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>14.6</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>730</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Walnuts, English</span></td><td align='right'>58.1</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>26.6</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>1250</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Miscellaneous:</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chocolate</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>5.9</td><td align='right'>12.9</td><td align='right'>48.7</td><td align='right'>30.3</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>5625</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cocoa, powdered</span></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>21.6</td><td align='right'>28.9</td><td align='right'>37.7</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>2160</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cereal coffee, infusion</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1 part boiled in 20 parts water)</span><a name="FNanchor_G_14" id="FNanchor_G_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_14" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>98.2</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>30</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_8" id="Footnote_A_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_8"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Refuse, oil.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_9" id="Footnote_B_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_9"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Refuse, shell.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_10" id="Footnote_C_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_10"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Plain confectionery not containing nuts, fruit, or
+chocolate.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_11" id="Footnote_D_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_11"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Such vegetables as potatoes, squash, beets, etc., have a
+certain amount of inedible material, skin, seeds, etc The amount varies
+with the method of preparing the vegetables, and cannot be accurately
+estimated The figures given for refuse of vegetables, fruits, etc., are
+assumed to represent approximately the amount of refuse in these foods
+as ordinarily prepared.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_12" id="Footnote_E_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_12"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> Fruits contain a certain proportion of inedible materials,
+as skin, seeds, etc., which are properly classed as refuse. In some
+fruits, as oranges and prunes, the amount rejected in eating is
+practically the same as refuse. In others, as apples and pears, more or
+less of the edible material is ordinarily rejected with the skin and
+seeds and other inedible portions. The edible material which is thus
+thrown away, and should properly be classed with the waste, is here
+classed with the refuse. The figures for refuse here given represent, as
+nearly as can be ascertained, the quantities ordinarily rejected.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_13" id="Footnote_F_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_13"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> Milk and shell.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_14" id="Footnote_G_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_14"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> The average of five analyses of cereal coffee grain is:
+Water 6.2, protein 13.3, fat 3.4, carbohydrates 72.6, and ash 4.5 per
+cent. Only a portion of the nutrients, however, enter into the infusion.
+The average in the table represents the available nutrients in the
+beverage. Infusions of genuine coffee and of tea like the above contain
+practically no nutrients.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3>DIETARY STUDIES</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>244. Object of Dietary Studies.</b>&mdash;The quantity of food which different
+families purchase varies between wide limits; a portion being lost
+mechanically in preparation and a still larger and more variable amount
+in the refuse and non-edible parts. If a record is made of all foods
+purchased and the waste and non-edible portions are deducted, the
+nutrients consumed by a family may be calculated by multiplying the
+weight of each food by the average composition. If such calculations be
+made, it will be found that in some families nearly a half pound per day
+of both protein and fat is consumed by adults, while in other families
+less than half of this amount is used. The object of dietary studies is
+to determine the source, cost, composition, and nutritive value of the
+foods consumed by different families; they also enable comparisons to be
+made of the amounts of nutrients purchased. Extensive dietary studies
+have been made by the United States Department of Agriculture, and the
+results have been published in various bulletins.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[76]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>245. Wide and Narrow Rations.</b>&mdash;When the amount of carbohydrates in a
+ration is small in comparison with the protein, it is called a narrow
+ration, while a wide ration is one in which the carbohydrates are much
+in ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>cess of the protein. When a ration contains 0.40 of a pound of
+protein, 0.40 of a pound of fat, and 1 pound of carbohydrates, it has a
+nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.8 and is a narrow ration. To calculate the
+nutritive ratio, the fat is multiplied by 2&frac14;, the product added to
+the carbohydrates, and this sum divided by the protein. It is not
+possible to designate accurately the amount of protein and other
+nutrients that should be in the daily ration of all persons, because the
+needs of the body vary so with different individuals. Hard and fast
+rules governing the amounts of nutrients to be consumed cannot as yet be
+formulated, as our knowledge of the subject is too limited. It is known
+that both excessive and scant amounts are alike injurious. While the
+appetite may indicate either hunger or satiety, it alone cannot always
+be relied upon as a safe guide for determining the amount and kind of
+food to consume, although the demands of appetite should not be
+disregarded until it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that it is not
+voicing the needs of nature. There has been a tendency which perhaps was
+a survival of the Puritanical ideas of the early days to stamp as
+hurtful whatever seemed desirable and pleasant; as examples might be
+cited the craving for water by fever patients, and for sugar by growing
+children, which have now been proven to be normal demands of nature.</p>
+
+<p><b>246. Dietary Standards.</b>&mdash;As a result of a large number of dietary
+studies and digestion experiments, dietary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> standards have been
+prepared. Atwater in this country and Voit in Germany have proposed such
+standards for men employed at different kinds of labor, as follows:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="standards for men employed at different kinds of labor, as follows">
+<tr valign="top"><td align='left'> &nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th><th align='right'>Fuel<br />Value</th><th align='right'>Nutritive</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>lb.</td><td align='right'>lb.</td><td align='right'>lb.</td><td align='right'>Calories</td><td align='right'>Ratio</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Man with little physical exercise</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.66</td><td align='right'>2450</td><td align='right'>5.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Man with light muscular work</td><td align='right'>0.22</td><td align='right'>0.22</td><td align='right'>0.77</td><td align='right'>2800</td><td align='right'>5.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Man with moderate muscular work</td><td align='right'>0.28</td><td align='right'>0.28</td><td align='right'>0.99</td><td align='right'>3520</td><td align='right'>5.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Man with active muscular work</td><td align='right'>0.33</td><td align='right'>0.33</td><td align='right'>1.10</td><td align='right'>4060</td><td align='right'>5.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Man with hard muscular work</td><td align='right'>0.39</td><td align='right'>0.55</td><td align='right'>1.43</td><td align='right'>5700</td><td align='right'>6.9</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br />In the table it will be seen that the quantity of nutrients increases
+with the labor to be performed. In order to secure the necessary heat
+and energy, rations for men at heavy labor contain proportionally more
+fat and carbohydrates than are required for light work. All dietary
+standards, however, should be regarded as tentative only. Opinions
+differ greatly on different points; for example, as to the amount of
+protein a ration should contain. This is a matter that can be determined
+only from extended investigations under a variety of conditions, and as
+yet results are too meager to formulate other than tentative standards.
+Chittenden has found that the body can be sustained on very much less
+protein than is called for in the standard ration.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[77]</sup></small></b></a> The amount of
+protein in the ration should be ample to sustain the body weight and
+maintain a nitrogen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> equilibrium; that is, the income and outgo of
+nitrogen from the body should be practically equal.</p>
+
+<div class="trans-note">
+           Transcriber's Note: Fig. 58. is not of good quality,<br />but has been placed for information.
+      </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <a href="images/img047a.jpg"><img
+             src="images/img047a-tb.jpg" width="374" height="500"
+             alt="Fig. 58." /></a><br />
+             </div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 58.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dietaries and Dietary
+Standards</span>.</h4>
+
+<h5>(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)</h5>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"While one freely admits that health and a large measure of
+muscular strength may be maintained upon a minimum supply of
+protein, yet I think that a dispassionate survey of mankind will
+show that races which adopt such a diet are lacking in what, for
+want of a better word, one can only describe as energy." <a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[28]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<p>On the other hand, excessive and unnecessarily large amounts of protein
+are sometimes consumed, adding greatly to the cost of the ration and
+necessitating additional labor on the part of the body for its
+elimination.</p>
+
+<p><b>247. Number of Meals per Day.</b>&mdash;Some persons advocate two meals per day
+rather than three, but dietary studies show that the best results are
+secured when the food is divided among three rather than two meals, and
+with a two-meal system the tendency is to consume a larger total amount
+of food than when three meals are eaten. It is not essential that the
+food be equally divided among the three meals. Any one of them may be
+lighter or more substantial as the habits and inclinations of the
+individual dictate. If it is found necessary to reduce the total
+quantity of food consumed, this may be done by a proportional reduction
+of each of the meals, or of any one of them instead of decreasing the
+number of meals per day. The occasional missing of a meal is sometimes
+beneficial, in cases of digestion disorders, but the ordinary
+requirements of persons in normal health who have either mental or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
+physical labor to perform are best met when three meals per day are
+consumed, as this insures an even supply of nutrients. For persons of
+sedentary habits, the kind and quantity of food at each meal must be
+regulated largely by the individual from knowledge based on personal
+experience.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"In the matter of diet every man must, in the last resort, be a law
+unto himself; but he should draw up his dietetic code intelligently
+and apply it honestly, giving due heed to the warnings which nature
+is sure to address to him should he at any time transgress."<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[28]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<p>If there is trouble in digesting the food, it is well to study the other
+habits of life along with the food question, for it may be the
+difficulty arises from some other cause, and would be remedied by more
+exercise and fresh air, avoiding rush immediately after meals, more
+thorough mastication, or less worry. It is a serious matter to shut off
+the supply of food from a person not suffering from some disease and who
+is working; as well cut off the supply of fuel from a furnace and then
+expect a full amount of energy and heat. But unlike the furnace, when
+the human body is deprived of needed nutrients it preys upon itself and
+uses up its reserve that should be drawn upon only in cases of illness
+or extreme nervous strain. Some persons live in such a way as to never
+have any reserve of strength and energy to call upon but use up each day
+all the body can produce and so become physical bankrupts when they
+should be in their prime. Food is required for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> production of nerve
+energy as well as physical energy.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[78]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>248. Mixed Dietary Desirable.</b>&mdash;Experiments in the feeding of farm
+animals show that the best results come from the combination of a number
+of foods to form a mixed ration, rather than from the use of one food
+alone,<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[79]</sup></small></b></a> for in this way the work of digestion is more evenly
+distributed, and a higher degree of efficiency is secured from the foods
+consumed. The same is true in human feeding; the best results are
+secured from a mixed diet. Ordinarily, about two fifths of the nutrients
+of a ration are derived from animal and three fifths from vegetable
+sources.</p>
+
+<p><b>249. Animal and Vegetable Foods; Economy of Production.</b>&mdash;Animal foods
+can never compete in cheapness of the nutrients with cereals and
+vegetables, as it takes six to eight pounds or more of a cereal,
+together with forage crops, to make a pound of meat. Hence the returns
+in food value are very much larger from the direct use of the cereals as
+human food, than from the feeding of cereals to cattle and the use of
+the meat. As the population of a country increases, and foods
+necessarily become more expensive, cereals are destined to replace
+animal foods to a great extent, solely as a matter of economy.</p>
+
+<p><b>250. Food Habits.</b>&mdash;Long-established dietary habits and customs are not
+easily changed, and when the body becomes accustomed to certain foods,
+substitution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> of others, although equally valuable, may fail to give
+satisfactory results. For example, immigrants from southern Europe
+demand foods with which they are familiar, as macaroni, olive oil, and
+certain kinds of cheese, foods which are generally imported and more
+expensive than the staples produced in this country,<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[80]</sup></small></b></a> and when they
+are compelled to live on other foods, even though they have as many
+nutrients, they complain of being underfed. Previously acquired food
+habits appear to affect materially the process of digestion and
+assimilation. Sudden and pronounced change in the feeding of farm
+animals is attended with unsatisfactory results, and whenever changes
+are made in the food of either humans or animals they should be gradual
+rather than radical.</p>
+
+<p><b>251. Underfed Families.</b>&mdash;As the purchasing of food is often done by
+inexperienced persons, palatability rather than nutritive value is made
+the basis of choice. Dietary studies show that because of lack of
+knowledge of the nutritive value of foods, whole families are often
+underfed. Particularly is this true where the means for purchasing foods
+are limited. In dietary studies among poor families in New York
+City,<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[81]</sup></small></b></a> the United States Department of Agriculture notes: "It is
+quite evident that what is needed among these families more than
+anything else is instruction in the way to make the little they have go
+the farthest." Some classes of the rich too are equally liable to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>
+underfed, as they are more prone to food notions and are able to indulge
+them. Among the children of the rich are found some as poorly nourished
+as among the poor.</p>
+
+<p><b>252. Cheap and Expensive Foods.</b>&mdash;Among the more expensive items of a
+ration are meats, butter, and canned fruits. The difference in
+composition and nutritive value between various cuts of meat is small,
+being largely physical, and affecting taste and flavor rather than
+nutritive value. Expensive cuts of meat, high-priced breakfast cereals,
+tropical fruits and foods which impart special flavors, add little in
+the way of nutritive value to the ration, but greatly enhance the cost
+of living. Ordinarily the cheapest foods are corn meal, wheat flour and
+bread, milk, beans, cheese, sugar, and potatoes.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a> The amount of animal
+and vegetable foods to combine with these to form a balanced ration may
+be governed largely by personal preference or cost, as there is little
+difference in nutritive value. The selection of foods on the basis of
+cost and nutritive value is discussed in Chapter XVI.</p>
+
+<p><b>253. Food Notions.</b>&mdash;Many erroneous ideas exist as to the nutritive
+value of foods, and often wholesome and valuable foods are discriminated
+against because of prejudice. Skim milk is usually regarded as
+containing little if any nourishing material, when in reality it has a
+high protein content, and can be added to other foods to increase their
+nutritive value. The less expensive cuts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> of meat contain more total
+nutrients than many of the more expensive ones. Beef extracts have been
+erroneously said to contain more nutrients than beef,<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[51]</sup></small></b></a> and mushrooms
+to be equal in value of beefsteak; chemical analyses fail to confirm
+either statement. The banana also has been overestimated as to food
+value, and while it contains more nutrients than many fruits, it is not
+the equal of cereals, as has been claimed.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[82]</sup></small></b></a> Cocoa, although a
+valuable beverage, adds but little in the way of nutrients to a ration
+unless it is made with milk. The value of a food should be based upon
+its composition as determined by chemical analysis, its digestibility as
+founded upon digestion experiments, and its palatability and mechanical
+structure. Food notions have, in many instances, been the cause of
+banishing from the dietary wholesome and nutritious foods, of greatly
+increasing the cost of living, as well as of promulgating incorrect
+ideas in regard to foods, so that individuals and in some cases entire
+families have suffered from improper or insufficient food.</p>
+
+<p><b>254. Dietary of Two Families Compared.</b>&mdash;A dietary study often reveals
+ways in which it is possible to improve the ration in kinds and amounts
+of food, and sometimes at less expense. The following dietaries of two
+families for the same period show that one family expends over twice as
+much in the purchase of foods as the other family, and yet the one whose
+food costs the less actually secures the larger amount of nutritive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+material and is better fed than the family where more money is expended
+for food.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a><br /><br /></p>
+
+<h4>
+<span class="smcap">Food Consumed, One Week</span></h4>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Food Consumed, One Week">
+<tr><th colspan="2" align='center'><span class="smcap">Family</span> No. 1</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20 loaves of bread</td><td align='right'>$1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10 to 12 lb. loin steak, or meat of similar cost</td><td align='right'>2.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20 to 25 lb. rib roast, or similar meat</td><td align='right'>4.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4 lb. high-priced cereal breakfast food, 20 ct.</td><td align='right'>0.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cake and pastry purchased</td><td align='right'>3.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8 lb. butter, 30 ct.</td><td align='right'>2.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tea, coffee, spices, etc</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mushrooms</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Celery</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oranges</td><td align='right'>2.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Miscellaneous canned goods</td><td align='right'>2.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Miscellaneous foods</td><td align='right'>2.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3 doz. eggs</td><td align='right'>0.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>$23.45</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="2" align='center'><span class="smcap">Family</span> No. 2</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>15 lb. flour, bread home-made (skim milk used)</td><td align='right'>$0.45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Yeast, shortening and skim milk</td><td align='right'>0.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. steak (round. Hamburger and some loin)</td><td align='right'>1.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. other meats, boiling pieces, rump roast, etc.</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. cheese, 16 cents</td><td align='right'>0.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. oatmeal (bulk)</td><td align='right'>0.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. beans</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Home-made cake and pastry</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6 lb. butter, 30 ct.</td><td align='right'>1.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3 lb. home-made shortening</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tea, coffee, and spices</td><td align='right'>0.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Apples</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Prunes</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Miscellaneous foods</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3 doz. eggs</td><td align='right'>0.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>$11.30</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <a href="images/img271.jpg"><img
+             src="images/img271-tb.jpg" width="457" height="500"
+             alt="Fig. 59." /></a><br />
+
+    </div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 59.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cost and Nutritive Value of
+Rations</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>In comparing the foods used by the two families, it will be observed
+that family No. 1 purchased their bread at the bakery at a cost of $
+1.00, while the bread of family No. 2 was home-made, skim milk being
+used in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> its preparation, the flour, milk, yeast, and shortening costing
+about 55 cents. Family No. 1 consumed 10 pounds of expensive steaks,
+family No. 2 consumed the same number of pounds, a portion being cheaper
+cuts. Instead of the 20 pounds of roast or similar beef used by family
+No. 1, only one half as much and cheaper cuts as boiling pieces, stew,
+rump roast, etc., were used by family No. 2; 5 pounds of beans and 5
+pounds of cheese taking the place of some of the meat. Family No. 1
+consumed 4 pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods, supposing they
+contained a larger amount of nutrients than were actually present. In
+place of the 4 pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods of family
+No. 1, family No. 2 used 5 pounds of oatmeal purchased in bulk. Family
+No. 1 bought their cake and pastry for $3.00, while those of family No.
+2 were home made and cost $1.00. Family No. 2 used 2 pounds less butter
+per week because of the preparation and use of home-made shortening from
+beef suet and milk. They also purchased a smaller amount of tea, coffee,
+and spices than family No. 1. Family No. 2 consumed a larger quantity of
+less expensive fruits and vegetables than family No. 1, who ate 75
+cents' worth of mushrooms with the idea that they contained as much
+protein as meat, but analyses show that mushrooms contain no more
+nutrients than potatoes and similar vegetables. In place of the celery
+and oranges, apples and prunes were used by family No. 2. The same
+amount of potatoes was used by each. Fifty cents was spent for milk by
+family No. 1 and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> $1.00 by family No. 2. The total amount expended for
+food by family No. 1 was $23.45, while family No. 2 purchased a greater
+variety of foods for $11.30, as well as foods containing more nutrients.
+The approximate amounts of nutrients in the foods purchased by the two
+families are given in the following table, from which it will be
+observed that family No. 2 obtained a much larger amount of total
+nutrients and was better fed at considerably less expense than family
+No. 1.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Nutrients in Foods Consumed</span>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Family No.</span> 1</h4>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Nutrients in Foods Consumed">
+<tr valign="top"><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20 lb. bread</td><td align='right'>1.98</td><td align='right'>0.28</td><td align='right'>11.42</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. loin steak</td><td align='right'>1.59</td><td align='right'>1.76</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20 lb. rib roast</td><td align='right'>2.68</td><td align='right'>4.26</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4 lb. cereals</td><td align='right'>0.42</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>2.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8 lb. butter</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>6.80</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>25 lb. potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.45</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>3.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20 lb. milk</td><td align='right'>0.70</td><td align='right'>0.80</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>7.86</td><td align='right'>13.99</td><td align='right'>19.00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Family No.</span> 2</h4>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2"  width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Family No. 2">
+<tr valign="top"><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>15 lb. flour</td><td align='right'>1.89</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>11.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. skim milk</td><td align='right'>0.16</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. round steak</td><td align='right'>1.81</td><td align='right'>1.26</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. beef</td><td align='right'>1.32</td><td align='right'>2.02</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. cheese</td><td align='right'>1.40</td><td align='right'>1.75</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. oatmeal</td><td align='right'>0.78</td><td align='right'>0.36</td><td align='right'>3.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6 lb. butter</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>5.10</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3 lb. shortening</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>2.55</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3 lb. prunes</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>25 lb. apples</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>2.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>25 lb. potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.45</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>3.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>40 lb. milk</td><td align='right'>1.44</td><td align='right'>1.60</td><td align='right'>1.90</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. beans</td><td align='right'>1.12</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>3.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>10.55</td><td align='right'>14.80</td><td align='right'>26.64</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr valign="middle"><td align='left'>Difference in nutrients in favor<br />of family No. 2, consuming the<br />cheaper combination of foods</td><td align='right'>2.69</td><td align='right'>0.81</td><td align='right'>7.64</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>255. Food in its Relation to Mental and Physical Vigor</b>.&mdash;When the body
+is not properly supplied with food, the best results in the form of
+productive work cannot be secured. There is a close relationship between
+the nature of the food consumed and mental activity, also ability to
+satisfactorily perform physical labor. "The productive power of the
+individual as well as of the nation depends doubtless upon many factors
+other than food, such as race, climate, habit, etc.,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> but there is no
+gainsaying the fact that diet has also a profound and direct influence
+upon it."<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[83]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p>If the body is diseased, it cannot make the right uses of the food, and
+often the food is blamed when the trouble is due primarily to other
+causes. The fact that a diseased digestive tract is unable to utilize
+some foods is no valid reason why these foods should be discarded in the
+dietary of persons in normal health, particularly when the food is in no
+way responsible for the disease.</p>
+
+<p>Some diseases are most prevalent in the case of a restricted diet. A
+change in the dietary of the Japanese navy greatly improved the health
+of the sailors.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The prevalence of kakke or beriberi in the navy turned the
+attention of many medical specialists toward the problem of
+nutrition.... It was generally believed that there was some very
+close connection between the disease and the rice diet.... One
+outcome of these investigations was the passage of the food supply
+act of the navy in 1884. The ration provided in accordance with
+this act was sufficient to furnish an abundance of protein and
+energy.... Following the change of ration in 1884, the prevalence
+of the disease was very materially diminished, and at the end of
+three years cases of kakke were practically unknown among the
+marines."<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[83]</sup></small></b></a></p></div>
+
+<p><b>256. Dietary Studies in Public Institutions.</b>&mdash;Dietary studies in
+public institutions, as prisons, and asylums for the insane, show that
+it is possible to secure greater variety of food containing a larger
+amount of nutrients, and even at a reduction in cost.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[84]</sup></small></b></a> In such
+institutions it is important that the food should be not only ample<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> in
+amount, but wholesome and nutritious, as many of the inmates respond
+both physically and mentally to an improved diet. For humanitarian as
+well as economic reasons institutional dietetics should more generally
+be placed under the supervision of skilled dietists.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>RATIONAL FEEDING OF MAN</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>257. Object.</b>&mdash;Rational feeding of man has for its object the
+regulation of the food supply in accord with the demands of the body. It
+is based upon the same principles as the rational feeding of animals; in
+each, the best results in the way of health, amount of labor performed,
+and economy are secured when the body receives nutrients sufficient for
+the production of heat and energy and for the repair of worn-out
+tissues. Rational feeding is simply regulation of the food, both as to
+kind and amount, to meet the needs of the body.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[72]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>258. Standard Rations.</b>&mdash;In human feeding, as in animal feeding, it is
+not possible to lay down hard and fast rules as to the quantity of
+nutrients required for a standard ration.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[85]</sup></small></b></a> As stated in the chapter
+on Dietary Studies, such standards have been proposed, but they are to
+be considered as tentative rather than absolute, for the amount of food
+required by different persons must necessarily vary with the
+individuality. While it is impossible to establish absolute standards,
+any large variation from the provisional standards usually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> results in
+lessened ability to accomplish work, ill health, or increased expense.</p>
+
+<p><b>259. Amounts of Food Consumed.</b>&mdash;The approximate amounts of some food
+articles consumed per day are as follows:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="The approximate amounts of some food
+articles consumed per day are as follows">
+<tr valign="top"><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Range</th><th align='right'>Approximate<br />Amount in Lbs.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align='right'>6 to 14 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Butter</td><td align='right'>2 to 5 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>8 to 16 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cheese</td><td align='right'>1 to 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beans</td><td align='right'>1 to 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>8 to 32 oz.</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>2 to 5 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Meats</td><td align='right'>4 to 12 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align='right'>1 to 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><br />In the calculation of rations it is desirable that the amount of any
+food article should not exceed that designated, unless for some special
+reason it has been found the food can consistently be increased. The
+amount of nutrients given in dietary standards is for one day, and the
+nutrients may be divided among the three meals as desired. It is to be
+noted that, ordinarily, the foods which supply carbohydrates are flour,
+corn meal, cereal products, potatoes, beans, sugar, and milk; those
+which supply fat are milk, butter, lard, and meats; and those which
+supply protein in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> liberal amounts are beans, cheese, meats, oatmeal,
+cereals, bread, and milk.</p>
+
+<p><b>260. Average Composition of Foods.</b>&mdash;The amounts of nutrients in foods
+are determined from the average composition of the foods. These figures
+for average composition are based upon analyses of a large number of
+samples of food materials.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a> In individual cases it will be found that
+foods may vary from the standards given; as for example, milk may
+contain from 2.5 to 5 per cent of fat, while the protein and fat of
+meats vary appreciably from the figures given for average composition.
+With the cereals and vegetable foods, variations from the standards are
+small. In the table, the composition of the food as purchased represents
+all of the nutrients in the food, including those in the refuse,
+trimmings, or waste, while the figures for the edible portion represent
+the nutrients in the food after deducting what is lost as refuse. In
+making calculations, the student should use the figures given for the
+foods as purchased, unless the weights are of the edible portion only.
+The figures in the table are on the basis of percentage amounts, or
+nutrients in 100 pounds of food. By moving the decimal point two places
+to the left, the figures will represent the nutrients in one pound, and
+if this is multiplied by the number of pounds or fraction of a pound
+used, the quantity of nutrients is secured. For example, suppose bread
+contains 9.5 per cent of protein and 56 per cent of carbohydrates, 1
+pound<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> would contain 0.095 pound of protein, 0.56 pound of
+carbohydrates; and 0.5 of a pound would contain approximately 0.05 pound
+of protein and 0.28 pound of carbohydrates. In calculating rations, it
+is not necessary to carry the figures to the third decimal place.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img048.jpg" width="550" height="400" alt="Fig. 60" title="Fig. 60" /></div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 60.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Food Articles for a Human
+Ration</span>.</h4>
+
+<p><b>261. Example of a Ration.</b>&mdash;Suppose it is desired to calculate a ration
+for a man at light muscular work. First, note the requirements in the
+way of nutrients in the table "Dietary Standards," Section 246. Such a
+ration should supply approximately 0.22 pound each of protein and fat,
+and 0.77 pound of carbohydrates, and should yield 2800 calories. A trial
+ration is made by combining the following:<br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="A trial
+ration is made by combining the following">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Pound</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Butter</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ham</td><td align='right'>0.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eggs</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><br />The quantities of nutrients in these food materials are approximately as
+follows:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Ration for Man at Moderate Work</span></h4>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Ration for Man at Moderate Work">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>C.H.</th><th align='right'>Calories</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.29</td><td align='right'>653</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Butter</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>432</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potato</td><td align='right'>0.75</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>244</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>323</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>192</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef (round)</td><td align='right'>0.25</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>218</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ham</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>331</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>223</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eggs</td><td align='right'>0.25</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>164</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Squash</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>0.23</td><td align='right'>0.29</td><td align='right'>0.67</td><td align='right'>2805</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><br />It is to be noted that this ration contains approximately the amount of
+protein called for in the standard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> ration, while the fat is slightly
+more and the carbohydrates are less. The food value of the ration is
+practically that called for in the standard. This ration is sufficiently
+near the standard to supply the nutrient requirements of a man at light
+muscular work. To supply palatability, some fruit and vegetables should
+be added to the ration. These will contribute but little to the nutrient
+content, but are necessary in order to secure health and the best
+returns from the other foods, and as previously stated, they are not to
+be estimated entirely upon the basis of nutrient content. A number of
+food articles could be substituted in this ration, if desired, either in
+the interests of economy, palatability, or personal preference.</p>
+
+<p><b>262. Requisites of a Balanced Ration.</b>&mdash;Reasonable combinations of
+foods should be made to form balanced rations.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[2]</sup></small></b></a> A number of foods slow
+of digestion, or which require a large amount of intestinal work, should
+not be combined; neither should foods which are easily digested and
+which leave but little indigestible residue. After a ration has been
+calculated and found to contain the requisite amount of nutrients, it
+should be critically examined to see whether or not it fulfills the
+following requirements:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Economy and adaptability to the work required.</p>
+
+<p>2. Necessary bulk or volume.</p>
+
+<p>3. Desired physiological influence of the foods upon the digestive
+tract, whether constipating or laxative in character.</p>
+
+<p>4. Ease of digestion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. Effect upon health. It is recognized that there are foods
+wholesome and nutritious, that cannot be used by some persons,
+while with others the same foods can be consumed with impunity.</p></div>
+
+<p>As explained in the chapter on Dietary Studies, the nutrients should be
+supplied from a number of foods rather than from a few, because it is
+believed the various nutrients, particularly the proteins, are not
+absolutely identical from all sources, or equal in nutritive value.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EXAMPLES</h3>
+
+<p>1. Calculate a ration for a man with little physical exercise.</p>
+
+<p>2. Calculate a ration for a man at hard muscular labor, and give the
+approximate cost of the ration.</p>
+
+<p>3. Calculate the amounts of food and the nutrient requirements for a
+family of seven for 10 days; five of the family to consume 0.8 as much
+as an adult. Calculate the cost of the food; then calculate on the same
+basis the probable cost of food for one year, adding 20 per cent for
+fluctuation in market price and additional foods not included in the
+list.</p>
+
+<p>4. Weigh out the food articles used in problem No. 2, and apportion them
+among three meals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h3>WATER</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>263. Importance.</b>&mdash;Water is one of the most essential food materials.
+It enters into the composition of the body, and without it the nutrients
+of foods would be unavailable, and life could not be sustained. Water
+unites chemically with various elements to form plant tissue and
+supplies hydrogen and oxygen for the production of organic compounds
+within the leaves of plants. In the animal economy it is not definitely
+known whether or not water furnishes any of the elements of which the
+tissues are composed, as the food contains liberal amounts of hydrogen
+and oxygen; it is necessary mainly as the vehicle for distributing
+nutrients in suspension and solution, and as a medium in which chemical,
+physical, and physiological changes essential to life processes take
+place. From a sanitary point of view, the condition of the water supply
+is of great importance, as impure water seriously affects the health of
+the consumer.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[87]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>264. Impurities in Water.</b>&mdash;Waters are impure because of: (1) excessive
+amounts of alkaline salts and other mineral compounds; (2) decaying
+animal and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> vegetable matters which act chemically as poisons and
+irritants, and which may serve as food for the development of
+objectionable bacterial bodies; and (3) injurious bacteria. The most
+common forms of impurities are excess of organic matter and bacterial
+contamination. The sanitary condition of water is greatly influenced by
+the character of the soil through which it flows and the extent to which
+it has been polluted by surface drainage.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[88]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img049.jpg" width="500" height="416"
+             alt="Fig. 61." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dirt and Impurities in a Surface
+Well Water.</span></h4>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>265. Mineral Impurities.</b>&mdash;- The mineral impurities of water are mainly
+soluble alkaline and similar compounds dissolved by the water in passing
+through various layers of soil and rock. When water contains a large
+amount of sodium chloride, sodium sulphate or carbonate, or other
+alkaline salts, it is termed an "alkali water." Where water passes
+through soil that has been largely formed from the decay of rocks
+containing alkaline minerals, the water dissolves some of these minerals
+and becomes alkaline. The kind of alkali determines the character of the
+water; in some cases it is sodium carbonate, which is particularly
+objectionable. The continued use of strong alkali water causes digestion
+disorders, because of the irritating action upon the digestive tract.
+Hard waters are due to the presence of lime compounds. In regions where
+limestone predominates, the carbon dioxid in water acts as a solvent,
+producing hard waters. Waters that are hard on account of the presence
+of calcium carbonate give a deposit when boiled, due to liberation of
+the carbon dioxid which is the material that renders the lime soluble.
+Calcium sulphate, or gypsum, on the other hand, imparts permanent
+hardness. There is no deposit when such waters are boiled. A large
+number of minerals are found in various waters, often sufficient in
+amount to impart physiological properties. Water that is highly charged
+with mineral matter is difficult to improve sufficiently for household
+purposes. About the only way is by distillation.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[89]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>266. Organic Impurities.</b>&mdash;Water that flows over the surface of the
+ground comes in contact with animal and vegetable material in various
+stages of decay, and as a result some is dissolved and some is
+mechanically carried along by the water. After becoming soluble, the
+organic matter undergoes further chemical changes, as oxidation and
+nitrification caused by bacteria. If the organic matter contain a large
+amount of nitrogenous material, particularly of proteid origin, a series
+of chemical changes induced by bacterial action takes place, resulting
+in the production of nitrites. The nitrifying organisms first produce
+nitrous acid products (nitrites), and in the further development of the
+nitrifying process these are changed to nitrates. The ammonia formed as
+the result of the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter readily
+undergoes nitrification changes. Nitrates and nitrites alone are not
+injurious in water, but they are usually associated with objectionable
+bacteria and generally indicate previous contamination.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[90]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>267. Interpretation of a Water Analysis.</b>&mdash;"Total solid matter"
+represents all the mineral, vegetable, and animal matter which a water
+contains. It is the residue obtained by evaporating the water to dryness
+at a temperature of 212&deg; F. Average drinking water contains from 20 to
+90 grains per gallon of solid matter. "Free ammonia" is that formed as a
+result of the decomposition of animal or vegetable matter containing
+nitrogen. Water of high purity usually contains less than 0.07<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> parts
+per million of free ammonia. "Albuminoid ammonia" is derived from the
+partially decomposed animal or vegetable material in water. The greater
+the amount of nitrogenous organic impurities, the higher the albuminoid
+ammonia. A good drinking water ought not to contain more than 0.10 part
+per million of albuminoid ammonia. An abnormal quantity of chlorine
+indicates surface drainage or sewage contamination, or an excess of
+alkaline matter, as common salt. Nitrites should not be present, as they
+are generally associated with matter not completely oxidized. Nitrites
+are usually considered more objectionable than nitrates; both are
+innocuous unless associated with disease-producing nitro&ouml;rganisms.</p>
+
+<p><b>268. Natural Purification of Water.</b>&mdash;River waters are sometimes dark
+colored because of large amounts of dissolved organic matter, but in
+contact with the sun and air they gradually undergo natural purification
+and the organic matter is oxidized. However, absolute reliance cannot be
+placed upon natural purification of a bad water, as the objectionable
+organisms often have great resistive power. There is no perfectly pure
+water except that prepared in the chemical laboratory by distillation.
+All natural waters come in contact with the soil and air, and
+necessarily contain impurities proportional to the extent of their
+contamination.</p>
+
+<p><b>269. Water in Relation to Health.</b>&mdash;There are many diseases, of which
+typhoid fever is a type, that are dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>tinctly water-born. The typhoid
+bacilli, present in countless numbers in the feces of persons suffering
+or convalescent from typhoid fever, find their way into streams, lakes,
+and wells.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[91]</sup></small></b></a> They retain their vitality, and when they enter the
+digestive tract of an individual, rapidly increase in numbers. Numerous
+disastrous outbreaks of typhoid fever have been traced to contamination
+of water. Coupled with the sanitary improvement of a city's water
+supply, there is diminution of typhoid fever cases, and a noticeable
+lowering of the death rate. Many cities and villages are dependent for
+their water upon rivers and lakes into which surface drainage finds its
+way, with all contaminating substances. Mechanical sedimentation and
+filtration greatly improve waters of this class, but do not necessarily
+render them entirely pure. Compounds of iron and aluminium are sometimes
+added in small amounts, under chemical supervision, to such waters to
+precipitate the organic impurities. Spring waters are not entirely above
+suspicion, as oftentimes the soil through which they flow is highly
+polluted. All water of doubtful purity should be boiled, and there are
+but few natural waters of undoubted purity. There is no such thing as
+absolutely pure water in a state of nature. The mountain streams perhaps
+approach nearest to it where there are no humans to pollute the banks;
+but then there are always the beasts and birds, and they, too, are
+subject to disease. There are very few waters that at some time of the
+year and under some conditions are not contaminated with
+disease-producing organisms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> No matter how carefully guarded are the
+banks of lakes furnishing the water supply of cities, more or less
+objectionable matter will get in. In seasons of heavy rains, large
+amounts of surface water enter the lakes, carrying along the filth
+gathered from many acres of land drained by the streams entering the
+lakes. Some of the most serious outbreaks of typhoid fever have come
+from temporary contamination of ordinarily fairly good drinking water.
+In general, too little attention is given to the purity of drinking
+water. It is just as important that water should be boiled as that food
+should be cooked. One of the objects of cooking is to destroy the
+injurious bacteria, and they are frequently more numerous in the
+drinking water than in the food.</p>
+
+<p>The argument is sometimes advanced that the mineral matter present in
+water is needed for the construction of the bone and other tissues of
+the body, and that distilled water fails to supply the necessary mineral
+matter. This is an erroneous assumption, as the mineral matter in the
+food is more than sufficient for this purpose. When water is highly
+charged with mineral salts, additional work for their elimination is
+called for on the part of the organs of excretion, particularly the
+kidneys; and furthermore, water nearly saturated with minerals cannot
+exert its full solvent action.</p>
+
+<p>In discussing the immediate benefits resulting from improvement of
+water, Fuertes says:<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[92]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Immediately after the change to the 'four mile intake' at Chicago
+in 1893, there was a great reduction in typhoid. Lawrence,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> Mass.,
+showed a great improvement with the setting of the filters in
+operation in September, 1893; fully half of the deaths in 1894 were
+among persons known to have used the unfiltered canal water. The
+conclusion is warranted that for the efficient control of the death
+rate from typhoid fever it is necessary to have efficient sewerage
+and drainage, proper methods of living, and pure water. The reason
+why our large cities, which are all provided with sewerage, have
+such high death rates is therefore without doubt their continuance
+of the filthy practice of supplying drinking water which carries in
+solution and suspension the washings from farms, from the streets,
+from privies, from pigpens, and the sewage of cities.... And also
+we should recognize the importance of flies and other winged
+insects and birds which feed on offal as carriers of bacteria of
+specific diseases from points of infection to the watersheds, and
+the consequent washing of newly infected matter into our drinking
+water by rains."</p></div>
+
+<p>There is a very close relationship between the surface water and that of
+shallow wells. A shallow well is simply a reservoir for surface water
+accumulations. It is stated that, when an improved system of drainage
+was introduced into a part of London, many of the shallow wells became
+dry, indicating the source from which they received their supply. Direct
+subterranean connection between cesspools and wells is often traced in
+the following way: A small amount of lithium, which gives a distinct
+flame reaction, and a minute trace of which can be detected with the
+spectroscope, is placed in the cesspool, and after a short time a
+lithium reaction is secured from the well water.</p>
+
+<p>Rain water is relied upon in some localities for drinking purposes. That
+collected in cities and in the vicin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>ity of barns and dwellings contains
+appreciable amounts of organic impurities. The brown color is due to the
+impurities, ammonium carbonate being one of these. There are also traces
+of nitrates and nitrites obtained from the air. When used for drinking,
+rain water should be boiled.</p>
+
+<p><b>270. Improvement of Waters.</b>&mdash;Waters are improved by: (1) boiling,
+which destroys the disease-producing organisms; (2) filtration, which
+removes the materials mechanically suspended in the water; and (3)
+distillation, which eliminates the impurities in suspension and
+solution, as well as destroys all germ life.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img293.jpg" width="173" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 62." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pasteur<br />Water Filters.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>271. Boiling Water.</b>&mdash;In order to destroy the bacteria that may be in
+drinking water, it is not sufficient to heat the water or merely let it
+come to a boil. It has been found that if water is only partially
+sterilized and then cooled in the open air, the bacteria develop more
+rapidly than if the water had not been heated at all. It should boil
+vigorously five to ten minutes; cholera and typhoid bacteria succumb in
+five minutes or less. Care should be taken in cooling that the water is
+not exposed to dust particles from the air nor placed in open vessels in
+a dirty refrigerator. It should be kept in perfectly clean,
+tight-stoppered bottles. These bottles should be frequently scalded.
+Great reliance may be placed upon this method of water purification when
+properly carried out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>272. Filtration.</b>&mdash;Among the most efficient forms of water filters are
+the Berkefeld and Pasteur. The Pasteur filter is made of unglazed
+porcelain, and the Berkefeld of fine infusorial earth (finely divided
+SiO<sub>2</sub>). Both are porous and allow a moderately rapid flow of water.
+The flow from the Berkefeld filter is more rapid than from the Pasteur.
+The mechanical impurities of the water are deposited upon the filtering
+surface, due to the attraction which the material has for particles in
+suspension. These particles usually are the sources of contamination and
+carry bacteria. When first used, filters are satisfactory, but unless
+carefully looked after they soon lose their ability to remove germs from
+the water and may increase the impurity by accumulation. Small faucet
+filters are made of porous stone, asbestos, charcoal, etc. Many of them
+are of no value whatever or are even worse than valueless. Filters
+should be frequently cleansed in boiling water or in steam under
+pressure. Unless this is done, the filters may become incubators for
+bacteria.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>273. Distillation.</b>&mdash;When an unquestionably pure water supply is
+desired, distillation should be resorted to. There are many forms of
+stills for domestic use which are easily manipulated and produce
+distilled water economically.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[93]</sup></small></b></a> The mineral matter of water is in no
+way essential for any functional purpose, and hence its removal through
+distillation is not detrimental.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img50.jpg" width="550" height="380"
+             alt="Fig. 63." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Water Still.</span></h4>
+
+<p><b>274. Chemical Purification.</b>&mdash;Purification of water by the use of
+chemicals should not be attempted in the household or by inexperienced
+persons. When done under supervision of a chemist or bacteriologist, it
+may be of great value to a community. Turneaure and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> Russell,<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[94]</sup></small></b></a> in
+discussing the purification of water by addition of chemicals, state:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"There are a considerable number of chemical substances that may be
+added to water in order to purify it by carrying down the suspended
+matter as well as bacteria, by sedimentation. Such a process of
+purification is to be seen in the addition of alum, sulphate of
+iron, and calcium hydrate to water. Methods of this character are
+directly dependent upon the flocculating action of the chemical
+added, and the removal of the bacteria is accomplished by
+subsidence."</p></div>
+
+<p><b>275. Ice.</b>&mdash;The purity of the ice supply is also of much importance.
+While freezing reduces the number of organisms and lessens their
+vitality, it does not make an impure water absolutely wholesome. The
+way, too, in which ice is often handled and stored subjects it to
+contamination, and foods which are placed in direct contact with it
+mechanically absorb the impurities which it contains. For cooling water,
+ice should be placed around rather than in it. Diseases have frequently
+been traced to impure ice. The only absolutely pure ice is that made
+from distilled water.</p>
+
+<p><b>276. Mineral Waters.</b>&mdash;When water is charged with carbonic acid gas
+under pressure, carbonated water results, and when minerals, as salts of
+sodium, potassium, or lithium, are added, artificial mineral waters are
+produced. Natural mineral waters are placed on the market to some
+extent, but most mineral waters are artificial products and they are
+sometimes prepared from water of low sanitary character. Mineral waters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+should not be used extensively except under medical direction, as many
+have pronounced medicinal properties. Some of the constituents are
+bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, and lithium; sulphates of magnesium
+(Epsom salts) and calcium; and chloride of sodium. The sweetened mineral
+waters, as lemonade, orangeade, ginger ale, and beer, contain sugar and
+organic acids, as citric and tartaric, and are flavored with natural or
+artificial products. Most of them are prepared without either fruit or
+ginger. Natural mineral waters used under the direction of a physician
+are often beneficial in cases of chronic digestion disorders or other
+diseases.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img298.jpg" width="250" height="246"
+             alt="Fig. 64." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Typhoid<br />Bacilli.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>277. Materials for Softening Water.</b>&mdash;The materials most commonly used
+for softening water are sodium carbonate (washing soda), borax, ammonia,
+ammonium carbonate, potash, and soda lye. Waters that are very hard with
+limestone should have a small amount of washing soda added to them. Two
+ounces for a large tub of water is the most that should be used, and it
+should first be dissolved in a little water. If too much soda is used,
+it is injurious, as only a certain amount can be utilized for softening
+the water, and the excess simply injures the hands and fabric. When hard
+limewater is boiled and a very little soda lye added, a precipitate of
+carbonate of lime is formed, and then if the water is strained, it is
+greatly improved for washing purposes. Borax is valuable for making some
+hard waters soft. It is not as strong in its action as is sodium
+carbonate.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> For the hardest water &frac14; pound of borax to a large tubful
+may be used; most waters, however, do not need so much. Ammonia is one
+of the most useful reagents for softening water. It is better than
+washing soda and borax, because the ammonia is volatile and does not
+leave any residue to act on the clothes, thus causing injury. For
+bathing purposes, the water should be softened with ammonia, in
+preference to any other material. Ammonia should not be poured directly
+into hot water; it should be added to the water while cold, or to a
+small quantity of cold water, and then to the warm water, as this
+prevents the ammonia from vaporizing too readily. Ammonia produces the
+same effect as potash or soda lye, without leaving a residue in the
+garments washed. It is especially valuable in washing woolen goods or
+materials liable to shrink. Waters which are hard with alum salts are
+greatly benefited by the addition of ammonia. A little in such a water
+will cause a precipitate to form, and when the water is strained it is
+in good condition for cleaning purposes. Ammonium carbonate is used to
+some extent as a softening and cleaning agent, and is valuable, as there
+is no injurious effect upon clothing, because it readily volatilizes.
+Caustic potash and caustic soda are sometimes employed for softening
+water, but they are very active and are not adapted to washing colored
+or delicate fabrics. They may be used for very heavy and coarse articles
+that are greasy,&mdash;not more than a gram in a gallon of water. Bleaching
+powder is not generally a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> safe material for cleansing purposes, as it
+weakens the texture of clothing. After a contagious disease, articles
+may be soaked in water containing a little bleaching powder and a few
+drops of carbolic acid, followed by thorough rinsing and bleaching in
+the sun. But as a rule formaline is preferable for disinfecting
+clothing. It can be used at the rate of about one pound to 100 gallons
+of water. Bleaching powder, caustic potash or soda, and strong soap are
+not suitable for cleaning woodwork, because of the action of the alkali
+on paint and wood; they roughen the surface and discolor the paint.
+Waters vary so in composition, that a material suitable for softening
+one may not prove to be the best for softening another. The special kind
+must be determined largely by trial, and it should be the aim to use as
+little as possible. When carbolic acid, formaline, bleaching powder, and
+caustic soda are used, the hands should be protected and the clothes
+should be well rinsed.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>278. Economic Value of a Pure Water Supply.</b>&mdash;From a financial point of
+view, the money spent in securing pure water is one of the best
+investments a community can make. Statisticians estimate the death of an
+adult results in a loss to the state of from $1000 to $5000; and to the
+losses sustained by death must be added those incurred by sickness and
+by less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>ened quality and quantity of work through impaired
+vitality,&mdash;all caused by using poor drinking water. Wherever plants have
+been installed for improving the sanitary condition of the water supply,
+the death rate has been lowered and the returns to the community have
+been far greater than the cost of the plant. Impure water is the most
+expensive food that can be consumed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h3>FOOD AS AFFECTED BY HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND STORAGE</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>279. Injurious Compounds in Foods.</b>&mdash;An ordinary chemical analysis of a
+food determines only the nutrients, as protein, carbohydrates, and fats;
+and unless there is reason to believe the food contains injurious
+substances no special tests for these are made. There are a number of
+poisonous compounds that foods may contain, and many of them can but
+imperfectly be determined by chemical analysis. Numerous organic
+compounds are produced in foods as the result of the workings of
+micro&ouml;rganisms; some of these are poisonous, while others impart only
+special characteristics, as taste and odor. The poisonous bacteria
+finding their way into food produce organic compounds of a toxic
+character; and hence it is that the sanitary condition of a food, as
+influenced by preparation and storage, is often of more vital importance
+than the nutrient content.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[95]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img051.jpg" width="250" height="239"
+             alt="Fig. 65." /><br />
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tuberculosis Bacilli.</span> (After
+<span class="smcap">Conn</span>.)</h4>
+
+<h4>Often present in dust particles and contaminated foods.</h4></div>
+
+<p><b>280. Sources of Contamination of Food.</b>&mdash;As a rule, too little
+attention is given to the sanitary handling and preparation of foods.
+They are often exposed to impure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> air and to the dust and filth from
+unclean streets and surroundings, and as a result they become inoculated
+with bacteria, which are often the disease-producing kind. Gelatine
+plates exposed by bacteriologists under the same conditions as foods
+develop large numbers of injurious micro&ouml;rganisms. In order to avoid
+contamination in the handling of food, there must be: (1) protection
+from impure air and dust; (2) storage in clean, sanitary, and ventilated
+storerooms and warehouses; (3) storage of perishable foods at a low
+temperature so as to retard fermentation changes; and (4) workmen free
+from contagious diseases in all occupations pertaining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> to the
+preparation of foods. Ordinarily, foods should not be stored in the
+paper wrappers in which they are purchased, as unclean paper is often a
+source of contamination.</p>
+
+<p><b>281. Sanitary Inspection of Food.</b>&mdash;During recent years some state and
+city boards of health have introduced sanitary inspection of foods, with
+a view of preventing contamination during manufacture and
+transportation, and this has done much to improve the quality and
+wholesomeness. Putrid meats, fish, and vegetables are not allowed to be
+sold, and foods are required to be handled and stored in a sanitary way.
+Next to a pure water supply, there is no factor that so greatly
+influences for good the health of a community as the sanitary condition
+of the food. While the cooking of foods destroys many organisms, it
+often fails to render innocuous the poisons which they produce, and
+furthermore the unsound foods when cooked are not entirely wholesome,
+and they have poor keeping qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Often meats, vegetables, and other foods eaten uncooked, as well as the
+numerous cooked foods, are exposed in dirty market places, and
+accumulate large amounts of filth, and are inoculated with disease germs
+by flies. Protection of food from flies is a matter of vital importance,
+as they are carriers of many diseases. In the case of typhoid fever,
+next to impure drinking water flies are credited with being the greatest
+distributors of the disease germs.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[96]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img052.jpg" width="250" height="242"
+             alt="Fig. 66." /><br />
+
+</div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Diphtheria Bacilli.</span> (After
+<span class="smcap">Conn</span>.)</h4>
+
+<h4>Often present in dust particles and in food unprotected from dust.</h4>
+
+<p><b>282. Infection from Impure Air.</b>&mdash;The dust particles of the air contain
+decayed animal and vegetable matter in which bacteria are present; these
+find their way into the food when it is not carefully protected, into
+the water supply, and also into the lungs and other organs of the body.
+When foods are protected from the mechanical impurities which gain
+access through the air, and fermentation is delayed by storage at a low
+temperature, digestion disorders are greatly lessened. From a sanitary
+point of view, the air of food storerooms and of living rooms should be
+of equally high purity. When foods are kept in unventilated living
+rooms, they become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> contaminated with the impurities thrown off from the
+lungs in respiration, which include not only carbon dioxid, but the more
+objectionable toxic organic materials.</p>
+
+<p>Vegetable foods need to be stored in well-ventilated places, as the
+plant cells are still alive and carrying on life functions, as the
+giving off of carbon dioxid, which is akin to animal respiration; in
+fact, it is plant-cell respiration. Provision should be made for the
+removal of the carbon dioxid and other products, as they contaminate the
+air. When vegetable tissue ceases to produce carbon dioxid, death and
+decay set in, accompanied by fermentation changes.</p>
+
+<p><b>283. Storage of Food in Cellars.</b>&mdash;Cellars are often in a very
+unsanitary condition, damp, poorly lighted, unventilated, and the air
+filled with floating particles from decaying vegetables. The walls and
+shelves absorb the dust and germs from the foul air and are bacterially
+contaminated, and whenever a sound food is stored in such a cellar, it
+readily becomes inoculated with bacteria. There is a much closer
+relationship existing between the atmosphere of the cellar and that of
+the house than is generally realized. An unclean cellar means
+contaminated air throughout the house. When careful attention is given
+to the sanitary condition of the cellar, many of the more common
+diseases are greatly reduced. Cases of rheumatism have often been traced
+to a damp cellar. In some localities where the cellars are unusually
+unsanitary, there is in the season of spring rains, when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> they are
+especially damp and contain the maximum of decayed vegetation, a
+prevalence of what might be called "cellaritis." The symptoms differ and
+the trouble is variously attributed, but the real cause is the same,
+although overlooked, for, unfortunately, doctors do not visit the
+cellar.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img53a.jpg" width="193" height="300"
+             alt="Fig. 67." /><br />
+<h4>Fig. 67.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dung Fungus.</span><br />
+(After <span class="smcap">Butters</span>.)</h4>
+
+<h4>Often present on surface<br />of unclean vegetables.</h4>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Cellars should be frequently cleaned and disinfected, using for the
+purpose some of the well-known disinfectants, as formaline, bleaching
+powder, or a dilute solution of carbolic acid. It has been found in
+large cities, when the spread of such diseases as yellow fever was
+imminent, that a general and thorough cleaning up of streets and cellars
+with the improved sanitary conditions resulting greatly lowered the
+usual death rate.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>284. Sunlight, Pure Water, and Pure Air as Disinfectants.</b>&mdash;The most
+effectual and valuable disinfectants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> are sunlight, pure water, and pure
+air. Many kinds of micro&ouml;rganisms, particularly those that are
+disease-producing, are destroyed when exposed for a time to sunlight.
+The chemical action of the sun's rays is destructive to the organic
+material which makes up the composition of many of these organisms,
+while higher forms of organic life are stirred into activity by it. The
+disinfecting power of sunlight should be made use of to the fullest
+extent, not only in the house, but plenty of sunlight should also be
+planned for in constructing barns and other buildings where milk-and
+meat-producing animals are kept. Pure water is also a disinfectant, but
+when water becomes polluted it loses this power. Many disease-producing
+organisms are rendered inactive when placed in pure water. Water
+contains more dissolved oxygen than air, and apparently a portion of the
+oxygen in water is in a more active condition than that in air. Pure
+air, too, is a disinfectant; the ozone and hydrogen peroxide and oxides
+of nitrogen, which are present in traces, exert a beneficial influence
+in oxidizing organic matter. Fresh air and sunlight, acting jointly, are
+nature's most effectual disinfectants. Sunshine, fresh air, and pure
+water are a health-producing trinity. In discussing the importance of
+pure air, water, and sunlight, Ellen H. Richards<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[97]</sup></small></b></a> says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The country dweller surrounds his house with evergreens or shade
+trees, the city dweller is surrounded with high brick walls.
+Blinds, shades, or thick draperies shut out still more, and prevent
+the beneficial sunlight from acting its role of germ prevention and
+germ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> destruction. Bright-colored carpets and pale-faced children
+are the opposite results which follow. Sunlight, pure air, and pure
+water are our common birthright which we often bargain away for
+so-called comforts."</p></div>
+
+<p>And Dr. Woods Hutchinson says of sunlight:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is a splendid and matchless servant in the promoting of
+healthfulness of the house, for which no substitute has yet been
+discovered. It is the foe alike of bacilli and the blues; the best
+tonic ever yet invented for the liver and for the scalp, and for
+everything between, the only real complexion restorer, and the
+deadliest foe of dirt and disease."</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img053.jpg" width="250" height="240"
+             alt="Fig. 68." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dirt and Manure<br />Embedded In
+Surface of Celery.</span></h4>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>285. Utensils for Storage of Food.</b>&mdash;In order that dishes and household
+utensils may be kept in the best sanitary condition, they should be free
+from seams, cracks, and crevices where dust and dirt particles can find
+lodgment. From the seams of a milk pail that has not been well washed,
+decaying milk solids can be removed with the aid of a pin or a
+toothpick. This material acts as a "starter" or culture when pure, fresh
+milk is placed in the pail, contaminating it and causing it to become
+sour. Not only is this true of milk, but also of other foods. Wooden
+utensils are not satisfactory for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> handling, storage, or preparation
+of foods, as it is difficult to keep wood in a sanitary condition.
+Uncleanliness of dishes in which foods are placed is too often caused by
+the use of foul dishcloths and failure to thoroughly wash and rinse the
+dishes. It is always well to rinse dishes with scalding water, as colds
+and skin diseases may be communicated from the edges of drinking
+glasses, and from forks and spoons, and, unless the dish towels are kept
+scrupulously clean, it is more sanitary to drain the dishes than to wipe
+them.</p>
+
+<p><b>286. Contamination from Unclean Dishcloths.</b>&mdash;When the dishcloth is
+foul, the fat absorbed by the fibers becomes rancid, the proteids
+undergo putrefaction changes with formation of ill-smelling gases
+containing nitrogen, the carbohydrates ferment and are particularly
+attractive to flies, and all the various disease germs collected on the
+surface of the dishcloth are, along with the rancid fat and other
+putrifying materials, distributed over the surface of the dishes with
+which the cloth comes in contact.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img309.jpg" width="500" height="440"
+             alt="Fig. 69." /><br />
+
+</div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Contamination of Well Water From
+Surface Drainage.</span></h4>
+
+<h5>(After Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. Agr.)</h5>
+
+<p><b>287. Refrigeration.</b>&mdash;At a low temperature the insoluble or unorganized
+ferments become inactive, but the chemical ferments or enzymes are still
+capable of carrying on fermentation. Thus it is that a food, when placed
+in a refrigerator or in cold storage, continues to undergo chemical
+change. An example of such enzymic action is the curing of beef and
+cheese in cold storage. A small amount of ventilation is required when
+foods are refrigerated, just sufficient to keep up a slight circulation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+of air. It seems not to be generally understood that all fermentation
+changes do not cease when food is placed in refrigerators, and this
+often leads to neglect in their care. Cleanliness is equally as
+essential, or more so, in the refrigeration of food as in its handling
+in other ways. Too often the refrigerator is neglected, milk and other
+food is spilt, filling the cracks, and slow decomposition sets in. A
+well-cared-for refrigerator is an important factor in the preservation
+of food, but when it is neglected, it becomes a source of contamination.
+Unclean vegetables and food receptacles, impure ice and foul air, are
+the most common forms of contamination. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> chemical changes which
+foods undergo during refrigeration are such as result in softening of
+the tissues.</p>
+
+<p><b>288. Soil.</b>&mdash;The soil about dwellings and places where foods are stored
+frequently becomes polluted with decaying animal and vegetable matter,
+and in such soils disease-producing organisms readily find lodgment.
+Poorly drained soils containing an excess of vegetable matter furnish a
+medium in which the tapeworm and the germs of typhoid fever, lockjaw,
+and various diseases affecting the digestive tract, may propagate. The
+wind carries the dust particles from these contaminated places into
+unprotected food, where they cause fermentation changes and the disease
+germs multiply. In considering the sanitary condition of a locality, the
+character of the soil is an important factor. Whenever there is reason
+to suspect that a soil is unsanitary, it should be disinfected with lime
+or formaldehyde. Soils about dwellings need care and frequent
+disinfecting to keep them in a sanitary condition, equally as much as do
+the rooms in the dwellings.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[99]</sup></small></b></a> In the growing of garden vegetables,
+frequently large quantities of fertilizers of unsanitary character are
+used, and vegetables often retain mechanically on their surfaces
+particles of these. To this dirt clinging to the vegetables have been
+traced diseases, as typhoid fever and various digestion disorders.</p>
+
+<p><b>289. Disposal of Kitchen Refuse.</b>&mdash;Refuse, as vegetable parings, bones,
+and meat scraps, unless they are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> used for food for animals or collected
+as garbage, should preferably be burned; then there is no danger of
+their furnishing propagating media for disease germs. Garbage cans
+should be kept clean, and well covered to protect the contents from
+flies. Where the refuse cannot be burned, it should be composted. For
+this, a well-drained place should be selected, and the refuse should be
+kept covered with earth to keep off the flies and absorb the odors that
+arise from the fermenting material, and to prevent its being carried
+away by the wind. Lime should be sprinkled about the compost heap, and
+from time to time it should be drawn away and the place covered with
+clean earth. It is very unsanitary to throw all of the kitchen refuse in
+the same place year after year without resorting to any means for
+keeping the soil in a sanitary condition. Although composting refuse is
+not as sanitary as burning, it is far more sanitary than neglecting to
+care for it at all, as is too frequently the case.</p>
+
+<p>Ground polluted with kitchen refuse containing large amounts of fatty
+material and soap becomes diseased, so that the natural fermentation
+changes fail to take place, and the soil becomes "sewage sick" and gets
+in such a condition that vegetation will not grow. Failure to properly
+dispose of kitchen refuse is frequently the cause of the spread of germ
+diseases, through the dust and flies that are attracted by the material
+and carry the germs from the refuse pile to food.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img054.jpg" width="500" height="375"
+             alt="Fig. 70." /><br />
+
+</div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Plumbing of Sink.</span></h4>
+
+<h4>1, 1, house side of trap, filled with water; 2, vent pipe; 3, drain pipe
+connecting with sewer.</h4>
+
+<p>Where there is no drainage system, disposal of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> liquid refuse is a
+serious problem. Drain basins and cesspools are often resorted to, and
+these may become additional sources of contamination. As stated in the
+chapter on well water, direct communication is frequently established
+between such places and shallow wells. Where the only place for the
+disposal of waste water is the surface of the ground, it should be
+thrown some distance from the house and where it will drain from and not
+toward the well. The land should be well drained and open to the
+sunlight. Coarse sand and lime should be sprinkled over it frequently,
+and occasionally the soil should be removed and replaced with fresh.
+Sunlight, a&euml;ration, and disinfection of the soil and good drainage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> are
+necessary, in order to keep in a sanitary condition the place where the
+dish water is thrown.</p>
+
+<p>Poor plumbing is often the cause of contaminated food. The gases which
+escape from unclean traps may carry with them solid particles of organic
+matter in various stages of decay. The "house side" of traps always
+ventilates into the rooms, and hence it is important that they be kept
+scrupulously clean. Where the drip pipe from the refrigerator drains
+directly into the sewerage system, there is always danger. Special
+attention should be given to the care of plumbing near places where
+foods are stored. Frequently there are leaky joints due to settling of
+the dwellings or to extreme changes in temperature, and the plumbing
+should be occasionally inspected by one familiar with the subject.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[100]</sup></small></b></a></p>
+
+<p><b>290. General Considerations.</b>&mdash;In order to keep food in the most
+wholesome condition, special care should be taken that all of its
+surroundings are sanitary. The air, the dishes in which the food is
+placed, the refrigerator, cellar or closet where stored, and the other
+food with which it comes in contact, all influence the wholesomeness or
+cause contamination. A food may contain sufficient nutrients to give it
+high value, and yet, on account of products formed during fermentation,
+be poisonous. Foods are particularly susceptible to putrefaction
+changes, and chemicals and preservatives added as preventives, with a
+view of retarding these changes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> are objectionable, besides failing to
+prevent all fermentation from taking place. Intelligent thought should
+be exercised in the care of food, for the health of the consumer is
+largely dependent upon the purity and wholesomeness of the food supply.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img055.jpg" width="400" height="366"
+             alt="Fig. 71." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">A Petri Dish, Showing Colonies of
+Bacteria<br />Produced By Allowing a House Fly To Crawl Over Surface.</span></h4>
+
+<h5>(From Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 93.)</h5><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+
+<h3>LABORATORY PRACTICE</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Object of Laboratory Practice, Laboratory Note-book, and Suggestions
+for Laboratory Practice.</b>&mdash;The aim of the laboratory practice is to give
+the students an idea of the composition, uses, and values of food
+materials, and the part which chemistry takes in sanitation and
+household affairs; also to enable them by simple tests to detect some of
+the more common adulterants in foods.</p>
+
+<p>Before performing an experiment, the student is advised to review those
+topics presented in the text which have a bearing upon the experiment,
+so that a clear conception may be gained of the relationship between the
+laboratory work and that of the class room. The student should endeavor
+to cultivate the power of observation and to grasp the principle
+involved in the work, rather than do it in a merely mechanical and
+perfunctory way. Neatness is one of the essentials for success in
+laboratory practice, and too much emphasis cannot be laid upon this
+requisite to good work. The student should learn to use his time in the
+laboratory profitably and economically. He should obtain a clear idea of
+what he is to do, and then do it to the best of his ability. If the
+experiment is not a success, repeat it. While the work is in progress it
+should be given undivided attention. Care should be exercised to prevent
+anything getting into the sinks that will clog the plumbing; soil,
+matches, broken glass, and paper should be deposited in the waste jars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img056.jpg" width="550" height="472"
+             alt="Fig. 72." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Apparatus used in Laboratory
+Work.</span><br />See page <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a> for names.</h4>
+
+<p>A careful record of the experiments should be kept by each student in a
+suitable note-book. It is suggested that those students desiring more
+time in writing out the experiments than the laboratory period affords,
+take notes as they make the various tests, and then amplify and
+rearrange them in the evening study time. The final writing up of the
+notes should, however, be done before the next laboratory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> period.
+Careful attention should be given to the spelling, language, and
+punctuation, and the note-book should represent the student's individual
+work. He who attempts to cheat by copying the results of others, only
+cheats himself. In recording the results of an experiment, the student
+should state briefly and clearly the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<ul><li>1. Number and title of experiment.</li>
+<li>2. How the experiment is performed.</li>
+<li>3. What was observed.</li>
+<li>4. What the experiment proves.</li></ul>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img057.jpg" width="550" height="455"
+             alt="Fig. 73." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Balance and Weights.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">List of Apparatus used in Experiments</span></h4>
+
+
+<ul><li>   1 Crucible Tongs</li>
+<li>   2 Evaporating Dishes</li>
+<li>   1 Casserole</li>
+<li>   6 Beakers</li>
+<li>  12 Test Tubes</li>
+<li>   1 Wooden Stand</li>
+<li>   1 Test Tube Stand</li>
+<li>   1 Sand Bath</li>
+<li>   2 Funnels</li>
+<li>   1 Tripod</li>
+<li>   1 Stoddart Test Tube Clamp</li>
+<li>   1 Test Tube Brush</li>
+<li>   1 Burner and Tubing</li>
+<li>   2 Stirring Rods</li>
+<li>   6 Watch Glasses</li>
+<li>   2 Erlenmeyer Flasks</li>
+<li>   1 Package Filter Paper</li>
+<li>   1 Box Matches</li>
+<li>   1 Wire Gauze</li>
+<li>   2 Burettes</li>
+<li>   1 Porcelain Crucible</li>
+<li>   1 Aluminum Dish</li></ul>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Directions for Weighing.</b>&mdash;Place the dish or material to be weighed in
+the left-hand pan of the balance. With the forceps lay a weight from the
+weight box on the right-hand pan. Do not touch the weights with the
+hands. If the weight selected is too heavy, replace it with a lighter
+weight. Add weights until the pans are counterpoised; this will be
+indicated by the needle swinging nearly as many divisions on one side of
+the scale as on the other. The brass weights are the gram weights. The
+other weights are fractions of a gm. The 500, 200, 100 mg. (milligram)
+weights are recorded as 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1 gm. The 50, 20, and 10 mg.
+weights as 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01 gm. If the 10, and 2 gm., and the 200,
+the 100, and the 50 mg. weights are used, the resulting weight is 12.35
+gms. No moist substances should ever come in contact with the scale
+pans. The weights and forceps should always be replaced in the weight
+box. Too much care and neatness cannot be exercised in weighing.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img318a.jpg" width="65" height="200"
+             alt="Fig. 74." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span></h4>
+    </div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img318b.jpg" width="197" height="200"
+             alt="Fig. 75." /><br />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.&mdash;Pouring<br />Reagent from Bottle.</span></h4>
+
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>Directions for Measuring.</b>&mdash;Reagents are measured in graduated
+cylinders (see Fig. 74). When the directions call for the addition of 5
+or 10 cc. of a reagent, unless so directed it is not absolutely
+necessary to measure the reagent in a measuring cylinder. A large test
+tube holds about 30 cc. of water. Measure out 5 cc. of water and
+transfer it to a large test tube. Note its volume. Add approximately 5
+cc. of water directly to the test tube. Measure it. Repeat this
+operation until you can judge with a fair degree of accuracy the part of
+a test tube filled by 5 cc. In the experiments where a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> burette is used
+for measuring reagents, the burette is first filled with the reagent by
+means of a funnel. The tip of the burette is allowed to fill before the
+readings are made, which are from the lowest point or meniscus. When
+reagents are removed from bottles, the stopper should be held between
+the first and second fingers of the right hand (see Fig. 75). Hold the
+test tube or receptacle that is to receive the reagent in the left hand.
+Pour the liquid slowly until the desired amount is secured. Before
+inserting the stopper, touch it to the neck of the bottle to catch the
+few drops on the edge, thus preventing their streaking down the sides of
+the bottle on to the shelf.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> Replace the bottle in its proper place.
+Every precaution should be taken to prevent contamination of reagents.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img058.jpg" width="399" height="450"
+             alt="Fig. 76." /><br />
+
+    </div>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Microscope and Accessories.</span></h4>
+
+<h4>1, eye-piece or ocular; 2, objective; 3, stage; 4, cover glass; 5,
+slide; 6, mirror.</h4>
+
+<p><b>Use of the Microscope.</b>&mdash;Special directions in the use of the
+microscope will be given by the instructor. The object or material to be
+examined is placed on a microscopical slide. Care should be exercised to
+secure a representative sample, and to properly distribute the substance
+on the slide. If a pulverized material is to be examined, use but little
+and spread it in as thin a layer as possible. If a liquid, one or two
+drops placed on the slide will suffice. The material on the slide is
+covered with a cover glass, before it is placed on the stage of the
+microscope. In focusing, do not allow the object glass of the microscope
+to come in contact with the cover glass. Focus upward, not downward.
+Special care should be exercised in focusing and in handling the
+eye-piece and objective. A camel's-hair brush, clean dry chamois skin,
+or clean silk only should be used in polishing the lenses. Always put
+the microscope back in its case after using.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 1</h3>
+
+<h4>Water in Flour</h4>
+
+<p>Carefully weigh a porcelain or aluminum dish. (Porcelain must be used if
+the ash is to be determined on the same sample.) Place in it about 2 gm.
+of flour; record the weight; then place the dish in the water oven for
+at least 6 hours. After drying, weigh again, and from the loss of weight
+calculate the per cent of water in the flour. (Weight of flour and dish
+before drying minus weight of flour and dish after drying equals weight
+of water lost. Weight of water divided by weight of flour taken,
+multiplied by 100, equals the per cent of water in the flour.)</p>
+
+<p>How does the amount of water you obtained compare with the amount given
+in the tables of analysis?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 2</h3>
+
+<h4>Water in Butter</h4>
+
+<p>Carefully weigh a clean, dry aluminum dish, place in it about 2 gms. of
+butter, and weigh again. Record the weights. Place the dish containing
+butter in the water oven for 5 or 6 hours and then weigh. The loss in
+weight represents the water in the butter. Calculate the per cent of
+water. Care must be taken to get a representative sample of the butter
+to be tested; preferably small amounts should be taken with the butter
+trier from various parts of the package.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 3</h3>
+
+<h4>Ash in Flour</h4>
+
+<p>Place the porcelain dish containing flour from the preceding experiment
+in a muffle furnace and let it remain until the organic matter is
+completely volatilized. Cool, weigh, and determine the per cent of ash.
+The flour should be burned at the lowest temperature necessary for
+complete combustion.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 4</h3>
+
+<h4>Nitric Acid Test for Nitrogenous Organic Matter</h4>
+
+<p>To 3 cc. of egg albumin in a test tube add 2 cc. of HNO<sub>3</sub> (conc.) and
+heat. When cool add NH<sub>4</sub>OH. The nitric acid chemically reacts upon the
+albumin, forming yellow xanthoprotein. What change occurs in the
+appearance of the egg albumin when the HNO<sub>3</sub> is added? Is this a
+physical or chemical change? What is the name of the compound formed?
+What change occurs on adding NH<sub>4</sub>OH?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 5</h3>
+
+<h4>Acidity of Lemons</h4>
+
+<p>With a pipette measure into a small beaker 2 cc. of lemon juice. Add 25
+cc. of water and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>. From the
+burette run in N/10 KOH solution until a faint pink tinge remains
+permanently. Note the number of cubic centimeters of KOH solution
+required to neutralize the citric acid in the lemon juice. Calculate the
+per cent of citric acid.</p>
+
+<p>(1 cc. of N/10 KOH solution equals 0.00642 gm. citric acid. 1 cc. of
+H<sub>2</sub>O weighs 1 gm. Because of sugar and other matter in solution 1 cc.
+of lemon juice weighs approximately 1.03 gm.)</p>
+
+<p>1. What is the characteristic acid of lemons? 2. What is the salt formed
+when the lemon juice is neutralized by the KOH solution? 3. Describe
+briefly the process for determining the acidity of lemon juice. 4. What
+per cent of acidity did you obtain? 5. How does this compare with the
+acidity of vinegar?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 6</h3>
+
+<h4>Influence of Heat on Potato Starch Grains</h4>
+
+<p>With the point of a knife scrape slightly the surface of a raw potato
+and place a drop of the starchy juice upon the microscopical slide.
+Cover with cover glass and examine under the microscope.</p>
+
+<p>In the evaporating dish cook a small piece of potato, then place a very
+small portion upon the slide, and examine with the microscope.</p>
+
+<p>Make drawings of the starch grains in raw and in cooked potatoes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 7</h3>
+
+<h4>Influence of Yeast on Starch Grains</h4>
+
+<p>Moisten a small portion of the dough prepared with yeast and with the
+stirring rod place a drop of the starchy water upon the slide. Cover
+with cover glass and examine under the microscope.</p>
+
+<p>Repeat, examining a drop of starchy water washed from flour.</p>
+
+<p>Make drawing of wheat starch grain in flour and in dough prepared with
+yeast.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 8</h3>
+
+<h4>Mechanical Composition of Potatoes</h4>
+
+<p>Wash one potato. Weigh, then peel, making the peeling as thin as
+possible. Weigh the peeled potato and weigh the peeling or refuse.
+Calculate the per cent of potato that is edible and the per cent that is
+refuse.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 9</h3>
+
+<h4>Pectose from Apples</h4>
+
+<p>Reduce a small peeled apple to a pulp. Squeeze the pulp through a clean
+cloth into a beaker. Add 10 cc. H<sub>2</sub>O and heat on a sand bath to
+coagulate the albumin. Filter, adding a little hot water if necessary.
+To the filtrate add 5 cc. alcohol. The precipitate is the pectose
+material.</p>
+
+<p>1. Is the pectose from the apple soluble? 2. Is it coagulated by heat?
+3. Is it soluble in alcohol?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 10</h3>
+
+<h4>Lemon Extract</h4>
+
+<p>To 5 cc. of the extract in a test tube add an equal volume of water. A
+cloudy appearance indicates the presence of lemon oil. If the solution
+remains clear after adding the water, the extract does not contain lemon
+oil.</p>
+
+<p>Why does the extract containing lemon oil become cloudy on adding water?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 11</h3>
+
+<h4>Vanilla Extract</h4>
+
+<p>Pour into a test tube 5 cc. of the extract to be tested. Evaporate to
+one third. Then add sufficient water to restore the original volume. If
+a brown, flocculent precipitate is formed, the sample contains pure
+vanilla extract. Resin is present in vanilla beans and is extracted in
+the essence. The resin is readily soluble in 50 per cent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> alcohol. If
+the alcohol is removed from the extract, the excess of resin is
+precipitated, or if free from alkali, it may be precipitated by diluting
+the original solution with twice its volume of water. Test the two
+samples and compare.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+(Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+</p>
+
+<p>1. Describe the appearance of each sample after evaporating and adding
+water. 2. Which sample contains pure vanilla extract? 3. State the
+principle underlying this test.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 12</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing Olive Oil for Cotton Seed Oil</h4>
+
+<p>Pour into a test tube 5 cc. of the oil to be tested and 5 cc. of
+Halphen's Reagent. Mix thoroughly. Plug the test tube loosely with
+cotton, and heat in a bath of boiling saturated brine for 15 minutes. If
+cotton seed oil is present, a deep red or orange color is produced. Test
+two samples and compare.</p>
+
+<p><b>Halphen's Reagent.</b>&mdash;Mix equal volumes of amyl alcohol and carbon
+disulphid containing about one per cent of sulphur in solution.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+(Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 13</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing for Coal Tar Dyes</h4>
+
+<p>Dilute 20 to 30 cc. of the material to 100 cc.; boil for 10 minutes with
+10 cc. of a 10 per cent solution of potassium bisulphate and a piece of
+white woolen cloth which has previously been boiled in a 0.1 per cent
+solution of NaOH and thoroughly washed in water. Remove the cloth from
+the solution, wash in boiling water, and dry between pieces of filter
+paper. A bright red indicates coal tar dye. If the coloring matter is
+entirely from fruit, the woolen cloth will be either uncolored or will
+have a faint pink or brown color which is changed to green or yellow by
+ammonia and is not restored by washing. This is the Arata test.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+(Adapted, Winston, Conn. Experiment Station Report.)
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. Describe Arata's wool test for coal tar dyes. 2. What is the
+appearance of the woolen cloth when the coloring matter is entirely from
+fruit? 3. What effect has NH<sub>4</sub>OH upon the color? 4. Why is NaOH used?
+5. Why may not cotton cloth be used instead of woolen? 6. What can you
+say of the use of coal tar dyes in foods?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 14</h3>
+
+<h4>Determining the Per Cent of Skin in Beans</h4>
+
+<p>Place in an evaporating dish 10 gm. of beans, 50 cc. of water, and &frac12;
+gm. of baking soda. Boil 10 minutes or until the skins are loosened,
+then drain off the water. Add cold water and rub the beans together till
+the skins slip off. Collect the skins, place on a watch glass and dry in
+the water oven for &frac12; hour. Weigh the dried skins and calculate the per
+cent of "skin."</p>
+
+<p>1. What does the soda do? 2. What effect would hard limewater have upon
+the skins? 3. How does removal of skins affect food value of beans and
+digestibility?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 15</h3>
+
+<h4>Extraction of Fat from Peanuts</h4>
+
+<p>Shell three or four peanuts and with the mortar and pestle break them
+into small pieces. Place in a test tube and pour over them about 10 cc.
+of ether. Cork the test tube and allow it to stand 30 minutes, shaking
+occasionally. Filter on to a watch glass and let stand until the ether
+evaporates, and then observe the fat.</p>
+
+<p>1. What is the appearance of the peanut fat? 2. What is the solvent of
+the fat? 3. What becomes of the ether? 4. Why should the peanuts be
+broken into small pieces?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 16</h3>
+
+<h4>Microscopic Examination of Milk</h4>
+
+<p>Place a drop of milk on a microscopical slide and cover with cover
+glass. Examine the milk to detect impurities, as dust, hair, refuse,
+etc. Make drawings of any foreign matter present.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 17</h3>
+
+<h4>Formaldehyde in Cream or Milk</h4>
+
+<p>To 10 cc. of milk in a casserole add 10 cc. of the acid reagent. Heat
+slowly over the flame nearly to boiling, holding the casserole in the
+hand and giving it a slight rotary movement while heating. The presence
+of formaldehyde is indicated by a violet coloration varying in depth
+with the amount present. In the absence of formaldehyde the solution
+slowly turns brown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Acid Reagent.</b>&mdash;Commercial hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) containing 2
+cc. per liter of 10 per cent ferric chlorid.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>1. How may the presence of formaldehyde in milk be detected? 2. Why in
+this test is it necessary to use acid containing ferric chlorid? 3.
+Describe the appearance of the two samples of milk after adding the acid
+reagent and heating. 4. Which sample showed the presence of
+formaldehyde?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 18</h3>
+
+<h4>Gelatine in Cream or Milk</h4>
+
+<p>To 20 cc. of milk or cream in a beaker add 20 cc. of acid mercuric
+nitrate and about 40 cc. of H<sub>2</sub>O. Let stand for a few minutes and
+filter. Filtrate will be cloudy if gelatine is present.</p>
+
+<p>Add &frac12; cc. of a dilute solution of picric acid&mdash;a heavy yellow
+precipitate indicates gelatine.</p>
+
+<p><b>Acid Mercuric Nitrate.</b>&mdash;1 part by weight of Hg, 2 parts HNO<sub>3</sub> (sp.
+gr. 1.42). Dilute 25 times with water.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 19</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing for Oleomargarine</h4>
+
+<p>Apply the following tests to two samples of the material:</p>
+
+<p><b>Boiling or Spoon Test.</b>&mdash;Melt the sample to be tested&mdash;a piece about
+the size of a chestnut&mdash;in a large spoon, hastening the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> process by
+stirring with a splinter. Then, increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a
+boil as possible and stir thoroughly, not neglecting the outer edges.
+Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, sputtering like a
+mixture of grease and water, and produce no foam, or but very little.
+Genuine butter boils with less noise and produces an abundance of foam.</p>
+
+<p><b>Waterhouse Test.</b>&mdash;Into a small beaker pour 50 cc. of sweet milk. Heat
+nearly to boiling and add from 5 to 10 gms. of butter or oleomargarine.
+Stir with a glass rod until fat is melted. Then place the beaker in cold
+water and stir the milk until the temperature falls sufficiently for the
+fat to congeal. At this point the fat, if oleomargarine, can easily be
+collected into one lump by means of the rod; while if butter, it will
+granulate and cannot be collected.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+(From Farmers' Bul. 131, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)</p>
+
+<p>1. Name two simple tests for distinguishing butter and oleomargarine. 2.
+Describe these tests. 3. Why do butter and oleomargarine respond
+differently to these tests? 4. Are these tests based upon chemical or
+physical properties of the fats?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 20</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing for Watering or Skimming of Milk</h4>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <b>Fat Content of Milk by Means of Babcock Test.</b>&mdash;Measure with
+pipette into test bottle 17.6 cc. of milk. Sample should be carefully
+taken and well mixed. Measure with cylinder 17.5 cc. commercial
+H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> and add to milk in test bottle. (See Fig. 25.) Mix acid and
+milk by rotating the bottle. Then place test bottles in centrifugal
+machine and whirl 5 minutes. Add sufficient hot water to test bottles to
+bring contents up to about the 8th mark on stem. Then whirl bottles 2
+minutes longer and read fat. Read from extreme lowest to highest point.
+Each large division as 1 to 2 represents a whole per cent, each small
+division 0.2 of a per cent.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <b>Determining Specific Gravity by Means of Lactometer.</b>&mdash;Pour 150
+cc. of milk into 200 cc. cylinder. Place lactometer in milk and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> note
+depth to which it sinks as indicated on stem. Note also temperature of
+milk. For each 10&deg; above 60&deg; F. add 1 to the lactometer number, in order
+to make the necessary correction for temperature. For example, if milk
+has sp. gr. of 1.032 at temperature of 70&deg;, it will be equivalent to sp.
+gr. of 1.033 at 60&deg;. Ordinarily milk has a sp. gr. of 1.029 to 1.034. If
+milk has sp. gr. less than 1.029, or contains less than 3 per cent fat,
+it may be considered watered milk. If the milk has a high sp. gr. (above
+1.035) and a low content of fat, some of the fat has been removed.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+(For extended direction for milk testing see Snyder's "Dairy Chemistry.")
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 21</h3>
+
+<h4>Boric Acid in Meat</h4>
+
+<p>Cut into very small pieces 5 gms, of meat, removing all the fat
+possible. Place in an evaporating dish with 20 to 25 cc. of water to
+which a few drops of HCl have been added and warm slightly. Dip a piece
+of turmeric paper in the meat extract and dry. A rose-red color of the
+turmeric paper after drying (turned olive by a weak ammonia solution) is
+indicative of boric acid.</p>
+
+<p>1. How may meat be tested for boric acid? 2. Why is HCl added to the
+water? 3. Why is the water containing the meat warmed slightly? 4. What
+is the appearance of the turmeric paper after being dipped in the meat
+extract and dried? 5. What change takes place when it is moistened with
+ammonia, and why?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 22</h3>
+
+<h4>Microscopic Examination of Cereal Starch Grains</h4>
+
+<p>Make a microscopic examination and drawings of wheat, corn, rice, and
+oat starch grains, comparing them with the drawings of the different
+starch grains on the chart. If the material is coarse, pulverize in a
+mortar and filter through cloth. Place a drop or two of the starchy
+water on the slide, cover with a cover glass, and examine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 23</h3>
+
+<h4>Identification of Commercial Cereals</h4>
+
+<p>Examine under the microscope two samples of cereal breakfast foods, and
+by comparison with the wheat, corn, and oat starch grains previously
+examined tell of what grains the breakfast foods are made and their
+approximate food value.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 24</h3>
+
+<h4>Granulation and Color of Flour</h4>
+
+<p>Arrange on glass plate, in order of color, samples of all the different
+grades of flour. Note the differences in color. How do these differences
+correspond with the grades of the flour? Examine the flour with a
+microscope, noting any coarse or dark-colored particles of bran or dust.
+Rub some of the flour between the thumb and forefinger. Note if any
+granular particles can be detected.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 25</h3>
+
+<h4>Capacity of Flour to absorb Water</h4>
+
+<p>Weigh out 15 gms. of soft wheat flour into an evaporating dish; then add
+from burette a measured quantity of water sufficient to make a stiff
+dough. Note the amount of water required for this purpose. Repeat the
+operation, using hard wheat flour.</p>
+
+<p>1. How may the absorptive power of a flour be determined? 2. To what is
+it due? 3. Why do some flours absorb more water than others?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 26</h3>
+
+<h4>Acidity of Flour</h4>
+
+<p>Weigh into a flask 20 gms. of flour and add 200 cc. distilled water.
+Shake vigorously. After letting stand 30 minutes, filter and then
+titrate 50 cc. of the filtrate against standard KOH solution, using
+phenolphthalein as indicator, 1 cc. of the alkali equals 0.009 gms.
+lactic acid. Calculate the per cent of acid present.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. How may the acidity of a flour be determined? 2. The acidity is
+expressed in percentage amounts of what acid? 3. What per cent of
+acidity is found in normal flours? 4. What does a high acidity of a
+flour indicate?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 27</h3>
+
+<h4>Moist and Dry Gluten</h4>
+
+<p>Weigh 30 gms. of flour into a porcelain dish. Make the flour into a
+stiff dough. After 30 minutes obtain the gluten by washing, being
+careful to remove all the starch and prevent any losses. Squeeze the
+water from the gluten as thoroughly as possible. Weigh the moist gluten
+and calculate the per cent. Dry the gluten in the water oven and
+calculate the per cent of dry gluten.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 28</h3>
+
+<h4>Gliadin from Flour</h4>
+
+<p>Place in a flask 10 gms. of flour, 30 cc. of alcohol, and 20 cc. of
+water. Cork the flask and shake, and after a few minutes shake again.
+Allow the alcohol to act on the flour for an hour, or until the next
+day. Then filter off the alcohol solution and evaporate the filtrate to
+dryness over the water bath. Examine the residue; to a portion add a
+little water; burn a small portion and observe odor.</p>
+
+<p>1. Describe the appearance of the gliadin. 2. What was the result when
+water was added? 3. When burned, what was the odor of the gliadin, and
+what does this indicate? 4. What is gliadin?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 29</h3>
+
+<h4>Bread-making Test</h4>
+
+<p>Make a "sponge" by mixing together:</p>
+
+
+<ul><li>  12 gm. sugar,</li>
+<li>  12 gm. yeast (compressed),</li>
+<li>  4 gm. salt,</li>
+<li>  175 cc. water (temp. 32&deg; C.).</li></ul>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Let stand &frac12; hour at a temperature of 30&deg; C. In a large bowl, mix with
+a knife or spatula 7.7 gms. of lard with 248.6 gms. of flour. Then add
+160 cc. of the "sponge," or as much as is needed to make a good stiff
+dough, and mix thoroughly, using the spatula. With some flours as small
+a quantity as 150 cc. of sponge may be used. If more moisture is
+necessary, add H<sub>2</sub>O. Keep at temperature of 30&deg; C. Allow the dough to
+stand 50 minutes to first pulling, 40 minutes to second pulling, and 30
+to 50 minutes to the pan. Let it rise to top of pan and then bake for
+&frac12; hour in an oven at a temperature of 180&deg; C. One loaf of bread is
+made of patent flour of known quality as a standard for comparison, and
+other loaves of the flours to be tested. Compare the loaves as to size
+(cubic contents), color, porosity, odor, taste, nature of crust, and
+form of loaf.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 30</h3>
+
+<h4>Microscopic Examination of Yeast</h4>
+
+<p>On a watch glass mix thoroughly a very small piece of yeast with about 5
+cc. of water and then with the stirring rod place a drop of this
+solution on the microscopical slide, adding a drop of very dilute methyl
+violet solution. Cover with the cover glass and examine under the
+microscope. The living active cells appear colorless while the decayed
+and lifeless ones are stained. Yeast cells are circular or oval in
+shape. (See Fig. 46.)</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+(Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 31</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing Baking Powders for Alum</h4>
+
+<p>Place about 2 gms. of flour in a dish with &frac12; gm. baking powder. Add
+enough water to make a dough and then 2 or 3 drops of tincture of
+logwood and 2 or 3 drops of ammonium carbonate solution. Mix well and
+observe; a blue color indicates alum. Try the same test, using flour
+only for comparison.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. How do you test a baking powder for alum? 2. What difference in color
+did you observe in the test with the baking powder containing alum and
+in that with the flour only? 3. Why is the (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> solution
+used?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 32</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing Baking Powders for Phosphoric Acid</h4>
+
+<p>Dissolve &frac12; gm. of baking powder in 5 cc. of H<sub>2</sub>O and 3 cc. HNO<sub>3</sub>.
+Filter and add 3 cc. ammonium molybdate. Heat gently. A yellow
+precipitate indicates phosphoric acid.</p>
+
+<p>1. How do you test a baking powder for phosphoric acid? 2. What is the
+yellow precipitate obtained in this test?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 33</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing Baking Powders for Ammonia</h4>
+
+<p>Dissolve &frac12; gm. of material in 10 cc. water; filter off any insoluble
+residue and to the filtrate add 2 or 3 cc. NaOH and apply heat. Test the
+gas given off with moistened turmeric paper. If NH<sub>3</sub> is present, the
+paper will be colored brown. Do not allow the paper to come in contact
+with the liquid or sides of the test tube. (Perform the tests on two
+samples of baking powder.)</p>
+
+<p>1. How do you test a baking powder for ammonia? 2. Why do you add NaOH?
+3. Why must you be careful not to let the turmeric paper touch the sides
+of the test tube or the liquid?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 34</h3>
+
+<h4>Vinegar Solids</h4>
+
+<p>Into a weighed aluminum or porcelain dish pour 10 cc. of vinegar. Weigh
+and then evaporate over boiling water. To drive off the last traces of
+moisture dry in the water oven for an hour. Cool and weigh. Calculate
+the per cent of solids. Observe the appearance of the solids. Test both
+samples and compare.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. How may the per cent of solids in vinegar be determined? 2. Describe
+the appearance of the solids from the good and from the poor sample of
+vinegar. 3. What is the legal standard for vinegar solids in your state?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 35</h3>
+
+<h4>Specific Gravity of Vinegar</h4>
+
+<p>Pour 170 cc. vinegar into 200 cc. cylinder. Place a hydrometer for heavy
+liquids (sp. gr. 1 to 1.1) in the cylinder. Note the depth to which it
+sinks and the point registered on the scale on the stem. Note
+temperature of vinegar. Record specific gravity of vinegar.</p>
+
+<p>1. What effect would addition of water to vinegar have upon its specific
+gravity? 2. What effect would addition of such material as sugar have
+upon specific gravity? 3. Why should the specific gravity of vinegar be
+fairly constant? 4. What would be the weight of 1000 cc. of vinegar
+calculated from the specific gravity?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 36</h3>
+
+<h4>Acidity of Vinegar</h4>
+
+<p>Into a small beaker pour 6 cc. of vinegar and 10 cc. of water and a few
+drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Run in standard KOH solution from a
+burette until a faint pink tinge remains permanently. Note the number of
+cubic centimeters of KOH solution required to neutralize the acid.
+Divide this number by 10, which will give approximately the per cent of
+acetic acid.</p>
+
+<p>1. How may the per cent of acidity of vinegar be determined? 2. Why was
+phenolphthalein used? 3. Why was KOH used? 4. What acids does vinegar
+contain? 5. What is the legal requirement in this state for acetic acid
+in vinegar? 6. How did the acidity you obtained compare with this legal
+requirement?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 37</h3>
+
+<h4>Deportment of Vinegar with Reagents</h4>
+
+<p>To 10 cc. of vinegar in a test tube add 8 or 10 drops of lead
+sub-acetate and shake. Observe the precipitate. Lead sub-acetate
+precipitates mainly the malic acid which is always present in cider
+vinegar.</p>
+
+<p>1. How may the presence of malic acid in a vinegar be detected? 2.
+Describe the precipitate. 3. What does malic acid in a vinegar indicate?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 38</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing Mustard for Turmeric</h4>
+
+<p>Place 1 gm. of ground mustard on a small watch glass and moisten
+slightly with water. Add 2 or 3 drops of NH<sub>4</sub>OH, stirring well with a
+glass rod. A brown color indicates turmeric present in considerable
+quantity.</p>
+
+<p>Test a sample of good mustard and one adulterated with turmeric and
+compare the results.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 39</h3>
+
+<h4>Examination of Tea Leaves</h4>
+
+<p>Soak a small amount of tea and unroll 8 or 10 of the leaves. Make a
+drawing of a tea leaf. Observe the proportion of stems in each of three
+samples of tea; also the relative proportion of large and small leaves.
+Observe if the leaves are even as to size and of a uniform color.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 40</h3>
+
+<h4>Action of Iron Compounds upon Tannic Acid</h4>
+
+<p>Make an infusion of tea by placing 3 gms. of tea in 100 cc. of hot water
+and stirring well. Filter off some of the infusion and test 5 cc. with
+ferrous sulphate solution made by dissolving 1 gm. FeSO<sub>4</sub> in 10 cc.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>H<sub>2</sub>O and filtering. Note the result.</p>
+
+<p>1. What change in color did you observe when the ferrous sulphate
+solution was added to the tea infusion? 2. What effect would waters
+containing iron have upon the tea infusion?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 41</h3>
+
+<h4>Identification of Coffee Berries</h4>
+
+<p>Examine Rio, Java, and Mocha coffee berries. Describe each. Note the
+characteristics of each kind of coffee berry.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 42</h3>
+
+<h4>Detecting Chicory in Coffee</h4>
+
+<p>Fill a beaker with water and place about a teaspoonful of ground coffee
+on the surface. If much of the ground material sinks and it imparts a
+dark brown color to the lower portion of the liquid, it is an indication
+of the presence of chicory. Pure coffee floats on water. Chicory has a
+higher specific gravity than coffee.</p>
+
+<p>1. How may the presence of chicory in ground coffee be detected? 2. Why
+does coffee float on the water while chicory sinks? 3. What effect does
+chicory have upon the color of water?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 43</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing Hard and Soft Waters</h4>
+
+<p>Partially fill a large cylinder with very hard water. This may be
+prepared by dissolving 0.1 to 0.2 gm. calcium chloride in 500 cc. of
+ordinary water. Add to this a measured quantity of soap solution. Mix
+well and notice how many cubic centimeters of soap solution must be used
+before a permanent lather is formed, also notice the precipitate of
+"lime soap." Repeat this experiment, using either rain or distilled
+water, and compare the cubic centimeters of soap solution used with that
+in former test. Repeat the test, using tap water.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soap Solution.</b>&mdash;Scrape 10 gms. of castile soap into fine shavings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> and
+dissolve in a liter of alcohol, dilute with 1/3 water. Filter if not
+clear and keep in a tightly stoppered bottle.</p>
+
+<p>1. Why is more soap required to form a lather with hard water than with
+soft water? 2. What is meant by "lime soap"? Describe its appearance. 3.
+How may hard waters be softened for household purposes?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 44</h3>
+
+<h4>Solvent Action of Water on Lead</h4>
+
+<p>Put 1 gm. of clean bright lead shavings into a test tube containing 10
+cc. of distilled water. After 24 hours decant the clear liquid into a
+second test tube, acidify slightly with HCL, and add a little hydrogen
+sulphid water. A black or brownish coloration indicates lead in
+solution.</p>
+
+<p class='author'>
+(Adapted from Caldwell and Breneman, "Introductory Chemical Practice.")
+</p>
+
+<p>Under what conditions may lead pipes be objectionable?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 45</h3>
+
+<h4>Suspended Matter in Water</h4>
+
+<p>Place a drop of water on the microscopical slide, cover with cover
+glass, and examine with the microscope. Note the occurrence and
+appearance of any suspended matter in the water.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 46</h3>
+
+<h4>Organic Matter in Water</h4>
+
+<p>Pour into the evaporating dish 100 cc. H<sub>2</sub>O and evaporate to dryness
+over the sand bath. Ignite the solids. If the solids blacken when
+ignited, the water contains organic matter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 47</h3>
+
+<h4>Deposition of Lime by Boiling Water</h4>
+
+<p>Boil for a few minutes about 200 cc. of water in a flask. After the
+water is cool, note any sediment of lime or turbidity of the water due
+to expelling the carbon dioxid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. What is meant by a "hard" water? 2. What do the terms "temporary" and
+"permanent" hardness of water mean? 3. What acts as a solvent of the
+lime in water? 4. Why does boiling cause the lime to be deposited?</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 48</h3>
+
+<h4>Qualitative Tests for Minerals in Water</h4>
+
+<p><b>Test for Chlorids.</b>&mdash;To 10 cc. of H<sub>2</sub>O add a few drops of HNO<sub>3</sub> and
+2 cc. of AgNO<sub>3</sub>. A white precipitate indicates the presence of
+chlorids, usually in the form of sodium chlorid.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test for Sulphates.</b>&mdash;To 10 cc. of water add 2 cc. of dilute HCl and 2
+cc. of BaCl<sub>2</sub>. A cloudiness or the formation of a white precipitate
+indicates the presence of sulphates.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test for Iron.</b>&mdash;If a brown sediment is formed in water exposed to the
+air for some time, it is probably iron hydroxid. To 10 cc. of the water
+add a few drops of HNO<sub>3</sub>, heat, and then add &frac12; cc. of NH<sub>4</sub>CNS. A
+red color indicates the presence of iron.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test for CaO and MgO.</b>&mdash;To 10 cc. of H<sub>2</sub>O add 5 cc. NH<sub>4</sub>OH. If a
+precipitate forms, filter it off, and to the filtrate add 3 cc. NH<sub>4</sub>Cl
+and 5 cc. (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>. The precipitate is CaC{2}O<sub>4</sub>, and
+the filtrate contains the magnesia. Filter and add 5 cc. Na<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> to
+precipitate MgNH<sub>4</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>.</p>
+
+<p>1. How would you test a water to detect the presence of organic matter?
+2. Name some mineral impurities often found in water. 3. Describe the
+test for chlorids; for sulphates; for iron; for lime; for magnesium. 4.
+Of the two classes of impurities found in water, which is the more
+harmful? 5. Name three ways of purifying waters known to be impure, and
+tell which is the most effectual.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Experiment No. 49</h3>
+
+<h4>Testing for Nitrites in Water</h4>
+
+<p>To 50 cc. of water in a small beaker add with a pipette 2 cc. of
+naphthylamine hydrochloride and then 2 cc. of sulphanilic acid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> Stir
+well and wait 20 minutes for color to develop. A pink color indicates
+nitrites.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Reagents Used</span></h4>
+
+<p><b>Sulphanilic Acid.</b>&mdash;Dissolve 5 gm. in 150 cc. of dilute acetic acid;
+sp. gr. 1.04.</p>
+
+<p><b>Naphthylamine Hydrochloride.</b>&mdash;Boil 0.1 gm. of solid &#945;-amidonaphthaline (naphthylamine) in 20 cc. of water, filter the
+solution through a plug of absorbent cotton, and mix the nitrate with
+180 cc. of dilute acetic acid. All water used must be free from
+nitrites, and all vessels must be rinsed out with such water before
+tests are applied.</p>
+
+<p>1. Would a water showing the presence of nitrites be a safe drinking
+water? Why? 2. What are nitrites? 3. What does the presence of nitrites
+indicate? 4. Are small amounts of nitrites, when not associated with
+bacteria, injurious?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="REVIEW_QUESTIONS" id="REVIEW_QUESTIONS"></a>REVIEW QUESTIONS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">General Composition of Foods</span></h4>
+
+<p>1. To what extent is water present in foods? 2. What foods contain the
+most, and what foods the least water? 3. How does the water content of
+some foods vary with the hydroscopicity of the air? 4. How may changes
+in water content of foods affect their weight? 5. Why is it necessary to
+consider the water content of foods in assigning nutritive values? 6.
+How is the dry matter of a food determined? 7. Why is the determination
+of the water in a food often a difficult process? 8. What is the ash or
+mineral matter of a food? 9. How is it obtained? 10. What is its source?
+11. Of what is the ash of plants composed? 12. What part in plant life
+do these ash elements take? 13. Name the ash elements essential for
+plant growth. 14. Which of the mineral elements take the most essential
+part in animal nutrition? 15. In what form are these elements usually
+considered most valuable? 16. Why is sodium chloride or common salt
+necessary for animal life? 17. How do food materials differ in ash
+content? 18. Define organic matter of foods. 19. How is it obtained? 20.
+Of what is it composed? 21. Into what is the organic matter converted
+when it is burned? 22. Give the two large classes of organic compounds
+found in food materials. 23. Name the various subdivisions of the
+non-nitrogenous compounds. 24. What are the carbohydrates? 25. Give
+their general composition. 26. What is cellulose? 27. Where is it found?
+28. What is its function in plants? 29. What is its food value? 30. In
+what way may cellulose be of value in a ration? 31. In what way may it
+impart a negative value to a ration? 32. What is starch?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> 33. Where is
+it mainly found in plants? 34. Give the mechanical structure of the
+starch grain. 35. Why is starch insoluble in cold water? 36. How do
+starch grains from different sources differ in structure? 37. What
+effect does heat have upon starch? 38. Define hydration of starch. 39.
+Under what conditions does this change take place? 40. What value as a
+nutrient does starch possess? 41. What is sugar? 42. How does it
+resemble and how differ in composition from starch? 43. What are the
+pectose substances? 44. How are they affected by heat? 45. What food
+value do they possess? 46. What is nitrogen-free-extract? 47. How is it
+obtained? 48. How may the nitrogen-free-extract of one food differ from
+that of another? 49. What are the fats? 50. How do they differ in
+composition from the starches? 51. Why does fat when burned or digested
+produce more heat than starch or sugar? 52. Name the separate fats of
+which animal and vegetable foods are composed. 53. Give some of the
+physical characteristics of fat. 54. What is the iodine absorption
+number of a fat? 55. How does the specific gravity of fat compare with
+that of water? 56. Into what two constituents may all fats be separated?
+57. What is ether extract? 58. How does the ether extract in fats vary
+in composition and nutritive value? 59. What are the organic acids? 60.
+Name those most commonly met with in foods. 61. What nutritive value do
+they possess? 62. What dietetic value? 63. What value are they to the
+growing plant? 64. What organic acids are found in animal foods? 65.
+What are the essential oils? 66. How do they differ from the fixed oils,
+or fats? 67. What property do the essential oils impart to foods? 68.
+What food value do they possess? 69. What dietetic value? 70. What are
+the mixed compounds? 71. How may a compound impart a negative value to a
+food? 72. What is the nutritive value of the non-nitrogenous compounds,
+taken as a class? 73. Why is it necessary that nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds be blended in a ration? 74. What are the
+nitrogenous compounds? 75. How do they differ from the non-nitrogenous
+compounds? 76. Name the four subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds.
+77. What is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> protein? 78. What is characteristic as to its nitrogen
+content? 79. What are some of the derivative products that can be
+obtained from the protein molecule? 80. How does the protein content of
+animal bodies compare with that of plants? 81. Name the various
+subdivisions of the proteins. 82. What is albumin, and how may it be
+obtained from a food? 83. What is globulin, and how is it obtained from
+a food? 84. Give some examples of globulins. 85. What are the
+albuminates, and how are they affected by the action of acids and
+alkalies? 86. What are the peptones, and how do they differ from the
+albumins? 87. How are the peptones produced from other proteids? 88.
+What are the insoluble proteids? 89. Give an example. 90. Which of the
+proteids are found to the greatest extent in foods? 91. Why may proteids
+from different sources vary in their nutritive value? 92. What general
+change do the proteids undergo during digestion? 93. What is crude
+protein? 94. How is the crude protein content of a food calculated? 95.
+Why is the nitrogen content of a food more absolute than the crude
+protein content? 96. What food value do the proteins possess? 97. Why
+may proteins serve so many functions in the body? 98. Why is protein
+necessary as a nutrient? 99. What is the effect of an excess of protein
+in the ration? 100. What is the effect of a scant amount of protein in a
+ration? 101. What are the albuminoids? 102. Name borne materials that
+contain large amounts of albuminoids. 103. What food value do the
+albuminoids possess? 104. What are the amids? 105. How are they formed
+in plants? 106. What is their source in animals? 107. What general
+changes does the element nitrogen undergo in plant and animal bodies?
+108. What is the food value of the amids? 109. What are the alkaloids?
+110. What is their food value? 111. What effect do some alkaloids exert
+upon the animal body? 112. How may they be produced in animal foods?
+113. What general relationship exists between the various nitrogenous
+compounds? 114. Why is it essential that the animal body be supplied
+with nitrogenous food in the form of proteids? 115. Name the cycle of
+changes through which the element nitrogen passes in plant and animal
+bodies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Changes in Composition of Foods During Cooking and Preparation</span></h4>
+
+<p>116. How do raw and cooked foods compare in general composition? 117. In
+what ways are foods acted upon during cooking? 118. What causes chemical
+changes to take place during cooking? 119. What are the principal
+compounds that are changed during the process of cooking? 120. How does
+cooking affect the cellulose of foods? 121. What change does starch
+undergo during cooking? 122. When foods containing starch are baked,
+what change occurs? 123. How are the sugars acted upon when foods are
+cooked? 124. What effect does dry heat have upon sugar? 125. What change
+occurs to the fats during cooking? 126. How does this affect nutritive
+value? 127. What changes do the proteids undergo during cooking? 128.
+Why does the action of heat affect various proteids in different ways?
+129. Why are chemical changes, as hydration, often desirable in the
+cooking and preparation of foods? 130. What physical changes do
+vegetable and animal tissues undergo when cooked? 131. How do foods
+change in weight during cooking? 132. Why is a prolonged high
+temperature unnecessary to secure the best results in cooking? 133. To
+what extent is the energy of fuels utilized for producing mechanical and
+chemical changes in foods during cooking? 134. What effect does cooking
+have upon the bacterial flora of foods? 135. In what ways do bacteria
+exert a favorable influence in the preparation of foods? 136. How may
+certain classes of bacteria exert unfavorable changes in the preparation
+of foods? 137. What are the insoluble ferments? 138. What are the
+soluble ferments? 139. What part do they take in animal and plant
+nutrition? 140. Define aerobic ferments. 141. Define ana&euml;robic ferments.
+142. What general relationship exists between the chemical, physical,
+and bacteriological changes that take place in foods? 143. Why should
+foods also possess an esthetic value? 144. What kinds of colors should
+be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> used in the preparation of foods? 145. What processes should be used
+for removal of coloring materials from foods?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Vegetable Foods</span></h4>
+
+<p>146. Give the general composition of vegetable foods as a class. 147.
+How do vegetable foods differ from animal foods? 148. Name some
+vegetables which contain the maximum, and some which contain the minimum
+percentage of protein. 149. Give the general composition of potatoes.
+150. Of what is the dry matter mainly composed? 151. How much of the
+crude protein of potatoes is true protein? 152. What ratio exists
+between the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in the potato?
+153. Give the chemical composition of the potato. 154. What influence do
+different methods of boiling have upon the crude protein content of
+potatoes? 155. To what extent are the nutrients of potatoes digested and
+absorbed by the body? 156. What value do potatoes impart to the ration?
+157. How do sweet potatoes differ in chemical composition and food value
+from white potatoes? 158. How do carrots differ in composition from
+potatoes? 159. What is characteristic of the dry matter of the carrot?
+160. How do carrots and milk differ in composition? 161. To what is the
+color of the carrot due? 162. To what extent are the nutrients removed
+in the cooking of carrots? 163. What is the value of carrots in a
+ration? 164. Give the characteristics of the composition of parsnips.
+165. How does the starch of parsnips differ from that of potatoes? 166.
+How does the mineral matter of parsnips differ from that of potatoes?
+167. How does the cabbage differ in general composition from many
+vegetables? 168. To what extent are nutrients extracted in the boiling
+of cabbage? 169. Give the nutritive value of cabbage. 170. How does the
+cauliflower differ from cabbage? 171. Give the general composition of
+beets. 172. Give the general composition of cucumbers. 173. What
+nutritive value has lettuce?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> 174. Give the composition and dietetic
+value of onions. 175. How does the ratio of nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds in spinach differ from that in many other
+vegetables? 176. Give the general composition and nutritive value of
+asparagus. 177. How much nutritive material do melons contain? 178. What
+are the principal compounds of tomatoes? 179. What nutrients do they
+supply to the ration? 180. In the canning of tomatoes, why is it
+desirable to conserve the juices? 181. How does sweet corn differ in
+composition from fully matured corn? 182. What nutritive value does the
+egg plant possess? 183. What are the principal nutrients of squash? 184.
+What nutritive material does celery contain? 185. To what does celery
+owe its dietetic value? 186. Why are vegetables necessary in a ration?
+187. Why is it not possible to value many vegetable foods simply on the
+basis of percentage of nutrients present? 188. Name the miscellaneous
+compounds which many vegetables contain, and the characteristics which
+these may impart. 189. Why is it necessary to consider the sanitary
+conditions of vegetables? 190. How do canned vegetables differ in
+composition and food value from fresh vegetables? 191. What proportion
+of vegetables is refuse and non-edible parts? 192. Why is it necessary
+to consider the refuse of a food in determining its nutritive value?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Fruits</span></h4>
+
+<p>193. To what extent do fruits contain water and dry matter? 194. Give
+the general composition of fruits. 195. What compounds impart taste and
+flavor? 196. How much nutrients do fruits add to a ration? 197. Why is
+it not right to determine the value of fruits entirely on the basis of
+nutrients? 198. Give the general composition of apples? 199. What
+compound is present to the greatest extent in the dry matter of apples?
+200. How do apples differ in composition? 201. Give the general physical
+composition of oranges.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> 202. What nutrients are present to the greatest
+extent in oranges? 203. How do lemons differ in composition from
+oranges? 204. How does grape fruit resemble and how differ in chemical
+composition from oranges and lemons? 205. What are the main compounds in
+strawberries? 206. In what ways are strawberries valuable in a ration?
+207. Of what is grape juice mainly composed? 208. What acid is in
+grapes, and what is its commercial value? 209. To what are the
+differences in flavor and taste due? 210. How do ripe olives differ in
+composition from green olives? 211. What is the food value of the olive?
+212. What physiological property does olive oil have? 213. What is the
+principal nutrient in peaches? 214. What compounds give flavor to
+peaches? 215. Of what does the dry matter of plums mainly consist? 216.
+How do plums differ in composition from many other fruits? 217. What are
+prunes? What is their food value? 218. How do dried fruits differ in
+composition from fresh fruits? 219. What should be the stage of ripeness
+of fruit in order to secure the best results in canning? 220. How do
+canned fruits differ in composition and nutritive value from fresh
+fruits? 221. To what extent are metals dissolved by fruit juices? 222.
+Why should tin in which canned goods are preserved be of good quality?
+223. What preservatives are sometimes used in the preparation of canned
+fruits? 224. What is the objection to their use? 225. Why are fruits
+necessary in the ration? 226. What change does heat bring about in the
+pectose substances of fruits?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER V</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Sugar, Molasses, Sirups, Honey, and Confections</span></h4>
+
+<p>227. What is sugar? 228. From what sources are sugars obtained? 229.
+Name the two divisions into which sugars are divided. 230. How are
+sugars graded commercially? 231. What per cent of purity has granulated
+sugar? 232. How is the coloring material of sugar removed? 233. How is
+sugar treated to make it whiter? 234. What value as a nutrient does
+sugar possess? 235. Why<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> should sugar be combined with other nutrients?
+236. What foods contain appreciable amounts of sugar? 237. Why is an
+excessive amount of sugar in a ration undesirable? 238. Does sugar
+possess more than condimental value? 239. What is the average quantity
+of sugar consumed in this country? 240. What is maple sugar? 241. How
+does it differ in composition from other sugar? 242. How is adulterated
+maple sugar detected? 243. To what extent is granulated sugar
+adulterated? 244. Why is it not easily adulterated? 245. What are the
+dextrose sugars? 246. How do they differ chemically from sucrose? 247.
+What is the inversion of sugar? 248. In what way does acid act upon
+sugar? 249. How are the acid products removed? 250. What is the food
+value of glucose? 251. What is molasses? 252. How is it obtained? 253.
+Of what is it composed? 254. What gives taste and flavor to molasses?
+255. How may molasses act upon metalware? 256. What is the food value of
+molasses? 257. What is sirup? 258. Name three kinds of sirup, and
+mention materials from which they are prepared. 259. What is the
+polariscope, and how is it employed in sugar work? 260. What is honey?
+261. How does it differ in composition from sugar? 262. How is strained
+honey adulterated? 263. What materials are used in the preparation of
+confections? 264. What changes take place in their manufacture? 265.
+What materials are used for imparting color? 266. What can you say in
+regard to the coal tar colors? 267. What should be the position of candy
+in the dietary? 268. What can you say of the comparative value of cane
+and beet sugar? 269. How do the commercial grades of sugar compare as to
+nutritive value? 270. What are some of the impurities in candy? 271.
+What is saccharine? 272. What are its properties?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VI</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Legumes and Nuts</span></h4>
+
+<p>273. What nutrients do the legumes contain in comparatively large
+amounts? 274. How does the amount of this nutrient com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>pare with that
+found in meats? 275. Why are legumes valuable crops in general farming
+and for the feeding of farm animals? 276. Give the general composition
+of beans. 277. How do beans compare in protein content with cereals?
+278. How does the protein of beans differ from that of many other food
+materials? 279. To what extent are the nutrients of beans digested? 280.
+What influence does the combination of beans with other foods have upon
+digestibility? 281. What influence does removal of skins have upon
+digestibility? 282. In what part of the digestive tract are beans mainly
+digested? 283. How does the cost of the nutrients in beans compare with
+that of the nutrients in other foods? 284. How do string beans differ
+from green beans? 285. Give the general composition, digestibility, and
+nutritive value of peas. 286. What can you say of the use of copper
+sulphate in the preparation of canned peas? 287. What nutrients do
+peanuts contain in large amounts? 288. Give the general composition of
+nuts. 289. What are the characteristics of pistachio? 290. Give the
+general composition of the cocoanut. 291. What is cocoanut butter? 292.
+To what extent may nuts contribute to the nutritive value of a ration?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VII</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Milk and Dairy Products</span></h4>
+
+<p>293. What can you say as to the importance of dairy products in the
+dietary? 294. Give the general composition of milk. 295. What compound
+in milk is most variable? 296. To what extent are the nutrients in milk
+digestible? 297. What influence does milk have upon the digestibility of
+other foods? 298. Why is cheese cured in cold storage? 299. How can the
+tendency of a milk diet to produce costiveness be overcome? 300. Why is
+it necessary to consider the sanitary condition of milk? 301. What
+factors influence the sanitary condition of milk? 302. What is certified
+milk? 303. What is pasteurized milk? 304. How can milk be pasteurized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+for family use? 305. What is tyrotoxicon? 306. What is its source in
+milk? 307. To what is the color of milk due? 308. To what extent is
+color associated with fat content? 309. What causes souring of milk?
+310. What change occurs in the milk sugar? 311. What are the most
+favorable conditions for the souring of milk? 312. What are some of the
+preservatives used in milk. 313. What objection is urged against their
+use? 314. What is condensed milk? 315. What is buttermilk, and what
+dietetic value has it? 316. How does goats' milk differ from cows' milk?
+317. What is koumiss, and how is it prepared? 318. What are the prepared
+milks? 319. How does human milk differ in composition from cows' milk?
+320. Give the nutritive value of skim milk. 321. What content of fat
+should cream contain? 322. In what ways is milk adulterated? 323. How
+are these adulterations detected? 324. Give the general composition of
+butter. 325. What is the maximum amount of water that a butter may
+contain without being considered adulterated? 326. What can you say in
+regard to the digestibility of butter? 327. How is butter adulterated?
+328. How does oleomargarine compare in digestibility and food value with
+butter? 329. What is the food value of butter? 330. How does cheese
+differ in composition from butter? 331. Give the general composition of
+cheese. 332. To what are the flavor and odor of cheese due? 333. Why is
+cheese ripened? 334. What chemical changes take place during ripening?
+335. To what extent are the nutrients of cheese digested? 336. Why is
+cheese sometimes considered indigestible? 337. To what extent do the
+nutrients of different kinds of cheese vary in digestibility? 338. How
+does cheese compare in nutritive value and cost with meats? 339. What is
+cottage cheese? 340. What is Roquefort cheese? 341. Name four kinds of
+cheese, and say to what each owes its individuality. 342. How is cheese
+adulterated? 343. Why are dairy products in older agricultural regions
+generally cheaper than meats?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Meats and Animal Food Products</span></h4>
+
+<p>344. Give the general composition of meats. 345. How do meats differ in
+chemical composition from vegetable foods? 346. What is the principal
+non-nitrogenous compound of meats, and what of vegetables? 347. Name the
+different classes of proteins in meats. 348. Which class is present in
+largest amounts? 349. To what extent are amid compounds present in
+meats? 350. What characteristics do amids impart to meats? 351. How are
+alkaloids produced in meats? 352. In what ways does the lean meat of
+different kinds of animals vary chemically and physically? 353. Give the
+general composition of beef. 354. What relationship exists between the
+fat and water content of beef? 355. How much refuse have meats? 356. In
+what forms are the ash elements (mineral matter) present in meats? 357.
+How does veal differ in composition from beef? 358. What general changes
+in composition occur as animals mature? 359. How do these compare with
+the changes that take place when plants ripen and seeds are produced?
+360. How does mutton vary in composition from beef? 361. How does it
+compare in food value with beef? 362. How do lamb and mutton differ in
+composition? 363. To what extent do the various cuts differ in
+composition? 364. How do the more expensive cuts of lamb compare in
+nutritive value with the less expensive cuts? 365. How does pork differ
+in composition from other meats? 366. Give the general composition of
+ham. 367. Give the composition and nutritive value of bacon. 368. How
+does bacon compare in food value with other meats? 369. How does the
+character of the fat influence the composition and taste of the meat?
+370. What influences the texture or toughness of meats? 371. How do
+cooked meats compare in composition with raw meats? 372. To what extent
+are nutrients lost in the boiling of meats? 373. What influence does the
+temperature of the water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> in which the meat is placed for cooking have
+upon the amount of nutrients extracted? 374. To what is the shrinking of
+meats in cooking due? 375. Of what does meat extract mainly consist?
+376. To what do beef extracts owe their flavor? 377. What is their food
+value? 378. What is their dietetic value? 379. What is lard? 380. How
+does it differ in composition from other fats? 381. What is imparted to
+meats during the smoking process? 382. Why is saltpeter used in the
+preservation of meats? 383. Do vegetable foods contain nitrates and
+nitrites? 384. How does poultry resemble and how differ in composition
+from other meat? 385. Give the characteristics of sound poultry. 386.
+Give the general composition of fish. 387. How does the flesh of
+different kinds of fish vary in composition? 388. What influence does
+salting and preservation have upon composition? 389. How do fish and
+meat compare in digestibility? 390. How does the mineral matter and
+phosphate content of fish compare with that of other foods? 391. What
+are the main nutrients in oysters? 392. Give the general food value of
+oysters. 393. What is meant by the fattening of oysters? 394. What
+effect does the character of the water used in fattening have upon the
+sanitary value? 395. Give the general composition of the egg. 396. How
+do different parts of the egg differ in composition? 397. How does the
+egg differ in composition from the potato? 398. Is color an index to the
+composition of the egg? 399. What effect does cooking have upon the
+composition of the egg? 400. What factors influence the flavor of eggs?
+401. How do different ways of cooking affect the digestibility? 402.
+Under what conditions can eggs be used economically in the dietary? 403.
+Why should eggs be purchased and sold by weight? 404. How do canned
+meats differ in composition from fresh meats? 405. How do the nutrients
+of canned meats compare in cost with those of fresh meat? 406. What are
+the advantages of canned meats over fresh meats? 407. What are some of
+the materials used in the preservation of meats?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IX</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Cereals</span></h4>
+
+<p>408. How are the cereals milled? 409. What are the cereals most commonly
+used for food purposes? 410. Give the general composition of cereals as
+a class. 411. What are the main nutrients in corn preparations? 412.
+What influence does the more complete removal of the bran and germ of
+corn have upon its digestibility? 413. How does the cost of nutrients in
+corn compare with other foods? 414. Why is corn alone not suitable for
+bread-making purposes? 415. Why should corn be combined in a ration with
+foods mediumly rich in protein? 416. What change takes place in corn
+meal from long storage? 417. Give the characteristics and composition of
+oat preparations. 418. How does removal of the oat hull affect the
+composition of the product? 419. To what extent do the various oat
+preparations on the market differ in composition and food value? 420. Do
+oats contain any special alkaloidal or stimulating principle? 421. Why
+should oatmeal receive longer and more-thorough cooking than many other
+foods? 422. To what extent are the nutrients in oatmeal digested? 423.
+How do wheat preparations differ in general composition from corn and
+oat preparations? 424. What influence upon the composition of the wheat
+breakfast foods has partial or complete removal of the bran? 425. What
+is the effect upon their digestibility and nutritive value? 426. What
+are the special diabetic flours, and how are they prepared? 427. What
+are the wheat middlings breakfast foods, and how do they compare in
+digestibility and food value with bread? 428. How do they differ
+mechanically? 429. How does barley differ from wheat in general
+composition? 430. What is barley water, and what nutritive material does
+it contain? 431. What cereal does rice resemble in composition? 432.
+With what food materials should rice be combined to make a balanced
+ration? 433. What can you say as to comparative ease<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> and completeness
+of digestibility of rice? 434. Why are cereals valuable in the ration?
+435. In what way do they take a mechanical part in digestion? 436. What
+are predigested breakfast foods? 437. How would you determine the
+general nutritive value of a breakfast food, knowing the kind of cereal
+from which it was prepared? 438. To what extent are cereals modified or
+changed in composition by cooking? 439. To what extent are the nutrients
+of cereal foods digested and absorbed by the body? 440. To what extent
+do the cereals supply the body with mineral matter? 441. How does the
+phosphate content of cereals compare with that of meats and milk?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER X</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Wheat Flour</span></h4>
+
+<p>442. Why is wheat flour especially adapted to bread-making purposes?
+443. To what extent may wheat vary in protein content? 444. What are
+spring wheats? 445. What are winter wheats? 446. Give the general
+characteristics of each. 447. What are glutinous wheats? 448. What are
+starchy wheats? 449. Name the different proteids in wheat flour. 450.
+About how much starch does wheat flour contain? 451. What other
+carbohydrates are also present? 452. What is the roller process of flour
+milling? 453. What is meant by the first break? 454. How are the
+different products of the wheat kernel separated? 455. What is meant by
+middlings flour? 456. What is break flour? 457. What is patent flour?
+458. Name the high grade flours. 459. Name the low grade flours. 460.
+How are the impurities removed from wheat flour? 461. What per cent of
+the wheat kernel is returned as flour? As offals? 462. What becomes of
+the wheat germ during milling? 463. What sized bolting cloths are used
+in milling? 464. What is graham flour? 465. How does it differ in
+mechanical and chemical composition from white flour? 466. What is
+entire wheat flour? 467. How does it differ in physical and chemical
+composition from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> white flour? 468. What effect has the refining of
+flour upon the ash content? 469. How do low and high grade flours differ
+in chemical composition? 470. How do the wheat offals differ in
+composition from the flour? 471. What are the factors which influence
+the composition of flours? 472. What effect does storage have upon the
+bread-making value of flour? 473. What change takes place when new wheat
+is stored in an elevator? 474. What is durum wheat flour, and how does
+it differ from other flour? 475. What gives flour its color? 476. Why is
+color an index of grade? 477. How is the color of a flour determined?
+478. How do flours differ in granulation? 479. How does the granulation
+affect the physical properties of flour? 480. How is the granulation of
+flour approximately determined? 481. How is the absorptive capacity of a
+flour determined? 482. What factors cause a variation in the capacity of
+flours to absorb water? 483. Give the characteristics of a good gluten.
+484. What causes unsound flours? 485. How is the bread-making value of a
+flour determined? 486. How are flours bleached? 487. How does bleaching
+affect the chemical composition of flour? 488. What influence does
+bleaching have upon bread-making value? 489. Traces of what compounds
+are formed during bleaching? 490. Are these compounds injurious to
+health? 491. What effect does bleaching have upon the color of fiber and
+d&eacute;bris particles in flour? 492. Is it possible to bleach low grade
+flours and cause them to resemble high grade flours? 493. Are flours
+usually adulterated? 494. Why? 495. How would mineral adulterants be
+detected? 496. How would the presence of other cereals be detected? 497.
+How does flour compare in nutritive value with other foods? 498. How
+does the cost of flour compare with that of other foods? 499. What
+causes flours to vary so in bread-making value? 500. Why may flours
+produced from the same type of wheat vary slightly in character from
+year to year? 501. What relationship exists between the nutritive and
+bread-making value of a flour?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XI</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Bread and Bread Making</span></h4>
+
+<p>502. Define leavened and unleavened bread. 503. Why is yeast used in
+bread making? 504. Give the characteristics of a good loaf of bread.
+505. Why is flour used for bread making purposes? 506. Name the eight
+chemical changes that take place during bread making. 507. To what
+extent do losses in dry matter occur during bread making? 508. What
+compounds suffer losses during bread making? 509. What is yeast? 510.
+What chemical changes does it produce? 511. What becomes of these
+products during bread making? 512. How is compressed yeast made? 513.
+What part does the alcohol take in bread making? 514. What temperature
+is reached in the interior of the loaf during bread making? 515. Through
+what chemical changes does starch pass during bread making? 516. To what
+extent are soluble carbohydrates formed? 517. In what way is starch
+acted upon mechanically? 518. Explain the structure of the starch grains
+in flour and in dough after they have been acted upon by the yeast
+ferments. 519. To what extent are acids produced in bread making? 520.
+What becomes of the acids formed? 521. How may the acids thus developed
+affect the properties of other chemical compounds? 522. To what extent
+are volatile carbon compounds, other than carbon dioxid and alcohol,
+liberated during bread making? 523. What changes occur to the various
+proteids during the process of bread making? 524. Why do flours vary in
+quality of gluten? 525. To what extent do losses of nitrogen occur
+during bread making? 526. How much of the total nitrogen of flour is
+present as proteids? 527. How is the fat of flour affected during the
+process of bread making? 528. What effect does the addition of 10 per
+cent of wheat starch to flour have upon the size of the loaf? 529. What
+effect does the addition of 10 per cent of wheat gluten to flour have
+upon the size of the loaf? 530. What relationship exists between gluten
+content and capacity of a flour to absorb water? 531. Give the general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
+composition of bread. 532. What factors influence its composition? 533.
+What effect does the use of skim milk and lard in bread making have upon
+composition? 534. How does the temperature of the flour influence the
+bread-making process? 535. Why is it necessary to vary the process of
+bread making in order to get the best results with different kinds of
+flour? 536. To what extent are the nutrients of bread digested? 537. How
+does graham bread compare in digestibility with white bread? 538. How do
+graham and entire wheat breads compare in nutritive value with white
+bread? 539. What value do graham and entire wheat breads have in the
+dietary? 540. Why is white bread generally preferable in the dietary of
+the laboring man? 541. How do graham and entire wheat flours compare in
+chemical composition with white flour? 542. How do they compare in
+mechanical composition? 543. To what is the difference in digestibility
+supposed to be due? 544. Are graham and entire wheat breads necessary in
+a ration as a source of mineral elements? 545. What is the main
+difference in composition between old and new bread? 546. How do
+different kinds of bread made from the same flour compare in composition
+and nutritive value? 447. How does toast differ in composition from
+bread? 548. What influence does toasting have upon digestibility? 549.
+What is gained by toasting bread? 550. How does bread compare in
+nutritive value with other cereal foods? 551. How does bread compare in
+nutritive value with animal foods?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XII</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Baking Powders</span></h4>
+
+<p>552. What is a baking powder? 553. What are the two kinds of materials
+which baking powders contain? 554. Name the different types of baking
+powders. 555. How does baking powder differ in its action from yeast?
+556. What are the cream of tartar baking powders? 557. What is the
+nature of the residue which they leave? 558. What are the phosphate
+baking powders? 559. What is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> nature of the residue which they
+leave? 560. Why is the mineral phosphate not considered equally valuable
+with that naturally present in foods? 561. What are the alum baking
+powders? 562. What residue is left from the alum powders? 563. Which of
+the three classes of baking powders is considered the least
+objectionable? 564. Why is a new baking powder preferable to one that
+has been kept a long time? 565. Why should baking powders be kept in tin
+cans, and not in paper? 566. Why are fillers used in the manufacture of
+baking powders? 567. How may a baking powder be prepared at home? 568.
+How does such a baking powder compare in cost and efficiency with those
+purchased in the market?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIII</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Vinegars, Spices, and Condiments</span></h4>
+
+<p>569. What is vinegar? 570. How is it made? 571. Give the three chemical
+changes that take place in its preparation. 572. Why is air necessary in
+the last stage of the process? 573. What ferments take part in the
+production of vinegar? 574. What is malt vinegar? 575. What materials
+other than apples can be used in the preparation of vinegar? 576. Give
+the characteristics of a good vinegar. 577. In what ways are vinegars
+adulterated? 578. What food value has vinegar? 579. Why should vinegars
+not be stored in metalware? 580. What dietetic value has vinegar? 581.
+To what materials do the spices owe their value? 582. What is pepper?
+583. What is the difference between white and black pepper? 584. What
+compounds give pepper its characteristics? 585. How are peppers
+adulterated? 586. What is mustard? 587. Give its general composition.
+588. How is it adulterated? 589. What is ginger? 590. How is it prepared
+for the market? 591. Give its general composition. 592. What is
+cinnamon? 593. What is cassia? 594. What gives these their taste and
+flavor? 595. What are cloves? 596. How are they prepared? 597. What is
+mace? 598. What is nutmeg?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> 599. Do the spices have any food value? 600.
+What is their dietetic value? 601. Why is excessive use of some of the
+spices objectionable?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIV</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, and Cocoa</span></h4>
+
+<p>602. What is tea? Name the two plants from which it is obtained, the
+countries where each grows best, and the number of flushes each yields.
+603. Upon what does the quality and grade of tea depend? 604. Give
+differences in the preparation and composition of green and black teas.
+605. The characteristic flavor of tea is imparted by what compound? 606.
+To what compound are its peculiar physiological properties due? 607.
+What can you say of the protein in tea as to amount and food value? 608.
+Why should tea&mdash;especially green tea&mdash;be infused for a very short time,
+never boiled? 609. What effect has tannin upon the digestion of
+proteids? 610. What three points are considered in judging a tea? 611.
+What is the most common form of tea adulteration? 612. Describe the
+coffee plant and fruit, and its method of preparation for market. 613.
+What is the difference in the chemical composition of tea and coffee?
+614. Name the characteristic alkaloid of coffee. How does it compare
+with theme? 615. Why may coffee not be considered a food? 616. Tell
+different ways in which coffee may be adulterated. 617. Which is more
+commonly practiced, tea or coffee adulteration? Why? 618. How may real
+coffee be distinguished from chicory? Why? 619. Name the three kinds of
+coffee in general use. Give distinguishing features of each. Which is
+usually considered best? 620. From what are cocoa and chocolate
+obtained? 621. Give the two methods of preparing cocoa. 622. What
+alkaloid similar to the theme and caffeine of tea and coffee is present
+in cocoa and chocolate? 623. What is the difference in preparation of
+cocoa and chocolate? 624. What are cereal coffee-substitutes? 625. What
+nutritive value have they? 626. How do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> they differ in composition from
+coffee? 627. To what extent does cocoa add to the nutritive value of a
+ration? 628. What is plain chocolate? 629. Why do chocolate preparations
+vary so widely in composition? 630. What treatment is given to the cocoa
+bean in its preparation for commerce? 631. What treatment is sometimes
+given to prevent separation of the cocoa fat? 632. In what ways may
+cocoa and chocolate preparations be adulterated?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XV</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Digestibility of Foods</span></h4>
+
+<p>633. Define the term nutrient. 634. Do all the nutrients of food have
+the same degree of digestibility? 635. What is a digestion coefficient?
+636. How is the digestibility of a food determined? 637. What volatile
+products are formed during the digestion of food? 638. Define digestible
+protein; digestible carbohydrates, digestible fat. 639. What is the
+available energy of a ration? 640. How is it determined? 641. How do the
+nutrients, protein, fat, and carbohydrates, compare as to available
+energy? 642. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a
+ration? 643. Is the protein molecule as completely oxidized in the body
+as starch or fat? 644. What residue is left from the digestion of
+protein? 645. What part do the soluble ferments take in digestion? 646.
+To what extent are the nutrients of animal foods digested? 647. Which
+nutrient, protein or fat, is the most completely digested? 648. How do
+vegetable foods compare in digestibility with animal foods? 649. What
+effect does cellulose have upon digestibility? 650. Which of the
+nutrients of vegetables, protein or carbohydrates, is more completely
+digested? 651. What mechanical value may cellulose have in a ration?
+652. Why must bulk be considered in a ration, as well as nutrient
+content? 653. Name the eight most important factors influencing the
+digestibility of foods. 654. To what extent does the combination of
+foods affect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> the digestibility of the nutrients? 655. Why does a mixed
+ration give better results than when only a single food is used? 656.
+How does the amount consumed affect the completeness of the digestive
+process? 657. To what extent does the method of preparing food affect
+digestibility? 658. What is gained, so far as digestibility is
+concerned, by the cooking of foods? 659. To what extent does the
+mechanical condition of food affect its digestibility? 660. Why is it
+desirable to have some coarsely granulated foods in a ration? 661. Why
+should the ration not be composed exclusively of finely granulated
+foods? 662. Why is some coarsely granulated food more essential in the
+dietary of the sedentary than in the dietary of the laborer? 663. How
+does palatability affect the digestive process? 664. Do psychological
+processes in any way affect digestion? 665. What physiological
+properties do some foods possess? 666. To what are these physiological
+properties due? 667. To what extent is individuality a factor in
+digestion? 668. To what extent does digestibility differ with
+individuals? 669. Why do some foods affect individuals in different
+ways? 670. Why is it necessary that the quantity, quality, and character
+of the food should vary with different individuals? 671. In what
+different ways is the expression "digestibility of a food" used? 672.
+Why is it necessary to consider the digestibility of food, as well as
+its composition? 673. Does the digestibility of a food necessarily
+indicate the economic uses that will be made of it by the body? 674. How
+is it possible for one food containing 10 per cent of digestible
+protein, and other nutrients in like amounts, to be more valuable than
+another food with the same per cent of digestible protein and other
+nutrients? 675. How is it possible for one food to contain less total
+protein than another food and yet be more valuable from a nutritive
+point of view? 676. Why is it necessary to consider the mechanical
+condition of a food and its combination with other foods, as well as its
+chemical composition? 677. What effect does lack of a good supply of air
+have upon the completeness of the digestion process? 678. In what ways
+does the digestion of food resemble the combustion of fuel? 679. What is
+gained by a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> study of the digestibility of foods? 680. Why may two foods
+of the same general character give different results when used for
+nutritive purposes?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVI</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Comparative Cost and Value of Foods</span></h4>
+
+<p>681. To what extent do the nutritive value and the market price of foods
+vary? 682. How is the value of one food expressed in terms of another
+food? 683. How determine the amount of nutrients that can be procured in
+a food for a given sum of money? 684. How compare the amounts of
+nutrients that can be procured in two foods for a given sum of money?
+685. How is it possible to determine approximately which of two foods is
+cheaper, when the price and composition of the foods are known? 686. To
+what nutrient is preference usually given in assigning a value to a
+food? 687. When the difference in this nutrient between two foods is
+small, then the preference is given to what nutrients? 688. At ordinary
+prices, what are the cheapest vegetable foods? 689. What are among the
+cheapest animal foods? 690. Why is it not possible to determine the
+value of a food absolutely from its composition and digestibility? 691.
+Why is it necessary to consider the physical as well as the chemical
+composition of foods? 692. What proportion of the income of the laboring
+man is usually expended for food? 693. What are the most expensive
+foods? 694. What foods furnish the largest amount of nutrients at the
+least cost?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVII</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Dietary Studies</span></h4>
+
+<p>695. What is a dietary study? 696. How is a dietary study made? 697.
+What is the value of the dietary study of a family? 698. To what extent
+does the protein in the dietary range?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> 699. Why is a scant amount of
+protein in a ration undesirable? 700. Why is an excess of protein in the
+ration undesirable? 701. What are dietary standards? 702. How are such
+standards obtained? 703. Why is it desirable in a ration to secure the
+protein and other nutrients from a variety rather than from a few foods?
+704. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration? 705.
+How is this determined? 706. What is a wide nutritive ratio? 707. What
+is a narrow nutritive ratio? 708. Why should the amount of nutrients
+consumed vary with the work performed? 709. How should the nutrients be
+apportioned among the meals? 710. What are some of the most common
+dietary errors? 711. What analogy exists between human and animal
+feeding? 712. What is gained by the rational feeding of both humans and
+animals? 713. What use can be made of the results of dietary studies for
+improvement of the dietary? 714. Why is it not possible for animal foods
+to compete in economy with cereal and vegetable foods? 715. Is a
+well-balanced ration and one containing an ample supply of nutrients
+necessarily an expensive ration? 716. Show how it is possible for one
+family to spend less money for food than another family, and yet secure
+more digestible nutrients and energy. 717. What are some of the most
+erroneous ideas as to food values? 718. Why is it necessary to consider
+previously acquired food habits in the selection of foods? 719. In
+general, what portion of the nutrients of a ration should be derived
+from vegetable foods, and what portion from meats? 720. To what extent
+may a ration vary from the dietary standards? 721. Why are some
+inexpensive foods often expensive when prepared for the table? 722. What
+are some of the ways in which the cost of a ration can be decreased
+without sacrificing nutritive value? 723. Why do different nationalities
+acquire distinct food habits? 724. Why is it not possible to make sudden
+and radical changes in the dietary? 725. Why is it not possible for a
+dietary which gives ample satisfaction for one class of people to be
+applied to another class with equal satisfaction? 726. What relationship
+exists between the dietary of a nation and its physical development?
+727. What rela<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>tionship exists between dietary habits and mental
+development and vigor? 728. Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to
+regulate absolutely the amount of nutrients consumed in the daily
+ration? 729. What is the general tendency as to quantity of food and
+amount of nutrients consumed? 730. Why do people of sedentary habits
+require a different dietary from those pursuing active, out-of-door
+occupations?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVIII</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Rational Feeding of Man</span></h4>
+
+<p>731. What is the object of the rational feeding of man? 732. On what is
+it based? 733. How does it compare with the rational feeding of animals?
+734. What is a standard ration? 735. How is it determined? 736. To what
+extent may the nutrients of a ration vary from the standard? 737. How do
+you combine foods to form a balanced ration? 738. What foods are
+valuable for supplying protein? 739. What foods supply fats? 740. What
+foods are rich in carbohydrates? 741. What other requisites should a
+ration have in addition to supplying the necessary nutrients? 742. Why
+is it necessary to consider the calorie value of a ration? 743. If a
+ration contained an excess of carbohydrates and a scant amount of
+protein, how could it be improved? 744. How do you calculate the
+nutrients in a fraction of a pound of food? 745. Give the amounts of the
+common food materials, as potatoes, bread, butter, milk, and cheese,
+ordinarily combined to form a ration. 746. To what extent may foods
+differ in composition from the average analysis given? 747. What foods
+are subject to the greatest and what foods to the least variation?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIX</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Water</span></h4>
+
+<p>748. Why is water regarded as a food? 749. Does it enter chemically into
+the composition of plants? Of animals? 750. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> addition to serving as a
+food, why is water necessary for life processes? 751. In what ways may
+water be improved? 752. What are the most common forms of impurities?
+753. What are the mineral impurities of water? 754. What is their
+source? 755. What effect do some of these minerals have upon the value
+of the water? 756. What causes some waters to dissolve limestone? 757.
+What are permanently hard waters? 758. To what is temporary hardness in
+water due? 759. What is the best way to remove mineral matter from
+water? 760. What are the organic impurities of water? 761. What are the
+sources of the organic impurities? 762. What change does the organic
+matter of water undergo? 763. What becomes of the nitrogen of the
+organic matter? 764. What does the presence of nitrates in water
+indicate? Nitrites? 765. What is the total solid matter of a water, and
+how is it obtained? 766. Define the terms free ammonia; albuminoid
+ammonia. 767. What does the presence of chlorine in a surface well water
+indicate? 768. Explain natural purification of water. 769. Can natural
+purification always be relied upon? 770. Why does the character of the
+drinking water affect health? 771. What diseases are mainly caused by
+impure drinking water? 772. With what materials in water are the
+disease-producing organisms associated? 773. Why should a water of
+questionable purity be boiled? 774. State how the boiling should be
+done, to be effective. 775. Why should boiled water receive further care
+in its storage? 776. What effect does improvement of the water supply of
+a city have upon the death rate? 777. How may connections between
+cesspools and surface well waters be traced? 778. What impurities do
+rain waters contain? 779. Explain the workings of the Pasteur and
+Berkefeld water filters. 780. Why must special attention be given to
+cleaning the water filter? 781. Explain the processes employed for the
+removal of mechanical impurities of water by sedimentation and the use
+of chemicals. 782. Why should such purification be under the supervision
+of a chemist or bacteriologist? 783. What effect does freezing have upon
+the purity of water? 784. Why are precautions necessary in the use of
+ice for refrigeration? 785. What are mineral waters?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> 786. How are
+artificial mineral waters prepared? 787. What are the more common
+materials used in their preparation? 788. Why should mineral waters be
+extensively used only by the advice of a physician? 789. What are some
+of the materials used for softening water? 790. Which are the least
+objectionable of these materials? 791. Which are the most objectionable?
+792. What can you say of the use of ammonia and ammonium carbonate for
+softening waters? 793. In washing clothing after contagious diseases,
+what materials may be used for disinfecting? 794. Why, in softening
+waters for household purposes, must caustic soda, potash, and bleaching
+powder be used with caution? 795. Why is it necessary to determine by
+trial the material most suitable for softening water? 796. What
+advantage, from a pecuniary point of view, results from the improvement
+of the water supply of a community?</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XX</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Food in its Relation to Household Sanitation and Storage</span></h4>
+
+<p>797. What are the compounds usually determined in a food analysis? 798.
+Does such an analysis necessarily indicate the presence of injurious
+compounds? 799. What are the sources of the injurious organic compounds
+in foods? 800. Why is it necessary to consider sanitary condition as
+well as chemical composition? 801. What are the sources of contamination
+of foods? 802. What is the object of the sanitary inspection of food?
+803. How may flies carry germ diseases? 804. Why should food be
+protected from impure air and dust particles? 805. Why should places
+where vegetables are stored be well ventilated? 806. How may the dirt
+adhering to vegetables be the carrier of germ diseases? 807. Why should
+the cellar in which food is stored be in a sanitary condition? 808. What
+effect does the cleaning of streets and improvement of the sanitation of
+cities have upon the death rate? 809. Name the three natural
+disinfectants, and explain the action of each.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> 810. Why must dishes and
+utensils in which foods are placed be thoroughly cleaned? 811. Explain
+the principle of refrigeration. 812. What kind of ferment action may
+take place at a low temperature? 813. Why is some ventilation necessary
+in refrigeration? 814. What effect does refrigeration have upon the
+composition of food? 815. What relationship exists between unsanitary
+condition of soils about dwellings and contamination of the food? 816.
+Why should special attention be given to the sanitary disposal of
+kitchen refuse? 817. Name the ways in which this can be accomplished.
+818. How may foods become contaminated through imperfect plumbing? 819.
+Mention the conditions necessary in order to keep foods sanitary.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="REFERENCES" id="REFERENCES"></a>REFERENCES</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following list of references is given for the use of the student in
+case additional information is desired upon some of the subjects
+discussed in this work. The list is not intended as a complete
+bibliography of the subject of foods. The advanced student will find
+extended references in the Experiment Station Record and the various
+chemical, physiological, and bacteriological journals.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Snyder</span>: The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life.</p>
+
+<p>2. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Human Food
+Investigations.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">Cross and Bevans</span>: Cellulose.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="smcap">Wiley</span>: Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis,
+Vol. III.</p>
+
+<p>5. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 74: Human Food
+Investigations.</p>
+
+<p>6. <span class="smcap">Parry</span>: The Chemistry of Essential Oils, etc.</p>
+
+<p>7. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 142:
+Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food.</p>
+
+<p>8. <span class="smcap">Mann</span>: Chemistry of the Proteids.</p>
+
+<p>9. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 85: Wheat and Flour
+Investigations.</p>
+
+<p>10. <span class="smcap">Armsby</span>: Principles of Animal Nutrition.</p>
+
+<p>11. <span class="smcap">Sherman</span>: Organic Analysis.</p>
+
+<p>12. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 43: Digestion Experiments with Potatoes and Eggs.</p>
+
+<p>13. Unpublished results of author.</p>
+
+<p>14. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
+No. 49: Cold Curing of Cheese.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>15. <span class="smcap">Wiley</span>: Foods and Their Adulteration.</p>
+
+<p>16. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63: Miscellaneous
+Analyses.</p>
+
+<p>17. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 8: Canned Vegetables.</p>
+
+<p>18. <span class="smcap">Leach</span>: Food Inspection and Analysis.</p>
+
+<p>19. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 256:
+Preparation of Vegetables for the Table.</p>
+
+<p>20. U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1905: Fruit and its Uses
+as Food.</p>
+
+<p>21. Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 1893.</p>
+
+<p>22. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+94: Studies on Apples.</p>
+
+<p>23. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+69: Fruits and Fruit Products.</p>
+
+<p>24. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 203: Canned
+Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies.</p>
+
+<p>25. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+27: Sugar Beet Industry.</p>
+
+<p>26. <span class="smcap">Sadtler</span>: A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>27. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 86: The Food Value of
+Sugar. The Digestive Action of Milk.</p>
+
+<p>28. <span class="smcap">Hutchison</span>: Food and Principles of Dietetics.</p>
+
+<p>29. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No 93: Sugar as
+Food.</p>
+
+<p>30. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 252: Maple Sugar and Sirup.</p>
+
+<p>31. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 6: Sugar, Molasses, Sirup, and Confections.</p>
+
+<p>32. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 121: Peas and
+Beans as Food.</p>
+
+<p>33. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 122: Nuts as
+Food.</p>
+
+<p>34. Maine Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Nuts as Food.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>35. California Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 107 and 132:
+Investigations among Fruitarians.</p>
+
+<p>36. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 74: Milk as
+Food.</p>
+
+<p>37. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 63: Care of
+Milk on the Farm.</p>
+
+<p>38. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 149:
+Digestibility of Milk.</p>
+
+<p>39. <span class="smcap">Russell</span>: Dairy Bacteriology.</p>
+
+<p>40. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13. Part 1: Dairy Products.</p>
+
+<p>41. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 131:
+Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter.</p>
+
+<p>42. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
+No 61: Relation of Bacteria to Flavor of Cheddar Cheese.</p>
+
+<p>43. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 92: The Digestibility and
+Nutritive Value of Cottage Cheese, etc.</p>
+
+<p>44. <span class="smcap">Lawes and Gilbert</span>: Experiments with Animals.</p>
+
+<p>45. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 34: Meats,
+Composition and Cooking.</p>
+
+<p>46. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 7: Lard and Lard Adulterants.</p>
+
+<p>47. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 193: Cooking of Meats as Affecting Digestibility.</p>
+
+<p>48. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 141: Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. See also
+Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 102: Losses in Cooking Meats.</p>
+
+<p>49. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 66: Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin.</p>
+
+<p>50. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 162: The Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of
+Meats.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>51. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 10: Preserved Meats.</p>
+
+<p>52. <span class="smcap">Richardson, W. D.</span>, Journal of the American Chemical
+Society, December, 1907: The Occurrence of Nitrates in Vegetable Foods,
+in Cured Meats, and Elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>53. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 182: Poultry as Food.</p>
+
+<p>54. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 85: Fish as
+Food.</p>
+
+<p>55. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, Experiment
+Station Work: Digestibility of Fish and Poultry.</p>
+
+<p>56. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 249: Cereal
+Breakfast Foods.</p>
+
+<p>57. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+50: Composition of Maize.</p>
+
+<p>58. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 305: Gluten Flour and Similar Foods.</p>
+
+<p>59. <span class="smcap">Hammerston</span>: Physiological Chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>60. <span class="smcap">Edgar</span>: The Wheat Berry.</p>
+
+<p>61. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 90: Composition and Value
+of Grains.</p>
+
+<p>62. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 101: Bread and Bread Making.</p>
+
+<p>63. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 156: Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and
+Macaroni Flour.</p>
+
+<p>64. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 67: Bread and Bread Making.</p>
+
+<p>65. University of Nebraska Bulletin No. 102: The Effect of Bleaching
+upon the Quality of Wheat Flour.</p>
+
+<p>66. <span class="smcap">Snyder</span>: Wheat Flour and Bread.</p>
+
+<p>67. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 126: Bread and Bread Making.</p>
+
+<p>68. <span class="smcap">Lawes and Gilbert</span>: Experiments on Some Points in the
+Composition of the Wheat Grain, of the Product in the Mill and Bread.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>69. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 5: Baking Powders.</p>
+
+<p>70. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 2: Spices and Condiments.</p>
+
+<p>71. Food Standards: U. S. Department of Agriculture. See Annual Reports
+of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.</p>
+
+<p>72. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 21: Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry
+and Economy of Foods.</p>
+
+<p>73. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 7: Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Preparations.</p>
+
+<p>74. The Respiration Calorimeter: Year-book U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, 1904.</p>
+
+<p>75. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: Cost of Food as
+Related to its Nutritive Value.</p>
+
+<p>76. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletins Nos. 82, 71, 129, 116, 37, 55, 150. See also other bulletins
+of the Office of Experiment Stations.</p>
+
+<p>77. <span class="smcap">Chittenden</span>: Physiological Economy in Nutrition.</p>
+
+<p>78. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 98: Effect of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Work on Food
+Consumption.</p>
+
+<p>79. <span class="smcap">Henry</span>: Feeds and Feeding.</p>
+
+<p>80. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations:
+Dietary Studies in Chicago Bulletin No. 55.</p>
+
+<p>81. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 116: Dietary Studies in New York City.</p>
+
+<p>82. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 119: Banana
+Flour.</p>
+
+<p>83. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 159: Digest of Japanese Investigations on the Nutrition of
+Man.</p>
+
+<p>84. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 150: Dietary Studies at the Government Hospital for the
+Insane, Washington, D.C.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>85. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 149: Studies on the Food of Maine Lumbermen.</p>
+
+<p>86. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 143: Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of
+Bread at the Maine Experiment Station.</p>
+
+<p>87. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations,
+Experiment Station Work, Vol. III: Wells and Pure Water.</p>
+
+<p>88. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 88: Pure
+Water on the Farm.</p>
+
+<p>89 Mineral Impurities in Water. See various bulletins of the California
+and New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Stations.</p>
+
+<p>90. <span class="smcap">Mason</span>: Examination of Water.</p>
+
+<p>91. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey: The Quality of
+Surface Waters in Minnesota.</p>
+
+<p>92. <span class="smcap">Fuertes</span>: Water and Public Health.</p>
+
+<p>93. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 124:
+Distilled Drinking Water.</p>
+
+<p>94. <span class="smcap">Turneaure and Russell</span>: Public Water Supplies.</p>
+
+<p>95. <span class="smcap">Vaughan and Novy</span>: Ptomains and Lencomains.</p>
+
+<p>96. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Circular No.
+71: House Flies.</p>
+
+<p>97. <span class="smcap">Ellen H. Richards and S. Maria Elliott</span>: The Chemistry of
+Cooking and Cleaning.</p>
+
+<p>98. Dr. <span class="smcap">Woods Hutchinson</span>, <i>Saturday Evening Post</i>, 1908: The
+Real Angels of the House.</p>
+
+<p>99. <span class="smcap">Harrington</span>: Practical Hygiene.</p>
+
+<p>100. <span class="smcap">Price</span>: Handbook of Sanitation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Air, infection from impure, <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pure, disinfectant, <a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Albuminoids, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alkaloids, <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Allspice, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Almonds, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alum baking powder, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amids and Amines, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Animal and vegetable foods, economy of, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Animal foods, digestibility of, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apparatus used in experiments, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apples, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pectose from, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ash, of foods, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">elements of plants, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Asparagus, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Available energy, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nutrients, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bacteria in food, <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baking powder, composition of, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cream of tartar, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">phosphates, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">alum, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">inspection of, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fillers, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">home-made, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing for alum, <a href='#Page_315'><b>315</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing for ammonia, <a href='#Page_316'><b>316</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing for phosphoric acid, <a href='#Page_316'><b>316</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baking tests, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153-314</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barley preparations, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beans, composition, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">removal of skins, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">string, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beef, <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">extracts, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beets, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beverages, composition, <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bleaching of flour, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolting cloth, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bread and bread making, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158-185</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">leavened and unleavened bread, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">chemical changes during making, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">losses during bread making, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of carbon dioxide, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of alcohol, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of soluble carbohydrates, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of acids, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of volatile compounds, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of volatile nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">wheat proteids, part taken by, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oxidation of fat, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">starch, influence of, addition of, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of bread, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">temperature of flour, <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of skim milk, <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">process of bread making, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility of bread, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">graham bread, use in the dietary, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">white and graham bread compared, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mineral content of, <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">new and old, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">action of heat on, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">different kinds of, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Breakfast foods, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121-132</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Broth, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Butter, composition, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">coloring, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">renovated, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">water in, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buttermilk, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabbage, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Candies, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canned meats, <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">vegetables, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">peas, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carbohydrates defined, <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carrots, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cauliflower, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cellars, storage of food in, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cellulose and properties, <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cereals, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121-132</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">preparation of, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cost of, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">value of, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">corn preparations, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oat preparations, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">wheat preparations, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">barley preparations, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">rice preparations, <a href='#Page_129'><b>129</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">predigested, <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">phosphates in, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mineral matters of, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">coffees, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cesspools, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheese, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92-96</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">general composition, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_93'><b>93</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cottage, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">different kinds of, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemical changes during cooking, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27-30</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemicals, use of, in preparation of foods permitted, <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chestnuts, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicory, detection in coffee, <a href='#Page_319'><b>319</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chocolate, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cinnamon and cassia, <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cloves, <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coal tar dyes, testing for, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cocoa, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cocoanuts, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee, composition of, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">detection of chicory in, <a href='#Page_319'><b>319</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">glazing of, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">substitutes, cereal, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">types of, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Combustion of foods, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cooking, changes during, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">chemical, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27-30</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">physical, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30-32</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">bacteriological, <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corn, sweet, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">preparations, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cream, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cream of tartar, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crude fiber of foods, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crude protein, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cucumbers, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dairy products, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80-97</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dextrose, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dietary standards, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dietary studies, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244-260</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">object of, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mixed, desirable, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of families compared, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in public institutions, <a href='#Page_259'><b>259</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Digestibility of foods, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of animal foods, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of vegetable foods, <a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Digestion, combination of foods, <a href='#Page_223'><b>223</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">factors influencing, <a href='#Page_223'><b>223</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">amount of food, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">method of preparation of food, <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mechanical condition of foods, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">psychological factors, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">individuality, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Digestion and health, <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dishcloth, unclean, <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Disinfectants, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drying of foods, <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dry matter, <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egg plant, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eggs, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114-118</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cooking of, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Elements in foods, <a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Energy, available, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Energy value of rations, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entire wheat, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Essential oils, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">occurrence, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Esthetic value of foods, <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fat, occurrence in food, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_13'><b>13</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">physical properties, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">individual fats, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oxidation of, during bread making, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferments, soluble, <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">insoluble, <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Figs, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fish, <a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flavoring extracts, <a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flavors, composition of, <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">occurrence of, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flies, contamination of food by, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foods, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility of, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mechanical condition of, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">palatability of, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">physiological properties of, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ash of, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">predigested, <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sodium chloride in, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cost of, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">market price and nutritive value, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231-234</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_234'><b>234-263</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comparative nutritive value, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">economy of production, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">habits, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">notions, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">relation to mental and physical vigor, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">amount consumed, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">injurious compounds in, <a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">contamination of, <a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a>, <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sanitary inspection of, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">storage in cellars, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">infection from impure air, <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">utensils for storage, <a href='#Page_291'><b>291</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">raw, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cheap and expensive, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fruits, composition of, <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dried, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned and adulterated, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fruit extracts, <a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fruit flavors, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ginger, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gliadin, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gluten, addition of, to flour, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">moist and dry, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gluten properties of flour, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Graham bread, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use in dietary, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Graham flour, <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grape fruit, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grapes, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Heat, action on foods, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hickory nuts, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honey, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ice, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inspection of food, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inversion of sugar, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kitchen refuse, <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Koumiss, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laboratory practice, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lard, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">substitutes, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legumes, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71-76</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lemon extract, testing, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lemons, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">acidity of, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lettuce, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Macaroni flour, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mace, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malted foods, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maple sugar, <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meals, number of, per day, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Measuring, directions for, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meat broth, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meats, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98-120</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">general composition, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">proteids of, <a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fat of, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">water of, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">texture of, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cooking of, influence of, on composition, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">extractive materials, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">smoked, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">boric acid in, <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">saltpeter in, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned, <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Melons, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Microscope, use of, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milk, importance in dietary, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">general composition, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">souring of, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">condensed, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_81'><b>81</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sanitary condition, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">certified milk, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pasteurized, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">color of, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">preservatives in, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">goat's, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">human, <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">prepared, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">formaldehyde in, <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mineral matter, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in ration, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mineral waters, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Miscellaneous compounds, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mixed nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mixed non-nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moisture content of foods, variations in, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moisture in foods, how determined, <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Molasses, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mustard, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing for turmeric, <a href='#Page_318'><b>318</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mutton, <a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nitrates in foods, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nitrites in foods, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nitrogen free extract, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">defined, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">how determined, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">variable character of, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">general composition, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Non-nitrogenous compounds, classification of, <a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nutmeg, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nutrients, available, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nutritive value of nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">starch, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sugar, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nitrogen free extract, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fat, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">protein, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">amids, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuts, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76-79</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oat preparations, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oleomargarine, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">detecting, <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olive oil, testing, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olives, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Onions, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oranges, <a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organic acids, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">occurrence in foods, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">influence on digestion, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use in plant economy, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production during germination, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organic compounds, classification of, <a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organic matter, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oysters, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palatability of food, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parsnips, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peaches, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peanuts, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fat from, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peas, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pectose substances, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pepper, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phosphate baking powders, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physical changes during cooking, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physiological properties of foods, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pistachio, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plumbing, sanitary, <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plums, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pork, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Potatoes, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nutritive value, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sweet, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Poultry, <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Predigested foods, <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protein, composition of, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">properties of, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">combinations of, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">types of, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">crude, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value of, <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">amount of, in ration, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Psychological factors in digestion, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pumpkins, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rational feeding of man, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261-267</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rations, wide and narrow, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">standard, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">object of, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">examples of, <a href='#Page_264'><b>264</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">requisites of, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">protein requirements of, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">energy value of, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">References, <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Refrigeration, <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Refuse, disposal of, <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renovated butter, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Review questions, <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rice preparations, <a href='#Page_129'><b>129</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saccharine, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saltpeter in meats, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sanitary condition of vegetables, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sanitary inspection of food, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sausage, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sodium chloride in foods, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soil, sanitary condition of, <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spices, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spinach, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Squash, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Starch, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">occurrence, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">properties, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">influence of heat on, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Strawberries, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sugar, defined, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">beet, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cane, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">commercial grades, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">manufacture of, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sulphur in, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility of, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">value of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_63'><b>63</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">maple, <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dextrose, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sunlight as a disinfectant, <a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sweet potatoes, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Syrups, <a href='#Page_66'><b>66</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sorghum, <a href='#Page_66'><b>66</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tea, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203-206</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">black, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">green, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">judging of, <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">physiological properties of, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">examination of leaves, <a href='#Page_318'><b>318</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Toast, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tomatoes, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Underfed families, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vanilla extract, testing, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Veal, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vegetable foods, <a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vegetables, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37-47</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">edible portion, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sanitary condition of, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility of, <a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vinegar, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193-197</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">preparation of, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">different kinds of, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">solids, <a href='#Page_316'><b>316</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">specific gravity, <a href='#Page_317'><b>317</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">acidity, <a href='#Page_317'><b>317</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volatile matter, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Water, drinking, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268-283</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">importance, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">impurities in, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mineral impurities, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">organic impurities, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">purification of, <a href='#Page_272'><b>272-278</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">analysis, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">and typhoid fever, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">improvement of, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">boiling of, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">filtration of, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">distillation of, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">materials for softening water, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing purity of, <a href='#Page_320'><b>320</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Water in foods, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">how determined, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Water supply, economic value, <a href='#Page_282'><b>282</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Waters, mineral, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weighing, directions for, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wheat cereal preparations, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wheat flour, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">spring and winter wheat flour, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">starchy and glutenous, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">process of milling, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136-140</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">patent, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">grades of, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ash content, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">graham, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">entire wheat, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">by-products, <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">aging and curing, <a href='#Page_147'><b>147</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">macaroni, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">color, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">granulation, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">capacity to absorb water, <a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">gluten, properties of, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">unsoundness of, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">baking tests, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">bleaching of, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nutritive value of, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">water in, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ash in, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">acidity of, <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">moist and dry gluten, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>.</span><br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yeast, action of, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">compressed, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dry, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="By_HARRY_SNYDER_BS" id="By_HARRY_SNYDER_BS"></a><span class="smcap">By</span> HARRY SNYDER, B.S.</h2>
+
+<blockquote><h4>Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Minnesota, and
+Chemist of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station</h4></blockquote>
+
+<h3><b>The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life</b></h3>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. 406 pages. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p>
+
+<p>"The language is, as it should be, plain and simple, free from all
+needless technicality, and the story thus told is of absorbing interest
+to every one, man or woman, boy or girl, who takes an intelligent
+interest in farm life."&mdash;<i>The New England Farmer.</i></p>
+
+<p>"Although the book is highly technical, it is put in popular form and
+made comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer; it deals largely
+with those questions which arise in his experience, and will prove an
+invaluable aid in countless directions."&mdash;<i>The Farmer's Voice.</i></p>
+
+
+<h3><b>Dairy Chemistry</b></h3>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Illustrated, 190 pages, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10</i></p>
+
+<p>"The book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer, or, indeed, any one
+handling stock, may read with profit."&mdash;<i>Rural New Yorker.</i></p>
+
+
+<h3><b>Soils and Fertilizers</b></h3>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Third Edition. Illustrated. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.38</i></p>
+
+<p>A book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil fertility
+and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as outlined by the
+Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture. It contains 350 pages,
+with illustrations, and treats of a great variety of subjects, such as
+Physical Properties of Soils; Geological Formation, etc.; Nitrogen of
+the Soil and Air; Farm Manures; Commercial Fertilizers, several
+chapters; Rotation of Crops; Preparation of Soil for Crops, etc.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><b>BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE</b></h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON SELECTION OF LAND, Etc.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Thomas F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm</td><td align='right'>$1 75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>E. W. Hilgard's Soils: Their Formation and Relations to Climate and Plant Growth</td><td align='right'>4 00 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Isaac P. Roberts's The Farmstead</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON TILLAGE, Etc.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>F. H. King's The Soil</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Isaac P. Roberts's The Fertility of the Land</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>William E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Edward B. Voorhees's Fertilizers</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Edward B. Voorhees's Forage Crops</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>H. Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>H. Snyder's Soil and Fertilizers. Third edition</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>W. C. Welborn's Elements of Agriculture, Southern and Western</td><td align='right'>75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>J. F. Duggar's Agriculture for Southern Schools</td><td align='right'>75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>G. F. Warren's Elements of Agriculture</td><td align='right'>1 10 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>T. L. Lyon and E. O. Fippin's The Principles of Soil Management</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hilgard &amp; Osterhout's Agriculture for Schools on the Pacific Slope</td><td align='right'>1 00 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON GARDEN-MAKING</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Manual of Gardening</td><td align='right'>2 00 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Horticulturist's Rule Book</td><td align='right'>75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A. French's How to Grow Vegetables</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON FRUIT-GROWING, Etc.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>F. W. Card's Bush Fruits</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>J. T. Bealby's Fruit Ranching in British Columbia</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON THE CARE OF LIVE STOCK</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>D. E. Lyon's How to Keep Bees for Profit</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I. P. Roberts's The Horse</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>George C. Watson's Farm Poultry</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>C. S. Valentine's How to Keep Hens for Profit</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>O. Kellner's The Scientific Feeding of Animals (trans.)</td><td align='right'>1 90 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>M. H. Reynolds's Veterinary Studies for Agricultural Students</td><td align='right'>1 75 net<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON DAIRY WORK</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Henry H. Wing's Milk and its Products</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>C. M. Aikman's Milk</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry</td><td align='right'>1 00 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>W. D. Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary Bacteriology</td><td align='right'>1 60 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I. P. Sheldon's The Farm and the Dairy</td><td align='right'>1 00 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chr. Barthel's Methods Used in the Examination of Milk and Dairy Products</td><td align='right'>1 90 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON PLANT DISEASES, Etc.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>George Massee's Diseases of Cultivated Plants and Trees</td><td align='right'>2 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>J. G. Lipman's Bacteria in Relation to Country Life</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>H. M. Ward's Disease in Plants (English)</td><td align='right'>1 60 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A. S. Packard's A Text-book on Entomology</td><td align='right'>4 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON PRODUCTION OF NEW PLANTS</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Plant-Breeding</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike</td><td align='right'>2 00 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits</td><td align='right'>2 00 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>J. B. Green's Law for the American Farmer</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>J. McLennan's Manual of Practical Farming</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I. P. Roberts's The Farmer's Business Handbook</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>S. E. Sparling's Business Organization</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In the Citizen's Library. Includes a chapter on Farming</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Kate V. St. Maur's A Self-supporting Home</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Kate V. St. Maur's The Earth's Bounty.</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>G. F. Warren and K. C. Livermore's Exercises in Farm Management</td><td align='right'>80 net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>ON EVERYTHING AGRICULTURAL</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. II. Farm Crops.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. III. Farm Animals.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community.</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class='center'>Complete in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2000 illustrations.<br />
+Price of sets: cloth, $20 net; half morocco, $32 net.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>For further information as to any of the above, address the
+publishers.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>Cyclopedia of American Agriculture</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Edited by</span> L. H. BAILEY</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class='center'>Of Cornell University, Editor of "Cyclopedia of American
+Horticulture," Author of "Plant Breeding," "Principles of
+Agriculture," etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><h4>WITH 100 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND MORE THAN 2000 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE
+TEXT&mdash;FOUR VOLUMES&mdash;THE SET: CLOTH, $20 NET&mdash;HALF MOROCCO, $32
+NET&mdash;CARRIAGE EXTRA</h4></div>
+
+
+<p>Volume I&mdash;<span class="smcap">Farms</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Agricultural Regions&mdash;The Projecting of a Farm&mdash;The Soil
+Environment&mdash;The Atmosphere Environment.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Volume II&mdash;<span class="smcap">Crops</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Plant and Its Relations&mdash;The Manufacture of Crop Products&mdash;North
+American Field Crops.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Volume III&mdash;<span class="smcap">Animals</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Animal and Its Relations&mdash;The Manufacture of Animal Products&mdash;North
+American Farm Animals.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Volume IV&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Farm and the Community</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Economics&mdash;Social Questions&mdash;Organizations&mdash;History&mdash;Literature, etc.</p>
+
+<p>"Indispensable to public and reference libraries ... readily
+comprehensible to any person of average education."&mdash;<i>The Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p>"The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on
+modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must pass
+before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, practical
+value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every library in the
+country."&mdash;<i>Record Herald</i>, Chicago.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p class='center'>PUBLISHED BY<br />
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
+
+64 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 20871-h.txt or 20871-h.zip *******</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value, by
+Harry Snyder
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value
+
+
+Author: Harry Snyder
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 22, 2007  [eBook #20871]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE
+VALUE***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 20871-h.htm or 20871-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/8/7/20871/20871-h/20871-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/8/7/20871/20871-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcribers note:
+
+      In this text, subscripted numbers are represented thus: _{12}
+
+
+
+
+
+HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE
+
+by
+
+HARRY SNYDER, B.S.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+The MacMillan Company
+1914
+All rights reserved
+Copyright, 1908,
+by the MacMillan Company.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1908. Reprinted
+October, 1909; September, 1910; February, 1911; September, 1912;
+May, December, 1913; June, 1914.
+
+Norwood Press
+J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Since 1897 instruction has been given at the University of Minnesota,
+College of Agriculture, on human foods and their nutritive value. With
+the development of the work, need has been felt for a text-book
+presenting in concise form the composition and physical properties of
+foods, and discussing some of the main factors which affect their
+nutritive value. To meet the need, this book has been prepared,
+primarily for the author's classroom. It aims to present some of the
+principles of human nutrition along with a study of the more common
+articles of food. It is believed that a better understanding of the
+subject of nutrition will suggest ways in which foods may be selected
+and utilized more intelligently, resulting not only in pecuniary saving,
+but also in greater efficiency of physical and mental effort.
+
+Prominence is given in this work to those foods, as flour, bread,
+cereals, vegetables, meats, milk, dairy products, and fruits, that are
+most extensively used in the dietary, and to some of the physical,
+chemical, and bacteriological changes affecting digestibility and
+nutritive value which take place during their preparation for the table.
+Dietary studies, comparative cost and value of foods, rational feeding
+of men, and experiments and laboratory practice form features of the
+work. Some closely related topics, largely of a sanitary nature, as the
+effect upon food of household sanitation and storage, are also briefly
+discussed. References are given in case more extended information is
+desired on some of the subjects treated. While this book was prepared
+mainly for students who have taken a course in general chemistry, it has
+been the intention to present the topics in such a way as to be
+understood by the layman also.
+
+This work completes a series of text-books undertaken by the author
+over ten years ago, dealing with agricultural and industrial subjects:
+"Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life," "Dairy Chemistry," "Soils and
+Fertilizers," and "Human Foods and their Nutritive Value." It has been
+the aim in preparing these books to avoid as far as possible repetition,
+but at the same time to make each work sufficiently complete to permit
+its use as a text independent of the series.
+
+One of the greatest uses that science can serve is in its application to
+the household and the everyday affairs of life. Too little attention is
+generally bestowed upon the study of foods in schools and colleges, and
+the author sincerely hopes the time will soon come when more prominence
+will be given to this subject, which is the oldest, most important, most
+neglected, and least understood of any that have a direct bearing upon
+the welfare of man.
+
+  HARRY SNYDER.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I
+                                                   PAGE
+  GENERAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS                        1
+
+  Water; Dry Matter; Variations in Weight of Foods;
+  Ash; Function of Ash in Plant Life; Organic Matter;
+  Products of Combustion of Organic Matter; Classification
+  of Organic Compounds; Non-nitrogenous Compounds;
+  Carbohydrates; Cellulose; Amount of Cellulose in Foods;
+  Crude Fiber; Starch; Microscopic Structure of Starch;
+  Dextrin; Food Value of Starch; Sugar; Pectose Substances;
+  Nitrogen-free-extract; Fats; Fuel Value of Fats;
+  Iodine Number of Fats; Glycerol Content of Fats; Ether
+  Extract and Crude Fat; Organic Acids; Dietetic Value
+  of Organic Acids; Essential Oils; Mixed Compounds;
+  Nutritive Value of Non-nitrogenous Compounds; Nitrogenous
+  Compounds; General Composition; Protein; Sub-divisions
+  of Proteins; Crude Protein; Food Value of
+  Protein; Albuminoids; Amids and Amines; Alkaloids;
+  General Relationship of the Nitrogenous Compounds.
+
+
+  CHAPTER II
+
+  CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND
+  PREPARATION                                        27
+
+  Raw and Cooked Foods compared as to Composition;
+  Chemical Changes during Cooking; General Changes
+  affecting Cellulose, Starch, Sugar, Pectin Bodies, Fats,
+  Proteids; Effect of Chemical Changes on Digestibility;
+  Physical Changes during Cooking; Action of Heat on
+  Animal and Plant Tissues; Amount of Heat required for
+  Cooking; Bacteriological Changes; Insoluble Ferments;
+  Soluble Ferments; Bacterial Action Necessary in Preparation
+  of Some Foods; Injurious Bacterial Action; General
+  Relationship of Chemical, Physical, and Bacteriological
+  Changes; Esthetic Value of Foods; Color of Foods;
+  Natural and Artificial Colors; Conditions under which
+  Use of Chemicals in Preparation of Foods is Justifiable.
+
+
+  CHAPTER III
+
+  VEGETABLE FOODS                                    37
+
+  General Composition; Potatoes; Chemical and Mechanical
+  Composition; Uses of Potatoes in Dietary; Sweet
+  Potatoes; Carrots; Parsnips; Cabbage; Cauliflower;
+  Beets; Cucumbers; Lettuce; Onions; Spinach; Asparagus;
+  Melons; Tomatoes; Sweet Corn; Eggplant;
+  Squash; Celery; Dietetic Value of Vegetables; Nutrient
+  Content of Vegetables; Sanitary Condition of Vegetables;
+  Miscellaneous Compounds in Vegetables; Canned Vegetables;
+  Edible Portion and Refuse of Vegetables.
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+
+  FRUITS, FLAVORS AND EXTRACTS                       48
+
+  General Composition; Food Value; Apples; Oranges;
+  Lemons; Grape Fruit; Strawberries; Grapes; Peaches;
+  Plums; Olives; Figs; Dried Fruits; Uses of Fruit in
+  the Dietary; Canning and Preservation of Fruits; Adulterated
+  Canned Fruits; Fruit Flavors and Extracts; Synthetic
+  Preparation of Flavors.
+
+
+  CHAPTER V
+
+  SUGARS, MOLASSES, SYRUP, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS    58
+
+  Composition of Sugars; Beet Sugar; Cane Sugar;
+  Manufacture of Sugar; Sulphur Dioxid and Indigo, Uses
+  of, in Sugar Manufacture; Commercial Grades of Sugar;
+  Sugar in the Dietary; Maple Sugar; Adulteration of
+  Sugar; Dextrose Sugars; Inversion of Sugars; Molasses;
+  Syrups; Adulteration of Molasses; Sorghum Syrup;
+  Maple Syrup; Analysis of Sugar; Adulteration of Syrups;
+  Honey; Confections; Coloring Matter in Candies; Coal
+  Tar Dyes; Saccharine.
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+
+  LEGUMES AND NUTS                                   71
+
+  General Composition of Legumes; Beans; Digestibility
+  of Beans; Use of Beans in the Dietary; String
+  Beans; Peas; Canned Peas; Peanuts; General Composition
+  of Nuts; Chestnuts; The Hickory Nut; Almonds;
+  Pistachio; Cocoanuts; Uses of Nuts in the Dietary.
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+
+  MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS                            80
+
+  Importance in the Dietary; General Composition; Digestibility;
+  Sanitary Condition of Milk; Certified Milk;
+  Pasteurized Milk; Tyrotoxicon; Color of Milk; Souring
+  of Milk; Use of Preservatives in Milk; Condensed Milk;
+  Skim Milk; Cream; Buttermilk; Goat's Milk; Koumiss;
+  Prepared Milks; Human Milk; Adulteration of Milk;
+  Composition of Butter; Digestibility of Butter; Adulteration
+  of Butter; General Composition of Cheese;
+  Digestibility; Use in the Dietary; Cottage Cheese; Different
+  Kinds of Cheese; Adulteration of Cheese; Dairy
+  Products in the Dietary.
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+
+  MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS                     98
+
+  General Composition; Mineral Matter; Fat; Protein;
+  Non-nitrogenous Compounds; Why Meats vary in Composition;
+  Amides; Albuminoids; Taste and Flavor of
+  Meats; Alkaloidal Bodies in Meats; Ripening of Meats
+  in Cold Storage; Beef; Veal; Mutton; Pork; Lard;
+  Texture and Toughness of Meat; Influence of Cooking
+  upon the Composition of Meats; Beef Extracts; Miscellaneous
+  Meat Products; Pickled Meats; Saltpeter in
+  Meats; Smoked Meats; Poultry; Fish; Oysters, Fattening
+  of; Shell Fish; Eggs, General Composition; Digestibility
+  of Eggs; Use of Eggs in the Dietary; Canned
+  Meats, General Composition.
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX
+
+  CEREALS                                           121
+
+  Preparation and Cost of Cereals; Various Grains used
+  in making Cereal Products; Cleanliness of; Corn Preparations;
+  Corn Flour; Use of Corn in Dietary; Corn Bread;
+  Oat Preparations; Cooking of Oatmeal; Wheat Preparations;
+  Flour Middlings; Breakfast Foods; Digestibility
+  of Wheat Preparations; Barley Preparations; Rice Preparations;
+  Predigested Foods; The Value of Cereals in the
+  Dietary; Phosphate Content of Cereals; Phosphorus Requirements
+  of a Ration; Mechanical Action of Cereals
+  upon Digestion; Cost and Nutritive Value of Cereals.
+
+
+  CHAPTER X
+
+  WHEAT FLOUR                                       133
+
+  Use for Bread Making; Winter and Spring Wheat
+  Flours; Composition of Wheat and Flour; Roller Process
+  of Flour Milling; Grades of Flour; Types of Flour; Composition
+  of Flour; Graham and Entire Wheat Flours;
+  Composition of Wheat Offals; Aging and Curing of Flour;
+  Macaroni Flour; Color; Granulation; Capacity of Flour
+  to absorb Water; Physical Properties of Gluten; Gluten
+  as a Factor in Bread Making; Unsoundness; Comparative
+  Baking Tests; Bleaching; Adulteration of Flour; Nutritive
+  Value of Flour.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI
+
+  BREAD AND BREAD MAKING                            158
+
+  Leavened and Unleavened Bread; Changes during
+  Bread Making; Loss of Dry Matter during Bread Making;
+  Action of Yeast; Compressed Yeast; Dry Yeast; Production
+  of Carbon Dioxid Gas and Alcohol; Production
+  of Soluble Carbohydrates; Production of Acids in Bread
+  Making; Volatile Compounds produced during Bread
+  Making; Behavior of Wheat Proteids in Bread Making;
+  Production of Volatile Nitrogenous Compounds; Oxidation
+  of Fat; Influence of the Addition of Wheat Starch
+  and Gluten to Flour; Composition of Bread; Use of
+  Skim Milk and Lard in Bread Making; Influence of
+  Warm and Cold Flours in Bread Making; Variations in
+  the Process of Bread Making; Digestibility of Bread;
+  Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary; Mineral
+  Content of White Bread; Comparative Digestibility
+  of New and Old Bread; Different Kinds of Bread; Toast.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XII
+
+  BAKING POWDERS                                    186
+
+  General Composition; Cream of Tartar Powders; Residue
+  from Cream of Tartar Baking Powders; Tartaric
+  Acid Powders; Phosphate Baking Powders; Mineral and
+  Organic Phosphates; Phosphate Residue; Alum Baking
+  Powders; Residue from Alum Baking Powders; Objections
+  urged against Alum Powders; Action of Baking
+  Powders and Yeast Compared; Keeping Qualities of
+  Baking Powders; Inspection of Baking Powders; Fillers;
+  Home-made Baking Powders.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIII
+
+  VINEGAR, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS                   193
+
+  Vinegar; Chemical Changes during Manufacture of
+  Vinegar; Ferment Action; Materials used in Preparation
+  of Vinegars; Characteristics of a Good Vinegar; Vinegar
+  Solids; Acidity of Vinegar; Different Kinds of Vinegars;
+  Standards of Purity; Adulteration of Vinegar; Characteristics
+  of Spices; Pepper; Cayenne; Mustard; Ginger;
+  Cinnamon and Cassia; Cloves; Allspice; Nutmeg; Adulteration
+  of Spices and Condiments; Essential Oils of;
+  Uses of Condiments in Preparation of Foods; Action of
+  Condiments upon Digestion; Condiments and Natural
+  Flavors.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIV
+
+  TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA                 203
+
+  Tea; Sources of Tea Supply; Composition of Tea;
+  Black Tea and Green Tea; Judging Teas; Adulteration
+  of Tea; Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea;
+  Composition of Coffee; Adulteration of Coffee; Chicory
+  in Coffee; Glazing of Coffee; Cereal Coffee Substitutes;
+  Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations; Composition of Cocoa;
+  Chocolate; Cocoa Nibs; Plain Chocolate; Sweet Chocolate;
+  Cocoa Butter; Nutritive Value of Cocoa; Adulteration
+  of Chocolate and Cocoa; Comparative Composition
+  of Beverages.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XV
+
+  THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD                         214
+
+  Digestibility, how Determined; Completeness and Ease
+  of Digestion Process; Example of Digestion Experiment;
+  Available Nutrients; Available Energy; Caloric Value of
+  Foods; Normal Digestion and Health; Digestibility of
+  Animal Foods; Digestibility of Vegetable Foods; Factors
+  influencing Digestion; Combination of Foods; Amount
+  of Food; Method of Preparation of Food; Mechanical
+  Condition of Foods; Mastication; Palatability of Foods;
+  Physiological Properties of Foods; Individuality; Psychological
+  Factors.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XVI
+
+  COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS               231
+
+  Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods; How to compare
+  Two Foods as to Nutritive Value; Cheap Foods; Expensive
+  Foods; Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum; Examples;
+  Comparing Nutritive Value of Common Foods
+  at Different Prices; Cost and Value of Nutrients.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XVII
+
+  DIETARY STUDIES                                   244
+
+  Object of Dietary Studies; Wide and Narrow Rations;
+  Dietary Standards; Number of Meals per Day; Mixed
+  Dietary Desirable; Animal and Vegetable Foods;
+  Economy of Production; Food Habits; Underfed Families;
+  Cheap and Expensive Foods; Food Notions;
+  Dietary of Two Families Compared; Food in its Relation
+  to Mental and Physical Vigor; Dietary Studies in Public
+  Institutions.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XVIII
+
+  RATIONAL FEELING OF MAN                           261
+
+  Object; Human and Animal Feeding Compared; Standard
+  Rations; Why Tentative Dietary Standards; Amounts
+  of Food Consumed; Average Composition of Foods;
+  Variations in Composition of Foods; Example of a Ration;
+  Calculations of Balanced Rations; Requisites of a
+  Balanced Ration; Examples; Calculations of Rations for
+  Men at Different Kinds of Labor.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIX
+
+  WATER                                             268
+
+  Importance; Impurities in Water; Mineral Impurities;
+  Organic Impurities; Interpretation of a Water Analysis;
+  Natural Purification of Water; Water in Relation to
+  Health; Improvement of Waters; Boiling of Water; Filtration;
+  Purification of Water by Addition of Chemicals;
+  Ice; Rain Waters; Waters of High and Low Purity;
+  Chemical Changes which Organic Matter of Water Undergoes;
+  Bacterial Content of Water; Mineral Waters;
+  Materials for Softening Water; Uses of; Economic Value
+  of a Pure Water Supply.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XX
+
+  FOOD AS AFFECTED BY HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND
+  STORAGE                                           284
+
+  Injurious Compounds in Foods; Nutrient Content and
+  Sanitary Condition of Food; Sources of Contamination
+  of Food; Unclean Ways of Handling Food; Sanitary Inspection
+  of Food; Infection from Impure Air; Storage
+  of Food in Cellars; Respiration of Vegetable Cells; Sunlight,
+  Pure Water, and Pure Air as Disinfectants; Foods
+  contaminated from Leaky Plumbing; Utensils for Storage
+  of Food; Contamination from Unclean Dishcloths; Refrigeration;
+  Chemical Changes that take Place in the
+  Refrigerator; Soil; Disposal of Kitchen Refuse; Germ
+  Diseases spread by Unsanitary Conditions around Dwellings
+  due to Contamination of Food; General Considerations;
+  Relation of Food to Health.
+
+
+  CHAPTER XXI
+
+  LABORATORY PRACTICE                               299
+
+  Object of Laboratory Practice; Laboratory Note-book
+  and Suggestions for Laboratory Practice; List of Apparatus
+  Used; Photograph of Apparatus Used; Directions
+  for Weighing; Directions for Measuring; Use of Microscope;
+  Water in Flour; Water in Butter; Ash in Flour;
+  Nitric Acid Test for Nitrogenous Organic Matter; Acidity
+  of Lemons; Influence of Heat on Potato Starch Grains;
+  Influence of Yeast on Starch Grains; Mechanical Composition
+  of Potatoes; Pectose from Apples; Lemon Extract;
+  Vanilla Extract; Testing Olive Oil for Cotton Seed Oil;
+  Testing for Coal Tar Dyes; Determining the Per Cent of
+  Skin in Beans; Extraction of Fat from Peanuts; Microscopic
+  Examination of Milk; Formaldehyde in Cream or
+  Milk; Gelatine in Cream or Milk; Testing for Oleomargarine;
+  Testing for Watering or Skimming of Milk; Boric
+  Acid in Meat; Microscopic Examination of Cereal Starch
+  Grains; Identification of Commercial Cereals; Granulation
+  and Color of Flour; Capacity of Flour to absorb
+  Water; Acidity of Flour; Moist and Dry Gluten; Gliadin
+  from Flour; Bread-making Test; Microscopic Examination
+  of Yeast; Testing Baking Powders for Alum; Testing
+  Baking Powders for Phosphoric Acid; Testing Baking
+  Powders for Ammonia; Vinegar Solids; Specific Gravity
+  of Vinegar; Acidity of Vinegar; Deportment of Vinegar
+  with Reagents; Testing Mustard for Turmeric; Examination
+  of Tea Leaves; Action of Iron Compounds upon
+  Tannic Acid; Identification of Coffee Berries; Detecting
+  Chicory in Coffee; Comparative Amounts of Soap Necessary
+  with Hard and Soft Water; Solvent Action of Water
+  on Lead; Suspended Matter in Water; Organic Matter
+  in Water; Deposition of Lime by Boiling Water; Qualitative
+  Tests for Minerals in Water; Testing for Nitrites
+  in Water.
+
+  REVIEW QUESTIONS                                  323
+
+  REFERENCES                                        350
+
+  INDEX                                             357
+
+
+
+
+HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GENERAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS
+
+
+1. Water.--All foods contain water. Vegetables in their natural
+condition contain large amounts, often 95 per cent, while in meats there
+is from 40 to 60 per cent or more. Prepared cereal products, as flour,
+corn meal, and oatmeal, which are apparently dry, have from 7 to 14 per
+cent. In general the amount of water in a food varies with the
+mechanical structure and the conditions under which it has been
+prepared, and is an important factor in estimating the value, as the
+nutrients are often greatly decreased because of large amounts of water.
+The water in substances as flour and meal is mechanically held in
+combination with the fine particles and varies with the moisture
+content, or hydroscopicity, of the air. Oftentimes foods gain or lose
+water to such an extent as to affect their weight; for example, one
+hundred pounds of flour containing 12 per cent of water may be reduced
+in weight three pounds or more when stored in a dry place, or there may
+be an increase in weight from being stored in a damp place. In tables
+of analyses the results, unless otherwise stated, are usually given on
+the basis of the original material, or the dry substance. Potatoes, for
+example, contain 2-1/2 per cent of crude protein on the basis of 75 per
+cent of water; or on a dry matter basis, that is, when the water is
+entirely eliminated, there is 10 per cent of protein.
+
+The water of foods is determined by drying the weighed material in a
+water or air oven at a temperature of about 100 deg. C, until all of the
+moisture has been expelled in the form of steam, leaving the dry matter
+or material free from water.[1] The determination of dry matter, while
+theoretically a simple process, is attended with many difficulties.
+Substances which contain much fat may undergo oxidation during drying;
+volatile compounds, as essential oils, are expelled along with the
+moisture; and other changes may occur affecting the accuracy of the
+work. The last traces of moisture are removed with difficulty from a
+substance, being mechanically retained by the particles with great
+tenacity. When very accurate dry matter determinations are desired, the
+substance is dried in a vacuum oven, or in a desiccator over sulphuric
+acid, or in an atmosphere of some non-oxidizing gas, as hydrogen.
+
+
+2. Dry Matter.--The dry matter of a food is a mechanical mixture of
+the various compounds, as starch, sugar, fat, protein, cellulose, and
+mineral matter, and is obtained by drying the material. Succulent
+vegetable foods with 95 per cent of water contain only 5 per cent of
+dry matter, while in flour with 12 per cent of water there is 88 per
+cent, and in sugar 99 per cent. The dry matter is obtained by
+subtracting the per cent of water from 100, and in foods it varies from
+5 per cent and less in some vegetables to 99 per cent in sugar.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS USED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF DRY
+MATTER AND ASH IN FOODS.
+
+1, desiccator; 2, muffle furnace for combustion of foods and obtaining
+ash; 3, water oven for drying food materials.]
+
+
+3. Ash.--The ash, or mineral matter, is that portion obtained by
+burning or igniting the dry matter at the lowest temperature necessary
+for complete combustion. The ash in vegetable foods ranges from 2 to 5
+per cent and, together with the nitrogen, represents what was taken from
+the soil during growth. In animal bodies, the ash is present mainly in
+the bones, but there is also an appreciable amount, one per cent or
+more, in all the tissues. Ash is exceedingly variable in composition,
+being composed of the various salts of potassium, sodium, calcium,
+magnesium, and iron, as sulphates, phosphates, chlorides, and silicates
+of these elements. There are also other elements in small amounts. In
+the plant economy these elements take an essential part and are
+requisite for the formation of plant tissue and the production in the
+leaves of the organic compounds which later are stored up in the seeds.
+Some of the elements appear to be more necessary than others, and
+whenever withheld plant growth is restricted. The elements most
+essential for plant growth are potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron,
+phosphorus, and sulphur.[1]
+
+In the animal body minerals are derived, either directly or indirectly,
+from the vegetable foods consumed. The part which each of the mineral
+elements takes in animal nutrition is not well understood. Some of the
+elements, as phosphorus and sulphur, are in organic combination with the
+nitrogenous compounds, as the nucleated albuminoids, which are very
+essential for animal life. In both plant and animal bodies, the mineral
+matter is present as mineral salts and organic combinations. It is held
+that the ash elements which are in organic combination are the forms
+mainly utilized for tissue construction. While it is not known just what
+part all the mineral elements take in animal nutrition, experiments show
+that in all ordinary mixed rations the amount of the different mineral
+elements is in excess of the demands of the body, and it is only in rare
+instances, as in cases of restricted diet, or convalescence from some
+disease, that special attention need be given to increasing the mineral
+content of the ration. An excess of mineral matter in foods is equally
+as objectionable as a scant amount, elimination of the excess entailing
+additional work on the body.
+
+The composition of the ash of different food materials varies widely,
+both in amount, and form of the individual elements. When for any reason
+it is necessary to increase the phosphates in a ration, milk and eggs do
+this to a greater extent than almost any other foods. Common salt, or
+sodium chloride, is one of the most essential of the mineral
+constituents of the body. It is necessary for giving the blood its
+normal composition, furnishing acid and basic constituents for the
+production of the digestive fluids, and for the nutrition of the cells.
+While salt is a necessary food, in large amounts, as when the attempt is
+made to use sea water as a beverage, it acts as a poison, suggesting
+that a material may be both a food and a poison. When sodium chloride is
+entirely withheld from an animal, death from salt starvation ensues.
+Many foods contain naturally small amounts of sodium chloride.
+
+
+4. Organic Matter.--That portion of a food material which is converted
+into gaseous or volatile products during combustion is called the
+organic matter. It is a mechanical mixture of compounds made up of
+carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur, and is composed of
+various individual organic compounds, as cellulose, starch, sugar,
+albumin, and fat. The amount in a food is determined by subtracting the
+ash and water from 100. The organic matter varies widely in composition;
+in some foods it is largely starch, as in potatoes and rice, while in
+others, as forage crops consumed by animals, cellulose predominates. The
+nature of the prevailing organic compound, as sugar or starch,
+determines the nutritive value of a food. Each has a definite chemical
+composition capable of being expressed by a formula. Considered
+collectively, the organic compounds are termed organic matter. When
+burned, the organic compounds are converted into gases, the carbon
+uniting with the oxygen of the air to form carbon dioxide, hydrogen to
+form water, sulphur to form sulphur dioxide, and the nitrogen to form
+oxides of nitrogen and ammonia.
+
+
+5. Classification of Organic Compounds.--All food materials are
+composed of a large number of organic compounds. For purposes of study
+these are divided into classes. The element nitrogen is taken as the
+basis of the division. Compounds which contain this element are called
+nitrogenous, while those from which it is absent are called
+non-nitrogenous.[2] The nitrogenous organic compounds are composed of
+the elements nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and sulphur, while the
+non-nitrogenous compounds are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
+In vegetable foods the non-nitrogenous compounds predominate, there
+being usually from six to twelve parts of non-nitrogenous to every one
+part of nitrogenous, while in animal foods the nitrogenous compounds are
+present in larger amount.
+
+
+NON-NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS
+
+6. Occurrence.--The non-nitrogenous compounds of foods consist mainly
+of cellulose, starch, sugar, and fat. For purposes of study, they are
+divided into subdivisions, as carbohydrates, pectose substances or
+jellies, fats, organic acids, essential oils, and mixed compounds. In
+plants the carbohydrates predominate, while in animal tissue the fats
+are the chief non-nitrogenous constituents.
+
+
+7. Carbohydrates.--This term is applied to a class of compounds
+similar in general composition, but differing widely in structural
+composition and physical properties. Carbohydrates make up the bulk of
+vegetable foods and, except in milk, are found only in traces in animal
+foods. They are all represented by the general formula CH_2n_2n, there
+being twice as many hydrogen as oxygen atoms, the hydrogen and oxygen
+being present in the same proportion as in water. As a class, the
+carbohydrates are neutral bodies, and, when burned, form carbon dioxide
+and water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF PLANT CELL.]
+
+8. Cellulose is the basis of the cell structure of plants, and is
+found in various physical forms in food materials.[3] Sometimes it is
+hard and dense, resisting digestive action and mechanically inclosing
+other nutrients and thus preventing their being available as food. In
+the earlier stages of plant growth a part of the cellulose is in
+chemical combination with water, forming hydrated cellulose, a portion
+of which undergoes digestion and produces heat and energy in the body.
+Ordinarily, however, cellulose adds but little in the way of nutritive
+value, although it is often beneficial mechanically and imparts bulk to
+some foods otherwise too concentrated. The mechanical action of
+cellulose on the digestion of food is discussed in Chapter XV.
+Cellulose usually makes up a very small part of human food, less than 1
+per cent. In refined white flour there is less than .05 of a per cent;
+in oatmeal and cereal products from .5 to 1 per cent, depending upon the
+extent to which the hulls are removed, and in vegetable foods from .1 to
+1 per cent. The cellulose content of foods is included in the crude
+fiber of the chemist's report.
+
+9. Starch occurs widely distributed in nature, particularly in the
+seeds, roots, and tubers of some plants. It is formed in the leaves of
+plants as a result of the joint action of chlorophyll and protoplasm,
+and is generally held by plant physiologists to be the first
+carbohydrate produced in the plant cell. Starch is composed of a number
+of overlapping layers separated by starch cellulose; between these
+layers the true starch or amylose is found. Starch from the various
+cereals and vegetables differs widely in mechanical structure; in wheat
+it is circular, in corn somewhat angular, and in parsnips exceedingly
+small, while potato starch granules are among the largest.[4] The nature
+of starch can be determined largely from its mechanical structure as
+studied under the microscope. It is insoluble in cold water because of
+the protecting action of the cellular layer, but on being heated it
+undergoes both mechanical and chemical changes; the grains are partially
+ruptured by pressure due to the conversion into steam of the moisture
+held mechanically. The cooking of foods is beneficial from a mechanical
+point of view, as it results in partial disintegration of the starch
+masses, changing the structure so that the starch is more readily acted
+upon by the ferments of the digestive tract. At a temperature of about
+120 deg. C. starch begins to undergo chemical change, resulting in the
+rearrangement of the atoms in the molecule with the production of
+dextrine and soluble carbohydrates. Dextrine is formed on the crust of
+bread, or whenever potatoes or starchy foods are browned. At a still
+higher temperature starch is decomposed, with the liberation of water
+and production of compounds of higher carbon content. When heated in
+contact with water, it undergoes hydration changes; gelatinous-like
+products are formed, which are finally converted into a soluble
+condition. In cooking cereals, the hydration of the starch is one of the
+main physical and chemical changes that takes place, and it simply
+results in converting the material into such a form that other chemical
+changes may more readily occur. Before starch becomes dextrose,
+hydration is necessary. If this is accomplished by cooking, it saves the
+body just so much energy in digestion. Many foods owe their value
+largely to the starch. In cereals it is found to the extent of 72 to 76
+per cent; in rice and potatoes in still larger amounts; and it is the
+chief constituent of many vegetables. When starch is digested, it is
+first changed to a soluble form and then gradually undergoes oxidation,
+resulting in the production of heat and energy, the same
+products--carbon dioxide and water--being formed as when starch is
+burned. Starch is a valuable heat-producing nutrient; a pound yields
+1860 calories. See Chapter XV.
+
+10. Sugar.--Sugars are widely distributed in nature, being found
+principally in the juices of the sugar cane, sugar beet, and sugar
+maple. They are divided into two large classes: the sucrose group and
+the dextrose group, the latter being produced from sucrose, starch, and
+other carbohydrates by inversion and allied chemical changes. Because of
+the importance of sugar in the dietary, Chapter V is devoted to the
+subject.
+
+11. Pectose Substances are jelly-like bodies found in fruits and
+vegetables. They are closely related in chemical composition to the
+carbohydrates, into which form they are changed during digestion; and in
+nutrition they serve practically the same function. In the early stages
+of growth the pectin bodies are combined with organic acids, forming
+insoluble compounds, as the pectin in green apples. During the ripening
+of fruit and the cooking of vegetables, the pectin is changed to a more
+soluble and digestible condition. In food analysis, the pectin is
+usually included with the carbohydrates.
+
+12. Nitrogen-free-extract.--In discussing the composition of foods,
+the carbohydrates other then cellulose, as starch, sugar, and pectin,
+are grouped under the name of nitrogen-free-extract. Methods of
+chemical analysis have not yet been sufficiently perfected to
+enable accurate and rapid determination to be made of all these
+individual carbohydrates, and hence they are grouped together as
+nitrogen-free-extract. As the name indicates, they are compounds which
+contain no nitrogen, and are extractives in the sense that they are
+soluble in dilute acid and alkaline solutions. The nitrogen-free-extract
+is determined indirectly, that is, by the method of difference. All the
+other constituents of a food, as water, ash, crude fiber (cellulose),
+crude protein, and ether extract, are determined; the total is
+subtracted from 100, and the difference is nitrogen-free-extract. In
+studying the nutritive value of foods, particular attention should be
+given to the nature of the nitrogen-free-extract, as in some instances
+it is composed of sugar and in others of starch, pectin, or pentosan
+(gum sugars). While all these compounds have practically the same fuel
+value, they differ in composition, structure, and the way in which they
+are acted upon by chemicals and digestive ferments.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--APPARATUS USED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
+FAT.]
+
+13. Fat.--Fat is found mainly in the seeds of plants, but to some
+extent in the leaves and stems. It differs from starch in containing
+more carbon and less oxygen. In starch there is about 44 per cent of
+carbon, while in fat there is 75 per cent. Hence it is that when fat is
+burned or undergoes combustion, it yields a larger amount of the
+products of combustion--carbon dioxid and water--than does starch. A
+gram of fat produces 2-1/4 times as much heat as a gram of starch. Fat
+is the most concentrated non-nitrogenous nutrient. As found in food
+materials, it is a mechanical mixture of various fats, among which are
+stearin, palmitin, and olein. Stearin and palmitin are hard fats,
+crystalline in structure, and with a high melting point, while olein is
+a liquid. In addition to these three, there are also small amounts of
+other fats, as butyrin in butter, which give character or individuality
+to materials. There are a number of vegetable fats or oils which are
+used for food purposes and, when properly prepared and refined, have a
+high nutritive value. Occasionally one fat of cheaper origin but not
+necessarily of lower nutritive value is substituted for another. The
+fats have definite physical and chemical properties which enable them to
+be readily distinguished, as iodine number, specific gravity, index of
+refraction, and heat of combustion. By iodine number is meant the
+percentage of iodine that will unite chemically with the fat. Wheat oil
+has an iodine number of about 100, meaning that one pound of wheat oil
+will unite chemically with one pound of iodine. Fats have a lower
+specific gravity than water, usually ranging from .89 to .94, the
+specific gravity of a fat being fairly constant. All fats can be
+separated into glycerol and a fatty acid, glycerol or glycerine being
+common constituents, while each fat yields its own characteristic acid,
+as stearin, stearic acid; palmitin, palmitic acid; and olein, oleic
+acid. The fats are soluble in ether, chloroform, and benzine. In the
+chemical analysis of foods, they are separated with ether, and along
+with the fat, variable amounts of other substances are extracted, these
+extractive products usually being called "ether extract" or "crude
+fat."[5] The ether extract of plant tissue contains in addition to fat
+appreciable amounts of cellulose, gums, coloring, and other materials.
+From cereal products the ether extract is largely fat, but in some
+instances lecithin and other nitrogenous fatty substances are present,
+while in animal food products, as milk and meat, the ether extract is
+nearly pure fat.
+
+14. Organic Acids.--Many vegetable foods contain small amounts of
+organic acids, as malic acid found in apples, citric in lemons, and
+tartaric in grapes. These give characteristic taste to foods, but have
+no direct nutritive value. They do not yield heat and energy as do
+starch, fat, and protein; they are, however, useful for imparting flavor
+and palatability, and it is believed they promote to some extent the
+digestion of foods with which they are combined by encouraging the
+secretion of the digestive fluids. Many fruits and vegetables owe their
+dietetic value to the organic acids which they contain. In plants they
+are usually in chemical combination with the minerals, forming compounds
+as salts, or with the organic compounds, producing materials as acid
+proteins. In the plant economy they take an essential part in promoting
+growth and aiding the plant to secure by osmotic action its mineral food
+from the soil. Organic acids are found to some extent in animal foods,
+as the various lactic acids of meat and milk. They are also formed in
+food materials as the result of ferment action. When seeds germinate,
+small amounts of carbohydrates are converted into organic acids. In
+general the organic acids are not to be considered as nutrients, but as
+food adjuncts, increasing palatability and promoting digestion.
+
+15. Essential Oils.--Essential or volatile oils differ from fats, or
+fixed oils, in chemical composition and physical properties.[6] The
+essential oils are readily volatilized, leaving no permanent residue,
+while the fixed fats are practically non-volatile. Various essential
+oils are present in small amounts in nearly all vegetable food
+materials, and the characteristic flavor of many fruits is due to them.
+It is these compounds which are used for flavoring purposes, as
+discussed in Chapter IV. The amount in a food material is very small,
+usually only a few hundredths of a per cent. The essential oils have no
+direct food value, but indirectly, like the organic acids, they assist
+in promoting favorable digestive action, and are also valuable because
+they impart a pleasant taste. Through poor methods of cooking and
+preparation, the essential oils are readily lost from some foods.
+
+16. Mixed Compounds.--Food materials frequently contain
+compounds which do not naturally fall into the five groups
+mentioned,--carbohydrates, pectose substances, fats, organic acids, and
+essential oils. The amount of such compounds is small, and they are
+classed as miscellaneous or mixed non-nitrogenous compounds. Some of
+them may impart a negative value to the food, and there are others which
+have all the characteristics, as far as general composition is
+concerned, of the non-nitrogenous compounds, but contain nitrogen,
+although as a secondary rather than an essential constituent.
+
+17. Nutritive Value of Non-nitrogenous Compounds.--The non-nitrogenous
+compounds, taken as a class, are incapable alone of sustaining life,
+because they do not contain any nitrogen, and this is necessary for
+producing proteid material in the animal body. They are valuable for
+the production of heat and energy, and when associated with the
+nitrogenous compounds, are capable of forming non-nitrogenous reserve
+tissue. It is equally impossible to sustain life for any prolonged
+period with the nitrogenous compounds alone. It is when these two
+classes are properly blended and naturally united in food materials that
+their main value is secured. For nutrition purposes they are mutually
+related and dependent. Some food materials contain the nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds blended in such proportion as to enable one
+food alone to practically sustain life, while in other cases it is
+necessary, in order to secure the best results in the feeding of animals
+and men, to combine different foods varying in their content of these
+two classes of compounds.[7]
+
+
+NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS
+
+18. General Composition.--The nitrogenous compounds are more complex
+in composition than the non-nitrogenous. They are composed of a larger
+number of elements, united in different ways so as to form a much more
+complex molecular structure. Foods contain numerous nitrogenous organic
+compounds, which, for purposes of study, are divided into four
+divisions,--proteids, albuminoids, amids, and alkaloids. In addition to
+these, there are other nitrogenous compounds which do not naturally fall
+into any one of the four divisions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--APPARATUS USED FOR DETERMINING
+TOTAL NITROGEN AND CRUDE PROTEIN IN FOODS.
+
+The material is digested in the flask (3) with sulphuric acid and the
+organic nitrogen converted into ammonium sulphate, which is later
+liberated and distilled at 1, and the ammonia neutralized with standard
+acid (2).]
+
+Also in some foods there are small amounts of nitrogen in mineral forms,
+as nitrates and nitrites.
+
+19. Protein.--The term "protein" is applied to a large class of
+nitrogenous compounds resembling each other in general composition, but
+differing widely in structural composition. As a class, the proteins
+contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen, 52 per cent of carbon, from 6 to
+7 per cent of hydrogen, 22 per cent of oxygen, and less than 2 per cent
+of sulphur. These elements are combined in a great variety of ways,
+forming various groups or radicals. In studying the protein molecule a
+large number of derivative products have been observed, as amid
+radicals, various hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and carbohydrate-like
+bodies.[8] It would appear that in the chemical composition of the
+proteins there are all the constituents, or simpler products, of the
+non-nitrogenous compounds, and these are in chemical combination with
+amid radicals and nitrogen in various forms. The nitrogen of many
+proteids appears to be present in more than one form or radical. The
+proteids take an important part in life processes. They are found more
+extensively in animal than in plant bodies. The protoplasm of both the
+plant and animal cell is composed mainly of protein.
+
+Proteids are divided into various subdivisions, as albumins, globulins,
+albuminates, proteoses and peptones, and insoluble proteids. In plant
+and animal foods a large amount of the protein is present as insoluble
+proteids; that is, they are not dissolved by solvents, as water and
+dilute salt solution. The albumins are soluble in water and coagulated
+by heat at a temperature of 157 deg. to 161 deg. F. Whenever a food material is
+soaked in water, the albumin is removed and can then be coagulated by
+the action of heat, or of chemicals, as tannic acid, lead acetate, and
+salts of mercury. The globulins are proteids extracted from food
+materials by dilute salt solution after the removal of the albumins.
+Globulins also are coagulated by heat and precipitated by chemicals. The
+amount of globulins in vegetable foods is small. In animal foods myosin
+in meat and vitellin, found in the yolk of the egg, and some of the
+proteids of the blood, are examples of globulins. Albuminates are
+casein-like proteids found in both animal and vegetable foods. They are
+supposed to be proteins that are in feeble chemical combination with
+acid and alkaline compounds, and they are sometimes called acid and
+alkali proteids. Some are precipitated from their solutions by acids and
+others by alkalies. Peas and beans contain quite large amounts of a
+casein-like proteid called legumin. Proteoses and peptones are proteins
+soluble in water, but not coagulated by heat. They are produced from
+other proteids by ferment action during the digestion of food and the
+germination of seeds, and are often due to the changes resulting from
+the action of the natural ferments or enzymes inherent in the food
+materials. As previously stated, the insoluble proteids are present in
+far the largest amount of any of the nitrogenous materials of foods.
+Lean meat and the gluten of wheat and other grains are examples of the
+insoluble proteids. The various insoluble proteids from different food
+materials each has its own composition and distinctive chemical and
+physical properties, and from each a different class and percentage
+amount of derivative products are obtained.[1] While in general it is
+held that the various proteins have practically the same nutritive
+value, it is possible that because differences in structural composition
+and the products formed during digestion there may exist notable
+differences in nutritive value. During digestion the insoluble proteids
+undergo an extended series of chemical changes. They are partially
+oxidized, and the nitrogenous portion of the molecule is eliminated
+mainly in the form of amids, as urea. The insoluble proteins constitute
+the main source of the nitrogenous food supply of both humans and
+animals.
+
+20. Crude Protein.--In the analysis of foods, the term "crude protein"
+is used to designate the total nitrogenous compounds considered
+collectively; it is composed largely of protein, but also includes the
+amids, alkaloids, and albuminoids. "Crude protein" and "total
+nitrogenous compounds" are practically synonymous terms. The various
+proteins all contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen; that is, one part of
+nitrogen is equivalent to 6.25 parts of protein. In analyzing a food
+material, the total organic nitrogen is determined and the amount
+multiplied by 6.25 to obtain the crude protein. In some food materials,
+as cereals, the crude protein is largely pure protein, while in others,
+as potatoes, it is less than half pure protein, the larger portion being
+amids and other compounds. In comparing the crude protein content of one
+food with that of another, the nature of both proteids should be
+considered and also the amounts of non-proteid constituents. The factor
+6.25 for calculating the protein equivalent of foods is not strictly
+applicable to all foods. For example, the proteids of wheat--gliadin and
+glutenin--contain over 18 per cent of nitrogen, making the nitrogen
+factor about 5.68 instead of 6.25. If wheat contains 2 per cent of
+nitrogen, it is equivalent to 12.5 per cent of crude protein, using the
+factor 6.25; or to 11.4, using the factor 5.7. The nitrogen content of
+foods is absolute; the protein content is only relative.[9]
+
+21. Food Value of Protein.--Because of its complexity in composition,
+protein is capable of being used by the body in a greater variety of
+ways than starch, sugar, or fat. In addition to producing heat and
+energy, protein serves the unique function of furnishing material for
+the construction of new muscular tissue and the repair of that which is
+worn out. It is distinctly a tissue-building nutrient. It also enters
+into the composition of all the vital fluids of the body, as the blood,
+chyme, chyle, and the various digestive fluids. Hence it is that protein
+is required as a nutrient by the animal body, and it cannot be produced
+from non-nitrogenous compounds. In vegetable bodies, the protein can be
+produced synthetically from amids, which in turn are formed from
+ammonium compounds. While protein is necessary in the ration, an
+excessive amount should be avoided. When there is more than is needed
+for functional purposes, it is used for heat and energy, and as foods
+rich in protein are usually the most expensive, an excess adds
+unnecessarily to the cost of the ration. Excess of protein in the ration
+may also result in a diseased condition, due to imperfect elimination of
+the protein residual products from the body.[10]
+
+22. Albuminoids differ from proteids in general composition and, to
+some extent, in nutritive value. They are found in animal bodies mainly
+in the connective tissue and in the skin, hair, and nails. Some of the
+albuminoids, as nuclein, are equal in food value to protein, while
+others have a lower food value. In general, albuminoids are capable of
+conserving the protein of the body, and hence are called "protein
+sparers," but they cannot in every way enter into the composition of the
+body, as do the true proteins.
+
+23. Amids and Amines.--These are nitrogenous compounds of simpler
+structure than the proteins and albuminoids. They are sometimes called
+compound ammonia in that they are derived from ammonia by the
+replacement of one of the hydrogen atoms with an organic radical. In
+plants, amids are intermediate compounds in the production of the
+proteids, and in some vegetables a large portion of the nitrogen is
+amids. In animal bodies amids are formed during oxidation, digestion,
+and disintegration of proteids. It is not definitely known whether or
+not a protein in the animal body when broken down into amid form can
+again be reconstructed into protein. The amids have a lower food value
+than the proteids and albuminoids. It is generally held that, to a
+certain extent, they are capable, when combined with proteids, of
+preventing rapid conversion of the body proteid into soluble form. When
+they are used in large amounts in a ration, they tend to hasten
+oxidation rather than conservation of the proteids.
+
+24. Alkaloids.--In some plant bodies there are small amounts of
+nitrogenous compounds called alkaloids. They are not found to any
+appreciable extent in food plants. The alkaloids, like ammonia, are
+basic in character and unite with acids to form salts. Many medicinal
+plants owe their value to the alkaloids which they contain. In animal
+bodies alkaloids are formed when the tissue undergoes fermentation
+changes, and also during disease, the products being known as ptomaines.
+Alkaloids have no food value, but act physiologically as irritants on
+the nerve centers, making them useful from a medicinal rather than from
+a nutritive point of view. To medical and pharmaceutical students the
+alkaloids form a very important group of compounds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF FLOUR.
+
+1, flour; 2, starch; 3, gluten; 4, water; 5, fat; 6, ash.]
+
+25. General Relationship of the Nitrogenous Compounds.--Among the
+various subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds there exists a
+relationship similar to that among the non-nitrogenous compounds. From
+proteids, amids and alkaloids may be formed, just as invert sugars and
+their products are formed from sucrose. Although glucose products are
+derived from sucrose, it is not possible to reverse the process and
+obtain sucrose or cane sugar from starch. So it is with proteins, while
+the amid may be obtained from the proteid in animal nutrition, as far
+as known the process cannot be reversed and proteids be obtained from
+amids. In the construction of the protein molecule of plants, nitrogen
+is absorbed from the soil in soluble forms, as compounds of nitrates and
+nitrites and ammonium salts. These are converted, first, into amids and
+then into proteids. In the animal body just the reverse of this process
+takes place,--the protein of the food undergoes a series of changes, and
+is finally eliminated from the body as an amid, which in turn undergoes
+oxidation and nitrification, and is converted into nitrites, nitrates,
+and ammonium salts. These forms of nitrogen are then ready to begin
+again in plant and animal bodies the same cycle of changes. Thus it is
+that nitrogen may enter a number of times into the composition of plant
+and animal tissues. Nature is very economical in her use of this
+element.[5]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND PREPARATION
+
+
+26. Raw and Cooked Foods Compared.--Raw and cooked foods differ in
+chemical composition mainly in the content of water. The amount of
+nutrients on a dry matter basis is practically the same, but the
+structural composition is affected by cooking, and hence it is that a
+food prepared for the table often differs appreciably from the raw
+material. Cooked meat, for example, has not the same percentage and
+structural composition as raw meat, although the difference in nutritive
+value between a given weight of each is not large. During cooking, foods
+are acted upon chemically, physically, and bacteriologically, and it is
+usually the joint action of these three agencies that brings about the
+desirable changes incident to their preparation for the table.
+
+27. Chemical Changes during Cooking.--Each of the chemical compounds
+of which foods are composed is influenced to a greater or less extent by
+heat and modified in composition. The chemistry of cooking is mainly a
+study of the chemical changes that take place when compounds, as
+cellulose, starch, sugar, pectin, fat, and the various proteids, are
+subjected to the joint action of heat, moisture, air, and ferments. The
+changes which affect the cellulose are physical rather than chemical. A
+slight hydration of the cellular tissue, however, does take place. In
+human foods cellulose is not found to any appreciable extent. Many
+vegetables, as potatoes, which are apparently composed of cellular
+substances, contain but little true cellulose. Starch, as previously
+stated, undergoes hydration in the presence of water, and, at a
+temperature of 120 deg. C., is converted into dextrine. At a higher
+temperature disintegration of the starch molecule takes place, with the
+formation of carbon monoxid, carbon dioxid, and water, and the
+production of a residue richer in carbon than is starch. On account of
+the moisture, the temperature in many cooking operations is not
+sufficiently high for changes other than hydration and preliminary
+dextrinizing. In Chapter XI is given a more extended account of the
+changes affecting starch which occur in bread making.
+
+During the cooking process sugars undergo inversion to a slight extent.
+That is, sucrose is converted into levulose and dextrose sugars. At a
+higher temperature, sugar is broken up into its constituents--water and
+carbon dioxide. The organic acids which many fruits and vegetables
+contain hasten the process of inversion. When sugar is subjected to dry
+heat, it becomes a brown, caramel-like material sometimes called barley
+sugar. During cooking, sugars are not altered in solubility or
+digestibility; starches, however, are changed to a more soluble form,
+and pectin--a jelly-like substance--is converted from a less to a more
+soluble condition, as stated in Chapter I. Changes incident to the
+cooking of fruits and vegetables rich in pectin, as in the making of
+jellies, are similar to those which take place in the last stages of
+ripening.
+
+The fats are acted upon to a considerable extent by heat. Some of the
+vegetable oils undergo slight oxidation, resulting in decreased
+solubility in ether, but since there is no volatilization of the fatty
+matter, it is a change that does not materially affect the total fuel
+value of the food.[11]
+
+There is a general tendency for the proteids to become less soluble by
+the action of heat, particularly the albumins and globulins. The protein
+molecule dissociates at a high temperature, with formation of volatile
+products, and therefore foods rich in protein should not be subjected to
+extreme heat, as losses of food value may result. During cooking,
+proteids undergo hydration, which is necessary and preliminary to
+digestion, and the heating need be carried only to this point, and not
+to the splitting up of the molecule. Prolonged high temperature in the
+cooking of proteids and starches is unnecessary in order to induce the
+desired chemical changes. When these nutrients are hydrated, they are in
+a condition to undergo digestion, without the body being compelled to
+expend unnecessary energy in bringing about this preliminary change.
+Hence it is that, while proper cooking does not materially affect the
+total digestibility of proteids or starches, it influences ease of
+digestion, as well as conserves available energy, thereby making more
+economical use of these nutrients.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--CELLS OF A PARTIALLY COOKED
+POTATO. (After KOeNIG.)]
+
+28. Physical Changes.--The mechanical structure of foods is influenced
+by cooking to a greater extent than is the chemical composition. One of
+the chief objects of cooking is to bring the food into better mechanical
+condition for digestion.[12] Heat and water cause partial disintegration
+of both animal and vegetable tissues. The cell-cementing materials are
+weakened, and a softening of the tissues results. Often the action
+extends still further in vegetable foods, resulting in disintegration of
+the individual starch granules. When foods are subjected to dry heat,
+the moisture they contain is converted into steam, which causes bursting
+of the tissues. A good example of this is the popping of corn. Heat may
+result, too, in mechanical removal of some of the nutrients, as the
+fats, which are liquefied at temperatures ranging from 100 deg. to 200 deg.
+F. Many foods which in the raw state contain quite large amounts of fat,
+lose a portion mechanically during cooking, as is the case with bacon
+when it is cut in thin slices and fried or baked until crisp. When foods
+are boiled, the natural juices being of somewhat different density from
+the water in which they are cooked, slight osmotic changes occur. There
+is a tendency toward equalization of the composition of the juices of
+the food and the water in which they are cooked. In order to achieve the
+best mechanical effects in cooking, high temperatures are not necessary,
+except at first for rupturing the tissues; softening of the tissues is
+best effected by prolonged and slow heat. At a higher temperature many
+of the volatile and essential oils are lost, while at lower temperatures
+these are retained and in some instances slightly developed. The cooking
+should be sufficiently prolonged and the temperature high enough to
+effectually disintegrate and soften all of the tissues, but not to cause
+extended chemical changes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--CELLS OF RAW POTATO, SHOWING STARCH
+GRAINS. (After KOeNIG.)]
+
+There is often an unnecessarily large amount of heat lost through faulty
+construction of stoves and lack of judicious use of fuels, which greatly
+enhances the cost of preparing foods. Ovens are frequently coated with
+deposits of soot; this causes the heat to be thrown out into the room or
+lost through the chimney, rather than utilized for heating the oven. In
+an ordinary cook stove it is estimated that less than 7 per cent of the
+heat and energy of the fuel is actually employed in bringing about
+physical and chemical changes incident to cooking.[13]
+
+29. Bacteriological Changes.--The bacterial organisms of foods are
+destroyed in the cooking, provided a temperature of 150 deg. F. is reached
+and maintained for several minutes. The interior of foods rarely reaches
+a temperature above 200 deg. F., because of the water they contain which is
+not completely removed below 212 deg. One of the chief objects in cooking
+food is to render it sterile. Not only do bacteria become innocuous
+through cooking, but various parasites, as trichina and tapeworm, are
+destroyed, although some organisms can live at a comparatively high
+temperature. Cooked foods are easily re-inoculated, in some cases more
+readily than fresh foods, because they are in a more disintegrated
+condition.
+
+In many instances bacteria are of material assistance in the preparation
+of foods, as in bread making, butter making, curing of cheese, and
+ripening of meat. All the chemical compounds of which foods are
+composed are subject to fermentation, each compound being acted upon by
+its special ferment body. Those which convert the proteids into soluble
+form, as the peptonizing ferments, have no action upon the
+carbohydrates. A cycle of bacteriological changes often takes place in a
+food material, one class of ferments working until their products
+accumulate to such an extent as to prevent their further activity, and
+then the process is taken up by others, as they find the conditions
+favorable for development. This change of bacterial flora in food
+materials is akin to the changes in the vegetation occupying soils. In
+each case, there is a constant struggle for possession. Bacteria take a
+much more important part in the preparation of foods than is generally
+considered. As a result of their workings, various chemical products, as
+organic acids and aromatic compounds, are produced. The organic acids
+chemically unite with the nutrients of foods, changing their composition
+and physical properties. Man is, to a great extent, dependent upon
+bacterial action. Plant life also is dependent upon the bacterial
+changes which take place in the soil and in the plant tissues. The
+stirring of seeds into activity is apparently due to enzymes or soluble
+ferments which are inherent in the seed. A study of the bacteriological
+changes which foods undergo in their preparation and digestion more
+properly belongs to the subject of bacteriology, and in this work only
+brief mention is made of some of the more important parts which
+microoerganisms take in the preparation of foods.
+
+30. Insoluble Ferments.--Insoluble ferments are minute, plant-like
+bodies of definite form and structure, and can be studied only with the
+microscope.[1] They are developed from spores or seeds, or from the
+splitting or budding of the parent cells. Under suitable conditions they
+multiply rapidly, deriving the energy for their life processes from the
+chemical changes which they induce. For example, in the souring of milk
+the milk sugar is changed by the lactic acid ferments into lactic acid.
+In causing chemical changes, the ferment gives none of its own material
+to the reacting substance. These ferment bodies undergo life processes
+similar to plants of a higher order.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LACTIC ACID BACTERIA, MUCH
+ENLARGED. (After RUSSELL.)]
+
+All foods contain bacteria or ferments. In fact, it is impossible for a
+food stored and prepared under ordinary conditions, unless it has been
+specially treated, to be free from them. Some of them are useful, some
+are injurious, while others are capable of producing disease. The
+objectionable bacteria are usually destroyed by the joint action of
+sunlight, pure air, and water.
+
+31. Soluble Ferments.--Many plant and animal cells have the power of
+secreting substances soluble in water and capable of producing
+fermentation changes; to these the term "soluble ferments," or
+"enzymes," is applied. These ferments have not a cell structure like
+the organized ferments. When germinated seed, as malted barley, is
+extracted, a soluble and highly nitrogenous substance, called the
+diastase ferment, is secured that changes starch into soluble forms. The
+soluble ferments induce chemical change by causing molecular disturbance
+or splitting up of the organic compounds, resulting in the production of
+derivative products. They take an important part in animal and plant
+nutrition, as by their action insoluble compounds are brought into a
+soluble condition so they can be utilized for nutritive purposes. In
+many instances ferment changes are due to the joint action of soluble
+and insoluble ferments. The insoluble ferment secretes an enzyme which
+induces a chemical change, modified by the further action of the soluble
+ferment. Many of the enzymes carry on their work at a low temperature,
+as in the curing of meat and cheese in cold storage.[14]
+
+32. General Relationship of Chemical, Physical, and Bacteriological
+Changes.--It cannot be said that the beneficial results derived from
+the cooking of foods are due to either chemical, physical, or
+bacteriological change alone, but to the joint action of the three. In
+order to secure a chemical change, a physical change must often precede,
+and a bacteriological change cannot take place without causing a change
+in chemical composition; the three are closely related and
+interdependent.
+
+33. Esthetic Value of Foods.--Foods should be not only of good
+physical texture and contain the requisite nutrients, but they should
+also be pleasing to the eye and served in the most attractive manner.
+Some foods owe a part of their commercial value to color, and when they
+are lacking in natural color they are not consumed with a relish. There
+is no objection to the addition of coloring matter to foods, provided it
+is of a non-injurious character and does not affect the amount of
+nutrients, and that its presence and the kind of coloring material are
+made known. Some foods contain objectionable colors which are eliminated
+during the process of manufacture, as in the case of sugar and flour. As
+far as removal of coloring matter from foods during refining is
+concerned, there can be no objection, so long as no injurious reagents
+or chemicals are retained, as the removal of the color in no way affects
+the nutritive value or permits fraud, but necessitates higher
+purification and refining. The use of chemicals and reagents in the
+preparation and refining of foods is considered permissible in all cases
+where the reagents are removed by subsequent processes. In the food
+decisions of the United States Department of Agriculture, it is stated:
+"Not excluded under this provision are substances properly used in the
+preparation of food products for clarification or refining and
+eliminated in the further process of manufacture." [15]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+VEGETABLE FOODS
+
+
+34. General Composition.--Vegetable foods, with the exception of
+cereals, legumes, and nuts, contain a smaller percentage of protein than
+animal food products. They vary widely in composition and nutritive
+value; in some, starch predominates, while in others, sugar, cellulose,
+and pectin bodies are most abundant. The general term "vegetable foods"
+is used in this work to include roots, tubers, garden vegetables,
+cereals, legumes, and all prepared foods of vegetable origin.
+
+35. Potatoes contain about 75 per cent of water and 25 per cent of dry
+matter, the larger portion being starch. There is but little nitrogenous
+material in the potato, only 2.25 per cent, of which about half is in
+the form of proteids. There are ten parts of non-nitrogenous substance
+to every one part of nitrogenous; or, in other words, the potato has a
+wide nutritive ratio, and as an article of diet needs to be supplemented
+with foods rich in protein. The mineral matter, cellular tissue, and
+fat in potatoes are small in amount, as are also the organic acids.
+Mechanically considered, the potato is composed of three parts,--outer
+skin, inner skin, and flesh. The layer immediately beneath the outer
+skin is slightly colored, and is designated the fibro-vascular layer.
+The outer and inner skins combined make up about 10 per cent of the
+weight of the potato.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF POTATO.
+(After COWDEN and BUSSARD.) _a_, skin; _b_, cortical
+layer; _c_, outer medullary layer; _d_, inner medullary layer.]
+
+A large portion of the protein of the potato is albumin, which is
+soluble in water. When potatoes are peeled, cut in small pieces, and
+soaked in water for several hours before boiling, 80 per cent of the
+crude protein, or total nitrogenous material, is extracted, rendering
+the product less valuable as food. When potatoes are placed directly in
+boiling water, the losses of nitrogenous compounds are reduced to about
+7 per cent, and, when the skins are not removed, to 1 per cent.
+Digestion experiments show that 92 per cent of the starch and 72 per
+cent of the protein are digested.[12] Compared with other foods,
+potatoes are often a cheap source of non-nitrogenous nutrients. If used
+in excessive amounts, however, they have a tendency to make the ration
+unbalanced and too bulky.
+
+
+MECHANICAL COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO
+
+  ================================================
+                                         |Per Cent
+  Unpeeled potatoes                      | 100.0
+  Outer, or true skin                    |   2.5
+  Inner skin, or fibro-vascular layer[A] |   8.5
+  Flesh                                  |  89.0
+  ================================================
+
+
+CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO
+
+  ================================================================
+                       |     |       |   |  CARBOHYDRATES
+                       |-----|-------|---|------------------------
+                       |Water| Crude |Fat|Nitrogen-free-|     |
+                       |     |Protein|   |    extract   |Fiber|Ash
+                       |  %  |   %   | % |      %       |  %  |%
+  ---------------------|-----|-------|---|--------------|-----|---
+  Outer, or true skin  | 80.1|   2.7 |0.8|           14.|6    |1.8
+  Inner skin, or       |     |       |   |              |     |
+   fibro-vascular      |     |       |   |              |     |
+   layer               | 83.2|   2.3 |0.1|     12.6     | 0.7 |1.1
+  Flesh                | 81.1|   2.0 |0.1|     15.7     | 0.3 |0.8
+  Average of 86        |     |       |   |              |     |
+   American analyses[B]| 78.0|   2.2 |0.1|           18.|8    |0.9
+  Average of 118       |     |       |   |              |     |
+   European analyses[C]| 75.0|   2.1 |0.1|     21.0     | 0.7 |1.1
+  ================================================================
+
+[Footnote A: Including a small amount of flesh.]
+
+[Footnote B: From an unpublished compilation of analyses of American
+food products.]
+
+[Footnote C: Koenig, "Chemie der Nahrungs-und Genussmittel," 3d ed., II,
+p. 626.]
+
+36. Sweet Potatoes contain more dry matter than white potatoes, the
+difference being due mainly to the presence of about 6 per cent of
+sugar. There is approximately the same starch content, but more fat,
+protein, and fiber. As a food, they supply a large amount of
+non-nitrogenous nutrients.
+
+37. Carrots contain about half as much dry matter as potatoes, and
+half of the dry matter is sugar, nearly equally divided between sucrose
+and levulose, or fruit sugar. Like the potato, carrots have some organic
+acids and a relatively small amount of proteids. In carrots and milk
+there is practically the same per cent of water. The nutrients in each,
+however, differ both as to kind and proportion. Experiments with the
+cooking of carrots show that if a large amount of water is used, 30 per
+cent or more of the nutrients, particularly of the more soluble sugar
+and albumin, are extracted and lost in the drain waters.[12] The color
+of the carrot is due to the non-nitrogenous compound carrotin,
+C_{26}H_{38}. Carrots are valuable in a ration not because of the
+nutrients they supply, but for the palatability and the mechanical
+action which the vegetable fiber exerts upon the process of digestion.
+
+38. Parsnips contain more solid matter than beets or carrots, of which
+3 to 4 per cent is starch. The starch grains are very small, being only
+about one twentieth the size of the potato starch grains. There is 3 per
+cent of sugar and an appreciable amount of fat, more than in any other
+of the vegetables of this class, and seven times as much as in the
+potato. The mineral matter is of somewhat different nature from that in
+potatoes; in parsnips one half is potash and one quarter phosphoric
+acid, while in potatoes three quarters are potash and one fifth
+phosphoric acid.
+
+39. Cabbage contains very little dry matter, usually less than 10 per
+cent. It is proportionally richer in nitrogenous compounds than many
+vegetables, as about two of the ten parts of dry matter are crude
+protein, which makes the nutritive ratio one to five. During cooking 30
+to 40 per cent of the nutrients are extracted. Cabbage imparts to the
+ration bulk but comparatively little nutritive material. It is a
+valuable food adjunct, particularly used raw, as in a salad, when it is
+easily digested and retains all of the nutrients.[12]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF CABBAGE.]
+
+40. Cauliflower has much the same general composition as cabbage, from
+which it differs mainly in mechanical structure.
+
+41. Beets.--The garden beet contains a little more protein than
+carrots, but otherwise has about the same general composition, and the
+statements made in regard to the losses of nutrients in the cooking of
+carrots and to their use in the dietary apply also to beets.
+
+42. Cucumbers contain about 4 per cent of dry matter. The amount of
+nutrients is so small as to scarcely allow them to be considered a food.
+They are, however, a valuable food adjunct, as they impart palatability.
+
+43. Lettuce contains about 7 per cent of solids, of which 1.5 is
+protein and 2.5 starch and sugar. While low in nutrients, it is high in
+dietetic value, because of the chlorophyll which it contains. It has
+been suggested that it is valuable, too, for supplying iron in an
+organic form, as there is iron chemically combined with the chlorophyll.
+
+44. Onions are aromatic bulbs, valuable for condimental rather than
+nutritive purposes. They contain essential and volatile oils, which
+impart characteristic odor and flavor. In the onion there are about 1.5
+per cent of protein and 9.5 per cent of non-nitrogenous material. Onions
+are often useful in stimulating the digestive tract to action.
+
+45. Spinach is a valuable food, not to be classed merely as a relish.
+Its composition is interesting; for, although there is 90 per cent
+water, and less than 10 per cent dry matter, it still possesses high
+food value. Spinach contains 2.1 per cent crude protein, or about one
+part to every four parts of carbohydrates. In potatoes, turnips, and
+beets there are ten or more parts of carbohydrates to every one part of
+protein.
+
+46. Asparagus is composed largely of water, about 93 per cent. The dry
+matter, however, is richer in protein than that of many vegetables.
+Asparagus contains, too, an amid compound, asparagin, which gives some
+of the characteristics to the vegetable.
+
+47. Melons.--Melons contain from 8 to 10 per cent of dry matter, the
+larger portion of which is sugar and allied carbohydrates. The flavor is
+due to small amounts of essential oils and to organic acids associated
+with the sugars. Melons possess condimental rather than nutritive value.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF TOMATO.]
+
+48. Tomatoes.--The tomato belongs to the night-shade family, and for
+this reason was long looked upon with suspicion. It was first used for
+ornamental purposes and was called "love-apple." Gradually, as the idea
+of its poisonous nature became dispelled, it grew more and more popular
+as a food, until now in the United States it is one of the most common
+garden vegetables. It contains 7 per cent of dry matter, 4 per cent of
+which is sucrose, dextrose, and levulose. It also contains some malic
+acid, and a small amount of proteids, amids, cellulose, and coloring
+material. In the canning of tomatoes, if too much of the juice is
+excluded, a large part of the nutritive material is lost, as the sugars
+and albumins are all soluble and readily removed.[16] If the seeds are
+objectionable, they may be removed by straining and the juice added to
+the fleshy portion. The product then has a higher nutritive value than
+if the juice had been discarded with the seeds.
+
+49. Sweet Corn.--Fresh, soft, green, sweet corn contains about 75 per
+cent of water. The dry matter is half starch and one quarter sugar. The
+protein content makes up nearly 5 per cent, a larger proportional amount
+than is found in the ripened corn, due to the fact that the proteids are
+deposited in the early stages of growth and the carbohydrates mainly in
+the last stages. Sweet corn is a vegetable of high nutritive value and
+palatability.
+
+50. Eggplant contains a high per cent of water,--90 per cent. The
+principal nutrients are starch and sugar, which make up about half the
+weight of the dry matter. It does not itself supply a large amount of
+nutrients, but the way in which it is prepared, by combination with
+butter, bread crumbs, and eggs, makes it a nutritious and palatable
+dish, the food value being derived mainly from the materials with which
+it is combined, the eggplant giving the flavor and palatability.
+
+51. Squash and Pumpkin.--Squash has much the same general composition
+and food value as beets and carrots, although it belongs to a different
+family. Pumpkins contain less dry matter than squash. The dry matter of
+both is composed largely of starch and sugar and, like many other of the
+vegetables, they are often combined with food materials containing a
+large amount of nutrients, as in pumpkin and squash pies, where the food
+value is derived mainly from the milk, sugar, eggs, flour, and butter or
+other shortening used.
+
+52. Celery.--The dry matter of celery is comparatively rich in
+nitrogenous material, although the amount is small, and the larger
+proportion is in non-proteid form. When grown on rich soil, celery may
+contain an appreciable quantity of nitrates and nitrites, which have not
+been converted into amids and proteids. The supposed medicinal value is
+probably due to the nitrites which are generally present. Celery is
+valuable from a dietetic rather than a nutritive point of view.
+
+53. Sanitary Condition of Vegetables.--The conditions under which
+vegetables are grown have much to do with their value, particularly from
+a sanitary point of view. Uncooked vegetables often cause the spread of
+diseases, particularly those, as cholera and typhoid, affecting the
+digestive tract. Particles of dirt containing the disease-producing
+organisms adhere to the uncooked vegetable and find their way into the
+digestive tract, where the bacteria undergo incubation. When sewage has
+been used for fertilizing the land, as in sewage irrigation, the
+vegetables are unsound from a sanitary point of view. Such vegetables
+should be thoroughly cleaned and also well cooked, in order to render
+them sterile. Vegetables to be eaten in the raw state should be dipped
+momentarily into boiling water, to destroy the activity of the germs
+present upon the surface. They may then be immediately immersed in
+ice-cold water, to preserve the crispness.
+
+54. Miscellaneous Compounds in Vegetables.--In addition to the general
+nutrients which have been discussed, many of the vegetables contain some
+tannin, glucosides, and essential oils; and occasionally those grown
+upon rich soils have appreciable amounts of nitrogen compounds, as
+nitrates and nitrites, which have not been built up into proteids.
+Vegetables have a unique value in the dietary, and while as a class they
+contain small amounts of nutrients, they are indispensable for promoting
+health and securing normal digestion of the food.
+
+55. Canned Vegetables.--When sound vegetables are thoroughly cooked to
+destroy ferments, and then sealed in cans while hot, they can be kept
+for a long time without any material impairment of nutritive value.
+During the cooking process there is lost a part of the essential oils,
+which gives a slightly different flavor to the canned or tinned
+goods.[17] In some canned vegetables preservatives are used, but the
+enactment and enforcement of national and state laws have greatly
+reduced their use. When the cans are made of a poor quality of tin, or
+the vegetables are of high acidity, some of the metal is dissolved in
+sufficient quantity to be objectionable from a sanitary point of
+view.[18]
+
+56. Edible Portion and Refuse of Vegetables.--Many vegetables have
+appreciable amounts of refuse,[19] or non-edible parts, as skin, pods,
+seeds, and pulp, and in determining the nutritive value, these must be
+considered, as in some cases less than 50 per cent of the weight of the
+material is edible portion, which proportionally increases the cost of
+the nutrients. Ordinarily, the edible part is richer in protein than the
+entire material as purchased. In some cases, however, the refuse is
+richer in protein, but the protein is in a less available form. See
+comparison of potatoes and potato skins.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+FRUITS, FLAVORS, AND EXTRACTS
+
+
+57. General Composition.--Fruits are characterized by containing a
+large amount of water and only a small amount of dry matter, which is
+composed mainly of sugar and non-nitrogenous compounds. Fruits contain
+but little fatty material and protein. A large portion of the total
+nitrogen is in the form of amid compounds. Organic acids, as citric,
+tartaric, and malic, are found in all fruits, and the essential oils
+form a characteristic feature. The taste of fruits is due mainly to the
+blending of the various organic acids, essential oils, and sugars.
+Although fruits contain a high per cent of water, they are nevertheless
+valuable as food.[20] The constituents present to the greatest extent
+are sugars and acids. The sugar is not all like the common granulated
+sugar, but in ripe fruits a part is in the form known as levulose or
+fruit sugar, which is two and a half times sweeter than granulated
+sugar. Sugars are valuable for heat-and fat-producing purposes, but not
+for muscle repairing. Proteids are the muscle-forming nutrients. The
+organic acids, as malic acid in apples, citric acid in lemons and
+oranges, and tartaric acid in grapes, have characteristic medicinal
+properties. The sugar, proteid, and acid content of some of our more
+common fruits is given in the following table:[21]
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF FRUITS
+
+  ==============================================================
+                  | WATER  |PROTEIDS| SUGAR  |ACID IN |KIND OF
+                  |        |        |        | JUICE  | ACID
+  ----------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|---------
+                  |Per Cent|Per Cent|Per Cent|Per Cent|
+  Apples (Baldwin)|  85.0  |   0.50 |  10.75 |   0.92 |Malic
+  Apples, sweet   |  86.0  |   0.50 |  11.75 |   0.20 |Malic
+  Blackberries    |  88.9  |   0.90 |  11.50 |   0.75 |Malic
+  Currants        |  86.0  |    --  |   1.96 |   5.80 |Tartaric
+  Grapes          |  83.0  |   1.50 |10 to 16|1.2 to 5|Tartaric
+  Strawberries    |  90.8  |   0.95 |   5.36 |   1.40 |Malic
+  Oranges         |  85.0  |   1.10 |  10.00 |   1.30 |Citric
+  Lemons          |  84.0  |   0.95 |   2.00 |   7.20 |Citric
+  ==============================================================
+
+In addition to sugars, acids, and proteids, there are a great many other
+compounds in fruits. Those which give the characteristic taste are
+called essential or volatile oils.
+
+58. Food Value.--When the nutrients alone are considered, fruits
+appear to have a low food value, but they should not be judged entirely
+on this basis, because they impart palatability and flavor to other
+foods and exercise a favorable influence upon the digestive process. In
+the human ration fruits are a necessary adjunct.
+
+59. Apples.--Apples vary in composition with the variety and physical
+characteristics of the fruit. In general they contain from 10 to 16 per
+cent of dry matter, of which 75 per cent, or more, is sugar or allied
+carbohydrates. Among the organic acids malic predominates, and the
+acidity ranges from 0.1 to 0.8 per cent. Apples contain but little
+protein, less than 1 per cent. There is some pectin, or jelly-like
+substance closely related to the carbohydrates. The flavor of the apple
+varies with the content of sugar, organic acids, and essential oils.
+During storage some apples appear to undergo further ripening, resulting
+in partial inversion of the sucrose, and there is a slight loss of
+weight, due to the formation of carbon dioxide. The apple is an
+important and valuable adjunct to the dietary.[22]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF APPLE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF ORANGE.]
+
+60. Oranges contain nearly the same proportion of dry matter as
+apples, the larger part of which is sugar. Citric acid predominates and
+ranges in different varieties from 1 to 2.5 per cent. The amounts of
+protein, fat, and cellulose are small. In some varieties of oranges
+there is more iron and sulphur than is usually found in fruits. All
+fruits, however, contain small amounts, but not as much as is found in
+green vegetables. The average composition of oranges is as follows:
+
+  ===========================================================
+  PHYSICAL COMPOSITION|CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION
+  -----------------------------------------------------------
+              Per Cent|                   Per Cent
+  Rind        20 to 30| Solids            10 to 16
+  Pulp        25 to 35| Sugars             8 to 12
+  Juice       35 to 50| Citric acid        1 to 2.5
+                      | Ash                     0.5
+  ===========================================================
+
+61. Lemons differ from oranges in containing more citric acid and less
+sucrose, levulose, and dextrose. The ash of the lemon is somewhat
+similar in general composition to the ash of the orange, but is larger
+in amount. The average composition of the lemon is as follows:
+
+  ===========================================================
+  PHYSICAL COMPOSITION|CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION
+  -----------------------------------------------------------
+              Per Cent|                 Per Cent
+  Rind        25 to 35| Solids          10 to 12
+  Pulp        25 to 35| Sugar            2 to 4
+  Juice       40 to 55| Citric acid      6 to 9
+  ===========================================================
+
+62. Grape Fruit.--The rind and seed of this fruit make up about 25 per
+cent, leaving 75 per cent as edible portion. The juice contains 14 per
+cent solids, of which nearly 10 per cent is sugar and 2.5 per cent is
+citric acid. There is more acid in grape fruit than in oranges and
+appreciably less than in lemons. The characteristic flavor is due to a
+glucoside-like material. Otherwise the composition and food value are
+about the same as of oranges.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF STRAWBERRY.]
+
+63. Strawberries contain from 8 to 12 per cent of dry matter, mainly
+sugar and malic acid. The protein, fat, and ash usually make up less
+than 2 per cent. Essential oils and coloring substances are present in
+small amounts. It has been estimated that it would require 75 pounds of
+strawberries to supply the protein for a daily ration. Nevertheless they
+are valuable in the dietary. It has been suggested that the malic and
+other acids have antiseptic properties which, added to the appearance
+and palatability, make them a desirable food adjunct. Strawberries have
+high dietetic rather than high food value.
+
+64. Grapes contain more dry matter than apples or oranges. There is no
+appreciable amount of protein or fat, and while they add some nutrients,
+as sugar, to the ration, they do not contribute any quantity. Their
+value, as in the case of other fruits, is due to palatability and
+indirect effect upon the digestibility of other foods. In the juice of
+grapes there is from 10 to 15 per cent or more of sugar, as sucrose,
+levulose, and dextrose. Grapes contain also from 1 to 1.5 per cent of
+tartaric acid, which, during the process of manufacture into wine, is
+rendered insoluble by the alcohol formed, and the product, known as
+argole, is used in the preparation of cream of tartar. Differences in
+flavor and taste of grapes are due to variations in the sugar, acid, and
+essential oil content.
+
+65. Peaches contain about 12 per cent of dry matter, of which over 10
+per cent is sugar and other carbohydrates. There is less than 1.5 per
+cent of protein, fat, and mineral matter and about 0.5 per cent of acid.
+The peach contains also a very small amount of hydrocyanic acid, which
+is more liberally present in the kernel than in the fruit. Flavor is
+imparted mainly by the sugar and essential oils. Peaches vary in
+composition with variety and environment.[23]
+
+66. Plums contain the most dry matter of any of the fruits, about 22
+per cent, mainly sugar. About one per cent is acid and about 0.5 per
+cent are protein and ash. There are a great many varieties of plums,
+varying in composition. Dried plums (prunes) have mildly laxative
+properties.
+
+67. Olives.--The ripe olive contains about 15 per cent of oil,
+exclusive of the pit, which makes up 20 per cent of the weight. In
+green, preserved olives there is considerably less oil. Because of the
+oil the olive has food value. Olive oil is slightly laxative and assists
+mechanically in the digestion of foods.
+
+68. Figs.--Dried figs contain about 50 per cent of sugar and 3.5 per
+cent of protein. The fig has a mildly laxative action.
+
+69. Dried Fruits.--Many fruits are prepared for market by drying. The
+dried fruit has a slightly different composition from the fresh fruit
+because of loss of the volatile and essential oils, and minor chemical
+changes which take place during the drying process. When free from
+preservatives, dried fruits are valuable adjuncts to the dietary and can
+be advantageously used when fresh fruits are not obtainable.
+
+70. Canning and Preservation of Fruits.--To obtain the best results in
+canning, the fruit should not be overripe. After the ripened state has
+been reached fermentation and bacterial changes occur, and it is more
+difficult to preserve the fruit than when not so fully matured.[24] When
+a fruit has begun to ferment, it is hard to destroy the ferment bodies
+and their spores so as to prevent further ferment action. The chemical
+changes that occur in the last stages of ripening are similar to those
+which take place during the cooking process whereby the pectin or
+jelly-like substances are rendered more soluble and digestible.
+
+71. Adulterated Canned Fruits.--Analyses of a number of canned fruits,
+made by various Boards of Health, show the presence of small amounts of
+arsenic, tin, lead, and other poisonous metals. The quantity dissolved
+depends upon the kind, age, and condition of the canned goods and the
+state of the fruit when canned. The longer a can of fruit or vegetable
+has been kept in stock, the larger is the amount of tin or metal that
+has been dissolved. When fresh canned, there is usually very little
+dissolved tin, but in old goods the amount may be comparatively large.
+The tin used for the can is occasionally of poor quality and may contain
+some arsenic, which also is dissolved. The occasional use of canned
+goods preserved in tin is not objectionable, but they should not be used
+continually if it can be avoided. Preservatives, as borax, salicylic
+acid, benzoic acid, and sodium sulphate, are sometimes added to prevent
+fermentation and to preserve the natural appearance of the fruit or
+vegetable.[18]
+
+72. Fruit Flavors and Extracts.--Formerly all fruit extracts and
+flavors were obtained from vegetable sources; at present many are made
+in the chemical laboratory by synthetic methods; that is, by combining
+simpler organic compounds and radicals to produce the material having
+the desired flavor and odor. The various fruit flavors are definite
+chemical compounds, and can be produced in the laboratory as well as in
+the cells of plants. When properly made, there is no difference in
+chemical composition between the two. As prepared in the laboratory,
+however, traces of acids, alkalies, and other compounds, used in
+bringing about the necessary chemical combination, are often present,
+not having been perfectly removed. Hence it is that natural and
+artificial flavors differ mainly in the impurities which the artificial
+flavors may contain.
+
+Some of the flavoring materials have characteristic medicinal
+properties, as the flavor of bitter almond, which contains hydrocyanic
+acid, a poisonous substance. Flavors and extracts should not be
+indiscriminately used. In small amounts they often exert a favorable
+influence upon the digestion of foods, and the value of some fruits is
+in a large measure due to the special flavors they contain. A study of
+the separate compounds which impart flavor to fruits, as the various
+aldehydes, ethers, and organic salts, belongs to organic chemistry
+rather than to foods. Some of the simpler compounds of which flavors are
+composed may exist in entirely different form or combination in food
+products; as for example, pineapple flavoring is ethyl butrate. This can
+be prepared by combination of butyric acid from stale butter with
+alcohol which supplies the ethyl radical. The chemical union of the two
+produces the new compound, ethyl butrate, the distinctive flavoring
+substance of the pineapple. Banana flavor can be made from stale
+butter, caustic soda, and chloroform. None of these materials, as such,
+go into the flavor, but an essential radical is taken from each. These
+manufactured products, when properly made, are in every essential
+similar to the flavor made by the plant and stored up in the fruit. The
+plant combines the material in the laboratory of the plant cell, and the
+manufacturer of essences puts together these same constituents in a
+chemical laboratory. In the fruit, however, the essential oil is
+associated with a number of other compounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SUGARS, MOLASSES, SYRUP, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS
+
+
+73. Composition of Sugars.--The term "sugar" is applied to a large
+class of compounds composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
+oxygen. Sugars used for household purposes are derived mainly from the
+sugar cane and the sugar beet.[25] At the present time about two fifths
+are obtained from the cane and about three fifths from the beet. When
+subjected to the same degree of refining, there is no difference in the
+chemical composition of the sugars from the two sources; they are alike
+in every respect and the chemist is unable to determine their origin.
+The production of sugar is an agricultural industry; the methods of
+manufacture pertain more to industrial chemistry than to the chemistry
+of foods, and therefore a discussion of them is omitted in this
+work.[26]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--SUGAR CRYSTALS.]
+
+74. Commercial Grades of Sugar.--Sugars are graded according to the
+size of the granule, the color and general appearance of the crystals,
+and the per cent of sucrose or pure sugar. Common granulated sugar is
+from 98.5 to 99.7 per cent pure sucrose. The impurities consist mainly
+of moisture and mineral matter. In the process of refining, sulphur
+fumes are frequently used for bleaching and clarifying the solution.[26]
+The sulphurous acid formed is neutralized with lime, which is rendered
+insoluble and practically all removed in subsequent filtrations. There
+are, however, traces of sulphates and sulphites in ordinary sugar, but
+these are in such small amounts as not to be injurious to health. When
+sugar is burned, as in the bomb calorimeter, so as to permit collection
+of all of the products of combustion, granulated sugar yields about 0.01
+of a per cent of sulphur dioxid.[13] Occasionally coloring substances,
+as a small amount of indigo, are added to yellow tinged sugars to impart
+a white color, much on the same principle as the bluing of clothes. The
+amount used is usually extremely small, and the effect on health has
+never been determined. Occasionally, however, bluing is used to such an
+extent that a blue scum appears when the sugar is boiled with water.
+Sugar has high value for the production of heat and energy. Digestion
+experiments show that when it is used in the dietary in not excessive
+amounts, it is directly absorbed by the body and practically all
+available. It can advantageously be combined with other foods to form a
+part of the ration.[27] When a ration contains the requisite amount of
+protein, sugar is used to the best advantage. Alone it is incapable of
+sustaining life, because it does not contain any nitrogen. When sugar
+was substituted for an excess of protein in a ration, it was found to
+produce heat and energy at much less expense. Many foods, as apples,
+grapes, and small fruits, contain appreciable amounts of sugar and owe
+their food value almost entirely to their sugar content. In the dietary,
+sugar is too frequently regarded as a condiment instead of a nutrient,
+to be used for imparting palatability rather than for purposes of
+nutrition. While valuable for improving the taste of foods, the main
+worth of sugar is as a nutritive substance; used in the preparation of
+foods it adds to the total heat and energy of the ration. Sugar is
+sometimes used in excessive amounts and, as is the case with any food or
+nutrient, when that occurs, nutrition disturbances result, due to misuse
+of the food. Statistics show that the average consumption of sugar in
+the United States is nearly 70 pounds a year per capita. In the dietary
+of the adult, sugar to the extent of four ounces per day can be consumed
+advantageously. The exclusion of sugar from the diet of children is a
+great mistake, as they need it for heat and energy and to conserve the
+protein for growth.
+
+     "Sugar is one of the most important forms in which carbohydrates
+     can be added to the diet of children. The great reduction in the
+     price of sugar which has taken place in recent years is probably
+     one of the causes of the improved physique of the rising
+     generation. The fear that sugar may injure children's teeth is,
+     largely illusory. The negroes who live largely on sugar cane have
+     the finest teeth the world can show. If injudiciously taken, sugar
+     may, however, injure the child's appetite and digestion. The
+     craving for sweets which children show is no doubt the natural
+     expression of a physiological need, but they should be taken with,
+     and not between, meals."[28]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--NUTRIENTS OF A RATION WITH SUGAR.
+
+The hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested.]
+
+75. Sugar in the Dietary.--Sugar has an important place in the
+dietary. It not only serves for the production of heat and energy in the
+body, but is also valuable in enabling the proteids to be used more
+economically. In reasonable amounts, it is particularly valuable in the
+dietary of growing children, as the proteids of the food are then
+utilized to better advantage for growth. The unique value of sugar
+depends upon its intelligent use and its proper combination with other
+foods, particularly with those rich in the nitrogenous compounds or
+proteids. Sugar alone is incapable of sustaining life, but combined with
+other foods is a valuable nutrient. The amount which can be
+advantageously used depends largely upon the individual. Ordinarily
+three to five ounces per day is sufficient, although some persons cannot
+safely consume as much as this. In the case of diabetes mellitus, the
+amount of sugar in the ration must be materially reduced. Persons in
+normal health and engaged in outdoor work can use sugar to
+advantage.[29] Many of the "harvest drinks," made largely from molasses
+with a little ginger, and used extensively in some localities, are not
+without merit, as they contain an appreciable amount of nutrients. Milk
+contains more sugar as lactose or milk sugar than any other nutrient.
+
+[Illustration:  FIG. 17.--NUTRIENTS OF A RATION WITHOUT SUGAR.
+
+The hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested.]
+
+The craving for sugar by growing children and athletes is natural.
+Sugar, however, is often injudiciously used, and a perverted taste may
+be established which can be satisfied only by excessive amounts. This
+results in impaired digestion and malnutrition.
+
+76. Maple Sugar.--Sugar obtained by evaporation from the sap of the
+maple tree (_Acer saccharinum_) is identical, except for the foreign
+substances which it contains, with that from the beet and sugar cane.
+The mottled appearance and characteristic color and taste of maple sugar
+are due to the various organic acids and other compounds present in the
+maple sap and recovered in the sugar. Maple sugar, as ordinarily
+prepared, has 0.4 of a per cent or more of ash or mineral matter, while
+refined cane sugar contains less than one tenth as much.[30] Hence, when
+maple sugar is adulterated with cane and beet sugars, the ash content is
+noticeably lowered, as is also the content of organic acids. It is
+difficult, however, to determine with absolute certainty pure high grade
+maple sugar from the impure low grade to which a small amount of
+granulated sugar has been added.
+
+77. Adulteration of Sugar.--Sugar at the present time is not
+materially adulterated. Other than the substances mentioned which are
+used for clarification and color, none are added during refining which
+remain in the sugar in appreciable amounts. Sugar does not readily lend
+itself to adulteration, as it has a definite crystalline structure, and
+materials that would be suitable for its adulteration are of entirely
+different physical character.[31] Cane sugar is not easily blended with
+glucose, or starch sugar, because of the physical differences between
+the two. The question of the kind of sugar to use in the household, as
+granulated, loaf, or pulverized, is largely one of personal choice, as
+there is no appreciable difference in the nutritive value or purity of
+the different kinds.
+
+78. Dextrose Sugars.--Products known as glucose and dextrose sugars
+are made from corn and other starches; they can also be prepared from
+cane sugar by the use of heat, chemicals, or ferments for carrying on
+the process known as inversion. The dextrose sugars differ from cane
+sugar in containing a dissimilar number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
+atoms in the molecule. The formula of the dextrose sugars is
+C_{6}H_{12}_O{6}, while that of cane sugar is C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}. By the
+addition of one molecule of water, H_{2}O, to a molecule of sucrose, two
+molecules of invert sugar (dextrose and glucose) are produced:[1]
+C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + H_{2} = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}. In
+bringing about this change, acids are employed, but the acid in no way
+enters into the chemical composition of the final product; it is removed
+as described during the process of sugar manufacture. The action of the
+acid brings about a catalytic change, the acid being necessary only as a
+presence reagent to start the chemical reaction. When properly prepared
+and the acid product thoroughly removed, dextrose and glucose have
+practically the same food value as sugar. When they are digested, heat
+and energy are produced, and a given weight has about the same fuel
+value as an equal weight of sugar. Some of the glucose-yielding products
+can be made at less expense than sugar, and when they are sold under
+their right names there is no reason why they should not be used in the
+dietary, as they serve the same nutritive purpose.
+
+79. Molasses is a by-product obtained in the refining of sugar. It is
+a mixture of cane sugar and invert sugars, as levulose and dextrose.
+When in sugar making the sucrose is removed by crystallization, a point
+is finally reached where the solution, or mother liquid, as it is
+called, refuses to give up any further crystals;[31] then this product,
+consisting of various sugars and small amounts of organic acids and ash,
+is partially refined and clarified to form molasses. The term "New
+Orleans" molasses was formerly applied to the product obtained by the
+use of open kettles for the manufacture of sugar, but during recent
+years the vacuum pan process has been introduced, and "New Orleans"
+molasses is now an entirely different article. The terms first, second,
+and third molasses are applied to the liquids obtained after the removal
+of the first, second, and third crops of sugar crystals; first molasses
+being richer in sucrose, while third molasses is richer in dextrose and
+invert sugars. The ash in molasses ranges from 4 to 6.5 per cent. Some
+of the low grades of molasses are used in the preparation of animal
+foods.
+
+The taste and physical characteristics of molasses are due largely to
+the organic acids and impurities that are present, as well as to the
+proportion in which the various sugars occur. When used with soda in
+cooking and baking operations, the organic acid of the molasses
+liberates carbon dioxide gas, which acts as a leavening agent. Because
+of the organic acids, molasses should not be stored in tin or metalware
+dishes, as the solvent action results in producing poisonous tin and
+other metallic salts.
+
+The food value of molasses is dependent entirely upon the amount of dry
+matter and the per cent of sugar. A large amount of water is considered
+an adulterant; ordinarily molasses contains from 20 to 33 per cent. If a
+sample of molasses contains 75 per cent of dry matter, it has slightly
+less than three fourths of the nutritive value of the same weight of
+sugar.
+
+80. Syrups.--The term "syrup" is applied to natural products obtained
+by evaporation and purification of the saccharine juices of plants.
+Sorghum syrup is from the sorghum plant, which is pressed by machinery
+and the juice clarified and evaporated so as to contain about 25 per
+cent of water. In sorghum syrups there are from 30 to 45 per cent of
+cane sugar, and from 12 to 20 per cent of glucose and invert sugars.
+Cane syrup is made from the clarified juice of the sugar cane, and has
+about the same general composition as sorghum syrup. Maple syrup,
+prepared from the juice of the sugar maple, is characteristically rich
+in sucrose and contains but little glucose or reducing sugars. The
+flavor of all the syrups is due mainly to organic acids, ethereal
+products, and impurities. In some instances the essential flavor can be
+produced synthetically, or derived from other and cheaper materials;
+and by the use of these flavors, mixed syrups can be prepared closely
+resembling many of the natural products. When properly made, they are
+equal in nutritive value to natural syrups. When sold under assumed
+names, they are to be considered and classified as adulterated, and not
+as syrups from definite and specific products. Low-grade syrups and
+molasses are often used for making fuel alcohol. They readily undergo
+alcoholic fermentation and are valuable for this purpose, rendering it
+possible for a good grade of fuel alcohol to be produced at low cost.
+The manufacture of sugar, syrups, and molasses has been brought to a
+high degree of perfection through the assistance rendered by industrial
+chemistry. Losses in the process are reduced to a minimum, and the
+various steps are all controlled by chemical analysis. Sugar has the
+physical property of deflecting a ray of polarized light, the amount of
+deflection depending upon the quantity of sugar in solution. This is
+measured by the polariscope, an instrument by means of which the sugar
+content of sugar plants is rapidly determined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF
+SYRUP.]
+
+81. Honey is composed largely of invert sugars gathered by the
+honeybee from the nectar of flowers. It varies in composition and flavor
+according to its source. The color depends upon the flower from which it
+came, white clover giving a light-colored, pleasant-flavored honey,
+while that from buckwheat and goldenrod is dark and has a slightly rank
+taste. The comb is composed largely of wax, which has somewhat the same
+general composition as fat, but contains ethereal instead of glycerol
+bodies. On account of the predominance of invert sugars, pure honey has
+a levulo or left-handed rotation when examined by the polariscope. Honey
+contains from 60 to 75 per cent of invert sugars, and from 12 to 20 per
+cent of water, while the ash content is small, less than one tenth of
+one per cent. Strained honey is easily adulterated with glucose
+products. Adulteration with cane sugar is readily detected, as pure
+honey contains only a very small amount of sucrose. Honey can be made by
+feeding bees on sugar; the sugar undergoes inversion, with the
+production of dextrose. Such honey, although not adulterated, is
+inferior in quality and lacking in natural flavor.[18]
+
+82. Confections.--By blending various saccharine products, confections
+are made. Usually sucrose (cane and beet sugar) is used as the basis for
+their preparation. Sucrose has definite physical properties, as
+crystalline structure, and forms chemical and mechanical combinations
+with acid, alkaline, and other substances; it also unites with water,
+and when heated undergoes changes in structural composition. The
+presence of small amounts of acid substances, or variations in the
+concentration of the sugar solution, materially affect the mechanical
+relation of the sugar particles to each other, and their
+crystallization. Usually crystallization takes place when there is less
+than 25 per cent of water present. The form, size, and arrangement of
+the crystals are influenced by agitation during cooling. To secure
+desired results, often small quantities of various other substances are
+employed for their mechanical action. Glucose is frequently used, and is
+said to be necessary for the production of some kinds of candy.
+
+Candies are colored with various dyes and pigments, many of which are
+harmless, although some are injurious. Coal tar dyes are frequently
+employed for this purpose. Objection has generally been urged against
+their use, as it is believed many of them are injurious to health. It
+cannot be said, however, that all are poisonous, as some are known to be
+harmless. The use of a few coal tar dyes is allowed by the United States
+government. Mineral colors are now rarely, if ever, used.
+
+Impure candies result from objectionable ingredients, as starch,
+paraffin, and large amounts of injurious coloring substances. Coal tar
+coloring materials are identified in the way described in Experiment No.
+13. Confectionery, when properly prepared and unadulterated, has the
+same nutritive value as sugar and the other ingredients, and is entitled
+to a place in the dietary for the production of heat and energy. Much
+larger amounts of candies are sold and consumed during the winter than
+the summer months, suggesting that in cold weather candy is most needed
+in the dietary.
+
+83. Saccharine is an artificial sweetening, five hundred times sweeter
+than cane sugar. It contains in its molecule, chemically united,
+benzine, sulphuric acid, and ammonia radicals. It is employed for
+sweetening purposes in cases of diabetes mellitus, where physicians
+advise against the use of sugar. It has no food value. A small amount is
+sometimes added to canned corn and tomatoes to impart a sweet taste. The
+physiological properties of saccharine have not been extensively
+investigated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+LEGUMES AND NUTS
+
+
+84. General Composition of Legumes.--Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts
+are the legumes most generally used for human food. As a class, they are
+characterized by high protein content and a comparatively low per cent
+of starch and carbohydrates. They contain the largest amount of
+nitrogenous compounds of any of the vegetable foods, and hence are
+particularly valuable in the human ration as a substitute for meats.[32]
+For feeding animals the legumes are highly prized, particularly the
+forage crops, clover and alfalfa. These secure their nitrogen, which is
+the characteristic element of protein, from the free nitrogen of the
+air, through the workings of bacterial organisms found in the nodules on
+the roots of the plants. The legumes appear to be the only plants
+capable of making use of the nitrogen of the air for food purposes.
+
+85. Beans contain about 24 per cent of protein and but little fat,
+less than is found in any of the grain or cereal products. The protein
+of the bean differs from that of cereals in its general and structural
+composition. It is a globulin known as legumin, and is acted upon
+mainly by ferments working in alkaline solutions, as in the lower part
+of the digestive tract. Beans have about the same amount of ash as the
+cereals, but the ash is richer in potash and lime.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF BEANS.
+HACKED PART INDIGESTIBLE.]
+
+86. Digestibility of Beans.--Beans are usually considered
+indigestible, but experiments show they are quite completely digested,
+although they require more work on the part of the digestive tract than
+many other foods. The digestibility was found to vary with individuals,
+86 per cent of the protein being digested in one case, and only 72 per
+cent in another. The protein of beans is not as completely digested as
+that of meats. When beans were combined with other foods, forming a part
+of a ration, they were more completely digested than when used in large
+amounts and with only a few other foods. The presence of the skin is in
+part responsible for low digestibility. When in the preparation of beans
+the skins, which contain a large amount of cellulose, are removed, the
+beans are more completely digested. By cooking from twenty minutes to
+half an hour in rapidly boiling water containing a small amount of soda,
+the skins are softened and loosened and are then easily removed by
+rubbing in cold water. Some of the soda enters into combination with the
+legumin. Along with the skins a portion of the germ is lost. The germ
+readily ferments, which is probably the cause of beans producing
+flatulence with some individuals during digestion. After the skins are
+removed the nutrients are more susceptible to the action of the
+digestive fluids. Experiments show that 42 per cent of the protein of
+baked skinned beans is soluble in pepsin and pancreatin solutions, while
+under similar conditions there is only 3.85 per cent of the protein
+soluble from beans baked without removal of the skins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--BEANS, RAW AND COOKED. SKINS, WET
+AND DRY.]
+
+87. Use of Beans in the Dietary.--There is no vegetable food capable
+of furnishing so much protein at such low cost as beans; from a pound
+costing five cents about one fifth of a pound of protein and three
+fifths of a pound of carbohydrates are obtained. Beans can, to a great
+extent, take the place of meats in the dietary. There is more protein in
+beans than in beef. Four ounces of uncooked beans or six ounces of baked
+beans are as much as can conveniently be combined in the dietary, and
+these will furnish a quarter of the protein of the ration. In the case
+of active out-of-door laborers over a pound of baked beans per day is
+often consumed with impunity.
+
+88. String Beans.--String beans--green beans with pod--contain a large
+amount of water, 85 to 88 per cent. The dry matter is rich in protein,
+nearly 20 per cent, although in the green beans as eaten, containing 85
+per cent water, there is less than 2-1/2 per cent. Lima beans are richer
+in protein than string beans, as the green pod is not included. String
+beans are valuable both for the nutrients they contain and for the
+favorable influence they exert upon the digestibility of other foods.
+
+89. Peas.--In general composition and digestibility, peas are quite
+similar to beans. They belong to the same family, Leguminosae, and the
+protein of each is similar in quantity and general properties. The
+statements made in regard to the composition, digestibility, and use of
+beans in the dietary apply with minor modifications to peas. When used
+in the preparation of soups, they add appreciable amounts of nutrients.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--PEA STARCH GRANULES.]
+
+90. Canned Peas.--In order to impart a rich green color, copper
+sulphate has been used in the canning of peas. Physiologists differ as
+to its effect upon health. While a little may not be particularly
+injurious, much interferes with normal digestion of the food and forms
+insoluble copper proteids. In some countries a small amount of copper
+sulphate is tolerated, while in others it is prohibited.
+
+91. Peanuts.--Peanuts differ from peas and beans in containing more
+fat. They should be considered a food, for at ordinary prices they
+furnish a large amount of protein and fat. Like the other members of the
+legume family, the peanut is rather slow of digestion and requires
+considerable intestinal work for completion of the process.
+
+
+NUTS
+
+92. General Composition.--Nuts should be regarded as food, for they
+contribute to a ration appreciable amounts of nutrients. The edible
+portion of nearly all is rich in fat; pecans, for example, contain as
+high as 70 per cent. In protein content nuts range from 3 per cent in
+cocoanuts to 30 per cent in peanuts. The carbohydrate content is usually
+comparatively low, less than 5 per cent in hickory nuts, although there
+is nearly 40 per cent in chestnuts. On account of high fat content, nuts
+supply a large amount of heat and energy.[33]
+
+93. Chestnuts are characterized by containing less fat and protein and
+much more carbohydrate material, especially starch, than is found in
+other nuts. In southern Europe chestnuts are widely used as food; the
+skins are removed, and the nuts are steamed, boiled, or roasted, and
+sometimes they are dried and ground into flour. Chestnuts are less
+concentrated in protein and fat, and form a better balanced food used
+alone than do other nuts.
+
+94. The Hickory Nut, which is a characteristically American nut,
+contains in the edible portion about 15 per cent protein, 65 per cent
+fat, and 12 per cent carbohydrates.
+
+95. The Almonds used in the United States come chiefly from southern
+Europe, although they are successfully raised in California. They
+contain about 55 per cent fat and 22 per cent protein. The flavor of
+almonds is due to a small amount of hydrocyanic acid.
+
+96. Pistachio.--Some nuts are used for imparting color and flavor to
+food products, as the pistachio nut, the kernel of which is greenish in
+color and imparts a flavor suggestive of almonds. The pistachio has high
+food value, as it is rich in both fat and protein. It is employed in the
+manufacture of confectionery and in ice cream for imparting flavor and
+color.
+
+97. Cocoanuts grow luxuriantly in many tropical countries, and have a
+high food value. They are characteristically rich in fat, one half of
+the edible portion being composed of this nutrient. For tropical
+countries they supply the fat of a ration at less expense than any other
+food. When used in large amounts they should be supplemented with foods
+rich in carbohydrates, as rice, and in proteids, as beans. Cocoanut milk
+is proportionally richer in carbohydrates and poorer in fat and protein
+than the meat of the cocoanut. In discussing the cocoanut, Woods
+states:[34]
+
+     "The small, green, and immature nuts are grated fine for medicinal
+     use, and when mixed with the oil of the ripe nut it becomes a
+     healing ointment. The jelly which lines the shell of the more
+     mature nut furnishes a delicate and nutritious food. The milk in
+     its center, when iced, is a most delicious luxury. Grated cocoanut
+     forms a part of the world-renowned East India condiment, curry.
+     Dried, shredded (desiccated) cocoanut is an important article of
+     commerce. From the oil a butter is made, of a clear, whitish color,
+     so rich in fat, that of water and foreign substances combined there
+     are but O.0068. It is better adapted for cooking than for table
+     use. At present it is chiefly used in hospitals, but it is rapidly
+     finding its way to the tables of the poor, particularly as a
+     substitute for oleomargarine."
+
+98. Use of Nuts in the Dietary.--When nuts can be secured at a low
+price per pound, ten cents or less, they compare favorably in nutritive
+value with other staple foods. Digestion experiments with rations
+composed largely of nuts show that they are quite thoroughly digested.
+Professor Jaffa of the California Experiment Station, in discussing the
+nutritive value of nuts and fruits, says:[35]
+
+     "It is certainly an error to consider nuts merely as an accessory
+     to an already heavy meal, and to regard fruit merely as something
+     of value for its pleasant flavor, or for its hygienic or medicinal
+     virtues. The agreement of one food or another with any person is
+     more or less a personal idiosyncrasy, but it seems fair to say that
+     those with whom nuts and fruits agree, can, if they desire, readily
+     secure a considerable part of their nutritive material from such
+     sources."
+
+
+AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF NUTS
+
+(From Fifteenth Annual Report, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.)
+
+  ===========================================================================
+                      |REFUSE|EDIBLE |        EDIBLE PORTION        |VALUE[A]
+                      |      |       |------------------------------|
+                      |      |PORTION|Water|Prot.| Fat |Carb.| Ash  | PER LB.
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                      |   %  |   %   |  %  |  %  |  %  |  %  |  %   |Calories
+  Almonds             | 64.8 |  35.2 | 1.7 | 7.3 |19.3 | 6.2 | 0.7  |  1065
+  Almonds, kernels    |  --  | 100.0 | 4.8 |21.0 |54.9 |17.3 | 2.0  |  3030
+  Brazil nuts         | 49.6 |  50.4 | 2.7 | 8.6 |33.6 | 3.5 | 2.0  |  1545
+  Filberts            | 52.1 |  47.9 | 1.8 | 7.5 |31.3 | 6.2 | 1.1  |  1575
+  Filberts, kernels   |  --  | 100.0 | 3.7 |15.6 |65.3 |13.0 | 2.4  |  3290
+  Hickory nuts        | 62.2 |  37.8 | 1.4 | 5.8 |25.5 | 4.3 | 0.8  |  1265
+  Pecans              | 49.7 |  50.3 | 1.4 | 5.2 |35.6 | 7.2 | 0.8  |  1733
+  Pecans, kernels     |  --  | 100.0 | 2.9 |10.3 |70.8 |14.3 | 1.7  |  3445
+  Walnuts             | 58.0 |  42.0 | 1.2 | 7.0 |27.0 | 6.1 | 0.7  |  1385
+  Walnuts, kernels    |  --  | 100.0 | 2.8 |16.7 |64.4 |14.8 | 1.3  |  3305
+  Chestnuts           | 16.1 |  83.9 |31.0 | 5.7 | 6.7 |39.0 | 1.5  |  1115
+  Acorns              | 35.6 |  64.4 | 2.6 | 5.2 |24.1 |30.9 | 1.6  |  1690
+  Beechnuts           | 40.8 |  59.2 | 2.3 |13.0 |34.0 | 7.8 | 2.1  |  1820
+  Butternuts          | 86.4 |  13.6 | 0.6 | 3.8 | 8.3 | 0.5 | 0.4  |   430
+  Litchi nuts         | 41.6 |  58.4 |10.5 | 1.7 | 0.1 |45.2 | 0.9  |   875
+  Pinon, P. edulis    | 40.6 |  59.4 | 2.0 | 8.7 |36.8 |10.2 | 1.7  |  1905
+  Pinon, P. monophylla| 41.7 |  58.3 | 2.2 | 3.8 |35.4 |15.3 | 1.6  |  1850
+  Pinon, P. sabiniana | 77.0 |  23.0 | 1.2 | 6.5 |12.3 | 1.9 | 1.1  |   675
+  Pistachio, kernels  |  --  | 100.0 | 4.2 |22.6 |54.5 |15.6 | 3.1  |  3010
+  Peanuts, raw        | 26.4 |  73.6 | 6.9 |20.6 |30.7 |13.8 | 1.6  |  1935
+  Peanuts, kernels    |  --  | 100.0 | 9.3 |27.9 |42.0 |18.7 | 2.1  |  2640
+  Roasted peanuts     | 32.6 |  67.4 | 1.1 |20.6 |33.1 |10.9 | 1.7  |  1985
+  Shelled peanuts     |  --  | 100.0 | 1.6 |30.5 |49.2 |16.2 | 2.5  |  2955
+  Peanut butter       |  --  |   --  | 2.0 |29.3 |46.6 |17.1 |[B]5.0|  2830
+  Cocoanuts           | 48.8 |  51.2 | 7.2 | 2.9 |25.9 |14.3 | 0.9  |  1415
+  Cocoanuts, shredded |  --  |   --  | 3.5 | 6.3 |57.3 |31.6 | 1.3  |  3125
+  Cocoanut milk       |  --  |   --  |92.7 | 0.4 | 1.5 | 4.6 | 0.8  |    97
+  =========================================================================
+
+[Footnote A: Calculated from analyses.]
+
+[Footnote B: Including salt, 4.1.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
+
+
+99. Importance in the Dietary.--There is no article of food which
+enters so extensively into the dietary as milk, and it is one of the few
+foods which supply all the nutrients,--fats, carbohydrates, and
+proteids.[36] Milk alone is capable of sustaining life for comparatively
+long periods, and it is the chief article of food during many diseases.
+An exclusive milk diet for a healthy adult, however, would be
+unsatisfactory; in the case of young children, milk is essential,
+because the digestive tract has not become functionally developed for
+the digestion of other foods.
+
+It is necessary to consider not only the composition and nutritive value
+of milk, but also its purity or sanitary condition.
+
+100. General Composition.--Average milk contains about 87 per cent
+water and 13 per cent dry matter. The dry matter is composed
+approximately of:
+
+  =======================
+              | Per Cent
+  Fat         |   3.5
+  Casein      |   3.25
+  Albumin     |   0.50
+  Milk sugar  |   5.00
+  Ash         |   0.75
+  =======================
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--MILK FAT GLOBULES.]
+
+Fat is the most variable constituent of milk. Occasionally it is found
+as low as 2 per cent and as high as 6 per cent or more. The poorest and
+richest milks differ mainly in fat content, as the sugar, ash, casein,
+and albumin, or "solids of the milk serum," are fairly constant in
+amount and composition. Variations in the content of fat are due to
+differences in feed and in the breed and individuality of the animal.
+
+101. Digestibility.--Milk is one of the most completely digested of
+foods, about 95 per cent of the protein and fat and 97 per cent of the
+carbohydrates being absorbed and utilized by the body.
+
+In a mixed ration, the nutrients of milk are practically all absorbed.
+Milk also exerts a favorable influence upon the digestibility of other
+foods with which it is combined. This is doubtless due to the digestive
+action of the special ferments or enzymes which milk contains. In milk
+there is a soluble ferment material or enzyme which has the power of
+peptonizing proteids. It is this ferment which carries on the ripening
+process when cheese is cured in cold storage, and it is believed to be
+this body which promotes digestion of other foods with which milk is
+combined.[27]
+
+Milk is not easily digested by some persons. The tendency to costiveness
+caused by a milk diet can be largely overcome by the use of salt with
+the milk, or of some solid food, as toast or crackers, to prevent
+coagulation and the formation of masses resistant to the digestive
+fluids. Barley water and lime water in small amounts are also useful for
+assisting mechanically in the digestion of milk. Milk at ordinary prices
+is one of the cheapest foods that can be used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--DIRT IN A SAMPLE OF UNSANITARY MILK.]
+
+102. Sanitary Condition of Milk.--Equally as important as composition
+is the sanitary condition or wholesomeness of milk. Milk is a food
+material which readily undergoes fermentation and is a medium for the
+distribution of germ diseases. The conditions under which it is produced
+and the way in which it is handled determine largely its sanitary
+value, and are of so much importance in relation to public health that
+during recent years city and state boards of health have introduced
+sanitary inspection and examination of milk along with the chemical
+tests for detecting its adulteration. Some of the more frequent causes
+of contaminated and unsound milk are: unhealthy animals, poor food and
+water, unsanitary surroundings of the animals, and lack of cleanliness
+and care in the handling and transporting of the milk. Outbreaks of
+typhoid and scarlet fevers and other germ diseases have frequently been
+traced to a contaminated milk supply.[37]
+
+103. Certified Milk.--When milk is produced under the most sanitary
+conditions, the number of bacterial bodies per cubic centimeter is
+materially reduced. In order to supply high grade milk containing but
+few bacteria, special precautions are taken in the care of the animals,
+and in the feeding and milking, and all sources of contamination of the
+milk are eliminated as far as possible. Such milk, when sold in
+sterilized bottles, is commonly called "certified milk," indicating that
+its purity is guaranteed by the producer and that the number of bacteria
+per unit does not exceed a certain standard, as 8000 per cubic
+centimeter. Ordinary market milk contains upwards of 50,000.
+
+104. Pasteurized Milk.--In order to destroy the activity of the
+bacterial organisms, milk is subjected to a temperature of 157 deg. F. for
+ten minutes or longer, which process is known as pasteurization. When
+milk is heated to a temperature above 180 deg., it is sterilized. Below
+157 deg., the albumin is not coagulated. By pasteurizing, milk is much
+improved from a sanitary point of view, and whenever the milk supply is
+of unknown purity, it should be pasteurized.[38] After the milk has been
+thus treated, the same care should be exercised in keeping it protected
+to prevent fresh inoculation or contamination, as though it were
+unpasteurized milk. For family use milk can be pasteurized in small
+amounts in the following way: Before receiving the milk, the receptacle
+should be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized with boiling water or dry
+heat, as in an oven. The milk is loosely covered and placed in a pan of
+water, a false bottom being in the pan so as to prevent unequal heating.
+The water surrounding the milk is gradually heated until a temperature
+of 159 deg. F. is registered, and the milk is kept at this temperature for
+about ten minutes. It is then cooled and placed in the refrigerator.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--PASTEURIZING MILK.]
+
+105. Tyrotoxicon.--Tyrotoxicon is a chemical compound produced by a
+ferment body which finds its way into milk when kept in unsanitary
+surroundings. It induces digestion disorders similar to cholera, and
+when present in large amounts, may prove fatal. It sometimes develops in
+cream, ice cream, or cheese, but only when they have been kept in
+unclean places or produced from infected milk.
+
+601. Color of Milk is often taken as a guide to its purity and
+richness in fat. While a yellow tinge is usually characteristic of
+milks rich in fat, it is not a hard and fast rule, for frequently
+light-colored milks are richer in fat than yellow-tinged ones. The
+coloring material is independent of the percentage of fat, and it is not
+always safe to judge the richness of milk on the basis of color.
+
+107. Souring of Milk.--Souring of milk is due to the action of the
+lactic acid organism, which finds its way into the milk through
+particles of dust carried in the air or from unclean receptacles which
+contain the spores of the organism.[39] When milk sours, a small amount
+of sugar is changed to lactic acid which reacts upon the casein,
+converting it from a soluble to an insoluble condition. When milk is
+exposed to the air at a temperature of from 70 deg. to 90 deg. F., lactic
+acid fermentation readily takes place. At a low temperature the process
+is checked, and at a high temperature the organisms and spores are
+destroyed. In addition to lactic acid ferments, there are large numbers
+of others which develop in milk, changing the different compounds of
+which milk is composed. In the processes of butter and cheese making,
+these fermentation changes are controlled so as to develop the flavor
+and secure the best grades of butter and cheese.
+
+108. Use of Preservatives in Milk.--In order to check fermentation,
+boric acid, formalin, and other preservatives have been proposed.
+Physiologists object to their use because the quantity required to
+prevent fermentation is often sufficient to have a medicinal effect.
+The tendency is to use excessive amounts, which may interfere with
+normal digestion of the food. Milk that is cared for under the most
+sanitary conditions has a higher dietetic value and is much to be
+preferred to that which has been kept sweet by the use of preservatives.
+
+109. Condensed Milk is prepared by evaporating milk in vacuum pans
+until it is reduced about one fourth in bulk, when it is sealed in cans,
+and it will then keep sweet for a long time. Occasionally some cane
+sugar is added to the evaporated product. When diluted, evaporated milk
+has much the same composition as whole milk. When a can of condensed
+milk has been opened, the same care should be exercised to prevent
+fermentation as if it were fresh milk.
+
+110. Skim Milk differs in composition from whole milk in fat content.
+When the fat is removed by the separator, there is often left less than
+one tenth of a per cent. Skim milk has a much higher nutritive value
+than is generally conceded, and wherever it can be procured at a
+reasonable price it should be used in the dietary as a source of
+protein.
+
+111. Cream ranges in fat content from 15 to 35 per cent. It is
+generally preferred to whole milk, although it is not as well balanced a
+food, because it is deficient in protein. Cream should contain at least
+25 per cent of fat.
+
+112. Buttermilk is the product left after removal of the fat from
+cream by churning. It has about the same amount of nutrients as skim
+milk. The casein is in a slightly modified form due to the development
+of lactic acid during the ripening of the cream, and on this account
+buttermilk is more easily digested and assimilated by many individuals
+than milk in other forms. The development of the acid generally reduces
+the number of species of other than the lactic organisms, and these are
+increased.
+
+113. Goat's Milk is somewhat richer in solids than cow's milk,
+containing about one per cent more proteids, a little more fat, and less
+sugar. When used as a substitute for human or cow's milk, it generally
+needs to be slightly diluted, depending, however, upon the composition
+of the individual sample.
+
+114. Koumiss is a fermented beverage made from milk by the use of
+yeast to secure alcoholic fermentation. Koumiss contains about one per
+cent each of lactic acid and alcohol, and the casein and other nutrients
+are somewhat modified by the fermentation changes. Koumiss is generally
+considered a non-alcoholic beverage possessing both food and dietetic
+value.
+
+115. Prepared Milks.--Various preparations are made to resemble milk
+in general composition. These are mechanical mixtures of sugar, fats,
+and proteids. Milk sugar, casein, or malted proteids are generally the
+materials employed in their preparation. Often the dried and pulverized
+solids of skim milk are used. Many of the prepared milks are deficient
+in fat. While they are not equal to cow's milk, their use is often made
+necessary from force of circumstances.
+
+116. Human Milk is not as rich in solid matter as cow's milk. It
+contains about the same amount of fat, one per cent more sugar, and one
+per cent less proteids. In human milk nearly one half of the protein is
+in the form of albumins, while in cow's milk there is about one fifth in
+this form. The fat globules are much smaller than those of cow's milk.
+In infant feeding it is often necessary to modify cow's milk by the
+addition of water, cream, and milk sugar, so as to make it more nearly
+resemble in composition human milk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--APPARATUS USED IN TESTING MILK.
+
+1, pipette; 2, lactometer; 3, acid measure; 4, centrifuge; 5, test
+bottle.]
+
+117. Adulteration of Milk.--Milk is not as extensively adulterated as
+it was before the passage and enforcement of the numerous state and
+municipal laws regulating its inspection and sale. The most frequent
+forms of adulteration are addition of water and removal of cream. These
+are readily detected from the specific gravity and fat content of the
+milk. The specific gravity of milk is determined by means of the
+lactometer, an instrument which sinks to a definite point in pure milk.
+In watered milk it sinks to greater depth, depending upon the amount of
+water added. The fat content of milk is readily and accurately
+determined by the Babcock test, in which the fat is separated by
+centrifugal action. For the detection of adulterated milk the student
+is referred to Chapter VI, "Chemistry of Dairying," by Snyder.
+
+
+BUTTER
+
+118. Composition.--Butter is made by the churning or agitation of
+cream and is composed mainly of milk fats and water, together with
+smaller amounts of ash, salt, casein, milk sugar, and lactic acid.
+Average butter has the following composition:
+
+  ============================
+                     |Per Cent
+  Water              | 10.5
+  Ash and salt       |  2.5
+  Casein and albumin |  1.0
+  Fat                | 86.0
+  ============================
+
+When butter contains an abnormal amount of water, it is considered
+adulterated. According to act of Congress standard butter should not
+contain over 16 per cent of water nor less than 82.5 per cent of fat.
+
+119. Digestibility of Butter.--Digestion experiments show that
+practically all of the fat, 98 per cent, is digestible and available for
+use by the body. Butter is valuable only for the production of heat and
+energy. Alone, it is incapable of sustaining life, because it contains
+no proteid material. It is usually one of the more expensive items of
+food, but it is generally considered quite necessary in a ration.[5] It
+has been suggested that it takes an important part mechanically in the
+digestion of food.
+
+120. Adulteration of Butter.--In addition to containing an excess of
+water, butter is adulterated in other ways. Old, stale butter is
+occasionally melted, washed, salted, and reworked. This product is known
+as renovated butter, and has poor keeping qualities. Frequently
+preservatives are added to such butter to delay fermentation changes.
+Oleomargarine and butterine are made by mixing vegetable and animal
+fats.[40] Highly colored stearin, cotton-seed oil, and lard are the
+usual materials from which oleomargarine is made. It has practically the
+same composition, digestibility, and food value as butter. When sold
+under its true name and not as butter, there is no objection, as it is a
+valuable food and supplies heat and energy at less cost than butter. The
+main objection to oleomargarine and butterine is that they are sold as
+butter.[41]
+
+The coloring of butter is not generally looked upon as adulteration, for
+butter naturally has a more or less yellow tinge. According to an act of
+Congress, butter colors of a non-injurious character are allowed to be
+used.
+
+
+CHEESE
+
+121. General Composition.--Cheese, is made by the addition of rennet
+to ripened milk, resulting in coagulation of the casein, which
+mechanically combines with the fat. It differs from butter in
+composition by containing, in addition to fat, casein and appreciable
+amounts of mineral matter. The composition varies with the character of
+the milk from which the cheese was made. Average milk produces cheese
+containing a larger amount of fat than proteids, while cheese from
+skimmed or partially skimmed milk is proportionally poorer in fat.
+Ordinarily there is about 35 per cent of water, 33 per cent of fat, and
+27 per cent of casein, and albumin or milk proteids, the remainder being
+ash, salt, milk sugar, and lactic acid. Cheese is characterized by its
+large percentage of both fat and protein, and has high food value. It
+contains more fat and protein than any of the meats; in fact, there are
+but few foods which have such liberal amounts of these nutrients as
+cheese.
+
+The odor and flavor of cheese are due to workings of bacteria which
+result in the production of aromatic compounds. The purity and condition
+of the milk, as well as the method of manufacture and the kind of
+ferment material used, determine largely the flavor and odor. Cheese is
+generally allowed to undergo a ripening or curing process before it is
+used as food. The changes resulting consist mainly in increased
+solubility of the proteids, with the formation of a small amount of amid
+and aromatic compounds.[42]
+
+122. Digestibility.--Cheese is popularly considered an indigestible
+food, but extended experiments show that it is quite completely
+digested, although in the case of some individuals not easily digested.
+In general, about 95 per cent of the fat and 92 per cent and more of the
+protein is digested, depending upon the general composition of the
+cheese and the digestive capacity of the individual. As far as total
+digestibility is concerned, there appears to be but little difference
+between green and well-cured cheese. So far as ease of digestion is
+concerned, it is probable that some difference exists. There is also but
+little difference in digestibility resulting from the way in which milk
+is made into cheese, the nutrients of Roquefort, Swiss, Camembert, and
+Cheddar being about equally digestible.[13] The differences in odor and
+taste are due to variations in kind and amount of bacterial action. When
+combined with other foods, cheese may exercise a beneficial influence
+upon digestion in the same way as noted from the use of several foods in
+a ration. No material differences were observed in digestibility when
+cheese was used in small amounts, as for condimental purposes, or when
+used in large amounts to furnish nutrients. Artificial digestion
+experiments show that cheese is more readily acted upon by the
+pancreatic than by the gastric fluids, suggesting that cheese undergoes
+intestinal rather than gastric digestion. It is possible this is the
+reason that cheese is slow of digestion in the case of some individuals.
+
+123. Use in the Dietary.--Cheese should be used in the dietary
+regularly and in reasonable amounts, rather than irregularly and then in
+large amounts. Cheese is not a luxury, but ordinarily it is one of the
+cheapest and most nutritious of human foods. A pound of cheese costing
+15 cents contains about a quarter of a pound of protein and a third of a
+pound of fat; at the same price, beef yields only about half as much fat
+and less protein. Cheese at 18 cents per pound furnishes more available
+nutrients and energy than beef at 12 cents per pound. In the dietary of
+European armies, cheese to a great extent takes the place of beef. See
+Chapter XVI.
+
+124. Cottage Cheese is made by coagulating milk and preparing the curd
+by mixing with it cream or melted butter and salt or sugar as desired.
+When milk can be procured at little cost, cottage cheese is one of the
+cheapest and most valuable foods.[43]
+
+125. Different Kinds of Cheese.--By the use of different kinds of
+ferments and variations in the process of manufacture different types or
+kinds of cheese are made, as Roquefort, Swiss, Edam, Stilton, Camembert,
+etc. In the manufacture of Roquefort cheese, which is made from goats'
+and ewes' milk, bread is added and the cheese is cured in caves,
+resulting in the formation of a green mold which penetrates the cheese
+mass, and produces characteristic odor and flavor. Stilton is an English
+soft, rich cheese of mild flavor, made from milk to which cream is
+usually added. It is allowed to undergo an extended process of ripening,
+often resulting in the formation of bluish green threads of fungus.
+Limburger owes its characteristic odor and flavor to the action of
+special ferment bodies which carry on the ripening process. Neufchatel
+is a soft cheese made from sweet milk to which the rennet is added at a
+high temperature. After pressing, it is kneaded and worked, and then put
+into packages and covered with tin foil.
+
+126. Adulteration of Cheese.--The most common forms of adulteration
+are the manufacture of skim-milk cheese by the removal of the fat from
+the milk, and substitution of cheaper and foreign fats, making a product
+known as filled cheese. When not labeled whole milk cheese, or sold as
+such, there is no objection to skim-milk cheese. It has a high food
+value and is often a cheap source of protein. The manufacture of filled
+cheese is now regulated by the national government, and all such cheese
+must pay a special tax and be properly labeled. As a result, the amount
+of filled cheese upon the market has very greatly decreased, and cheese
+is now less adulterated than in former years. The national dairy law
+allows the use of coloring matter of a harmless nature in the
+manufacture of cheese.
+
+127. Dairy Products in the Dietary.--The nutrients in milk are
+produced at less expense for grain and forage than the nutrients in
+beef, hence from a pecuniary point of view, dairy products, as milk and
+cheese, have the advantage. In the case of butter, however, the cost
+usually exceeds that of meat. In older agricultural regions, where the
+cost of beef production reaches the maximum, dairying is generally
+resorted to, as it yields larger financial returns, and as a result more
+cheese and less beef are used in the dietary. As the cost of meats is
+enhanced, dairy products, as cheese, naturally take their place.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS
+
+
+128. General Composition.--Animal tissue is composed of the same
+classes of compounds as plant tissue. In each, water makes up a large
+portion of the weight, and the dry matter is composed of nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds, and ash or mineral matter. Plants and animals
+differ in composition not so much as to the kinds of compounds, although
+there are differences, but more in the percentage amounts of these
+compounds. In plants, with the exception of the legumes, the protein
+rarely exceeds 14 per cent, and in many vegetable foods, when prepared
+for the table, there is less than 2 per cent. In meats the protein
+ranges from 15 to 20 per cent. The non-nitrogenous compounds of plants
+are present mainly in the form of starch, sugar, and cellulose, while in
+animal bodies there are only traces of carbohydrates, but large amounts
+of fat. Fat is the chief non-nitrogenous compound of meats; it ranges
+between quite wide limits, depending upon kind, age, and general
+condition of the animal. Meats contain the same general classes of
+proteins as the vegetable foods; in each the proteins are made up of
+albumins, glubulins, albuminates, peptone-like bodies, and insoluble
+proteids. The larger portion of the protein of meats and cereals is in
+insoluble forms. The meat juices, which contain the soluble portion of
+the proteins, constitute less than 5 percent of the nitrogenous
+compounds. Meats contain less amid substances than plants, in which the
+amids are produced from ammonium compounds and are supposed to be
+intermediate products in the formation of proteids, while in the animal
+body they are derived from the proteids supplied in the food and, it is
+generally believed, cannot form proteids. Albuminoids make up the
+connective tissue, hair, and skin, and are more abundant in animal than
+in plant tissue. One of the chief albuminoids is gelatine. Both plant
+and animal foods undergo bacterial changes resulting in the production
+of alkaloidal bodies known as ptomaines, of which there are a large
+number. These are poisonous and are what cause putrid and stale meat to
+be unwholesome. The protein in meat differs little in general
+composition from that of vegetable origin; differences in structure and
+cleavage products between the two are, however, noticeable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--MEAT AND EXTRACTIVE SUBSTANCES.]
+
+While meats from different kinds of animals have somewhat the same
+general composition, they differ in physical properties, and also in the
+nature of the various nutrients. For example, pork contains less protein
+than beef, but the protein of pork is materially different from that of
+beef, as a larger portion is in the form of soluble proteids, while in
+beef more is present in an insoluble form. Not only are differences in
+the percentage of individual proteins noticeable, but there are equally
+as great differences in the fats. As for example: some of the meats have
+a larger proportion of the fat as stearin than do others. Hence meats
+differ in texture and taste more than in nutritive value, due to the
+variations in the percentage of the different proteins, fats, and
+extractive material, rather than to differences in the total amounts of
+these compounds. The taste and flavor of meat is to a large extent
+influenced by the amount of extractive material.
+
+While the nutrients of meats are divided into classes, as proteins and
+fats, there are a large number of separate compounds which make up each
+of the individual classes, and there are also small amounts of
+compounds which are not included in these groups.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--STANDARD CUTS OF BEEF.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)]
+
+129. Beef.--About one half of the weight of beef is water; the lean
+meat contains a much larger amount than the fat. As a rule, the parts of
+the animal that contain the most fat contain the least water. In some
+meats there is considerable refuse, 25 to 30 per cent. In average meat
+about 12 per cent of the butcher's weight is refuse and non-edible
+parts.[44] A pound of average butcher's meat is about one half water,
+and over 10 per cent waste and refuse, which leaves less than 40 per
+cent fat and protein. Meat is generally considered to have a high
+nutritive value, due to the comparatively large amounts of fat and
+protein. Beef contains more protein than any vegetable food, except the
+legumes, and from 1 to 1.5 per cent mineral matter, exclusive of bone.
+Some of the mineral matter is chemically united with the protein and
+other compounds. While figures are given for average composition of
+beef, it is to be noted that wide variations are frequently to be met
+with, some samples containing a much larger amount of waste and
+trimmings than others, and this influences the percent of the nutritive
+substances. In making calculations of nutrients consumed, as in dietary
+studies, the figures for average composition of meat should be used only
+in cases where the samples do not contain an excess either of fat or
+trimmings.[45] When very lean, there is often a large amount of refuse,
+and the meat contains less dry matter and is of poorer flavor than from
+animals in prime condition. In the case of very fat animals, a large
+amount of waste results, and the flavor is sometimes impaired.
+
+130. Veal differs from beef in containing a smaller amount of dry
+matter, richer in protein, but poorer in fat. Animals differ in
+composition at different stages of growth in much the same way as
+plants. In the earlier stages protein predominates in the plant tissue,
+while later the carbohydrates are added in larger amounts, reducing the
+percentage content of protein. In animals the same is noticeable. Young
+animals are, pound for pound, richer in protein than old animals. While
+in the case of vegetables the increase in size, or rotundity, is due to
+starch and carbohydrates, in animals it is due to the addition of fat.
+But plants, like animals, observe the same general laws as to changes in
+composition at different stages of growth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--STANDARD CUTS OF MUTTON.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)]
+
+131. Mutton.--There is about the same amount of refuse matter in mutton
+as in beef. In a side of mutton about 19 percent: are trimmings and
+waste, and in a side of beef 18.5 per cent. Mutton, as a rule, contains
+a little more fat and dry matter than beef, and somewhat less protein. A
+side of beef, as purchased, contains about 50 per cent of water, 14.5
+per cent protein, and 16.8 per cent of fat, while a side of mutton, as
+purchased, contains 42.9 per cent water, 12.5 per cent protein, and 24.7
+per cent fat. A pound of beef yields a smaller number of calories by 25
+per cent than a pound of mutton. At the same price per pound more
+nutrients can be purchased as mutton than as beef. The differences in
+composition between lamb and mutton are similar to those between veal
+and beef; viz. a larger amount of water and protein and a smaller amount
+of fat in the same weight of the young animals. Differences in
+composition between the various cuts of lamb are noticeable. The leg
+contains the least fat and the most protein, while the chuck is richest
+in fat and poorest in protein. As in the case of beef, many of the
+cheaper cuts contain as much or more nutrients than the more expensive
+cuts. They are not, however, as palatable and differ as to toughness and
+other physical characteristics.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--STANDARD CUTS OF PORK.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)]
+
+132. Pork is characterized by a high per cent of fat and a
+comparatively low per cent of protein. It is generally richest in fat of
+any of the meats. The per cent of water varies with the fatness of the
+animal; in very fat animals there is a smaller amount, while lean
+animals contain more. In lean salt pork there is about 20 per cent
+water, and in fat salt pork about 7 per cent. There is less refuse and
+waste in pork than in either beef or mutton. Ham contains from 14 to 15
+per cent of refuse, and bacon about 7 per cent. Bacon has nearly twice
+as much fat and a smaller amount of protein than ham. A pound of bacon,
+as purchased, will yield nearly twice as much energy or fuel value as a
+pound of ham. Digestion experiments show that bacon is quite readily and
+completely digested and is often a cheaper source of fat and protein
+than other meats. There is about three times as much fat in bacon as in
+beef. When prepared for the table bacon contains, from 40 to 50 per cent
+of fat. A pound of high grade, lean bacon furnishes from 0.1 to 0.3 of a
+pound of digestible protein and from 0.4 to 0.6 of a pound of digestible
+fat, which is about two thirds as much fat as is found in butter. Bacon
+contains nearly as much digestible protein as other meats and from two
+to three times as much fat, making it, at the same price per pound, a
+cheaper food than other meats. In salt pork there is from 60 to 85 per
+cent of fat, and less protein than in bacon. The protein and fat of pork
+differ from those in beef not only in percentage amounts, but also in
+the nature of the individual proteins and fats. The composition of pork
+varies with the nature of the food that is consumed by the animal.
+Experiments show that it is possible by judicious feeding in the early
+stages of growth to produce pork with the maximum of lean meat and the
+minimum of fat. After the animal has passed a certain period, it is not
+possible by feeding to materially influence the percentage of nutrients
+in the meat. The flavor, too, of pork, as of other meats, is dependent
+largely upon the nature of the food the animal consumes. When there is a
+scant amount of available protein in the ration, the meat is dry, nearly
+tasteless, and contains less of the soluble nitrogenous compounds which
+impart flavor and individuality.
+
+133. Lard is prepared from the fat of swine, and is separated from
+associated tissue by the action of heat. A large amount of fat is found
+lining the back of the abdominal cavity, and this is known as leaf lard.
+Slight differences are noticeable in the composition and quality of lard
+made from different parts of the hog. Leaf lard is usually considered
+the best. Lard is composed of the three fats, olein, stearin, and
+palmatin, and has a number of characteristic physical properties, as
+specific gravity, melting point, iodine absorption number, as well as
+behavior with various reagents, and these enable the mixing of other
+fats with lard to be readily detected. Lard is used in the preparation
+of oleomargarine, and it is also combined with various vegetable oils,
+as cotton-seed oil, in the making of imitation or compound lards.[46]
+Lard substitutes differ little in general composition from pure lard,
+except in the structure of the crystals and the percentage of the
+various individual fats.
+
+134. Texture and Toughness of Meats.--In discussing the texture of
+meats, Professor Woods states:[45]
+
+     "Whether meats are tough or tender depends upon two things: the
+     character of the walls of the muscle tubes and the character of the
+     connective tissues which bind the tubes and muscles together. In
+     young and well-nourished animals the tube walls are thin and
+     delicate, and the connective tissue is small in amount. As the
+     animals grow older or are made to work (and this is particularly
+     true in the case of poorly nourished animals), the walls of the
+     muscle tubes and the connective tissues become thick and hard. This
+     is the reason why the flesh of young, well-fed animals is tender
+     and easily masticated, while the flesh of old, hard-worked, or
+     poorly fed animals is often so tough that prolonged boiling or
+     roasting seems to have but little effect on it.
+
+     "After slaughtering, meats undergo marked changes in texture. These
+     changes can be grouped under three classes or stages. In the first
+     stage, when the meat is just slaughtered, the flesh is soft, juicy,
+     and quite tender. In the next stage the flesh stiffens and the meat
+     becomes hard and tough. This condition is known as _rigor mortis,_
+     and continues until the third stage, when the first changes of
+     decomposition set in. In hot climates the meat is commonly eaten in
+     either the first or second stage. In cold climates it is seldom
+     eaten before the second stage, and generally, in order to lessen
+     the toughness, it is allowed to enter the third stage, when it
+     becomes soft and tender, and acquires added flavor. The softening
+     is due in part to the formation of lactic acid, which acts upon the
+     connective tissue. The same effect may be produced, though more
+     rapidly, by macerating the meat with weak vinegar. Meat is
+     sometimes made tender by cutting the flesh into thin slices and
+     pounding it across the cut ends until the fibers are broken."
+
+135. Influence of Cooking upon the Composition of Meats.[47]--It is
+believed by many that losses are prevented and the nutritive value
+conserved when, in the cooking of meat, it is placed directly into
+boiling water rather than into cold water and then brought to the
+boiling point and cooked. Extensive experiments have been made by Dr.
+Grindley in regard to this and other points connected with the cooking
+of meats, and in general it was found that the temperature of the water
+in which the meat was placed made little difference in its nutritive
+value or the amount of material extracted. It was found that by both
+methods there was dissolved 2.3 percent of the protein matter, 1 percent
+of the nitrogenous extractives, 1.6 per cent of non-nitrogenous
+material, and 0.8 per cent of ash, of the raw meat, which was equivalent
+to about 13 per cent of the total proteid material and 81 percent of the
+ash. The cold water extract contained bodies coagulated by heat. Cold
+water did not extract any of the fat, but during the process of cooking,
+appreciable amounts were lost mechanically. Cooked meats were found to
+be less soluble in cold water than raw meats. During the process of
+boiling, meat shrinks in weight about 40 or 45 per cent, depending
+mainly upon the size of the pieces and the content of fat. The loss in
+weight is practically a loss of water, and the loss of nutrients, all
+told, amounts to about 4 per cent, or more, depending upon the
+mechanical loss.[48] But slight differences were found in the
+composition of the meats cooked three and five hour periods.
+
+     "Careful study in this laboratory has shown that when meat is
+     cooked in water at 80 deg. to 85 deg. C., placing meat in hot or
+     cold water at the start has little effect on the amount of
+     nutrients in the meat which passes into the broth. The meat was
+     in the form of cubes, one to two inches, and in pieces weighing
+     from one to two pounds.
+
+     "It is commonly supposed that when meat is plunged into boiling
+     water, the albumin coagulates and forms a crust, which prevents the
+     escape of nutritive materials into the broth. It is also believed
+     that if a rich broth is desired, to be used either as a soup or
+     with the meat as a stew, it is more desirable to place the meat in
+     cold water at the start. From the results of these experiments,
+     however, it is evident that, under these conditions, there can be
+     little advantage in using hot or cold water at the beginning. When
+     meats were cooked by dry heat, as in roasting, a larger amount of
+     nutrients was rendered soluble in water than during boiling. The
+     losses of nutrients were much smaller when meats were cooked by dry
+     heat than when cooked in water, being on the average, water 35 per
+     cent, nitrogenous extractives 9 per cent, non-nitrogenous
+     extractives 17 per cent, fat 7 per cent, ash 12 per cent, and a
+     small loss of protein."
+
+The nutrients in the broth of the meat started in hot water amounted to
+about 1 per cent of protein, 1 per cent of fat, and O.5 per cent of
+ash, the amount of nutrients being directly proportional to the length
+of time and temperature of the cooking. In general, the larger the
+pieces, the smaller the losses. Beef that has been used in the
+preparation of beef tea loses its extractive materials, which impart
+taste and flavor, but there is only a small loss of actual nutritive
+value. Clear meat broth contains little nutriment--less than unfiltered
+broth. Most of the nitrogenous material of the broth is in the form of
+creatin, sarkin, and xanthin, nitrogenous extractives or amid substances
+having a much lower food value than proteids. Experiments show that some
+of these extractives have physiological properties slightly stimulating
+in their action, and it is believed the stimulating effect of a meat
+diet is in part due to these.[49] They are valuable principally for
+imparting taste and flavor, and cannot be regarded as nutrients. The
+variations in taste and flavor of meats from different sources are due
+largely to differences in extractive material.
+
+     "In general, the various methods of cooking materially modify the
+     appearance, texture, and flavor of meat, and hence its
+     palatability, but have little effect on total nutritive value.
+     Whether it be cooked in hot water, as in boiling or stewing, or by
+     dry heat, as in roasting, broiling, or frying, meat of all kinds
+     has a high food value, when judged by the kind and amount of
+     nutrient ingredients which are present." [50]
+
+Beef extracts of commerce contain about 50 per cent of extractive
+matters, as amids, together with smaller amounts of soluble proteids;
+ash, mainly added salt, is also present in liberal amounts (20 per
+cent). Beef extracts have condimental value imparting taste and flavor,
+which make them useful for soup stocks, but they furnish little in the
+way of nutritive substance.
+
+136. Miscellaneous Meat Products.--By combining different parts of the
+same animal, or different meats, a large number of products known as
+sausage are made. These vary in composition with the ingredients used.
+In general, they are richer in fat than beef and contain about the same
+amount of protein. Potato flour and flour from cereals are sometimes
+used in their preparations, but the presence of any material amount,
+unless so stated on the package, is considered an adulterant.
+
+Pickled meats are prepared by the use of condiments, as salt, sugar,
+vinegar, and saltpeter. During the smoking and curing of meats, no
+appreciable losses of nutrients occur.[51] The smoke acts as a
+preservative, and imparts condimental properties. Saltpeter (potassium
+nitrate) has been used from earliest times in the preparation of meats;
+it preserves color and delays fermentation changes. When used in
+moderate amounts it cannot be regarded as a preservative or injurious to
+health. Excessive amounts, however, are objectionable. Smoked meats,
+prepared with or without saltpeter, give appreciable reactions for
+nitrites, compounds formed during combustion of the wood by which the
+meat was smoked. Many vegetables contain naturally much larger amounts
+of nitrates, taken from the soil as food, than meat that has been
+preserved with saltpeter.[52]
+
+137. Poultry.--The refuse and waste from chickens, as purchased on the
+market, ranges from 15 to 30 per cent. The fat content is much lower
+than in turkeys or ducks, the largest amount being found in geese. The
+edible portion of all fowls is rich in protein, particularly the dark
+meat, and the food value is about equal to that of meat in general. When
+it is desired to secure a large amount of protein with but little fat,
+chicken supplies this, perhaps, better than any other animal food. A
+difference is observed in the composition of the meat of young and old
+fowls similar to that between beef and veal. The physical composition
+and, to a slight extent, the solubility of the proteids are altered by
+prolonged cold storage, the difference being noticeable mainly in the
+appearance of the connective tissue of the muscles. In discussing
+poultry as food, Langworthy states:[53]
+
+     "A good, fresh bird shows a well-rounded form, with neat, compact
+     legs, and no sharp, bony angles on the breast, indicating a lack of
+     tender white meat. The skin should be a clear color (yellow being
+     preferred in the American market) and free from blotches and pin
+     feathers; if it looks tight and drawn, the bird has probably been
+     scalded before being plucked. The flesh should be neither flabby
+     nor stiff, but should give evenly and gently when pressed by the
+     finger."
+
+138. Fish.--From 30 to 60 per cent of the weight of fresh fish is
+refuse. The edible portion contains from 35 to 50 per cent, and in some
+cases more, of water. The dry matter is rich in protein; richer than
+many meats. The nutrients in fish range between comparatively wide
+limits, the protein in some cases being as low as 6 per cent, in
+flounder, and in others as high as 30 per cent, in dried codfish. The
+amount of fat, except in a few cases, as salmon and trout, is small.
+Salmon is the richest in fat of any of the fishes. When salted and
+preserved, the proportion of water is lessened and that of the nutrients
+is increased. Fish can take the place of meat in the dietary, but it is
+necessary to add a larger amount of fat to the ration because of the
+deficiency of most fish in this ingredient. Fish has about the same
+digestibility as meats. It is believed by many to be valuable because it
+supplies a large amount of available phosphates. Analyses, however, show
+that the flesh of fish contains no more phosphorus compounds than meats
+in general, and its food value is due to protein rather than to
+phosphates.[54]
+
+Fish appears to be as completely and easily digested as meats.
+Differences in flavor, taste, and palatability are due to small amounts
+of flavors and extractive materials, varying according to the food
+consumed by the fish and the conditions under which they lived. The
+flesh of fish decays more readily than that of other meats and produces
+ptomaines, or toxic substances, which are the result of fermentation
+changes usually associated with putrefaction. Cases of poisoning from
+eating unsound fish are not infrequent.[55]
+
+Shellfish have about the same general composition as fish. In clams
+there is a larger amount of dry matter than in oysters, which contain
+about 12 per cent, half of which is protein. When placed in fresh water,
+the oyster increases in size and undergoes the process known as
+"fattening." Oftentimes impure water is used for this purpose, which
+makes the eating of raw oysters a questionable practice from a sanitary
+point of view, as the water in which they are floated often contains
+disease-producing germs, as typhoid. During the process of fattening,
+although the oyster increases in size and weight, it decreases in
+percentage of nutrients. In discussing the composition of oysters,
+Atwater states:[7]
+
+     "They come nearer to milk than almost any other food material as
+     regards both the amounts and relative proportions of nutrients."
+
+139. Eggs, General Composition.--Eggs are a type of concentrated
+nitrogenous food. About 75 per cent (shell removed) is water, about one
+third is yolk, and a little over 50 per cent is albumin or white. The
+shell makes up from 10 to 12 per cent of the weight. The yolk and white
+differ widely in composition. The yolk contains a much larger per cent
+of solids than the white, and is rich in both fat and protein, from a
+third to a half of the weight being fat. The white has about the same
+amount of water, 88 per cent, as average milk, but, unlike milk, the dry
+matter is mainly albumin. The entire egg (edible portion) contains
+about equal parts of fat and protein; 12 to 13 per cent of each and an
+appreciably large amount of ash or mineral matter,--from 0.8 to 1 per
+cent, consisting mainly of phosphates associated with the albumin. There
+is no material difference in chemical composition between white and dark
+shelled eggs, or between eggs with different colored yolks. It is simply
+a question of coloring matter. The egg is influenced to an appreciable
+extent by feed and general care of the fowls. The egg and the potato
+contain about the same amount of water. They are, however, distinct
+types of food, the potato being largely composed of carbohydrates and
+the egg of protein and fat. Eggs resemble meat somewhat in general
+composition, although they contain rather less of protein and fat. When
+eggs are boiled there is a loss of weight due to elimination of water;
+otherwise the composition is unaltered, the coagulation of the albumin,
+as stated in Chapter I, consisting simply in a rearrangement of the
+atoms of the molecule. The egg is particularly valuable in the dietary
+of the convalescent, when it is desired to secure the maximum amount of
+phosphorus in organic combination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--GRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF AN EGG.]
+
+The flavor of eggs is in part due to the food supplied to the fowls, as
+well as the age of the egg. Experiments show that onions and some other
+vegetables, when fed to fowls, impart odors and taste to the eggs. The
+keeping qualities of eggs are also dependent upon the food supplied. In
+experiments at the Cornell Experiment Station, when hens were fed on a
+narrow, nitrogenous ration, a large number of eggs were produced
+containing the minimum amount of solid matter and of poor keeping
+quality, while a larger sized egg of better keeping quality was obtained
+when a variety of foods, nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous, was supplied.
+
+140. Digestibility of Eggs.--Digestion experiments show that there is
+but little difference in the digestibility of eggs cooked in different
+ways. A noticeable difference, however, is observed in the rapidity with
+which the albumin and proteids are dissolved in a pepsin solution. In
+general, it was found that, when the albumin was coagulated at a
+temperature of 180 deg., it was more rapidly and completely dissolved in
+the pepsin than when coagulated at a temperature of 212 deg. When eggs
+were cooked at a temperature of 212 deg., the hard-boiled eggs appeared to
+be slightly more digestible than the soft-boiled eggs, but the digestion
+was not as complete as when the cooking was done at a temperature of
+180 deg.; then no difference in digestibility was found between eggs
+cooked for a short or a long time. The egg is one of the most completely
+digested of all foods, practically all the protein and fat being
+absorbed and available to the body. Langworthy, in discussing
+Jorissenne's investigations on the digestibility of eggs, states:[53]
+
+     "The yolk of raw, soft-boiled, and hard-boiled eggs is equally
+     digestible. The white of soft-boiled eggs, being semi-liquid,
+     offers little more resistance to the digestive juices than raw
+     white. The white of a hard-boiled egg is not generally very
+     thoroughly masticated. Unless finely divided, it offers more
+     resistance to the digestive juices than the fluid or semi-fluid
+     white, and undigested particles may remain in the digestive tract
+     many days and decompose. From this deduction it is obvious that
+     thorough mastication is a matter of importance. Provided
+     mastication is thorough, marked differences in the completeness of
+     digestion of the three sorts of eggs, in the opinion of the writer
+     cited, will not be found."
+
+141. Use of Eggs in the Dietary.--When eggs are at the same price per
+dozen as meat is per pound, they furnish a larger amount of nutrients.
+In general, a dozen eggs have a little higher food value than a pound of
+meat. Eggs are usually a cheaper source of food because a smaller amount
+is served than of meat. When eggs are 25 cents per dozen, the cost of
+ten eggs for a family of five is less than that of a pound or a pound
+and a quarter of beef at 22 cents per pound. The meat, however, would
+furnish the larger amount of nutrients. Eggs are valuable, too, in the
+dietary because they are frequently combined with flour, cereal
+products, and vegetables, which contain a large amount of starch, and
+some of which contain small amounts of protein. This combination
+furnishes a balanced ration, as well as secures palatability and good
+mechanical combination of the foods. Eggs in combination with flour,
+sugar, butter, and other materials have equally as great a value as when
+used alone and as a substitute for meat.
+
+Eggs vary in weight from 17.5 to 28 ounces, and more per dozen. They
+should be purchased and sold by weight. When stored, eggs lose weight.
+The egg cannot be considered as entirely germ proof, and care is
+necessary in its handling and use, the same as with other food articles.
+The cause of the spoiling of eggs is due largely to exterior bacterial
+infection.
+
+
+CANNED MEATS
+
+142. General Composition.--Canned meats differ but little in
+composition from fresh meats. Usually during the process of cooking and
+canning there is a slight increase in the amount of dry matter, but the
+relative proportion of protein and fat is about the same as in fresh
+meat. It is frequently stated that the less salable parts are used in
+the preparation of canned meats, as it is possible by cooking and the
+addition of condiments to conceal the inferior physical properties. As
+to the accuracy of these statements, the author is unable to say. The
+shrinkage or loss in weight during canning amounts to from 30 to 40 per
+cent. The liquids in which the cooking and parboiling are done are
+sometimes used in the preparation of beef extracts. Salt, saltpeter, and
+condiments are generally added during the canning process. Saltpeter is
+used, as it assists in retaining the natural color and prevents some
+objectionable fermentation changes. In moderate amounts it is not
+generally considered an adulterant. An extensive examination by Wiley
+and Bigelow of packing-house products and preserved meats showed that of
+the latter only a small amount contained objectionable preservatives.
+The authors, after an extended investigation, reported favorably upon
+their composition and sanitary value, saying they found "so little to
+criticise and so much to commend in these necessary products." In this
+bulletin they do not classify saltpeter as an adulterant.[51]
+
+Where fresh meats cannot be secured, canned meats are often
+indispensable. Usually the nutrients of canned meats cost more than
+those of fresh meats, and in their use as food much care should be
+exercised to prevent contamination after opening the cans. Occasionally
+the meat contains ferment materials that have not been entirely
+destroyed during cooking, and these, when the cans are stored in warm
+places, develop and cause deleterious changes to occur. Consequently
+canned meats should be stored at a low temperature. By recent
+congressional act, these preparations are now made under the
+supervision of government inspectors. All diseased animals are
+rejected, and the sanitary conditions under which the meat is prepared
+have been greatly improved. Formerly, the most frequent forms of
+adulteration were substitution of one meat for another, as the mixing of
+veal with chicken, and the use of preservatives, as borax and sulphites.
+While the cost of the nutrients in canned meats is generally much higher
+than in fresh meats, the latter are not always easily obtained, or
+capable of being kept for any length of time, and hence canned meats are
+often indispensable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CEREALS
+
+
+143. Preparation and Cost of Cereals.--The grains used in the
+preparation of cereal foods are wheat, oats, corn, rice, and, to a less
+extent, barley and rye. For some of these the entire cleaned grain is
+ground or pulverized, while for others the bran and germ are first
+removed. In order to improve their keeping qualities, they are often
+sterilized before being put up in sealed packages. Special treatment, as
+steaming or malting, is sometimes given to impart palatability and to
+lessen the time required for cooking. As a class, the cereal foods are
+clean, nutritious, and free from adulteration. Extravagant claims are
+sometimes made as to their food value, and frequently excessive prices
+are charged, out of proportion to the cost of the nutrients in the raw
+material. Within recent years the number of cereal preparations has
+greatly increased, due to improvements and variations in the methods of
+manufacture.[56]
+
+Cereal foods are less expensive than meats and the various animal food
+products. They contain no refuse, are easily prepared for the table, and
+may be kept without appreciable deterioration. Some of the
+ready--to-eat brands are cooked, dried, and crushed, and sugar,
+glucose, salt, and various condimental materials added to impart taste.
+Others contain malt, or are subjected to a malting or germinating
+process to develop the soluble carbohydrates, and such foods are
+sometimes called predigested. It is believed that the cereals are being
+more extensively used in the dietary, which is desirable both from an
+economic and a nutritive point of view. Special care is necessary in the
+cooking and preparation of cereals for the table, in order to develop
+flavor and bring about hydration and rupturing of the tissues, as
+explained in Chapter II.
+
+144. Corn Preparations.--Corn or maize is characterized by a high
+percent of fat and starch, and, compared with wheat and oats, a low
+content of protein.[57] Removal of the bran and germ lessens the per
+cent of fat. The germ is removed principally because it imparts poor
+keeping qualities. Many of the corn breakfast foods contain 1 per cent
+or less of fat and from 8 to 9 per cent of protein. Coarsely ground corn
+foods are not as completely digested and assimilated as those more
+finely ground. As in the case of wheat products, the presence of the
+bran and germ appears to prevent the more complete absorption of the
+nutrients. Finely ground corn meal compares favorably in digestibility
+with wheat flour. Corn flour is prepared by removal of the bran and germ
+and granulation of the more starchy portions of the kernel, and has
+better keeping qualities than corn meal from which the bran and germ
+have not been so completely removed. At times corn flour has been
+sufficiently low in price to permit its use for the adulteration of
+wheat flour. The mixing of corn and wheat flours, however, is prohibited
+by law unless the product is so labeled. When combined with wheat flour,
+corn bread and various other articles of food are prepared, but used
+alone corn flour is not suitable for bread making, because its gluten
+lacks the binding properties imparted to wheat flour by the gliadin. It
+is essential that corn be used with foods of high protein content so as
+to make a balanced ration; for when it forms a large part of the
+dietary, the ration is apt to be deficient in protein. In a mixed
+dietary, corn is one of the cheapest and best cereals that can be used.
+Too frequently, however, excessive prices are charged for corn
+preparations that contain no more nutrients than ordinary corn meal.
+There is no difference between yellow and white corn meal so far as
+nutritive value is concerned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--CORN STARCH.]
+
+145. Oat Preparations are characterized by large amounts of both
+protein and fat. Because of the removal of the hulls, they contain more
+protein than the original grain. The oat preparations differ little in
+chemical composition. They all have about 16 per cent of protein, 7 per
+cent of fat, and 65 per cent of starch, and are richer in ash or mineral
+matter than other cereals. The main difference is in method of
+preparation and mechanical composition. Some are partially cooked and
+then dried. Those costing 7 cents or more per pound do not contain any
+greater amount of nutritive substance than those purchased in bulk at
+about half the price. At one time it was believed that oats contained a
+special alkaloid having a stimulating effect when fed to animals. Recent
+investigations, however, show that there is no alkaloidal material in
+oats, and whatever stimulating effect they may have results from the
+nutrients they contain. Occasionally there is an appreciable amount of
+cellulose, or fiber, left in the oat preparations, due to imperfect
+milling. This noticeably lowers the digestibility. Oatmeal requires much
+longer and more thorough cooking than many other cereals, and it is
+frequently used as food when not well prepared. Digestion experiments
+show that when oatmeal is cooked for four hours or more, it is more
+readily acted upon by the diastase ferment and digested in a shorter
+time than oatmeal cooked only a half hour.[5] Oatmeal is one of the
+cheapest sources from which protein is obtained, and when well cooked it
+can advantageously form an essential part of the ration. Unless
+thoroughly cooked, the oat preparations do not appear to be quite so
+completely or easily digested as some of the other cereals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--OAT STARCH GRANULES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--WHEAT STARCH GRAINS.]
+
+146. Wheat Preparations differ in chemical composition more than those
+from oats or corn, because wheat is prepared in a greater variety of
+ways. They are made either from the entire kernel, including the bran
+and germ, or from special parts, as the granular middlings, as in the
+case of some of the breakfast foods, and a few are made into a dough and
+baked, then dried and toasted. Some special flours are advertised as
+composed largely of gluten, but only those that have been prepared by
+washing out the starch are entitled to be classed as gluten flours.[58]
+For the food of persons suffering from diabetes mellitus physicians
+advise the use of flour low in starch, and this can be made by washing
+and thus removing a portion of the starch from wheat flour, as directed
+in Experiment No. 30. The glutinous residue is then used for preparing
+articles of food. Analyses of some of the so-called gluten flours show
+that they contain no more gluten than ordinary flour, particularly the
+low grades. A number of wheat breakfast foods are prepared by
+sterilizing the flour middlings obtained after removal of the bran and
+germ. These middlings are the same stock or material from which the
+patent grades of flour are made, and they differ from wheat flour only
+in mechanical structure and size of the particles. Where granular wheat
+middlings can be secured in bulk at the same price as flour they furnish
+a valuable and cheap cereal breakfast food.
+
+As to the digestibility and food value, the wheat breakfast foods have
+practically the same as graham, entire wheat, or ordinary patent flour,
+depending upon the stock which they contain. Those with large amounts of
+bran and germ are not as completely digested as when these parts of the
+kernel are not included. Wheat preparations, next to oats, have the most
+protein of any of the cereal foods. Occasionally they are prepared from
+wheats low in gluten and not suitable for bread-making purposes. When
+purchased in bulk the wheat preparations are among the cheapest foods
+that can be used in the dietary.[56]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--BARLEY STARCH.]
+
+147. Barley Preparations are not so extensively used as wheat, oats,
+and corn. Barley contains a little more protein than corn, but not quite
+so much as wheat; otherwise it is quite similar to wheat in general
+composition. Sometimes in the preparation of breakfast foods barley meal
+is mixed with wheat or corn. Barley is supposed to be more readily
+digested than some of the other cereals, because of the presence of
+larger amounts of active ferment bodies, and it is frequently used for
+making an extract known as "barley water," which, although it contains
+very little nutritive value, as less than one per cent of the weight of
+the barley is rendered soluble, is useful in its soothing influence and
+mechanical action upon the mucous membrane of the digestive tract.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--RICE STARCH.]
+
+148. Rice Preparations.--Rice varies somewhat in composition, but
+usually contains a slightly lower percentage of protein than corn and
+also a smaller amount of fat. It is particularly rich in starch, and has
+the least ash or mineral matter of any of the cereals. In order to make
+a balanced ration, rice should be supplemented with legumes and other
+foods rich in proteids. It is a valuable grain, but when used alone it
+is deficient in protein. Rice is digested with moderate ease, but is not
+as completely absorbed by the body as other cereals, particularly those
+prepared by fine grinding or pulverization. Of late years rice culture
+has been extensively introduced into some of the southern states, and
+the domestic rice seems to have slightly higher protein content than the
+imported. Rice contains less protein than other cereals, and the starch
+grain is of different construction. Rice does not require such prolonged
+cooking as oatmeal; it needs, however, to be thoroughly cooked.
+
+149. Predigested Foods.[56]
+
+     "It is questionable whether it would be of advantage to a healthy
+     person to have his food artificially digested. The body under
+     normal conditions is well adapted to utilize such foods as the
+     ordinary mixed diet provides, among them the carbohydrates from the
+     cereals. Moreover, it is generally believed that for the digestive
+     organs, as for all others of the body, the amount of exercise they
+     are normally fitted to perform is an advantage rather than the
+     reverse. It has been said that 'a well man has no more need of
+     predigested food than a sound man has for crutches.' If the
+     digestive organs are out of order, it may be well to save them
+     work, but troubles of digestion are often very complicated affairs,
+     and the average person rarely has the knowledge needed to prescribe
+     for himself. In general, those who are well should do their own
+     work of digestion, and those who are ill should consult a competent
+     physician."--WOODS AND SNYDER.
+
+150. The Value of Cereals in the Dietary.--Cereals are valuable in the
+dietary because of the starch and protein they supply, and the heat and
+energy they yield. They are among the most inexpensive of foods and,
+when properly prepared, have a high degree of palatability; then, too,
+they are capable of being blended in various ways with other foods. Some
+are valuable for their mechanical action in digestion, rather than for
+any large amount of nutrients. They do not furnish the quantity of
+mineral matter and valuable phosphates that is popularly supposed. They
+all contain from 0.5 to 1.5 percent of mineral matter, of which about
+one third is phosphoric anhydrid. In discussing the phosphate content of
+food, Hammersten states:[59]
+
+     "Very little is known in regard to the need of phosphates or
+     phosphoric acid.... The extent of this need is most difficult to
+     determine, as the body shows a strong tendency, when increased
+     amounts of phosphorus are introduced, to retain more than is
+     necessary. The need of phosphates is relatively smaller in adults
+     than in young developing animals."
+
+In the coarser cereals, which include the bran and germ, there is the
+maximum amount of mineral matter, but, as in the case of graham bread,
+it is not as completely digested and absorbed by the body as the more
+finely granulated products which contain less. The kind of cereal to use
+in the dietary is largely a matter of personal choice. As only a small
+amount is usually eaten at a meal, there is little difference in the
+quantity of nutrients supplied by the various breakfast cereals.
+
+
+  TOTAL AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FUEL VALUE OF CEREALS
+  [Transcriber's note: This table has been divided into two
+  parts to fit limits on page width.]
+
+  =======================================================
+                        |     TOTAL NUTRIENTS           |
+                        |-----+----+----+----------+----+
+                        |     |    |    |   C.H.   |    |
+      KIND OF FOOD      |Water|Pro.|Fat +----+-----+Ash |
+                        |     |    |    |N.F.|Fiber|    |
+                        |     |    |    |Ext |     |    |
+  ----------------------+-----+----+----+----+-----+----+
+                        |  %  |  % |  % |  % |  %  |  % |
+  Oat Preparations:     |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Oats, whole grain   | 11.0|11.8| 5.0|59.7|  9.5| 3.0|
+    Oatmeal, raw        |  7.3|16.1| 7.2|66.6|  9.9| 1.9|
+    Rolled, steam-cooked|  8.2|16.1| 7.4|65.2|  1.3| 1.8|
+  Wheat:                |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole grain         | 10.5|11.9| 2.1|71.9|  1.8| 1.8|
+    Cracked wheat       | 10.1|11.1| 1.7|73.8|  1.7| 1.6|
+    Rolled, steam-cooked| 10.6|10.2| 1.8|74.4|  1.8| 1.5|
+    Shredded wheat      |  8.1|10.6| 1.4|76.6|  2.1| 1.8|
+    Crumbed and malted  |  5.6|12.2| 1.0|77.6|  1.7| 1.0|
+    Farina              | 10.9|11.0| 1.4|75.9|  0.4| 0.4|
+  Rye:                  |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole grain         | 11.6|10.6| 1.7|72.5|  1.7| 1.9|
+    Flaked, to be eaten | 11.1|10.0| 1.4|   75.8   | 1.7|
+      raw               |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+  Barley:               |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole grain         | 10.9|12.4| 1.8|69.8|  2.7| 2.4|
+    Pearled barley      | 11.5| 8.5| 1.1|77.5|  0.3| 1.1|
+  Buckwheat:            |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Flour               | 13.6| 6.4| 1.2|77.5|  0.4| 0.9|
+  Corn:                 |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole grain         | 10.9|10.5| 5.4|69.6|  2.1| 1.5|
+    Corn meal, unbolted | 11.6| 8.4| 4.7|   74.0   | 1.3|
+    Corn meal, bolted   | 12.5| 9.2| 1.9|74.4|  1.0| 1.0|
+    Hominy              | 10.9| 8.6| 0.6|79.2|  0.4| 0.3|
+    Pop corn, popped    |  4.3|10.7| 5.0|77.3|  1.4| 1.3|
+    Hulled corn         | 74.1| 2.3| 0.9|   22.2   | 0.5|
+  Rice:                 |     |    |    |    |     |    |
+    Whole rice, polished| 12.3| 6.9| 0.3|   80.0   | 0.5|
+    Puffed rice         |  7.1| 6.2| 0.6|   85.7   | 0.4|
+  Crackers              |  6.8|10.7| 8.8|71.4|  0.5| 1.8|
+  Macaroni              | 10.3|13.4| 0.9|   74.1   | 1.3|
+  =======================================================
+
+
+  =====================================================
+                        | DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS
+                        |----+----+----+----+----------
+                        |    |    |    |    | Fuel
+      KIND OF FOOD      |Pro.|Fat |C.H.|Ash | Value
+                        |    |    |    |    | per lb.
+                        |    |    |    |    |
+  ----------------------+----+----+----+----+----------
+                        |  % |  % |  % |  % | Calories.
+  Oat Preparations:     |    |    |    |    |
+    Oats, whole grain   | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Oatmeal, raw        |12.5| 6.5|65.5| 1.4| 1767
+    Rolled, steam-cooked|12.5| 6.7|64.5| 1.4| 1759
+  Wheat:                |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole grain         | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Cracked wheat       | 8.1| 1.5|68.7| 1.2| 1501
+    Rolled, steam-cooked| 8.5| 1.6|70.7| 1.1| 1541
+    Shredded wheat      | 7.7| 1.3|71.1| 1.4| 1521
+    Crumbed and malted  | 9.1| 0.9|73.7| 1.4| 1623
+    Farina              | 8.9| 1.3|72.9| 0.5| 1609
+  Rye:                  |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole grain         | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Flaked, to be eaten | 7.8| 1.3|71.1| 1.3| 1516
+      raw               |    |    |    |    |
+  Barley:               |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole grain         | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Pearled barley      | 6.6| 1.0|73.0| 0.3| 1514
+  Buckwheat:            |    |    |    |    |
+    Flour               | 5.0| 1.1|73.1| 0.7| 1471
+  Corn:                 |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole grain         | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+    Corn meal, unbolted | 6.2| 4.2|73.2| 1.0| 1728
+    Corn meal, bolted   | 6.8| 1.7|74.6| 0.8| 1602
+    Hominy              | 6.4| 0.5|78.7| 0.2| 1671
+    Pop corn, popped    | 7.9| 4.5|77.8| 1.0| 1882
+    Hulled corn         | 1.7| 0.8|21.8| 0.4|  492
+  Rice:                 |    |    |    |    |
+    Whole rice, polished| 5.8| 0.3|78.4| 0.4| 1546
+    Puffed rice         | 5.1| 0.5|84.0| 0.3| 1639
+  Crackers              | 9.1| 7.9|70.5| 1.4| 1905
+  Macaroni              |11.6| 0.8|72.2| 1.0| 1660
+  =====================================================
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+WHEAT FLOUR
+
+
+151. Use for Bread Making.--Wheat is particularly adapted to
+bread-making purposes because of the physical properties of the gliadin,
+one of its proteids. It is the gliadin which, when wet, binds together
+the flour particles, enabling the gas generated during bread making to
+be retained, and the loaf to expand and become porous. Wheat varies in
+chemical composition between wide limits; it may contain as high as 16
+per cent of protein, or as low as 8 per cent; average wheat has from 12
+to 14 per cent; and with these differences in composition, the
+bread-making value varies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--STARCHY (LIGHT-COLORED) AND
+GLUTINOUS (DARK-COLORED) WHEATS.]
+
+152. Winter and Spring Wheat Flours.--There are two general classes of
+wheat: spring wheat and winter wheat. The winter varieties are seeded in
+the fall, and the spring varieties, which are grown mainly in the
+Northwestern states, Minnesota, and North and South Dakota, and the
+Canadian Northwest, are seeded in the spring and mature in the late
+summer. Winter wheat is confined to more southern latitudes and regions
+of less severe winter, and matures in the early summer. There are many
+varieties of both spring and winter wheat, although wheats are
+popularly characterized only as hard or soft, depending upon the
+physical properties. The winter wheats are, as a rule, more soft and
+starchy than the spring wheats, which are usually corneous or flinty to
+different degrees. There is a general tendency for wheats to become
+either starchy or glutinous, owing to inherited individuality of the
+seed and to environment. There are often found in the same field wheat
+plants yielding hard glutinous kernels, and other plants producing
+starchy kernels containing 5 per cent less proteids. Wheats of low
+protein content do not make high-grade flour; neither do wheats of the
+maximum protein content necessarily make the best flour. For a more
+extended discussion of wheat proteids, the student is referred to
+Chapter XI.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WHEAT KERNEL:
+_a_, pericarp; _b_, bran layers; _c_, aleurone cells; _d_,
+germ. (After KOeNIG.)]
+
+153. Composition of Wheat and Flour.--In addition to 12 to 14 per cent
+proteids, wheat contains 72 to 76 per cent of starch and small amounts
+of other carbohydrates, as sucrose, dextrose, and invert sugar. The ash
+or mineral matter ranges from 1.7 to 2.3 per cent. There is also about 2
+per cent fiber, 2.25 per cent ether extract or crude fat, and about 0.2
+per cent organic acids.
+
+Summary:
+
+COMPOSITION OF WHEAT FLOUR
+
+  ========================================================
+                                                | Per Cent
+  Water                                         |  12.00
+                                                |
+       {Potash             }                    |
+       {Soda               }                    |
+       {Lime               }                    |
+  Ash  {Magnesia           }                    |   2.25
+       {Phosphoric anhydrid}                    |
+       {Sulphuric anhydrid }                    |
+       {Other substances   }                    |
+                                                |
+           {Albumin         0.4}                |
+           {Globulin        0.9}                |
+  Protein  {Gliadin         6.0}                |  13.00
+           {Glutenin        5.3}                |
+           {Other proteids  0.4}                |
+  Other nitrogenous bodies, as amids, lecethin  |   0.25
+  Crude fat, ether extract                      |   2.25
+  Cellulose                                     |   2.25
+  Starch                                        |  66.00
+  Sucrose, dextrose, soluble carbohydrates, etc.|   2.00
+  =======================================================
+
+154. Roller Process of Flour Milling.--Flours vary in composition,
+food value, and bread-making qualities with the character of the wheat
+and the process of milling employed. Prior to 1870 practically all
+wheat flour was prepared by grinding the wheat between millstones; but
+with the introduction of the roller process, steel rolls were
+substituted for millstones.[60] By the former process a smaller amount
+of flour was secured from the wheat, but with the present improved
+systems about 75 per cent of the weight of the grain is recovered as
+merchantable flour and 25 per cent as wheat offals, bran, and
+shorts[61].
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--GRANULAR WHEAT FLOUR PARTICLES.]
+
+The wheat is first screened and cleaned, then passed on to the
+corrugated rolls, or the first break, where it is partially flattened
+and slightly crushed and a small amount of flour, known as the break
+flour, is separated by means of sieves, while the main portion is
+conveyed through elevators to the second break, where the kernels are
+more completely flattened and the granular flour particles are partially
+separated from the bran. The material passes over several pairs of rolls
+or breaks, each succeeding pair being set a little nearer together. This
+is called the gradual reduction process, because the wheat is not made
+into flour in one operation. More complete removal of the bran and other
+impurities from the middlings is effected by means of sieves,
+aspirators, and other devices, and the purified middlings are then
+passed on to smooth rolls, where the granulation is completed. The flour
+finally passes through silk bolting cloths, containing upwards of 12,000
+meshes per square inch. The dust and fine debris particles are removed
+at various points in the process. The granulation of the middlings is
+done after the impurities are removed, the object being first to
+separate as perfectly as possible the middlings from the branny portions
+of the kernel. If the wheat were first ground into a fine meal, it would
+be impossible to secure complete separation of the flour from the
+offal portions of the kernel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--EXTERIOR OF FLOUR MILL AND WHEAT ELEVATOR.]
+
+Flour milling is entirely a mechanical process; the flour stock passes
+from roll to roll by means of elevators. According to the number of
+reductions which the middlings and stock undergo, the milling is
+designated as a long or a short reduction system; the term 4, 6, 8, or
+10 break process means that the stock has been subjected to that number
+of reductions. With an 8-break system of milling, the process is more
+gradual than with a 4-break, and greater opportunity is afforded for
+complete removal of the bran. In some large flour mills, the wheat is
+separated into forty or more different products, or streams, as they are
+called, so as to secure a better granulation and more complete removal
+of the offals, after which many of these streams are brought together to
+form the finished flour. What is known as patent flour is derived from
+the reduction of the middlings, while the break flours are recovered
+before the offals are completely removed; hence they are not of so high
+a grade. No absolute definition can be given, however, of the term
+"patent flour," as usage varies the meaning in different parts of the
+country.
+
+155. Grades of Flour.--Flour is the purified, refined, and bolted
+product obtained by reduction and granulation of wheat during and after
+the removal of the branny portions of the wheat kernel. It is defined by
+proclamation of the Secretary of Agriculture, under authority of an
+act of Congress, as: "Flour is the fine, sound product made by bolting
+wheat meal, and contains not more than thirteen and one half (13.5) per
+cent of moisture, not less than one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25)
+per cent of nitrogen, not more than one (1) per cent of ash, and not
+more than fifty hundredths (0.50) per cent of fiber."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--GRINDING FLOOR OF FLOUR MILL,
+RUSSELL-MILLER MILLING CO., MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.]
+
+Generally speaking, flour may be divided into two classes, high grade
+and low grade. To the first class belong the first and second patents
+and, according to some authorities, a portion of the straight grade, or
+standard patent flour, and to the second class belong the second clear
+and "red dog." About 72 per cent of the cleaned wheat as milled is
+recovered in the higher grades of flour, and about 2 or 3 per cent as
+low grades, a large portion of which is sold as animal food. The high
+grades are characterized by a lighter color, more elastic gluten, better
+granulation, and a smaller number of debris particles. Although the
+lower grade flours contain a somewhat higher percentage of protein, they
+are not as valuable for bread-making purposes because the gluten is not
+as elastic, and consequently they do not make as good bread. If the
+impurities from the low grades could be further eliminated, it is
+believed that less difference would exist between high and low grade
+flours.
+
+Various trade names are used to designate flours, as a 95 per cent
+patent, meaning that 95 per cent of the total flour is included in the
+patent; or an 85 per cent patent, when 85 per cent of all the flour is
+included in that particular patent. If all the flour streams were
+purified and blended, and only one grade of flour made, it would be
+called a 100 per cent patent. An 85 per cent patent is a higher grade
+flour than a 95 per cent patent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--SILK BOLTING CLOTH USED IN
+MANUFACTURE OF FLOUR, MAGNIFIED.]
+
+156. Composition of Flour.--The composition of the different grades of
+flour made from the same wheat is given in the following table:[62]
+
+COMPOSITION, ACIDITY, AND HEATS OF COMBUSTION OF FLOURS AND OTHER
+MILLED PRODUCTS OF WHEAT
+
+
+  ===========================================================================
+                      |WATER| PROTEIN | FAT| CARBO-| ASH| ACIDITY | HEAT OF
+  MILLED PRODUCT      |     |(N x 5.7)|    | HY-   |    | CALCUL- |COMBUSTION
+                      |     |         |    | DRATES|    |ATED AS  | PER GRAM
+                      |     |         |    |       |    |LACTIC   |DETERMINED
+                      |     |         |    |       |    | ACID    |
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                      |  %  |    %    |  % |   %   |  % |     %    |Calories
+  First patent flour  |10.55|   11.08 |1.15| 76.85 |0.37|   0.08   | 4032
+  Second patent flour |10.49|   11.14 |1.20| 76.75 |0.42|   0.08   | 4006
+  Straight[A] or      |     |         |    |       |    |          |
+    standard patent   |10.54|   11.99 |1.61| 75.36 |0.50|   0.09   | 4050
+    flour             |     |         |    |       |    |          |
+  First clear grade   |10.13|   13.74 |2.20| 73.13 |0.80|   0.12   | 4097
+    flour             |     |         |    |       |    |          |
+  Second clear grade  |10.08|   15.03 |3.77| 69.37 |1.75|   0.56   | 4267
+    flour             |     |         |    |       |    |          |
+  "Red dog" flour     | 9.17|   18.98 |7.00| 61.37 |3.48|   0.59   | 4485
+  Shorts              | 8.73|   14.87 |6.37| 65.47 |4.56|   0.14   | 4414
+  Bran                | 9.99|   14.02 |4.39| 65.54 |6.06|   0.23   | 4198
+  Entire-wheat flour  |10.81|   12.26 |2.24| 73.67 |1.02|   0.32   | 4032
+  Graham flour        | 8.61|   12.65 |2.44| 74.58 |1.72|   0.18   | 4148
+  Wheat               | 8.50|   12.65 |2.36| 74.69 |1.80|   0.18   | 4140
+  ===========================================================================
+
+[Footnote A: Straight flour includes the first and second patents and
+first clear grade.]
+
+In the table it will be noted that there is a gradual increase in
+protein content from first patent to "red dog," the largest amount being
+in the "red dog" flour. Although "red dog" contains the most protein, it
+is by far the poorest flour in bread-making qualities, and in the
+milling of wheat often it is not separated from the offals, but is sold
+as an animal food. It will also be seen that there is a gradual increase
+in the ash content from the highest to the lowest grades of flour, the
+increase being practically proportional to the grade,--the most ash
+being in the lowest grade. The grade to which a flour belongs can be
+determined more accurately from the ash content than from any other
+constituent. Patent grades of flour rarely contain more than 0.55 per
+cent of ash,--the better grades less than 0.5 per cent. The more
+completely the bran and offals are removed during the process of
+milling, the lower the per cent of ash. The ash content, however, cannot
+be taken as an absolute guide in all cases, as noticeable variations
+occur in the amount of mineral matter or ash in different wheats;
+starchy wheats that have reached full maturity often contain less than
+hard wheats grown upon rich soil where the growing season has been
+short, and from such wheats a soft, straight flour may have as low a per
+cent of ash as a hard first patent flour. When only straight or standard
+patent flour is manufactured by a mill, all of the flour is included
+which would otherwise be designated first and second patents and first
+clear.
+
+157. Graham and Entire Wheat Flours.--When the germ and a portion of
+the bran are retained in the flour, and the particles are not completely
+reduced, the product is called "entire wheat flour." The name does not
+accurately describe the product, as it includes all of the flour and
+only a portion of the bran, and not the entire wheat kernel. Graham
+flour is coarsely granulated wheat meal. No sieves or bolting cloths
+are employed in its manufacture, and many coarse, unpulverized
+particles are present in the product[62].
+
+158. Composition of Wheat Offals.--Bran and shorts are characterized
+by a high percentage of fiber, or cellulose. The ash, fat, and protein
+content of bran are all larger than of flour. The protein, however, is
+not in the form of gluten, but is largely albumin and globulins,[16]
+which are mainly in the aleurone layer of the wheat kernel, and are
+inclosed in branny capsules, and consequently are in a form not readily
+digested by man.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--FLOUR AND GLUTEN.
+
+1, flour; 2, dough; 3, moist gluten; 4, dry gluten.]
+
+The germ is generally included in the shorts, although occasionally it
+is removed for special commercial purposes. It is sometimes sterilized
+and used in breakfast food products. The germ is rich in oil and is
+excluded from the flour mainly because it has a tendency to become
+rancid and to impart to the flour poor keeping qualities. Wheat oil has
+cathartic properties, and it is believed the physiological action of
+whole wheat and graham bread is in part due to the oil. The germ is also
+rich in protein, mainly in the form of globulins and proteoses. A dough
+cannot be made of pure germ, because it contains so little of the
+gliadin and glutenin.
+
+159. Aging and Curing of Flour.--Flours well milled and made from
+high-grade, cleaned wheat generally improve in bread-making value when
+stored in clean, ventilated warehouses for periods of three to six
+months[9]. High-grade flour becomes drier and whiter and produces bread
+of slightly better quality when properly cured by storage. If the flour
+is in any way unsound, it deteriorates during storage, due to the action
+of ferment bodies. Wheat also, when properly cleaned and stored,
+improves in milling and bread-making value. Certain enzymic changes
+appear to take place which are beneficial. Wheats differ materially from
+year to year in bread-making value, and those produced in seasons when
+all the conditions for crop growth are normal do not seem to be so much
+improved by storing and aging, either of the wheat or the flour, as when
+the growing season has been unfavorable. When wheat is stored, specific
+changes occur in both the germ and the cells of the kernel; these
+changes are akin to the ripening process, and appear to be greater if,
+for any reason, the wheat has failed to fully mature or is abnormal in
+composition.
+
+The flour yield of wheat is in general proportional to the weight per
+bushel of the grain, well-filled, heavy grain producing more flour than
+light grain.[61] The quality of the flour, however, is not necessarily
+proportional to the weight of the grain. It is often necessary to blend
+different grades and types of wheat in order to secure good flour.
+
+160. Macaroni Flour is made from durum wheat, according to Saunders a
+variety of hard, spring wheat. It is best grown in regions of restricted
+rainfall. Durum and other varieties of hard spring wheat grown under
+similar conditions, differ but little in general chemical composition,
+except that the gluten of durum appears to have a different percentage
+of gliadin and glutenin, and the flour has a more decided yellow color.
+Durum wheats are not generally considered as valuable for bread making
+as other hard wheat. They differ widely in bread-making value, some
+being very poor, while others produce bread of fair quality.[68]
+
+161. Color.--The highest grades of flour are white in color, or of a
+slight creamy tinge. Dark-colored, slaty, and gray flours are of
+inferior quality, indicating a poor grade of wheat, poor milling, or a
+poor quality of gluten. Flours, after being on the market for a time,
+bleach a little and improve to a slight degree in color. Color is one of
+the characteristics by which the commercial value of flour is
+determined; the whiter the flour, the better the grade, provided other
+properties are equal[9]. The color, however, should be a pure or cream
+white. Some flours have what is called a dead white color, and, while
+not objectionable as far as color is concerned, they are not as valuable
+for bread-making and general commercial purposes. One of the principal
+trade requirements of a flour is that it possess a certain degree of
+whiteness and none of the objectionable shades mentioned.
+
+To determine the color of a flour, it is compared with a standard. If it
+is a winter wheat flour, one of the best high-grade winter patents to be
+found on the market is selected, and the sample in question is compared
+with this; if it is a spring wheat patent flour, one of the best spring
+wheat patent grades is taken as the standard. In making the comparison,
+the flours should be placed side by side on a glass plate and smoothed
+with the flour trier, the comparison being made preferably by a north
+window. Much experience and practice are necessary in order to determine
+with accuracy the color value of a flour.
+
+162. Granulation.--The best patent grades of flour contain an
+appreciable amount of granular middlings, which have a characteristic
+"feel" similar to fine, sharp sand. A flour which has no granular
+feeling is not usually considered of the highest grade, but is generally
+a soft wheat flour of poor gluten. However, a flour should not be too
+coarsely granulated. The percentage amounts of the different grades of
+stock in a flour can be approximately determined by means of sieves and
+different sized bolting cloths. To test a flour, ten grams are placed in
+a sieve containing a No. 10 bolting cloth; with a camel's-hair brush and
+proper manipulation, the flour is sieved, and that which passes through
+is weighed. The percentage amount remaining on the No. 10 cloth is
+coarser middlings. Nearly all high-grade flours leave no residue on the
+No. 10 cloth. The sifted flour from the No. 10 cloth is also passed
+through Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14 cloths[63]. In this way the approximate
+granulation of any grade of flour may be determined, and the granulation
+of an unknown sample be compared with that of a standard flour. In
+determining the granulation of a flour, if there are any coarse or
+discolored particles of bran or dust, they should be noted, as it is an
+indication of poor milling. When the flour is smoothed with a trier,
+there should be no channels formed on the surface of the flour, due to
+fibrous impurities caught under the edge of the trier. A hand magnifying
+glass is useful for detecting the presence of abnormal amounts of dirt
+or fibrous matter in the flour.
+
+163. Capacity of Flour to absorb Water.--The capacity of a flour to
+absorb water is determined by adding water from a burette to a weighed
+amount of flour until a dough of standard consistency is obtained. Low
+absorption is due to low gluten content. A good flour should absorb from
+60 to 65 per cent of its weight of water. In making the test, it is
+advisable to determine the absorption of a flour of known baking value
+at the same time that an unknown flour is being tested. Flours of low
+absorption do not make breads of the best quality; also there are a
+smaller number of loaves per barrel, and the bread dries out more
+readily.
+
+164. Physical Properties of Gluten.--The percentages of wet and dry
+gluten in a flour are determined as outlined in Experiment No. 27.
+Flours of good character should show at least 30 per cent moist gluten
+and from 10 to 12 per cent dry gluten. The quality of a flour is not
+necessarily proportional to its gluten content, although a flour with
+less than 10-1/2 per cent of dry gluten will not make the best quality
+of bread, and flours with excessive amounts are sometimes poor bread
+makers. The color of the gluten is also important; it should be white or
+creamy. The statements made in regard to color of flour apply also to
+color of the gluten. A dark, stringy, or putty-like gluten is of little
+value for bread-making purposes.[64] In making the gluten test, it is
+advisable to compare the gluten with that from a flour of known
+bread-making value. Soft wheat flours have a gluten of different
+character from hard wheat flours.
+
+165. Gluten as a Factor in Bread Making.--The bread-making value of a
+flour is dependent upon the character of the wheat and the method of
+milling. It is not necessarily dependent upon the amount of gluten, as
+the largest volume and best quality of bread are often made from flour
+of average rather than maximum gluten content. But flours with low
+gluten do not produce high-grade breads. When a flour contains more than
+12 or 13 per cent of proteids, any increase does not necessarily mean
+added bread-making value. The quality of the gluten, equally with the
+amount, determines the value for bread-making purposes.
+
+166. Unsoundness.--A flour with more than 14 per cent of moisture is
+liable to become unsound. High acidity also is an indication of
+unsoundness or of poor keeping qualities. The odor of a sample of flour
+should always be carefully noted, for any suggestion of fermentation
+sufficient to affect the odor renders the flour unsuited for making the
+best bread. Any abnormal odor in flour is objectionable, as it is due to
+contamination of some sort, and most frequently to fermentation changes.
+A musty odor is always an indication of unsoundness. Some flours which
+have but a slight suggestion of mustiness will, when baked into bread,
+have it more pronounced; on the other hand, some odors are removed
+during bread making. Flours may absorb odors because of being stored in
+contaminated places or being shipped in cars in which oil or other
+ill-smelling products with strong odors have previously been shipped.
+Unsoundness is often due to faulty methods in handling, as well as to
+poor wheat, or to lack of proper cleaning of the wheat or flour.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--FUNGOUS GROWTH IN UNSOUND FLOUR.]
+
+167. Comparative Baking Tests.--To determine the bread-making value of
+a flour, comparative baking tests, as outlined in Experiment No. 29, are
+made; the flour in question is thus compared as to bread-making value
+with a flour of known baking quality. In making the baking tests, the
+absorption of the flour, the way in which it responds in the doughing
+process, and the general properties of the dough, are noted. The details
+should be carried out with care, the comparison always being made with a
+similar flour of known baking value, and the bread should be baked at
+the same time and under the same conditions as the standard. The color
+of the bread, the size and weight of the loaf, and its texture and odor,
+are the principal characteristics to be noted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--COMPARATIVE BAKING TESTS.]
+
+The quality of flour for bread-making purposes is not strictly
+dependent upon any one factor, but appears to be the aggregate of a
+number of desirable characteristics. The commercial grade of a flour can
+be accurately determined from the color, granulation, absorption, gluten
+and ash content, and the quality of the bread. Technical flour testing
+requires much experience and a high degree of skill.
+
+168. Bleaching.--In the process of manufacture, flours are often
+subjected to air containing traces of nitrogen peroxide gas, generated
+by electrical action and resulting in the union of the oxygen and
+nitrogen of the air. This whitens and improves the color of the flour.
+Bleached flours differ neither in chemical composition nor in nutritive
+value from unbleached flours, except that bleached flours contain a
+small amount (about one part to one million parts of flour) of nitrite
+reacting material, which is removed during the process of bread making.
+The amount of nitrites produced in flour during bleaching is less than
+is normally present in the saliva, or is found naturally in many
+vegetable foods, or in smoked or cured meats, or in bread made from
+unbleached flour and baked in a gas oven where nitrites are produced
+from combustion of the gas. The bleaching of flour cannot be regarded as
+in any way injurious to health or as adulteration, and a bleached flour
+which has good gluten and bread-making qualities is entirely
+satisfactory. It is not possible to successfully bleach low-grade flours
+so they will resemble the high grades, because the bran impurities of
+the low grades blacken during bleaching and become more prominent.
+Alway, of the Nebraska Experiment Station, has shown that there is no
+danger to apprehend from over-bleaching, for when excess of the
+bleaching reagent is used, flours become yellow in color[65]. Similar
+results have been obtained at the Minnesota Experiment Station. As
+bleaching is not injurious to health, and as it is not possible through
+bleaching to change low grades so as to resemble the patent grades,
+bleaching resolves itself entirely into the question of what color of
+flour the consumer desires. Pending the settlement of the status of
+bleaching the practice has been largely discontinued.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--WHEAT HAIRS AND DEBRIS IN LOW GRADE FLOURS.]
+
+169. Adulteration of Flour.--Flour is not easily adulterated, as the
+addition of any foreign material interferes with the expansion and
+bread-making qualities and hence is readily detected. The mixing of
+other cereals, as corn flour, with wheat flour has been attempted at
+various times when wheat commanded a high price, but this also is
+readily detected, by microscopic examination, as the corn starch and
+wheat starch grains are quite different in mechanical structure. Such
+flours are required to be labeled, in accord with the congressional act
+of 1898, when Congress passed, in advance of the general pure food bill,
+an act regulating the labeling and sale of mixed and adulterated flours.
+Various statements have been made in regard to the adulteration of flour
+with minerals, as chalk and barytes, but such adulteration does not
+appear to be at all general.
+
+170. Nutritive Value of Flour.--From a nutritive point of view, wheat
+flour and wheat bread have a high value.[66] A larger amount of
+nutrients can be secured for a given sum of money in the form of flour
+than of any other food material except corn meal. According to
+statistics, the average per capita consumption of wheat in the United
+States is about 4-1/2 bushels, or, approximately, one barrel per year,
+and from recent investigations it would appear that the amount of flour
+used in the dietary is on the increase. According to the Bureau of
+Labor, flour costs the average laborer about one tenth as much as all
+other foods combined, although he secures from it a proportionally
+larger amount of nutritive material than from any other food.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BREAD AND BREAD MAKING
+
+
+171. Leavened and Unleavened Bread.--To make unleavened bread the
+flour is moistened and worked into a stiff dough, which is then rolled
+thin, cut into various shapes, and baked, forming a brittle biscuit or
+cracker.
+
+The process of making raised or leavened bread consists, in brief, of
+mixing the flour and water in proper proportions for a stiff dough,
+together with some salt for seasoning, and yeast (or other agent) for
+leavening. The moistened gluten of the flour forms a viscid, elastic,
+tenacious mass, which is thoroughly kneaded to distribute the yeast. The
+dough is then set in a warm place and the yeast begins to grow, or
+"work," causing alcoholic fermentation, with the production of carbon
+dioxid gas, which expands the dough, or causes it to "rise," thus
+rendering it porous. After the yeast has grown sufficiently, the dough
+is baked in a hot oven, where further fermentation is stopped because of
+destruction of the yeast by the heat, which also causes the gas to
+expand the loaf and, in addition, generates steam. The gas and steam
+inflate the tenacious dough and finally escape into the oven. At the
+same time the gluten of the dough is hardened by the heat, and the mass
+remains porous and light, while the outer surface is darkened and formed
+into a crust.
+
+When the flour is of good quality, the dough well prepared, and the
+bread properly baked, the loaf has certain definite characteristics. It
+should be well raised and have a thin, flinty crust, which is not too
+dark in color nor too tough, but which cracks when broken; the crumb, as
+the interior of the loaf is called, should be porous, elastic, and of
+uniform texture, without large holes, and should have good flavor, odor,
+and color.
+
+Meal or flour from any of the cereals may be used for unleavened bread,
+but leavened bread can be made only from those that contain gluten, a
+mixture of vegetable proteids which when moistened with water becomes
+viscid, and is tenacious enough to confine the gas produced in the
+dough. Most cereals, as barley, rice, oats, and corn, some of which are
+very frequently made into forms of unleavened bread, are deficient or
+wholly lacking in gluten, and hence cannot be used alone for making
+leavened bread. For the leavened bread, wheat and rye, which contain an
+abundance of gluten, are best fitted, wheat being in this country by far
+the more commonly used.
+
+172. Changes during Bread Making.--In bread making complex physical,
+chemical, and biological changes occur. Each chemical compound of the
+flour undergoes some change during the process. The most important
+changes are as follows[64]:
+
+1. Production of carbon dioxid gas, alcohol, and soluble carbohydrates
+as the result of ferment action.
+
+2. Partial rupturing of the starch grains and formation of a small
+amount of soluble carbohydrates due to the action of heat.
+
+3. Production of lactic and other organic acids.
+
+4. Formation of volatile carbon compounds, other than alcohol and carbon
+dioxid.
+
+5. Change in the solubility of the gluten proteins, due to the action of
+the organic acids and fermentation.
+
+6. Changes in the solubility of the proteids due to the action of heat,
+as coagulation of the albumin and globulin.
+
+7. Formation and liberation of a small amount of volatile, nitrogenous
+compounds, as ammonia and amids.
+
+8. Partial oxidation of the fat.
+
+173. Loss of Dry Matter during Bread Making.--As many of the compounds
+formed during bread making are gases resulting from fermentation action,
+and as these are volatile at the temperature of baking, appreciable
+losses necessarily take place. Experiments show about 2 per cent of loss
+of dry matter under ordinary conditions. These losses are not confined
+to the carbohydrates alone, but also extend to the proteids and other
+compounds. When 100 pounds of flour containing 10 per cent of water and
+90 per cent of dry matter are made into bread, the bread contains about
+88 pounds of dry matter. In exceptional cases, where there has been
+prolonged fermentation, the losses exceed 2 per cent[64].
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--BREWERS' YEAST.]
+
+174. Action of Yeast.--Yeast is a monocellular plant requiring sugar
+and other food materials for its nourishment. Under favorable conditions
+it rapidly increases by budding, and as a result produces the well-known
+alcoholic fermentation. It requires mineral food, as do plants of a
+higher order, and oftentimes the fermentation process is checked for
+want of sufficient soluble mineral food. The yeast plant causes a
+number of chemical changes to take place, as conversion of starch to a
+soluble form and alcoholic fermentation.
+
+  C_{6}H_{10}O_{5} + H_{2}O = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}.
+
+  C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} = 2 C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 CO_{2}.
+
+Alcoholic fermentation cannot occur until the starch has been converted
+into dextrose sugar. The yeast plant is destroyed at a temperature of
+131 deg. F. It is most active from 70 deg. to 90 deg. F. At a low
+temperature it is less active, and when it freezes the cells are ruptured.
+A number of different kinds of fermentation are associated with the growth
+of the yeast plant, and there are many varieties of yeast, some of which
+are more active than others. For bread making an active yeast is desirable
+to prevent the formation of acid bodies. If the work proceeds quickly,
+the rising process is completed before the acid fermentation is far
+advanced. If fermentation is too prolonged, some of the products of the
+yeast plant impart an undesirable taste and odor to the bread, and
+hinder the development of the gluten and expansion of the loaf.
+
+175. Compressed Yeast.--The yeast most commonly used in bread making
+is compressed yeast, a product of distilleries. The yeast floating on
+the surface of the wort is skimmed off and that remaining is allowed to
+settle to the bottom, and is obtained by running the wort into shallow
+tanks or settling trays. It is then washed with cold water, and the
+impurities are removed either by sieving through silk or wire sieves,
+or, during the washing, by fractional precipitation. The yeast is then
+pressed, cut into cakes, and wrapped in tinfoil. When fresh, it is of
+uniform creamy color, moist, and of a firm, even texture[18]. It should
+be kept cold, as it readily decomposes.
+
+176. Dry Yeast is made by mixing starch or meal with fresh yeast until
+a stiff dough is formed. This is then dried, either in the sun or at a
+moderate temperature, and cut into cakes. By drying, many of the yeast
+cells are rendered temporarily inactive, and so it is a slower acting
+leaven than the compressed yeast. A dry yeast will keep indefinitely.
+
+177. Production of Carbon Dioxid Gas and Alcohol.--Carbon dioxid and
+alcohol are produced in the largest amounts of any of the compounds
+formed during bread making. When the alcoholic ferments secreted by the
+yeast plant act upon the invert sugars and produce alcoholic
+fermentation, carbon dioxid is one of the products formed. Ordinarily
+about 1 per cent of carbon dioxid gas is generated and lost during bread
+making. About equal weights of carbon dioxid and alcohol are produced
+during the fermentation. In baking, the alcohol is vaporized and aids
+the carbon dioxid in expanding the dough and making the bread porous. If
+all of the moisture given off during bread making be collected it will
+be found that from a pound loaf of bread there are about 40 cubic
+centimeters of liquid; when this is submitted to chemical analysis,
+small amounts of alcohol are obtained. Alcoholic fermentation sometimes
+fails to take place readily, because there are not sufficient soluble
+carbohydrates to undergo inversion, or other food for the yeast plant.
+Starch cannot be converted directly into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas;
+it must first be changed into dextrose sugars, and these undergo
+alcoholic fermentation. Bread gives no appreciable reaction for alcohol
+even when fresh.[64]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--WHEAT STARCH GRANULES AFTER
+FERMENTATION WITH YEAST, AS IN BREAD MAKING.]
+
+If the gluten is of poor quality, or deficient in either gliadin or
+glutenin, the dough mass fails to properly expand because the gas is not
+all retained. The amount of gas formed is dependent upon temperature,
+rapidity of the ferment action, and quality of the yeast and flour. If
+the yeast is inactive, other forms of fermentation than the alcoholic
+may take place and, as a result, the dough does not expand. Poor yeast
+is a frequent cause of poor bread.
+
+The temperature reached in bread making is not sufficient to destroy all
+the ferment bodies associated with the yeast, as, for example, bread
+sometimes becomes soft and stringy, due to fermentation changes after
+the bread has been baked and stored. Both bread and flour are subject to
+many bacterial diseases, and one of the objects of thorough cleaning of
+the wheat and removal of the bran and debris particles during the
+process of flour manufacture is to completely eliminate all ferment
+bodies mechanically associated with the exterior of the wheat kernel,
+which, if retained in the flour, would cause it readily to become
+unsound.
+
+178. Production of Soluble Carbohydrates.--Flour contains naturally a
+small amount of soluble carbohydrates, which are readily acted upon by
+the alcoholic ferments. The yeast plant secretes soluble ferments, which
+act upon the starch, forming soluble carbohydrates, and the heat during
+baking brings about similar changes. In fact, soluble carbohydrates are
+both consumed and produced by ferment action during the bread-making
+process. Flour contains, on an average, 65 per cent of starch, and
+during bread making about 10 per cent is changed to soluble forms.
+Bread, on a dry matter basis, contains approximately 6 per cent of
+soluble carbohydrates, including dextrine, dextrose, and sucrose
+sugars.[64]
+
+The physical changes which the starch grains undergo are also
+noticeable. Wheat starch has the structure shown in illustration No. 33.
+The starch grains are circular bodies, concave, with slight markings in
+the form of concentric rings. When the proteid matter of bread is
+extracted with alcohol and the starch grains are examined, it will, be
+seen that some of them are partially ruptured, like those in popped
+corn, while others have been slightly acted upon or eaten away by the
+organized ferments, the surface of the starch grains being pitted, as
+shown in the illustration. The joint action of heat and ferments on the
+starch grains changes them physically so they may more readily undergo
+digestion. The brown coating or crust formed upon the surface of bread
+is mainly dextrine, produced by the action of heat on the starch.
+Dextrine is a soluble carbohydrate, having the same general composition
+as starch, but differing from it in physical properties and ease of
+digestion.
+
+179. Production of Acids in Bread Making.--Wheat bread made with yeast
+gives an acid reaction. The acid is produced from the carbohydrates by
+ferment action. Flour contains about one tenth of 1 per cent of acid;
+the dough contains from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent, while the baked bread
+contains from 0.14 to 0.3 per cent, but after two or three days slightly
+more acid is developed.[64] During the process of bread making, a small
+portion of the acid is volatilized, but the larger part enters into
+chemical combination with the gliadin, forming an acid proteid. When the
+alcoholic fermentation of bread making becomes less active, acid
+fermentations begin, and sour dough results. It is not definitely known
+what specific organic acids are developed in bread making. Lactic and
+butyric acids are known to be formed, and for purposes of calculation,
+the total acidity is expressed in terms of lactic acid.
+
+The acidity is determined by weighing 20 grams of flour into a flask,
+adding 200 cubic centimeters of distilled water, shaking vigorously, and
+leaving the flour in contact with the water for an hour; 50 cubic
+centimeters of the filtered solution are then titrated with a tenth
+normal solution of potassium hydroxid. Phenolphthalein is used as the
+indicator. It cannot be said that all of the alkali is used for
+neutralizing the acid, as a portion enters into chemical combination
+with the proteids. If the method for determining the acid be varied,
+constant results are not secured. Unsound or musty flours usually show a
+high per cent of acidity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--APPARATUS USED IN STUDY OF LOSSES
+IN BREAD MAKING.]
+
+180. Volatile Compounds produced during Bread Making.--In addition to
+carbon dioxid and alcohol, there is lost during bread making a small
+amount of carbon in other forms, as volatile acids and hydrocarbon
+products equivalent to about one tenth of one per cent of carbon dioxid.
+The aroma of freshly baked bread is due to these compounds. Both the
+odor and flavor of bread are caused in part by the volatile acids and
+hydrocarbons. The amount and kind of volatile products formed can be
+somewhat regulated through the fermentation process by the use of
+special flours and the addition of materials that produce specific
+fermentation changes and desirable aromatic compounds. Some of the
+ferment bodies left in flour from the imperfect removal of the dirt
+adhering to the exterior of the wheat kernels impart characteristic
+flavors to the bread. The so-called nutty flavor of some bread is due to
+the action of these ferment bodies and, when intensified, it becomes
+objectionable. Fungous growths in unsound flour and bread result in the
+liberation of volatile products, which impart a musty odor. Good odor
+and flavor are very desirable in both flour and bread.
+
+181. Behavior of Wheat Proteids in Bread Making.--Gluten is an
+ingredient of the flour on which its bread-making properties largely
+depend. The important thing, however, is not entirely the quantity of
+gluten, but more particularly its character. Two flours containing the
+same amounts of carbohydrates and proteid compounds, when converted into
+bread by exactly the same process, may produce bread of entirely
+different physical characteristics because of differences in the nature
+of the gluten of the two samples. Gluten is composed of two bodies
+called gliadin and glutenin. The gliadin, a sort of plant gelatin, is
+the material which binds the flour particles together to form the dough,
+thus giving it tenacity and adhesiveness; and the glutenin is the
+material to which the gliadin adheres. If there is an excess of gliadin,
+the dough is soft and sticky, while if there is a deficiency, it lacks
+expansive power. Many flours containing a large amount of gluten and
+total proteid material and possessing a high nutritive value, do not
+yield bread of the best quality, because of an imperfect blending of the
+gliadin and glutenin. This question is of much importance in the milling
+of wheats, especially in the blending of the different types of wheat.
+An abnormally large amount of gluten does not yield a correspondingly
+large loaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--BREAD FROM NORMAL FLOUR (1);
+GLIADIN EXTRACTED FLOUR (2); AND FROM FLOUR AFTER EXTRACTION OF SUGAR
+AND SOLUBLE PROTEIDS (3).]
+
+Experiments were made at the Minnesota Experiment Station to determine
+the relation between the nature of the gluten and the character of the
+bread. This was done by comparing bread from normal flour with that
+from other flour of the same lot, but having part or all of its gliadin
+extracted.[64] Dough made from the latter was not sticky, but felt like
+putty, and broke in the same way. The yeast caused the mass to expand a
+little when first placed in the oven; then the loaf broke apart at the
+top and decreased in size. When baked it was less than half the size of
+that from the same weight of normal flour, and decidedly inferior in
+other respects. The removal of part of the gliadin produced nearly the
+same effect as the extraction of the whole of it, and even when an equal
+quantity of normal flour was mixed with that from which part of the
+gliadin had been extracted, the bread was only slightly improved. In
+flour of the highest bread-making properties the two constituents,
+gliadin and glutenin, are present in such proportions as to form a
+well-balanced gluten.
+
+The proteids of wheat flour are mainly in an insoluble form, although
+there are small amounts of albumins and globulins; these are coagulated
+by the action of heat during the bread-making process, and rendered
+insoluble. A portion of the acid that is developed unites with the
+gliadin and glutenin, forming acid proteids, which change the physical
+properties of the dough. Both gliadin and glutenin take important parts
+in bread making. The removal of gliadin from flour causes complete loss
+of bread-making properties. Ordinarily from 45 to 65 per cent of the
+total nitrogen of the flour is present in alcohol soluble or gliadin
+form. Proteids also undergo hydration during mixing, some water being
+chemically united with them, changing their physical properties. This
+hydration change is necessary for the full development of the physical
+properties of the gluten. The water and salt soluble proteids appear to
+take no important part in the bread-making process, as their removal in
+no way affects the size of the loaf or general character of the bread.
+Because of the action of the acids upon the gliadin, bread contains a
+larger amount of alcohol soluble nitrogen or gliadin than the flour from
+which the bread was made. It is believed that this action changes the
+molecular structure of the protein so that it is more readily separated
+into its component parts when it undergoes digestion and assimilation.
+
+182. Production of Volatile Nitrogenous Compounds.--When fermentation
+is unnecessarily prolonged, an appreciable amount of nitrogen is
+volatilized in the form of ammonia and allied bodies, as amids. During
+the process of bread making, the yeast appears to act upon the protein,
+as well as upon the carbohydrates, and, as previously stated, losses of
+dry matter fall alike upon these two classes of compounds, nitrogenous
+and non-nitrogenous. Analyses of the flours and materials used in bread
+making, and of the bread, show that ordinarily about 1.5 per cent of the
+total nitrogen is liberated in the form of gas during the bread-making
+process, and analyses of the gases dispelled in baking show
+approximately the same per cent of nitrogen. When bread is dried, as in
+a drying oven, a small amount of volatile nitrogen appears to be given
+off,--probably as ammonium compounds formed during fermentation. The
+nitrogen lost in bread making under ordinary conditions is not
+sufficient to affect the nutritive value of the product. The losses of
+both nitrogen and carbon are more than offset by the increased
+solubility of the proteids and carbohydrates, the preliminary changes
+they have undergone making them more digestible and valuable for food
+purposes. The nitrogen volatilized in bread making appears to be mainly
+that present in the flour in amid forms or liberated as the result of
+fermentation processes. The more stable proteids undergo only limited
+changes in solubility and are not volatilized.
+
+183. Oxidation of Fat.--Flour contains about 1.25 per cent of fat
+mechanically mixed with a small amount of yellow coloring matter. During
+the process of bread making the fat undergoes slight oxidation,
+accompanied by changes in both physical and chemical properties. The fat
+from bread, when no lard or shortening has been added, is darker in
+color, more viscous, less soluble in ether, and has a lower iodine
+number, than fat from flour. The change in solubility of the fat is not,
+however, such as to affect food value, because the fat is not
+volatilized, and is only changed by the addition of a small amount of
+oxygen from the air. When wheat fat and other vegetable and animal fats
+are exposed to the air, they undergo changes known as aging, similar to
+the slight oxidation changes in bread making.[64]
+
+184. Influence of the Addition of Wheat Starch and Gluten to
+Flour.--Ten per cent or more of starch may be added to normal flour
+containing a well-balanced gluten, without decreasing the size of the
+loaf. When moist gluten was added to flour, thus increasing the total
+amount of gluten, the size of the loaf was not increased[67].
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF ADDITION OF STARCH AND GLUTEN TO FLOUR
+
+  =====================================================================
+                                           | SIZE OF LOAF    | WEIGHT
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Wheat flour, 14 ounces                   | 22-1/2 x 17-1/2 | 18.75
+  Wheat flour, 10% wheat starch            | 23-1/2 x 17     | 18.25
+  Wheat flour, 12.2% wheat starch          | 21-1/2 x 17     | 18.00
+                                           |                 |
+  Wheat flour, 210 grams, about 8 ounces   | 12-3/4 x 9      | 12.00
+  Wheat flour, 10% gluten added, 210 grams | 12-1/2 x 9      | 12.75
+  Wheat flour, 20% gluten added            | 12 x 8-3/4      | 13.00
+  =====================================================================
+
+So long as the quality of the gluten is not destroyed, the addition of a
+small amount of either starch or gluten to flour does not affect the
+size of the loaf, but removal of the gluten affects the moisture content
+and physical properties of the bread. The addition of starch to flour
+has the same effect upon the bread as the use of low gluten
+flour,--lessening the capacity of the flour to absorb water and
+producing a dryer bread of poorer quality.
+
+185. Composition of Bread.--The composition of bread depends primarily
+upon that of the flour from which it was made. If milk and butter (or
+lard) are used in making the dough, as is commonly the case, their
+nutrients are, of course, added to those of the flour; but when only
+water and flour are used, the nutrients of the bread are simply those
+of the flour. In either case the amount of nutrients in the bread is
+smaller than in the same weight of flour, because a considerable part of
+the water or milk used in making the dough is present in the bread after
+baking; that is, a pound of bread contains less of any of the nutrients
+than a pound of the flour from which the bread was made, because the
+proportion of water in the bread is greater. The following table shows
+how the composition of flour compares with that of bread, the different
+kinds of bread all having been made from the flour with which they are
+compared:
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF FLOUR, AND BREAD MADE FROM IT IN DIFFERENT WAYS
+
+
+  =====================================================================
+         MATERIAL                   | WATER | PROTEIN | FAT| C.H.| ASH
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                    |   %   |    %    |  % |  %   |  %
+  Flour                             | 10.11 |  12.47  |0.86|76.09 |0.47
+  Bread from flour and water        | 36.12 |   9.46  |0.40|53.70 |0.32
+  Bread from flour, water, and lard | 37.70 |   9.27  |1.02|51.70 |0.31
+  Bread from flour and skim milk    | 36.02 |  10.57  |0.48|52.63 |0.30
+  =====================================================================
+
+Thus it may be seen that the proportion of water is larger and of each
+nutrient smaller in bread than in flour, and that the nutrients of the
+flour are increased by those in the materials added in making the bread.
+
+It is apparent that two breads of the same lot of flour may differ,
+according to the method used in making, and also that two loaves of
+bread made by exactly the same process but from different lots of flour,
+even when of the same grade or brand, do not necessarily have the same
+composition, because of possible variation in the flours. In bread made
+from flour of low gluten content, the per cent of protein is
+correspondingly low.
+
+186. Use of Skim Milk and Lard in Bread Making.--When flours low in
+gluten are used, skim milk may be employed advantageously in making the
+bread, to increase the protein content. Tests show that such bread
+contains about 1 per cent more protein than that made with water.
+Ordinarily there is no gain from a nutritive point of view in adding an
+excessive amount of lard or other shortening, as it tends to widen the
+nutritive ratio.
+
+187. Influence of Warm and Cold Flours on Bread Making.--When flour is
+stored in a cold closet or storeroom, it is not in condition to produce
+a good quality of bread until it has been warmed to a temperature of
+about 70 deg. F. Cold flour checks the fermentation process, and is
+occasionally the cause of poor bread. On the other hand, when flour is
+too warm (98 deg. F.) the influence upon fermentation is unfavorable.
+Heating of flour does not affect the bread-making value, provided the
+flour is not heated above 158 deg. F. and is subsequently cooled to a
+temperature of 70 deg. F. Wheat flour contains naturally a number of
+ferment substances, some of which are destroyed by the action of heat.
+The natural ferments, or enzymes, of flour appear to take a part in
+bread making, imparting characteristic odors and flavors to the product.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.-BREAD FROM (1) GRAHAM, (2) ENTIRE
+WHEAT, AND (3) WHITE FLOUR.
+
+The same amounts of flour were used in making all of the breads.]
+
+188. Variations in the Process of Bread Making.--Since flours differ
+so in chemical composition, and the yeast plant acts upon all the
+compounds of flour, it naturally follows that bread making is not a
+simple but a complex operation, resulting in a number of intricate
+chemical reactions, which it is necessary to control and many of which
+are only imperfectly understood. Bread of the best physical quality and
+commercial value is made of flour from fully matured, hard wheats,
+containing a low per cent of acid, no foreign ferment materials or their
+products, and at least 12-1/2 per cent of proteids, of which the larger
+portion is in the form of gliadin. It is believed that a better quality
+of bread could be produced from many flours by slight changes or
+modifications in the process of bread making. It cannot be expected that
+the same process will give the best results alike with all types and
+kinds of flour. The kind of fermentation process that will produce the
+best bread from a given type of flour can be determined only by
+experimentation. Poor bread making is due as often to lack of skill on
+the part of the bread maker, and to poor yeast, as it is to poor quality
+of flour. Frequently the flour is blamed when the poor bread is due to
+other factors. Lack of control of the fermentation process, and the
+consequent development of acid and other organisms which check the
+activity of the alcoholic ferments, is a frequent cause of poor bread.
+
+189. Digestibility of Bread.--Extensive experiments have been made by
+the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States Department of
+Agriculture, at the Minnesota and Maine Experiment Stations, to
+determine the digestibility and nutritive value of bread. Different
+kinds and types of wheat were milled so as to secure from each three
+flours: graham, entire wheat, and standard patent. The flours were made
+into bread, and the bread fed to workingmen, and its digestibility
+determined. The experiments taken as a whole show that bread is an
+exceedingly digestible food, nearly 98 per cent of the starch or
+carbohydrate nutrients and about 88 per cent of the gluten or proteid
+constituents being assimilated by the body. In the case of the graham
+and entire wheat flours, although they contained a larger total amount
+of protein, the nutrients were not as completely digested and absorbed
+by the body as were those of the white flour. The body secured a larger
+amount of nutrients from the white than from the other grades of flour,
+the digestibility of the three types being as follows: standard patent
+flour, protein 88.6 per cent and carbohydrates 97.7 per cent; entire
+wheat flour, protein 82 percent and carbohydrates 93.5 per cent; graham
+flour, protein 74.9 per cent and carbohydrates 89.2 per cent. The low
+digestibility of the protein of the graham and entire wheat flours is
+supposed to be due to the coarser granulation; the proteins, being
+embedded and surrounded with cellular tissue, escape the action of the
+digestive fluids. Microscopic examination of the feces showed that often
+entire starch grains were still inclosed in the woody coverings and
+consequently had failed to undergo digestion.[62], [64], [67], [86]
+
+190. Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary.--Entire wheat and
+graham flours should be included in the dietary of some persons, as they
+are often valuable because of their physiological action, the branny
+particles stimulating the process of digestion and encouraging
+peristaltic action. In the diet of the overfed, they are valuable for
+the smaller rather than the larger amount of nutrients they contain.
+Also they supply bulk and give the digestive tract needed exercise. For
+the laboring man, where it is necessary to obtain the largest amount of
+available nutrients, bread from white flour should be supplied; in the
+dietary of the sedentary, graham and entire wheat flours can, if found
+beneficial, be made to form an essential part. The kind of bread that it
+is best to use is largely a matter of personal choice founded upon
+experience.
+
+     "When we pass on to consider the relative nutritive values of white
+     and whole-meal bread, we are on ground that has been the scene of
+     many a controversy. It is often contended that whole-meal is
+     preferable to white bread, because it is richer in proteid and
+     mineral matter, and so makes a better balanced diet. But our
+     examination of the chemical composition of whole-meal bread has
+     shown that as regards proteid at least, this is not always true,
+     and even were it the case, the lesser absorption of whole-meal
+     bread, which we have seen to occur, would tend to annul the
+     advantage.... On the whole, we may fairly regard the vexed question
+     of whole-meal _versus_ white bread as finally settled and settled
+     in favor of the latter."[28]
+
+     "The higher percentage of nitrogen in bran than in fine flour has
+     frequently led to the recommendation of the coarser breads as more
+     nutritious than the finer. We have already seen that the more
+     branny portions of the grain also contain a much larger percentage
+     of mineral matter. And, further, it is in the bran that the largest
+     proportion of fatty matter--the non-nitrogenous substance of higher
+     respiratory capacity which the wheat contains--is found. It is,
+     however, we think, very questionable whether upon such data alone
+     a valid opinion can be formed of the comparative values of bread
+     made from the finer or courser flours ground from one and the same
+     grain. Again, it is an indisputable fact that branny particles when
+     admitted into the flour in the degree of imperfect division in
+     which our ordinary milling processes leave them very considerably
+     increase the peristaltic action, and hence the alimentary canal is
+     cleared much more rapidly of its contents. It is also well known
+     that the poorer classes almost invariably prefer the whiter bread,
+     and among some of those who work the hardest and who consequently
+     soonest appreciate a difference in nutritive quality (navvies, for
+     example) it is distinctly stated that their preference for the
+     whiter bread is founded on the fact that the browner passes through
+     them too rapidly; consequently, before their systems have extracted
+     from it as much nutritious matter as it ought to yield them.... In
+     fact, all experience tends to show that the state as well as the
+     chemical composition of our food must be considered; in other
+     words, that the digestibility and aptitude for assimilation are not
+     less important qualities than its ultimate composition.
+
+     "But to suppose that whole-wheat meal as ordinarily prepared is, as
+     has generally been assumed, weight for weight more nutritious than
+     ordinary bread flour is an utter fallacy founded on theoretical
+     text-book dicta, not only entirely unsupported by experience, but
+     inconsistent with it. In fact, it is just the poorer fed and the
+     harder working that should have the ordinary flour bread rather
+     than the whole-meal bread as hitherto prepared, and it is the
+     overfed and the sedentary that should have such whole-meal bread.
+     Lastly, if the whole grain were finely ground, it is by no means
+     certain that the percentage of really nutritive nitrogenous matters
+     would be higher than in ordinary bread flour, and it is quite a
+     question whether the excess of earthy phosphates would not then be
+     injurious."--LAWES AND GILBERT.[68]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "According to the chemical analysis of graham, entire wheat, and
+     standard patent flours milled from the same lot of hard Scotch Fife
+     spring wheat, the graham flour contained the highest and the
+     patent flour the lowest percentage of total protein. But according
+     to the results of digestion experiments with these flours the
+     proportions of digestible or available protein and available energy
+     in the patent flour were larger than in either the entire wheat or
+     the graham flour. The lower digestibility of the protein of the
+     latter is due to the fact that in both these flours a considerable
+     portion of this constituent is contained in the coarser particles
+     (bran), and so resists the action of the digestive juices and
+     escapes digestion. Thus while there actually may be more protein in
+     a given amount of graham or entire wheat flour than in the same
+     weight of patent flour from the same wheat, the body obtains less
+     of the protein and energy from the coarse flour than it does from
+     the fine, because, although the including of the bran and germ
+     increases the percentage of protein, it decreases its
+     digestibility. By digestibility is meant the difference between the
+     amounts of the several nutrients consumed and the amount excreted
+     in the feces.
+
+     "The digestibility of first and second patent flours was not
+     appreciably different from that of standard patent flour. The
+     degree of digestibility of all these flours is high, due largely to
+     their mechanical condition; that is, to the fact that they are
+     finely ground."--SNYDER.[62]
+
+For a more extended discussion of the subject, the student is referred
+to Bulletins 67, 101, and 126, Office of Experiment Stations, United
+States Department of Agriculture.
+
+191. Mineral Content of White Bread.--Average flour contains from 0.4
+to 0.5 of 1 per cent of ash or mineral matter, the larger portion being
+lime and magnesia and phosphate of potassium. It is argued by some that
+graham and entire wheat flours should be used liberally because of their
+larger mineral content and their greater richness in phosphates. In a
+mixed dietary, however, in which bread forms an essential part, there is
+always an excess of phosphates, and there is nothing to be gained by
+increasing the amount, as it only requires additional work of the
+kidneys for its removal. Few experiments have been made to determine the
+phosphorus requirements of the human body, but these indicate that it is
+unnecessary to increase the phosphate content of a mixed diet. It is
+estimated that less than two grams per day of phosphates are required to
+meet all of the needs of the body, and in an average mixed ration there
+are present from three to five grams and more. A large portion of the
+phosphate compounds of white bread is present in organic combinations,
+as lecithin and nucleated proteids, which are the most available forms,
+and more valuable for purposes of nutrition than the mineral phosphates.
+In the case of graham and entire wheat flours, a proportionally smaller
+amount of the phosphates are digested and assimilated than from the
+finer grades of flour.
+
+192. Comparative Digestibility of New and Old Bread.--With healthy
+persons there is no difference whatever in the completeness of
+digestibility of old and new bread; one appears to be as thoroughly
+absorbed as the other. In the case of some individuals with impaired
+digestion there may be a difference in the ease and comfort with which
+the two kinds of bread are digested, but this is due mainly to
+individuality and does not apply generally. The change which bread
+undergoes when it is kept for several days is largely a loss of moisture
+and development of a small amount of acid and other substances from the
+continued ferment action.
+
+193. Different Kinds of Bread.--According to variations in method of
+preparation, there are different types and varieties of bread, as the
+"flat bread" of Scandinavian countries, unleavened bread, Vienna bread,
+salt rising bread, etc. Bread made with baking powder differs in no
+essential way from that made with yeast, except in the presence of the
+residue from the baking powder, discussed in Chapter XII. Biscuits,
+wheat cakes, crackers, and other food materials made principally from
+flour, have practically the same food value as bread. It makes but
+little difference in what way flour is prepared as food, for in its
+various forms it has practically the same digestibility and nutritive
+value.
+
+194. Toast.--When bread is toasted there is no change in the
+percentage of total nutrients on a dry matter basis. The change is in
+solubility and form, and not in amount of nutrients available. Some of
+the starch becomes dextrine, which is more soluble and digestible.[5]
+Proteids, on the other hand, are rendered less soluble, which appears to
+slightly lower the digestion coefficient. They are somewhat more readily
+but not quite so completely digested as those of bread. Digestion
+experiments show that toast more readily yields to the diastase and
+other ferments than does wheat bread. Toasting brings about ease of
+digestion rather than increased completeness of the process. Toast is a
+sterile food, while bread often contains various ferments which have not
+been destroyed by baking. These undergo incubation during the process of
+digestion, particularly in the case of individuals with diseases of the
+digestive tract. With normal digestion, however, these ferment bodies do
+not develop to any appreciable extent, as the digestive tract disinfects
+itself. When the flour is prepared from well cleaned wheat and the
+ferment substances which are present mainly in the bran particles have
+been removed, a flour of higher sanitary value is secured.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BAKING POWDERS
+
+
+195. General Composition.--All baking powders contain at least two
+materials; one of these has combined carbon dioxid in its composition,
+the other some acid constituent which serves to liberate the gas. The
+material from which the gas is obtained is almost invariably sodium
+bicarbonate, NaHCO_{3}, commonly known as "soda" or "saleratus."
+Ammonium carbonate has been used to some extent, but is very seldom used
+at the present time. The acid constituent may be one of several
+materials, the most common being cream of tartar, tartaric acid, calcium
+phosphate, or alum. These may be used separately or in combination. The
+various baking powders are designated according to the acid constituent,
+as "cream of tartar," "phosphate," and "alum" powders. All of them
+liberate carbon dioxid gas, but the products left in the food differ
+widely in nature and amount[69].
+
+Baking powder is a chemical preparation which, when brought in contact
+with water, liberates carbon dioxid gas. The baking powder is mixed dry
+with flour, and when this is moistened the carbon dioxid that is
+liberated expands the dough. The action is similar to that of yeast
+except that in the case of yeast the gas is given off much more slowly
+and no residue is left in the bread. When baking powder is used, there
+is a residue left in the food which varies with the material in the
+powder. It is the nature and amount of this residue that is important
+and makes one baking powder more desirable than another.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--INGREDIENTS OF A BAKING POWDER.
+
+1, baking powder; 2, cream of tartar; 3, baking soda; 4, starch.]
+
+196. Cream of Tartar Powders.--The acid ingredient of the cream of
+tartar powders is tartaric acid, H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. Cream of tartar
+is potassium acid tartrate, KHC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}; it contains one atom of
+replaceable hydrogen, which imparts the acid properties, and it is
+prepared from crude argol, a deposit of grape juice when wine is made.
+The residue from this powder is sodium potassium tartrate,
+NaKC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}, commonly known as Rochelle salt. This is the active
+ingredient of Seidlitz powders and has a purgative effect when taken
+into the body. The dose as a purgative is from one half to one ounce. A
+loaf of bread as ordinarily made with cream of tartar powder contains
+about 160 grains of Rochelle salt, which is 45 grains more than is found
+in a Seidlitz powder, but the amount actually eaten at any one time is
+small and its physiological effect can probably be disregarded. When a
+cream of tartar baking powder is used, the reaction takes place
+according to the following equation:
+
+          188            84             210              44       18
+  HKH_{4}C_{4}O_{6} + NaHCO_{3} = KNaC_{4}H_{4}O_{6} + CO_{2} + H_{2}O.
+
+The crystallized Rochelle salt contains four molecules of water, so
+that, even allowing for some starch filler, there is very nearly as much
+weight of material (Rochelle salt) left in the food as there was of the
+original powder. If free tartaric acid were used instead of potassium
+acid tartrate, the reaction would be as follows:
+
+          150              168              230                          88
+  H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O{6} + 2NaHCO_{3} = Na_{2}C_{2}H_{4}O_{6}.2 H_{2}O + 2CO_{2}.
+
+But the residue, sodium tartrate, is less in proportion. It has
+physiological properties very similar to Rochelle salt. Tartaric acid is
+seldom used alone, but very often in combination with cream of tartar.
+It is more expensive than cream of tartar; but not so much is required,
+and it is more rapid in action.
+
+197. Phosphate Baking Powders.--Here the acid ingredient is phosphoric
+acid and the compound usually employed is mono-calcium phosphate,
+CaH_{4}(PO-{4})_{2}. This is made by the action of sulphuric acid on
+ground bone (Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 H_{2}SO_{4} = CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} +
+2 CaSO_{4}), and it is difficult to free it from the calcium phosphate
+formed at the same time; hence such powders contain more or less of this
+inert material. The reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as
+follows:
+
+       234                 168           136
+  CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 NaHCO_{3} = CaHPO_{4}
+
+           88         36           142
+      + 2 CO_{2} + 2 H_{2}O + Na_{2}HPO_{4}.
+
+Sodium phosphate, according to the United States Dispensatory, is
+"mildly purgative in doses of from 1 to 2 ounces." The claim is made by
+the makers of phosphate baking powders that the phosphates of sodium and
+calcium, products left after the baking, restore the phosphates which
+have been lost from the flour in the bran. This baking powder residue
+does not restore the phosphates in the same form in which they are
+present in grains and it does furnish them in larger amounts--nearly
+tenfold. However, the residue from these powders is probably less
+objectionable than that from alum powders. The chief drawback to the
+phosphate powders is their poor keeping qualities.
+
+198. Alum Baking Powders.--Sulphuric acid is the acid constituent of
+these powders. The alums are double sulphates of aluminium and an
+alkali metal, and have the general formula _x_Al(SO_{4})_{2} in which
+_x_ may be K, Na, or NH_{4}, producing respectively a potash, soda, or
+ammonia alum. Potash alum is most commonly used, soda and ammonia alums
+to a less extent. The reaction takes place as follows:
+
+           475                 504             157
+  2 NH_{4}Al(SO_{4})_{2} + 6 NaHCO_{3} = Al_{2}(OH)_{6}
+
+              426                132            264
+      + 3 Na_{2}SO_{4} + (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} + 6 CO_{2}.
+
+If it is a potash or soda alum, simply substitute K or Na for NH_{4}
+throughout the equation. The best authorities regard alum baking powders
+as the most objectionable. Ammonia alum is without doubt the worst form,
+since all of the ammonium compounds have an extremely irritating effect
+on animal tissue. Sulphates of sodium and potassium are also
+objectionable. Aluminium hydroxide is soluble in the slightly acid
+gastric juice and has an astringent action on animal tissue, hindering
+digestion in a way similar to the alum itself. Many of the alum powders
+contain also mono-calcium phosphate; the reaction is as follows:
+
+           475                   234                   336
+  2 NH_{4}Al(SO_{4})_{2} + CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 4 NaHCO_{3}
+
+          245              136              132
+  = Al_{2}(PO_{4})_{2} + CaSO_{4} + (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4}
+
+           284         176          72
+  + 2 Na_{2}SO_{4} + 4 CO_{2} + 4 H_{2}O.
+
+These are probably less injurious than the straight alum powders,
+although the residues are, in general, open to the same objection.
+
+199. Inspection of Baking Powders.--Many of the states have enacted
+laws seeking to regulate the sale of alum baking powders. Some of these
+laws simply require the packages to bear a label setting forth the fact
+that alum is one of the ingredients; others require the baking powder
+packages to bear a label naming all the ingredients of the powder.
+
+200. Fillers.--All baking powders contain a filler of starch. This is
+necessary to keep the materials from acting before the powder is used.
+The amount of filler varies from 15 to 50 per cent; the least is found
+in the tartrate powders and the most in the phosphate powders. The
+amount of gas which a powder gives off regulates its value; it should
+give off at least 1/8 of its weight.
+
+201. Home-made Baking Powders.--Baking powders can be made at home for
+about one half what they usually cost and they will give equal
+satisfaction. The following will make a long-keeping powder: cream of
+tartar, 8 ounces; baking soda, 4 ounces; corn starch, 3 ounces. For a
+quick-acting powder use but one ounce of starch. The materials should be
+thoroughly dry. Mix the soda and starch first by shaking well in a glass
+or tin can. Add the cream of tartar last and shake again. Thorough
+mixing is essential to good results. Cream of tartar is often
+adulterated, but it can be obtained pure from a reliable druggist. To
+insure baking powders remaining perfectly dry, they should always be
+kept in glass or tin cans, never in paper.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+VINEGAR, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS
+
+
+202. Vinegar.--Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid produced by
+fermentation, and contains, in addition to acetic acid, small amounts of
+other materials in solution, as mineral matter and malic acid, according
+to the material from which the vinegar was made. Unless otherwise
+designated, vinegar in this country is generally considered to be made
+from apples. Other substances, however, are used, as vinegar can be
+manufactured from a variety of fermentable materials, as molasses,
+glucose, malt, wine, and alcoholic beverages in general. The chemical
+changes which take place in the production of vinegars are: (1)
+inversion of the sugar, (2) conversion of the invert sugars into
+alcohol, and (3) change of alcohol into acetic acid. All these chemical
+changes are the result of ferment action. The various invert ferments
+change the sugar into dextrose and glucose sugars; then the alcoholic
+ferment produces alcohol and carbon dioxid from the invert sugars, and
+finally the acetic acid ferment completes the work by converting the
+alcohol into acetic acid. The chemical changes which take place in these
+different steps are:
+
+            sucrose                   dextrose             levulose
+  (1) C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + H_{2}O = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{6}H_{12}O_{6};
+
+        dextrose              alcohol
+  (2) C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} = 2 C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 CO_{2};
+
+         alcohol               acid
+  (3) C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 O = HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} + H_{2}O.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--ACETIC ACID FERMENTS. (After KOeNIG.)]
+
+The acetic acid organism, _Mycoderma aceti_, can work only in the
+presence of oxygen. It is one of the aerobic ferments, and is present in
+what is known as the "mother" of vinegar and is secreted by it. When
+vinegar is made in quantity, the process is hastened by allowing the
+alcoholic solution to pass through a narrow tank rilled with shavings
+containing some of the ferment material, and at the same time air is
+admitted so as to secure a good supply of oxygen. When vinegar is made
+by allowing cider or wine to stand in a warm place until the
+fermentation process is completed, a long time is required--the length
+of time depending upon the supply of air and other conditions affecting
+fermentation.
+
+In some countries malt vinegar is common. This is produced by allowing a
+wort made from malt and barley to undergo acetic acid fermentation,
+without first distilling the alcohol as is done in the preparation of
+spirit vinegar. In various European countries wine vinegar is in general
+use and is made by acetification of the juice of grapes. Sometimes
+spirit vinegar is made from corn or barley malt. Alcoholic fermentation
+takes place, the alcohol is distilled so that a weak solution remains,
+which is acetified in the ordinary way. Such a vinegar can be produced
+very cheaply and is much inferior in flavor to genuine wine or cider
+vinegar.
+
+Vinegar, when properly made, should remain clear, and should not form a
+heavy deposit or produce any large amount of the fungous growth,
+commonly called the "mother" of vinegar. In order to prevent the vinegar
+from becoming cloudy and forming deposits, it should be strained and
+stored in clean jugs and protected from the air. So long as air is
+excluded further acetic acid fermentation and production of "mother" of
+vinegar cannot take place. When the vinegar is properly made and the
+fermentation process has been completed, the acid already produced
+prevents all further development of acetic acid ferments. When vinegar
+becomes cloudy and produces deposits, it is an indication that the
+acetic fermentation has not been completed.
+
+The national standard for pure apple cider vinegar calls for not less
+than 4 grams acetic acid, 1.6 grams of apple solids, and 0.25 grams of
+apple ash per 100 cubic centimeters, along with other characteristics,
+as acidity, sugar, and phosphoric acid content. Many states have special
+laws regarding the sale of vinegar.
+
+203. Adulteration of Vinegar.--Vinegar is frequently adulterated by
+the addition of water, or by coloring spirit vinegar, thus causing it to
+resemble cider vinegar. Formerly vinegar was occasionally adulterated by
+the use of mineral acids, as hydrochloric or sulphuric, but since acetic
+acid can be produced so cheaply, this form of adulteration has almost
+entirely disappeared. Colored spirit vinegar contains merely a trace of
+solid matter and can be readily distinguished from cider vinegar by
+evaporating a small weighed quantity to dryness and determining the
+weight of the solids. Occasionally, however, glucose and other materials
+are added so as to give some solids to the spirit vinegar, but such a
+vinegar contains only a trace of ash[18]. Attempts have also been made
+to carry the adulteration still further by adding lime and soda to give
+the colored spirit vinegar the necessary amount of ash. Malt, white
+wine, glucose, and molasses vinegars when properly manufactured and
+unadulterated are not objectionable, but too frequently they are made to
+resemble and sell as cider vinegar. This is a fraud which affects the
+pocketbook rather than the health. For home use apple cider vinegar is
+highly desirable. There is no food material or food adjunct, unless
+possibly ground coffee and spices, so extensively adulterated as
+vinegar.
+
+Vinegar has no food value whatever, and is valuable only for giving
+flavor and palatability to other foods, and to some extent for the
+preservation of foods. It is useful in the household in other ways, as
+it furnishes a dilute acid solution of aid in some cooking and baking
+operations for liberating gas from soda, and also when a dilute acid
+solution is required for various cleaning purposes.
+
+Vinegar should never be kept in tin pails, or any metallic vessel,
+because the acetic acid readily dissolves copper, tin, iron, and the
+ordinary metals, producing poisonous solutions. Earthenware jugs,
+porcelain dishes, glassware, or wooden casks are all serviceable for
+storing vinegar.
+
+204. Characteristics of Spices.[70]--Spices are aromatic vegetable
+substances characterized as a class by containing some essential or
+volatile oil which gives taste and individuality to the material. They
+are used for the flavoring of food and are composed of mineral matter
+and the various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds found in all
+plant bodies. Since only a comparatively small amount of a spice is used
+for flavoring purposes, no appreciable nutrients are added to the food.
+Some of the spices have characteristic medicinal properties.
+Occasionally they are used to such an extent as to mask the natural
+flavors of foods, and to conceal poor cooking and preparation or poor
+quality. For the microscopic study of spices the student is referred to
+Winton, "Microscopy of Vegetable Foods," and Leach, "Food Inspection and
+Analysis."
+
+205. Pepper.--Black and white pepper are the fruit of the pepper plant
+(_Piper nigrum_), a climbing perennial shrub which grows in the East and
+West Indies, the greatest production being in Sumatra. For the black
+pepper, the berry is picked before thoroughly ripe; for the white
+pepper, it is allowed to mature. White pepper has the black pericarp or
+hull removed. Pepper owes its properties to an alkaloid, piperine, and
+to a volatile oil. In the black pepper berries there is present ash to
+the extent of about 4.5 per cent, it ought not to be above 6.5 per cent;
+ether extract, including piperine and resin, not less than 6.5 per cent;
+crude fiber not more than 16 per cent; also some starch and nitrogenous
+material. The white pepper contains less ash and cellulose than the
+black pepper. Ground pepper is frequently grossly adulterated; common
+adulterants being: cracker crumbs, roasted nut shells and fruit stones,
+charcoal, corn meal, pepper hulls, mustard hulls, and buckwheat
+middlings. The pepper berries wrinkle in drying, and this makes it
+difficult to remove the sand which may have adhered to them. An
+excessive amount of sand in the ash should be classed as adulteration.
+Adulterants in pepper are detected mainly by the use of the microscope.
+The United States standard for pepper is: not more than 7 per cent total
+ash, 15 per cent fiber, and not less than 25 per cent starch and 6 per
+cent non-volatile ether extract.[71]
+
+206. Cayenne.--Cayenne or red pepper is the fruit pod of a plant,
+_capsicum_, of which there are several varieties,--the small-fruited
+kind, used to make cayenne or red pepper; and the tabasco sort, forming
+the basis of tabasco sauce. It is grown mainly in the tropics, and was
+used there as a condiment before the landing of Columbus, who took
+specimens back to Europe. Cayenne pepper contains 25 per cent of oil,
+about 7 per cent of ash, and a liberal amount of starch. The adulterants
+are usually of a starchy nature, as rice or corn meal, and the product
+is often colored with some red dye.
+
+207. Mustard.--Mustard is the seed of the mustard plant, and is most
+often found in commerce in the ground form. The black or brown mustard
+has a very small seed and the most aroma. White mustard is much larger
+and is frequently used unground. For the ground mustard, only the
+interior of the seed is used, the husk being removed in the bolting.
+Mustard contains a large amount of oil, part of which is usually
+expressed before grinding, and this is the form in which spice grinders
+buy it. In mustard flour there is: ash from 4 to 6 per cent, volatile
+oil from 0.5 to 2 per cent, fixed oil from 15 to 25 per cent, crude
+fiber from 2 to 5 per cent, albuminoids from 35 to 45 per cent, and a
+little starch. The principal adulterants are wheat, corn, and rice
+flour. When these are used, the product is frequently colored with
+turmeric, a harmless vegetable coloring material.
+
+208. Ginger.--Ginger is the rhizome or root of a reed-like plant
+(_Zingiber officinale_), native in tropical Asia, chiefly India. It is
+cultivated in nearly all tropical countries. When unground it usually
+occurs in two forms: dried with the epidermis, or with the epidermis
+removed, when it is called scraped ginger. Very frequently a coating of
+chalk is given, as a protection against the drug store beetle. Jamaica
+ginger is the best and most expensive. Cochin, scraped, African, and
+Calcutta ginger range in price in the order given. Ginger contains from
+3.6 to 7.5 per cent of ash, from 1.5 to 3 per cent of volatile oil, and
+from 3 to 5.5 per cent of fixed oil. There is a large amount of starch.
+The chief adulterants are rice, wheat, and potato starch, mustard hulls,
+exhausted ginger from ginger-ale and extract factories, sawdust and
+ground peanut-shells, and turmeric is frequently used for coloring the
+product. The United States standard for ginger is not more than 42 per
+cent starch, 8 per cent fiber, and 6 per cent total ash.[71]
+
+209. Cinnamon and Cassia.--The bark of several species of plants
+growing in tropical countries furnishes these spices. True cinnamon is a
+native of Ceylon, while the cassias are from Bengal and China. In this
+country there is more cassia used than cinnamon--cinnamon being rarely
+found except in drug stores. Cassia bark is much thicker than cinnamon
+bark. The ground spice contains about 1.5 per cent volatile oil and the
+same amount of fixed oil, 4 per cent of ash, and some fiber, nitrogenous
+matter, and starch. Cereals, cedar sawdust, ground nutshells, oil meal,
+and cracker crumbs are the chief adulterants.
+
+210. Cloves.--Cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree that
+grows in the tropics. These are picked by hand and dried in the sun. In
+the order of value, Penang, Sumatra, Amboyna, and Zanzibar furnish the
+chief varieties. Cloves rarely contain more than 8 per cent ash, or less
+than 10 per cent volatile oil and 4 per cent fixed oil, and 16 to 20 per
+cent of tannin-yielding bodies. No starch is present. The chief
+adulterants of ground cloves are spent cloves, allspice, and ground
+nutshells. Clove stems are also sometimes used and may be detected by a
+microscopical examination, since they contain many thick-walled cells
+and much fibrous tissue.
+
+211. Allspice.--Allspice, or pimento, is the fruit of an evergreen
+tree common in the West Indies. It is a small, dry, globular berry,
+two-celled, each cell having a single seed. Allspice contains about 2.5
+per cent volatile oil, 4 per cent fixed oil, and 4.5 per cent ash.
+Because of its cheapness, it is not generally adulterated, cereal
+starches being the most common adulterants.
+
+212. Nutmeg.--Nutmeg is the interior kernel of the fruit of a tree
+growing in the East Indies. The fruit resembles a small pear. A fleshy
+mantle of crimson color, which is mace, envelopes the seed. Nutmeg
+contains about 2.2 per cent ash, 2.5 to 5 per cent volatile oil, and 25
+to 35 per cent fixed oil. Mace has practically the same composition.
+Extensive adulteration is seldom practiced. The white coating on the
+surface of the nutmeg is lime, used to prevent sprouting of the germ.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--TEA LEAF. (After
+WINTON.)]
+
+213. Tea is the prepared leaf of an evergreen shrub or small tree
+cultivated chiefly in China and Japan. There are two varieties of
+plants. The Assamese, which requires a very moist, hot climate, yields
+in India and Ceylon about 400 pounds per acre, and may produce as high
+as 1000 pounds. From this plant a number of flushes or pickings are
+secured in a year. The Chinese plant grows in cooler climates and has a
+smaller, tougher, and darker leaf, which is more delicate than that of
+the Assamese and is usually made into green tea. The Chinese tea plant
+yields only four or five flushes a year. About 40 per cent of the tea
+used in this country comes from Japan and 50 per cent from China. The
+tea industry of India and Ceylon has developed rapidly in late years,
+and is now second only to that of China. Tea has been raised upon a
+small scale in the United States. The quality or grade of the tea
+depends upon the leaves used and the method of curing.
+
+214. Composition of Tea.--Black and green teas are produced from the
+same species of plant, but owe their difference in color as well as
+flavor and odor to methods of preparation. The same plant may yield
+several grades of both green and black tea. To produce black tea, the
+leaves are bruised to liberate the juices, allowed to ferment a short
+time, which develops the color, and then dried.[73] For green tea the
+fresh leaves are roasted or steamed, then rolled and dried as quickly as
+possible to prevent fermentation. The smaller leaves and the first
+picking produce the finest quality of tea. The characteristic flavor and
+odor of tea are imparted by a volatile oil, although the odor is
+sometimes altered by the tea being brought in contact with orange
+flowers, jessamine, or the fragrant olive. There are also present in tea
+an alkaloid, theine, which gives the peculiar physiological properties,
+and tannin, upon which depends largely the strength of the tea infusion.
+The composition of tea is as follows:
+
+  ===========================================
+                    |ORIGINAL| GREEN | BLACK
+                    |  TEA   |  TEA  |  TEA
+  -------------------------------------------
+  Tannin, per cent  |  12.91 | 10.64 |  4.89
+  Theine, per cent  |   3.30 |  3.20 |  3.30
+  Ash, per cent     |   4.97 |  4.92 |  4.93
+  Fiber, per cent   |  10.44 | 10.06 | 10.07
+  Protein, per cent |  37.33 | 37.43 | 38.90
+    (all insoluble) |        |       |
+  ===========================================
+
+It will be noticed that green tea contains twice as much tannin as black
+tea; during the fermentation which the black tea undergoes, some of the
+tannin is decomposed. There is a large amount of protein in tea, but it
+is of no food value, because of its insolubility. About half of the ash
+is soluble. The tannin is readily soluble, and for this reason green tea
+especially should be infused for a very short time and never boiled.
+Tannin in foods in large amounts may interfere with the normal digestion
+of the protein compounds, because it coagulates the albumin and peptones
+after they have become soluble, and thus makes additional work for the
+digestive organs.
+
+215. Judging Teas.--Teas are judged according to: (1) the tea as it
+appears prepared for market, (2) the infusion, and (3) the out-turn
+after infusion. The color should be uniform; if a black tea, it should
+be grayish black, not a dead black. The leaves should be uniform in size
+or grade. The quality and grade are dependent upon flavor, and, with the
+strength of the infusion, are determined by tasting. This work is
+rapidly done by the trained tea taster. The out-turn should be of one
+color; no bright green leaves should be present; evenness of make is
+judged by the out-turn. The flavor of a tea is largely a matter of
+personal judgment, but from a physiological point of view black teas are
+given the preference.
+
+216. Adulteration of Tea.--A few years ago tea was quite extensively
+adulterated, but the strict regulation of the government regarding
+imported tea has greatly lessened adulteration. The most common form
+was the use of spent leaves, _i.e._ leaves which had been infused.
+Leaves of the willow and other plants which resemble tea were also used,
+as well as large quantities of tea stems. Facing or coloring is also an
+adulteration, since it is done to give poor or damaged tea a brighter
+appearance. "Facing consists in treating leaves damaged in manufacture
+or which from age are inferior, with a mixture containing Prussian blue,
+turmeric, indigo, or plumbago to impart color or gloss, and with a
+fraudulent intent. There is no evidence that the facing agents are
+deleterious to health in the small quantities used, but as they are used
+for purposes of deception, they should be discouraged."[73] Facing and
+the addition of stems are the chief adulterations practiced at present.
+
+217. Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea.--Tea infusion
+does not contain sufficient nutrients to entitle it to be classed as a
+food. It is with some persons a stimulant. The caffein or theine in tea
+is an alkaloid that has characteristic physiological properties. In
+doses of from three to five grains, according to the United States
+Dispensatory, "it produces peculiar wakefulness." Larger doses produce
+intense physical restlessness, mental anxiety, and obstinate
+sleeplessness. "It has no effect upon the motor nerves, but is believed
+to have a visible effect upon the sensatory nerves." (United States
+Dispensatory.) Experiments with animals show that it causes elevation
+of the arterial pressure. It is used as a cardiac stimulant. The
+quantity of theine consumed in a cup of tea is about 4/5 of a grain, or
+1/4 of a medicinal dose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--COFFEE BERRIES.
+
+1, Mocha; 2, Java; 3, Rio.]
+
+218. Composition of Coffee.--The coffee tree is an evergreen
+cultivated in the tropics. It grows to a height of 30 feet, but when
+cultivated is kept pruned to from 6 to 10 feet. The fruit, which
+resembles a small cherry, with two seeds or coffee grains embedded in
+the pulp, is dried and the seeds removed, cleaned, and graded. Coffee
+has an entirely different composition from tea; it is characterized by
+a high per cent of fat and soluble carbohydrates, and also contains an
+essential oil and caffein, an alkaloid identical with theine. Tannic
+acid, not as free acid, is combined with caffein as a tannate.
+
+  ======================================
+              |RAW COFFEE|ROASTED COFFEE
+  --------------------------------------
+              | Per Cent | Per Cent
+  Water       |  11.23   |   1.15
+  Ash         |   3.92   |   4.75
+  Fat         |  12.27   |  14.48
+  Sugar, etc. |   0.66   |   8.55
+  Protein     |  12.07   |  13.98
+  Caffein     |   1.21   |   1.24
+  ======================================
+
+The high per cent of sugar and other soluble carbohydrates in roasted
+coffee is caused by the action of heat upon the non-nitrogenous
+compounds. Coffee cannot be considered a food, because only a
+comparatively small amount of the nutrients are soluble and available.
+It is a mildly stimulating beverage. With some individuals it appears to
+promote the digestive process, while with others its effect is not
+beneficial. Coffee is more extensively used in this country than tea,
+and is subject to greater adulteration. It is adulterated by facing and
+glazing; _i.e._ coloring the berries to resemble different grades and
+coating them with caramel and dextrine. Spent coffee grains and coffee
+that has been extracted without grinding are also used as adulterants.
+Imitation berries made of rye, corn, or wheat paste, molded, colored
+with caramel, and baked have been found mixed with genuine coffee
+berries. Roasted cereals and chicory are used extensively to adulterate
+ground coffee. Chicory is prepared from the root of the chicory plant,
+which belongs to the same family as the dandelion. It is claimed by some
+that a small amount of chicory improves the flavor of coffee. However,
+when chicory is added to coffee, it should be so stated on the label and
+the amount used given. The dextrine and sugar used in glazing are
+browned or caramelized during roasting and impart a darker color to the
+infusion, making it appear better than it really is. The glazing also
+makes the coffee retain moisture which would otherwise be driven off
+during roasting. Coffee contains such a large per cent of oil that the
+berries generally float when thrown on water, while the imitation
+berries sink. Chicory also sinks rapidly and colors the water brown,
+while the coffee remains floating for some time.
+
+There are three kinds of coffee in general use: Java, Mocha, and Rio or
+Brazil. The Brazil coffee has the largest berry and is usually styled by
+dealers as "low" or "low middlings." The Java coffee berries are smaller
+and paler in color, the better grades being brown. Mocha usually
+commands the highest price in commerce. The seeds are small and dark
+yellow before roasting.
+
+219. Cereal Coffee Substitutes.
+
+     "A few of these preparations contain a little true coffee, but for
+     the most part they appear to be made of parched grains of barley,
+     wheat, etc., or of grain mixed with pea hulls, ground corncobs, or
+     wheat middlings. It is said that barley or wheat parched, with a
+     little molasses, in an ordinary oven, makes something
+     indistinguishable in flavor from some of the cereal coffees on the
+     market. If no coffee is used in the cereal preparations, the claim
+     that they are not stimulating is probably true. As for the
+     nutritive value, parching the cereals undoubtedly renders some of
+     the carbohydrates soluble, and a part of this soluble matter passes
+     into the decoction, but the nutritive value of the infusion is
+     hardly worth considering in the dietary."[56]
+
+220. Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations.--Cocoa and chocolate are
+manufactured from the "cocoa bean," the seed of a tree native to
+tropical America. The beans are inclosed in a lemon-yellow, fleshy pod.
+They are removed from the pulp, allowed to undergo fermentation, and
+dried by exposure to the air and light, which hardens them and gives
+them a red color. This method produces what is known as the "fermented
+cocoa." For the "unfermented cocoa," the beans are dried without
+undergoing fermentation. Fermentation removes much of the acidity and
+bitterness characteristic to the unfermented bean, and when properly
+regulated develops flavor. The original bean contains about 50 per cent
+fat, part of which is removed in preparing the cocoa. This fat is sold
+as cocoa butter. In the preparation of some brands of cocoa, alkalies,
+such as soda and potash, are used to form a combination with the fat to
+prevent its separating in oily globules. This treatment improves the
+appearance of the cocoa, but experiments show the albumin to be somewhat
+less digestible and the soap-like product resulting not as valuable a
+food as the fat. Such preparations have a high per cent of ash. There
+is no objection from a nutritive point of view to a cocoa in which the
+fat separates in oily globules.
+
+221. Composition of Cocoa.--The cocoa bean, when dried or roasted and
+freed from its husk and ground, is sold as cracked cocoa, or cocoa nibs.
+From cocoa nibs the various cocoa and chocolate preparations are made.
+Cocoas vary in composition according to the extent to which the fat is
+removed during the process of manufacture and the nature and extent to
+which other ingredients are added. An average cocoa contains about 20
+per cent of proteids, and 30 per cent fat, also starch, sugar, gums,
+fiber, and ash, as well as theobromine, a material very similar to
+theine and caffein in tea and coffee, but not such an active stimulant.
+Cocoa is not easily soluble, but it may be ground so fine that a long
+time is required for its sedimentation; or sugar or other soluble
+material may be added during the process of manufacture to increase the
+specific gravity of the liquid to such an extent that the same object is
+attained without such fine grinding. The first method is to be
+preferred. Cocoa and its preparations are richer in nutritive substances
+than tea and coffee and have this added advantage that both the soluble
+and insoluble portions become a part of the beverage. Owing to the small
+amount used for a cup of cocoa, independent of the milk it does not add
+much in the way of nutrients to the ration.
+
+222. Chocolate.--Plain chocolate is prepared from cocoa nibs without
+"removal of the fat or other constituents except the germ." It differs
+in chemical composition from cocoa by containing more fat and less
+protein; it has nearly the same chemical composition as the cocoa nibs.
+It is officially defined as containing "not more than 3 per cent of ash
+insoluble in water, 3-1/2 per cent of crude fiber and 9 per cent of
+starch, and less than 45 per cent cocoa fat."[71]
+
+By the addition of sugar, sweet chocolates are made. They vary widely in
+composition according to the flavors and amounts of sugar added during
+their preparation. The average composition of cocoa nibs, standard
+cocoa, and plain chocolate is as follows:
+
+  ==============================================================
+                  |  COCOA |  COMPOSITION OF  | COMPOSITION OF
+                  |   NIBS |  STANDARD COCOA  |  PLAIN CHOCOLATE
+                  |---------------------------------------------
+                  |Per Cent|     Per Cent     |   Per Cent
+  Water           |  3.00  |        --        |     3.09
+  Ash             |  3.50  |       4.20       |     3.08
+  Theobromine     |  1.00  |        --        |      --
+  Caffein         |  0.50  |        --        |      --
+  Crude Protein   | 12.00  |        --        |      --
+  Crude fiber     |  2.50  |       5.02       |     2.63
+  Fat             | 50.00  |      32.52       |    49.81
+  Starch and other|        |                  |
+   non-nitrogenous|        |                  |
+   matter         | 27.50  |        --        |      --
+  ============================================================
+
+223. Adulteration of Chocolate and Cocoa.--The various chocolate and
+cocoa preparations offer an enticing field for sophistication; they are
+not, however, so extensively adulterated as before the enforcement of
+national and state pure food laws. The most common adulterants are
+starch, cocoa shells, and occasionally iron dioxid and other pigments to
+give color, also foreign fats to replace the fat removed and to give the
+required plasticity for molding.
+
+224. Comparative Composition of Beverages.--Tea and coffee as
+beverages contain but little in the way of nutrients other than the
+cream and sugar used in them. The solid matter in tea and coffee
+infusions amounts to less than 1.2 per cent. When cocoa is made with
+milk, it is a beverage of high nutritive value due mainly to the milk.
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF BEVERAGES[56]
+
+  =============================================================================
+                          |          |          |          |          | FUEL
+      KIND OF BEVERAGE    |  WATER   | PROTEIN  |   FAT    |  CARBO-  | VALUE
+                          |          |          |          | HYDRATES | PER LB.
+  ------------------------|----------|----------|----------|----------|--------
+                          | Per Cent | Per Cent | Per Cent | Per Cent |Calories
+  Commercial cereal coffee|          |          |          |          |
+    (0.5 ounce to         |          |          |          |          |
+      1 pint water)       |   98.2   |    0.2   |    --    |   1.4    |    30
+  Parched corn coffee     |          |          |          |          |
+    (1.6 ounces to        |          |          |          |          |
+       1 pint water)      |   99.5   |    0.2   |    --    |   0.5    |    13
+  Oatmeal water (1 ounce  |          |          |          |          |
+    to 1 pint water)      |   99.7   |    0.3   |    --    |   0.3    |    11
+  Coffee (1 ounce         |          |          |          |          |
+    1 pint water)         |   98.9   |    0.2   |    --    |   0.7    |    16
+  Tea (0.5 ounce to       |          |          |          |          |
+    1 pint water)         |   99.5   |    0.2   |    --    |   0.6    |    15
+  Cocoa (0.5 ounce to     |          |          |          |          |
+    1 pint milk)          |   84.5   |    3.8   |    4.7   |   6.0    |   365
+  Cocoa (0.5 ounce to     |          |          |          |          |
+    1 pint water)         |   97.1   |    0.6   |    0.9   |   1.1    |    65
+  Skimmed milk            |   90.5   |    3.4   |    0.3   |   5.1    |   170
+  =============================================================================
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS
+
+
+225. Digestibility, How Determined.--The term "digestibility," as
+applied to foods, is used in two ways: (1) meaning the thoroughness of
+the process, or the completeness with which the nutrients of the food
+are absorbed and used by the body, and (2) meaning the ease or comfort
+with which digestion is accomplished. Cheese is popularly termed
+indigestible, and rice digestible, when in reality the nutrients of
+cheese are more completely although more slowly digested than those of
+rice. In this work, unless otherwise stated, digestibility is applied to
+the completeness of the digestion process.
+
+The digestibility of a food is ascertained by means of digestion
+experiments, in which all of the food consumed for a certain period,
+usually two to four days, is weighed and analyzed, and from the weight
+and composition is determined the amount, in pounds or grams, of each
+nutrient consumed.[72] In like manner the nutrients in the indigestible
+portion, or feces, are determined from the weight and composition of the
+feces. The indigestible nutrients in the feces are deducted from the
+total nutrients of the food, the difference being the amount digested,
+or oxidized in the body. When the food is digested, the various
+nutrients undergo complete or partial oxidation, with the formation of
+carbon dioxid gas, water, urea (CH_{4}N_{2}O), and other compounds. The
+feces consist mainly of the compounds which have escaped digestion. The
+various groups of compounds of foods do not all have the same
+digestibility; for example, the starch of potatoes is 92 per cent
+digestible, while the protein is only 72 per cent. The percentage amount
+of a nutrient that is digested is called the digestion coefficient.
+
+In the following way the digestibility of a two-days ration of bread and
+milk was determined: 773.5 grams of bread and 2000 grams of milk were
+consumed by the subject. The dried feces weighed 38.2 grams. The foods
+and feces when analyzed were found to have the following
+composition:[62]
+
+  =====================================================================
+      COMPOSITION    |    BREAD       |      MILK     |     FECES[A]
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Water              |     44.13      |     86.52     |       --
+  Crude protein      |      7.75      |      3.15     |      25.88
+  Ether extract      |      0.90      |      4.63     |      18.23
+  Ash                |      0.32      |      0.70     |      26.35
+  Carbohydrates      |     46.90      |      5.00     |      29.54
+  Calories per gram  |      2.450     |      0.79     |       5.083
+  =====================================================================
+
+[Footnote A: Results on dry-matter basis.]
+
+
+STATEMENT OF RESULTS OF A DIGESTION EXPERIMENT
+
+  =============================================================================
+    FOOD CONSUMED   |  WEIGHT  |  PROTEIN |  ETHER  | CARBO- |       | HEAT OF
+                    |    OF    | N x 6.25 | EXTRACT |  HY-   |  ASH  | COMBUS-
+                    | MATERIAL |          |         | DRATES |       | TION
+  ------------------+----------+----------+---------+--------+-------+---------
+                    |   Grams  |   Grams  |   Grams |  Grams | Grams | Calories
+  Bread             |    773.5 |    60.0  |     6.9 |  362.8 |   2.5 |  1895
+  Milk              |   2000.0 |    63.0  |    92.6 |  100.0 |  14.0 |  1585
+                    |          |  ------- + ------- + -------+-------+---------
+        Total       |     38.2 |   123.0  |    99.5 |  462.8 |  16.5 |  3480
+  Feces             |          |     9.9  |     7.0 |   11.3 |  10.1 |   194
+                    |          |  ------- + ------- + -------+-------+---------
+  Total amount      |          |   113.1  |    92.5 |  451.5 |   6.4 |  3286
+    digested        |          |          |         |        |       |
+  Per cent digested |          |          |         |        |       |
+    or coefficients |          |          |         |        |       |
+    of digestibility|          |    92.0  |    93.0 |  97.5  |  38.8 |  94.4
+                    |          |          |         |        |       |
+  Available energy  |          |     --   |     --  |   --   |   --  |  90.0
+  =============================================================================
+
+In this experiment 92 per cent of the crude protein, 93 per cent of the
+ether extract, and 97.5 per cent of the carbohydrates of the bread and
+milk ration were digested and absorbed by the body. In calculating the
+available energy, correction is made for the unoxidized residue, as urea
+and allied forms. It is estimated that for each gram of protein in the
+ration there was an indigestible residue yielding 1.25 calories.
+
+226. Available Nutrients.--A food may contain a comparatively large
+amount of a compound, and yet, on account of its low digestibility, fail
+to supply much of it to the body in an available form. Hence it is that
+the value of a food is dependent not alone on its composition, but also
+on its digestibility. The digestible or available nutrients of a food
+are determined by multiplying the per cent of each nutrient which the
+food contains by its digestion coefficient. For example, a sample of
+wheat flour contains 12 per cent protein, 88 per cent of which is
+digestible, making 10.56 per cent of available or digestible protein (12
+x 0.88-10.56). Graham flour made from similar wheat contains 13 per cent
+total protein, and only 75 per cent of the protein is digestible, making
+9.75 per cent available (13 x 0.75 = 9.75). Thus one food may contain a
+larger total but a smaller available amount of a nutrient than another.
+
+227. Available Energy.--The available energy of a food or a ration is
+expressed in calories. A ration for a laborer at active out-of-door work
+should yield about 3200 calories. The calory is the unit of heat, and
+represents the heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of
+water 1 deg. C., or four pounds of water 1 deg. F. The caloric value of
+foods is determined by the calorimeter, an apparatus which measures heat
+with great accuracy. A pound of starch, or allied carbohydrates, yields
+1860 calories, and a pound of fat 4225 (see Section 13). While a gram of
+protein completely burned produces 7.8 calories, digested it yields only
+about 4.2 calories, because, as explained in the preceding section, not
+all of the carbon and oxygen are oxidized.[59] The caloric value or
+available energy of a ration can be calculated from the digestible
+nutrients by multiplying the pounds of digestible protein and
+carbohydrates by 1860, the digestible fat by 4225, and adding the
+results. For determination of the available energy of foods under
+different experimental conditions, and where great accuracy is desired,
+a specially constructed respiration calorimeter has been devised, which
+is built upon the same principle as an ordinary calorimeter, except it
+is large enough to admit a person, and is provided with appliances for
+measuring and analyzing the intake and outlet of air.[74] The heat
+produced by the combustion of the food in the body warms the water
+surrounding the calorimeter chamber, and this increase in temperature is
+determined by thermometers reading to 0.005 of a degree or less.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CALORIMETER.]
+
+228. Normal Digestion and Health.--While the process of digestion has
+been extensively studied, it is not perfectly understood. Between the
+initial compounds of foods and their final oxidation products a large
+number of intermediate substances are formed, and when digestion fails
+to take place in a normal way, toxic or poisonous compounds are produced
+and various diseases result. It is probable that more diseases are due
+to imperfect or malnutrition than to any other cause. There is a very
+close relationship between health and normal digestion of the food.
+
+The cells in the different parts of the digestive tract secrete fluids
+containing substances known as soluble ferments, or enzymes, which act
+upon the various compounds of foods, changing them chemically and
+physically so that they can be absorbed and utilized by the body. (See
+Section 31.) Some of the more important ferments are: ptyolin of the
+saliva, pepsin of the stomach, and pancreatin and diastase of the
+intestines. In order that these ferments may carry on their work in a
+normal way, the acidity and alkalinity of the different parts of the
+digestive tract must be maintained. The gastric juice contains from 0.1
+to 0.25 per cent of hydrochloric acid, imparting mildly antiseptic
+properties; and while the peptic ferment works in a slightly acid
+solution, the tryptic ferment requires an alkaline solution. To secrete
+the necessary amount and quality of digestive fluids, the organs must be
+in a healthy condition. Many erroneous ideas regarding the digestion of
+foods are based upon misinterpretation of facts by persons suffering
+from impaired digestion, and attempts are frequently made to apply to
+normal digestion generalizations applicable only to diseased conditions.
+
+229. Digestibility of Animal Foods.--The proteids and fats in animal
+foods, as meats, are more completely digested than the same class of
+nutrients in vegetables. In general, about 95 per cent of the proteids
+of meats is digestible, while those in vegetables are often less than 85
+percent digestible. The amount of indigestible residue from animal foods
+is small; while from vegetables it is large, for the cellulose prevents
+complete absorption of the nutrients and, as a result, there is much
+indigestible residue. Animal foods are concentrated, in that they
+furnish large amounts of nutrients in digestible forms. There is less
+difference in the completeness with which various meats are digested
+than in their ease of digestion; the proteins all have about the same
+digestion coefficients, but vary with individuals as to ease of
+digestion and time required. It is generally considered that the
+digestible proteins, whether of animal or vegetable origin, are equally
+valuable for food purposes. This is an assumption, however, that has not
+been well established by experimental evidence. In a mixed ration, the
+proteins from different sources appear to have the same nutritive value,
+but as each is composed of different radicals and separated into
+dissimilar elementary compounds during the process of digestion, they
+would not necessarily all have the same food value.
+
+There is but little difference between the fats and proteins of meats as
+to completeness of digestion,--the slight difference being in favor of
+the proteins. Some physiologists claim that the fat, which in some meats
+surrounds the bundles of fiber (protein), forming a protecting coat,
+prevents the complete solvent action of the digestive fluid. Very fat
+meats are not as completely digested as those moderately fat. It is also
+claimed that the digestibility of the meat is influenced by the
+mechanical character, as toughness of the fiber.
+
+230. Digestibility of Vegetable Foods.--Vegetable foods vary in
+digestibility with their mechanical condition and the amount of
+cellulose or fiber. In some the nutrients are so embedded in cellular
+tissue as to be protected from the solvent action of the digestive
+fluids, and in such cases the digestibility and availability are low.
+The starches and sugars are more completely digested than any other of
+the nutrients of vegetables; in some instances they are from 95 to 98
+per cent digestible. Some cellular tissue, but not an excess, is
+desirable in a ration, as it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon
+the organs of digestion, encourages peristalsis, and is an absorbent and
+dilutant of the waste products formed during digestion. For example, in
+the feeding of swine, it has been found that corn and cob meal often
+gives better results than corn fed alone. The cob contains but little in
+the way of nutrients, but it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon
+digestion. Occasionally too many bulky foods are combined, containing
+scant amounts of nutrients, so that the body receives insufficient
+protein. This is liable to be the case in the dietary of the strict
+vegetarian. Many of the vegetables possess special dietetic value, due
+to the organic acids and essential oils, as cited in the chapter on
+fruits and vegetables. The value of such foods cannot always be
+determined from their content of digestible protein, fat, and
+carbohydrates. This is particularly evident when they are omitted from
+the ration, as in the case of a restricted diet consisting mainly of
+animal foods. Many vegetables have low nutritive value on account of
+their bulky nature and the large amount of water and cellulose which
+they contain, which tends to decrease digestibility and lower the amount
+of available nutrients. Because of their bulk and fermentable nature,
+resulting in the formation of gases, a diet of coarse vegetables has a
+tendency to cause distention and enlargement of the intestinal organs.
+The carbohydrates, which are the chief constituents of vegetables, are
+digested mainly in the intestines, and require special mechanical
+preparation in the stomach, hence the nutrients of vegetables are not,
+as a rule, as easily digested as those of animal foods.
+
+231. Factors influencing Digestion.--There are a number of factors
+which influence completeness as well as ease of digestion, as: (1)
+combination of foods; (2) amount of food; (3) method of preparation; (4)
+mechanical condition of the food; (5) palatability; (6) physiological
+properties; (7) individuality of the consumer; and (8) psychological
+influences.
+
+232. Combination of Foods.--In a mixed ration the nutrients are
+generally more completely digested than when only one food is used. For
+example, milk is practically all digested when it forms a part of a
+ration, and it also promotes digestibility of the foods with which it is
+combined, but when used alone it is less digestible.[27] Bread alone and
+milk alone are not as completely digested as bread and milk combined.
+The same in a general way has been observed in the feeding of farm
+animals,--better results are secured from combining two or more foods
+than from the use of one alone. The extent to which one food influences
+the digestibility of another has not been extensively studied.
+
+In a mixed ration, consisting of several articles of food of different
+mechanical structure, the work of digestion is more evenly distributed
+among the various organs. A food often requires special preparation on
+the part of the stomach before it can be digested in the intestines, and
+if this food is consumed in small amounts and combined with others of
+different structure, the work of gastric digestion is lessened so that
+the foods are properly prepared and normal digestion takes place. The
+effect which one food exerts upon the digestibility of another is
+largely mechanical.
+
+233. Amount of Food.--Completeness as well as ease of digestion is
+influenced by the amount of food consumed. In general, excessive amounts
+are not as completely digested as moderate amounts. In digestion
+experiments with oatmeal and milk, it was found that when these foods
+were consumed in large quantities the fat and protein were not as
+completely absorbed by the body as when less was used, the protein being
+7 per cent and the fat 6 per cent more digestible in the medium ration.
+Experiments with animals show that economical results are not secured
+from an excess of food.[5] Some individuals consume too much food, and
+with them a restricted diet would be beneficial, while others err in not
+consuming enough to meet the requirements of the body. Quite frequently
+it is those who need more food who practice dieting. When there is
+trouble with digestion, it is not always the amount or kind of food
+which is at fault, but other habits may be such as to affect digestion.
+The active out-of-door laborer can with impunity consume more food,
+because there is greater demand for nutrients, and the food is more
+completely oxidized in the body and without the formation of poisonous
+waste products. The amount of food consumed should be sufficient to meet
+all the demands of the body and maintain a normal weight.
+
+234. Method of Preparation of Food.--The extent to which methods of
+cooking and preparation influence completeness of digestion has not been
+extensively investigated. As is well known, they have great influence
+upon ease and comfort of digestion. During cooking, as discussed in
+Chapter II, extensive physical and chemical changes occur, and these in
+turn affect digestibility. When the cooking has not been sufficient to
+mechanically disintegrate vegetable tissue, the digestive fluids fail to
+act favorably upon the food. Cooking is also beneficial because it
+renders the food sterile and destroys all objectionable microoerganisms
+which, if they remain in food, readily undergo incubation in the
+digestive tract, interfering with normal digestion. Prolonged heat
+causes some foods to become less digestible, as milk, which digestion
+experiments show to be more completely digested when fresh than when
+sterilized. Pasteurized milk, which is not subjected to so high a
+temperature as sterilized milk, is more completely digested. See Chapter
+VII for discussion of sterilizing and pasteurizing milk.[38] The
+benefits derived from the destruction of the objectionable bacteria in
+foods are, however, greater than the losses attendant on lessened
+digestibility due to the action of heat. The method of preparation of a
+food affects its digestibility mainly through change in mechanical
+structure, and modification of the forms in which the nutrients are
+present.[5]
+
+235. Mechanical Condition of Foods.--The mechanical condition of foods
+as to density and structure of the particles and the extent to which
+they are disintegrated in their preparation for the table influences
+digestibility to a great extent. The mechanics of digestion is a subject
+that has not been extensively investigated, and it is one of great
+importance, as biological and chemical changes cannot take place if the
+food is not in proper mechanical condition. In general, the finer the
+food particles, the more completely the nutrients are acted upon by the
+digestive fluids and absorbed by the body. Nevertheless, the diet should
+not consist entirely of finely granulated foods. Some foods are valuable
+mainly because of the favorable action they exert mechanically upon
+digestion, rather than for the nutrients they contain.[62] Coarsely
+granulated breakfast foods, whole wheat flour, and many vegetables
+contain sufficient cellular tissue to give special value from a
+mechanical rather than a chemical point of view. The extent to which
+coarsely and finely granulated foods should enter into the ration is a
+question largely for the individual to determine. Experiments with pigs
+show that if large amounts of coarse, granular foods are consumed, the
+tendency is for the digestive tract to become inflamed and less able to
+exercise its normal functions. Coarsely granulated foods have a tendency
+to pass through the digestive tract in less time than those that are
+finely granulated, due largely to increased peristaltic action, and the
+result is the food is not retained a sufficient length of time to allow
+normal absorption to take place. In the feeding of farm animals, it has
+been found that the mechanical condition of the food has a great
+influence upon its economic use. Rations that are either too bulky or
+too concentrated fail to give the best results. In the human ration, the
+mechanical condition of the food is equally as important as its chemical
+composition.
+
+236. Mastication is an important part of digestion, and when foods are
+not thoroughly masticated, additional work is required of the stomach,
+which is usually an overworked organ because of doing the work of the
+mouth as well. Although much of the mechanical preparation and mixing of
+foods is of necessity done in the stomach, some of it may advantageously
+be done in the mouth. The stomach should not be required to perform the
+function of the gizzard of a fowl.
+
+237. Palatability of Foods.--Many foods naturally contain essential
+oils and other substances which impart palatability. These have but
+little in the way of nutritive value, but they assist in rendering the
+nutrients with which they are associated more digestible. Palatability
+of a food favorably influences the secretion of the gastric and other
+digestive fluids, and in this way the natural flavors of well-prepared
+foods aid in digestion. In the feeding of farm animals it has been found
+that when foods are consumed with a relish better returns are secured
+than when unpalatable foods are fed. To secure palatability the
+excessive use of condiments is unnecessary. It is possible to a great
+extent during preparation to develop and conserve the natural flavors.
+Some foods contain bitter principles which are removed during the
+cooking, while in others pleasant flavors are developed. Palatability is
+an important factor in the digestibility of foods.
+
+238. Physiological Properties of Food.--Some food materials,
+particularly fruits and vegetables, contain compounds which have
+definite physiological properties, as tannin which is an astringent,
+special oils which exert a cathartic action, and the alkaloids which
+serve as irritants to nerve centers. Wheat germ oil is laxative, and it
+is probable that the physiological properties of graham and whole wheat
+breads are due in some degree to the oil which they contain.[67] The
+use of fruits, herbs, and vegetables for medicinal purposes is based
+upon the presence of compounds possessing well-defined medicinal
+properties. As a rule food plants do not contain appreciable amounts of
+such substances, and the use of food for medicinal effect should be by
+the advice of a physician. The physiological properties of some foods
+are due to bacterial products. See Chapter XX.
+
+239. Individuality.--Material difference in digestive power is
+noticeable among individuals. Digestion experiments show that one person
+may digest 5 per cent more of a nutrient than another. This difference
+appears to be due to a number of factors, as activity of the organs, as
+affected by exercise and kind of labor performed; abnormal composition
+of the digestive fluids; or failure of the different parts of the
+digestive tract to act in harmony. Individuality is one of the most
+important factors in digestion. Persons become accustomed to certain
+foods through long usage, and the digestive tract adapts itself to those
+foods, rendering sudden and extreme changes in the dietary hazardous.
+Common food articles may fail to properly digest in the case of some
+individuals, while with others they are consumed with benefit. What is
+food to one may prove to be a poison to another, and while general
+statements can be made in regard to the digestibility of foods,
+individual differences must be recognized.
+
+240. Psychological Factors.--Previously conceived ideas concerning
+foods influence digestibility. Foods must be consumed with a relish in
+order to secure the best results, as flow of the digestive fluids and
+activity of the organs are to a certain extent dependent upon the nerve
+centers. If it is believed that a food is poisonous or injurious, even
+when the food is wholesome, normal digestion fails to take place. In
+experiments by the author, in which the comparative digestibility of
+butter and oleomargarine was being studied, it was found that when the
+subjects were told they were eating oleomargarine, its digestibility was
+depressed 5 per cent, and when they were not told the nature of the
+material, but assumed that butter was oleomargarine, the digestibility
+of the butter was lowered about 6 per cent.[13] Preconceived notions in
+regard to foods, not founded upon well-established facts, but due to
+prejudice resulting from ignorance, cause many valuable foods to be
+excluded from the dietary. Many persons, like the foreign lady who,
+visiting this country, said she ate only acquaintances, prefer foods
+that have a familiar taste and appearance, and any unusual taste or
+appearance detracts from the value because of the psychological
+influence upon digestion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS
+
+
+241. Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods.--The market price and the
+nutritive value of foods are often at variance, as those which cost the
+most frequently contain the least nutrients.[75] It is difficult to make
+absolute comparisons as to the nutritive value of foods at different
+prices, because they differ not only in the amounts, but also in the
+kinds of nutrients. While it is not possible to express definitely the
+value of one food in terms of another, approximate comparisons may be
+made as to the amounts of nutrients that can be secured for a given sum
+of money when foods are at different prices, and tables have been
+prepared making such comparisons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--COMPOSITION OF FOODS.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]
+
+242. Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum.[7]--To ascertain the
+nutrients procurable for a given sum first determine the amount in
+pounds that can be obtained, say, for ten cents, and then multiply by
+the percentages of fat, protein, carbohydrates, and calories in the
+food. The results are the amounts, in pounds, of nutrients procurable
+for that sum of money. For example: if milk is 5 cents per quart, two
+quarts or approximately four pounds, can be procured for 10 cents. If
+the milk contains fat, 4 per cent, protein, 3.3 per cent, carbohydrates,
+5 per cent, and fuel value, 310 calories per pound, multiplying each of
+these by 4 gives the nutrients and fuel value in four pounds, or 10
+cents worth of milk, as follows:
+
+  Protein             0.13 lb.
+  Fat                 0.16 lb.
+  Carbohydrates       0.2 lb.
+  Calories            1240
+
+If it is desired to compare milk at 5 cents per quart with round steak
+at 15 cents per pound, 10 cents will procure 0.66, or two thirds of a
+pound of round steak containing on an average (edible portion) 19 per
+cent protein, 12.8 per cent fat, and yielding 890 calories per pound. If
+10 per cent is refuse, there is edible about 0.6 of a pound. The amounts
+of nutrients in the 0.6 of a pound of steak, edible portion, or 0.66 lb.
+as purchased would be:
+
+  Protein          0.11 lb.
+  Fat              0.08 lb.
+  Calories          534
+
+It is to be observed that from the 10 cents' worth of milk a little more
+protein, 0.08 of a pound more fat, and nearly two and one half times as
+many calories can be secured as from the 10 cents' worth of meat. This
+is due to the carbohydrates and the larger amount of fat which the milk
+contains. At these prices, milk should be used liberally in the dietary,
+as it furnishes more of all the nutrients than does meat. It would not
+be advisable to exclude meat entirely from the ration, but milk at 5
+cents per quart is cheaper food than meat at 15 cents per pound. In
+making comparisons, preference cannot always be given to one food
+because of its containing more of any particular nutrient, for often
+there are other factors that influence the value.
+
+243. Comparing Foods as to Nutritive Value.--In general, preference
+should be given to foods which supply the most protein, provided the
+differences between the carbohydrates and fats are not large. When the
+protein content of two foods is nearly the same, but the fats and
+carbohydrates differ materially, the preference may safely be given to
+the food which supplies the larger amount of total nutrients. A pound of
+protein in a ration is more valuable than a pound of either fat or
+carbohydrates, although it is not possible to establish an absolute
+scale as to the comparative value of these nutrients, because they serve
+different functional purposes in the body. It is sometimes necessary to
+use small amounts of foods rich in protein in order to secure a balanced
+ration; excessive use of protein, however, is not economical, as that
+which is not needed for functional purposes is converted into heat and
+energy which could be supplied as well by the carbohydrates, and they
+are less expensive nutrients.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]
+
+
+TEN CENTS WILL PURCHASE: (From Farmer's Bulletin No. 142, U. S.
+Dept. of Agr.)
+
+  =============================================================================
+                          |       | TOTAL   |        |       |        |
+                          |       | WEIGHT  |        |       |        |
+    KIND OF FOOD          | PRICE | OF FOOD |        |       |  CAR-  |
+      MATERIAL            |  PER  | MATE-   |PROTEIN |  FAT  |  BOHY- |  ENERGY
+                          | POUND | RIAL    |        |       | DRATES |
+  ------------------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+---------+-------
+                          | Cents | Pounds  | Pound  | Pound | Pounds |Calories
+  Beef, sirloin           |   25  |   0.40  |  0.06  |  0.06 |   --   |    410
+      Do.                 |   20  |   0.50  |  0.08  |  0.08 |   --   |    515
+      Do.                 |   15  |   0.67  |  0.10  |  0.11 |   --   |    685
+  Beef, round             |   16  |   0.63  |  0.11  |  0.08 |   --   |    560
+      Do.                 |   14  |   0.71  |  0.13  |  0.09 |   --   |    630
+      Do.                 |   12  |   0.83  |  0.15  |  0.10 |   --   |    740
+  Beef, shoulder clod     |   12  |   0.83  |  0.13  |  0.08 |   --   |    595
+      Do.                 |    9  |   1.11  |  0.18  |  0.10 |   --   |    795
+  Beef, stew meat         |    5  |   2.00  |  0.29  |  0.23 |   --   |   1530
+  Beef, dried, chipped    |   25  |   0.40  |  0.10  |  0.03 |   --   |    315
+  Mutton chops, loin      |   16  |   0.63  |  0.08  |  0.17 |   --   |    890
+  Mutton, leg             |   20  |   0.50  |  0.07  |  0.07 |   --   |    445
+      Do.                 |   16  |   0.63  |  0.09  |  0.09 |   --   |    560
+  Roast pork, loin        |   12  |   0.83  |  0.11  |  0.19 |   --   |   1035
+  Pork, smoked ham        |   22  |   0.45  |  0.06  |  0.14 |   --   |    735
+      Do.                 |   18  |   0.56  |  0.08  |  0.18 |   --   |    915
+  Pork, fat salt          |   12  |   0.83  |  0.02  |  0.68 |   --   |   2950
+  Codfish, dressed, fresh |   10  |   1.00  |  0.11  |   --  |   --   |    220
+  Halibut, fresh          |   18  |   0.56  |  0.08  |  0.02 |   --   |    265
+  Cod, salt               |    7  |   1.43  |  0.22  |  0.01 |   --   |    465
+  Mackerel, salt, dressed |   10  |   1.00  |  0.13  |  0.20 |   --   |   1135
+  Salmon, canned          |   12  |   0.83  |  0.18  |  0.10 |   --   |    760
+  Oysters, solids,        |       |         |        |       |        |
+      50 cents per quart  |   25  |   0.40  |  0.02  |   --  |  0.01  |     90
+      35 cents per quart  |   18  |   0.56  |  0.03  |  0.01 |  0.02  |    125
+  Lobster, canned         |   18  |   0.56  |  0.10  |  0.01 |   --   |    225
+  Butter                  |   20  |   0.50  |  0.01  |  0.40 |   --   |   1705
+      Do.                 |   25  |   0.40  |   --   |  0.32 |   --   |   1365
+      Do.                 |   30  |   0.33  |   --   |  0.27 |   --   |   1125
+  Eggs, 36 cents per dozen|   24  |   0.42  |  0.05  |  0.04 |   --   |    260
+  Eggs, 24 cents per dozen|   16  |   0.63  |  0.07  |  0.06 |   --   |    385
+  Eggs, 12 cents per dozen|    8  |   1.25  |  0.14  |  0.11 |   --   |    770
+  Cheese                  |   16  |   0.63  |  0.16  |  0.20 |  0.02  |   1185
+  Milk, 7 cents per quart | 3-1/2 |   2.85  |  0.09  |  0.11 |  0.14  |    885
+  Milk, 6 cents per quart |    3  |   3.33  |  0.11  |  0.13 |  0.17  |   1030
+  Wheat flour             |    3  |   3.33  |  0.32  |  0.03 |  2.45  |   5440
+      Do.                 | 2-1/2 |   4.00  |  0.39  |  0.04 |  2.94  |   6540
+  Corn meal, granular     | 2-1/2 |   4.00  |  0.31  |  0.07 |  2.96  |   6540
+  Wheat breakfast food    | 7-1/2 |   1.33  |  0.13  |  0.02 |  0.98  |   2235
+  Oat breakfast food      | 7-1/2 |   1.33  |  0.19  |  0.09 |  0.86  |   2395
+  Oatmeal                 |    4  |   2.50  |  0.34  |  0.16 |  1.66  |   4500
+  Rice                    |    8  |   1.25  |  0.08  |   --  |  0.97  |   2025
+  Wheat bread             |    6  |   1.67  |  0.13  |  0.02 |  0.87  |   2000
+      Do.                 |    5  |   2.00  |  0.16  |  0.02 |  1.04  |   2400
+      Do.                 |    4  |   2.50  |  0.20  |  0.03 |  1.30  |   3000
+  Rye bread               |    5  |   2.00  |  0.15  |  0.01 |  1.04  |   2340
+  Beans, white, dried     |    5  |   2.00  |  0.35  |  0.03 |  1.16  |   3040
+  Cabbage                 | 2-1/2 |   4.00  |  0.05  |  0.01 |  0.18  |    460
+  Celery                  |    5  |   2.00  |  0.02  |   --  |  0.05  |    130
+  Corn, canned            |   10  |   1.00  |  0.02  |  0.01 |  0.18  |    430
+  Potatoes,               |       |         |        |       |        |
+      90 cents per bushel |  1-1/2|   6.67  |  0.10  |  0.01 |  0.93  |   1970
+      60 cents per bushel |    1  |  10.00  |  0.15  |  0.01 |  1.40  |   2950
+      45 cents per bushel |   3/4 |  13.33  |  0.20  |  0.01 |  1.87  |   3935
+  Turnips                 |    1  |  10.00  |  0.08  |  0.01 |  0.54  |   1200
+  Apples                  |  1-1/2|   6.67  |  0.02  |  0.02 |  0.65  |   1270
+  Bananas                 |    7  |   1.43  |  0.01  |  0.01 |  0.18  |    370
+  Oranges                 |    6  |   1.67  |  0.01  |   --  |  0.13  |    250
+  Strawberries            |    7  |   1.43  |   .01  |  0.01 |  0.09  |    215
+  Sugar                   |    6  |   1.67  |   --   |   --  |  1.67  |   2920
+  =============================================================================
+
+It is to be noted in the table that, ordinarily, for the same amount of
+money the most nutrients can be obtained in the form of milk, cheese,
+sugar, and beans, corn meal, wheat flour, oatmeal, and cereals in bulk.
+While meats supply protein liberally, they fail to furnish carbohydrates
+as the vegetables. As discussed in the chapter on Dietary Studies of
+Families, unnecessarily expensive foods are often used, resulting either
+in lack of nutrients or unbalanced rations.
+
+
+EXAMPLES
+
+1. Compute the calories and the amounts of protein, fat, and
+carbohydrates that can be procured for 25 cents in cheese selling for 18
+cents per pound; how do these compare with the nutrients in eggs at 20
+cents per dozen?
+
+2. Which food furnishes the larger amount of nutrients, potatoes at 50
+cents per bushel or flour at $6 per barrel?
+
+3. How do beans at 10 cents per quart compare in nutritive value with
+beef at 15 Cents per pound?
+
+4. How does salt codfish at 10 cents per pound compare in nutritive
+value with lamb chops at 15 cents per pound?
+
+5. Compare in nutritive value cream at 25 cents per quart with butter at
+30 cents per pound.
+
+6. Calculate the composition and nutritive value of a cake made of
+sugar, 8 oz.; butter, 4 oz.; eggs, 8 oz.; flour, 8 oz.; and milk, 4 oz.;
+the baked cake weighs one and three fourths pounds.
+
+
+AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMON AMERICAN FOOD PRODUCTS
+
+(From Farmer's Bulletin, No. 142, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)
+
+  =============================================================================
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     | F
+                                |      |      |      |      |   h |     | u p
+                                |  R   |      |  P   |      | C y |     | e e
+                                |  e   |  W   |  r   |      | a d |     | l r
+                                |  f   |  a   |  o   |  F   | r r |  A  |
+      Food Material             |  u   |  t   |  t   |  a   | b a |  s  | v P
+      (as purchased)            |  s   |  e   |  e   |  t   | o t |  h  | a o
+                                |  e   |  r   |  i   |      | - e |     | l u
+                                |      |      |  n   |      |   s |     | u n
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     | e d
+  ------------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     | Calo-
+         ANIMAL FOOD            |  %   |  %   |  %   |  %   |  %  |  %  | ries
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Beef, fresh:                  |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Chuck ribs                  | 16.3 | 52.6 | 15.5 | 15.0 |  -- | 0.8 |  910
+    Flank                       | 10.2 | 54.0 | 17.0 | 19.0 |  -- | 0.7 | 1105
+    Loin                        | 13.3 | 52.5 | 16.1 | 17.5 |  -- | 0.9 | 1025
+    Porterhouse steak           | 12.7 | 52.4 | 19.1 | 17.9 |  -- | 0.8 | 1100
+    Sirloin steak               | 12.8 | 54.0 | 16.5 | 16.1 |  -- | 0.9 |  975
+    Neck                        | 27.6 | 45.9 | 14.5 | 11.9 |  -- | 0.7 | 1165
+    Ribs                        | 20.8 | 43.8 | 13.9 | 21.2 |  -- | 0.7 | 1135
+    Rib rolls                   |  --  | 63.9 | 19.3 | 16.7 |  -- | 0.9 | 1055
+    Round                       |  7.2 | 60.7 | 19.0 | 12.8 |  -- | 1.0 |  890
+    Rump                        | 20.7 | 45.0 | 13.8 | 20.2 |  -- | 0.7 | 1090
+    Shank, fore                 | 36.9 | 42.9 | 12.8 |  7.3 |  -- | 0.6 |  545
+    Shoulder and clod           | 16.4 | 56.8 | 16.4 |  9.8 |  -- | 0.9 |  715
+    Fore quarter                | 18.7 | 49.1 | 14.5 | 17.5 |  -- | 0.7 |  995
+    Hind quarter                | 15.7 | 50.4 | 15.4 | 18.3 |  -- | 0.7 | 1045
+  Beef, corned, canned,         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+        pickled, dried:         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Corned beef                 |  8.4 | 49.2 | 14.3 | 23.8 |  -- | 4.6 | 1245
+    Tongue, pickled             |  6.0 | 58.9 | 11.9 | 19.2 |  -- | 4.3 | 1010
+    Dried, salted, and smoked   |  4.7 | 53.7 | 26.4 |  6.9 |  -- | 8.9 |  790
+    Canned boiled beef          |  --  | 51.8 | 25.5 | 22.5 |  -- | 1.3 | 1410
+    Canned corned beef          |  --  | 51.8 | 26.3 | 18.7 |  -- | 4.0 | 1270
+  Veal:                         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Breast                      | 21.3 | 52.0 | 15.4 | 11.0 |  -- | 0.8 |  745
+    Leg                         | 14.2 | 60.1 | 15.5 |  7.9 |  -- | 0.9 |  625
+    Leg cutlets                 |  3.4 | 68.3 | 20.1 |  7.5 |  -- | 1.0 |  695
+    Fore quarter                | 24.5 | 54.2 | 15.1 |  6.0 |  -- | 0.7 |  535
+    Hind quarter                | 20.7 | 56.2 | 16.2 |  6.6 |  -- | 0.8 |  580
+  Mutton:                       |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Flank                       |  9.9 | 39.0 | 13.8 | 36.9 |  -- | 0.6 | 1770
+    Leg, hind                   | 18.4 | 51.2 | 15.1 | 14.7 |  -- | 0.8 |  890
+    Loin chops                  | 16.0 | 42.0 | 13.5 | 28.3 |  -- | 0.7 | 1415
+    Fore quarter                | 21.2 | 41.6 | 12.3 | 24.5 |  -- | 0.7 | 1235
+    Hind quarter, without       | 17.2 | 45.4 | 13.8 | 23.2 |  -- | 0.7 | 1210
+         tallow                 |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Lamb:                         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Breast                      | 10.1 | 45.5 | 15.4 | 19.1 |  -- | 0.8 | 1075
+    Leg, hind                   | 17.4 | 52.9 | 15.9 | 13.6 |  -- | 0.9 |  860
+  Pork, fresh:                  |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Ham                         | 10.7 | 48.0 | 13.5 | 25.9 |  -- | 0.8 | 1320
+    Loin chops                  | 19.7 | 41.8 | 13.4 | 24.2 |  -- | 0.8 | 1245
+    Shoulder                    | 12.4 | 44.9 | 12.0 | 29.8 |  -- | 0.7 | 1450
+    Tenderloin                  |  --  | 66.5 | 18.9 | 13.0 |  -- | 1.0 |  895
+  Pork, salted, cured, pickled: |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Ham, smoked                 | 13.6 | 34.8 | 14.2 | 33.4 |  -- | 4.2 | 1635
+    Shoulder, smoked            | 18.2 | 36.8 | 13.0 | 26.6 |  -- | 5.5 | 1335
+    Salt pork                   |  --  |  7.9 |  1.9 | 86.2 |  -- | 3.9 | 3555
+    Bacon, smoked               |  7.7 | 17.4 |  9.1 | 62.2 |  -- | 4.1 | 2715
+  Sausage:                      |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Bologna                     |  3.3 | 55.2 | 18.2 | 19.7 |  -- | 3.8 | 1155
+    Pork                        |  --  | 39.8 | 13.0 | 44.2 |  1.1| 2.2 | 2075
+    Frankfort                   |  --  | 57.2 | 19.6 | 18.6 |  1.1| 3.4 | 1155
+  Soups:                        |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Celery, cream of            |  --  | 88.6 |  2.1 |  2.8 |  5.0| 1.5 |  235
+    Beef                        |  --  | 92.9 |  4.4 |  0.4 |  1.1| 1.2 |  120
+    Meat stew                   |  --  | 84.5 |  4.6 |  4.3 |  5.5| 1.1 |  365
+    Tomato                      |  --  | 90.0 |  1.8 |  1.1 |  5.6| 1.5 |  185
+  Poultry:                      |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Chicken, broilers           | 41.6 | 43.7 | 12.8 |  1.4 |  -- | 0.7 |  305
+    Fowls                       | 25.9 | 47.1 | 13.7 | 12.3 |  -- | 0.7 |  765
+    Goose                       | 17.6 | 38.5 | 13.4 | 29.8 |  -- | 0.7 | 1475
+    Turkey                      | 22.7 | 42.4 | 16.1 | 18.4 |  -- | 0.8 | 1060
+  Fish:                         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Cod, dressed                | 29.9 | 58.5 | 11.1 |  0.2 |  -- | 0.8 |  220
+    Halibut, steaks or sections | 17.7 | 61.9 | 15.3 |  4.4 |  -- | 0.9 |  475
+    Mackerel, whole             | 44.7 | 40.4 | 10.2 |  4.2 |  -- | 0.7 |  370
+    Perch, yellow dressed       | 35.1 | 50.7 | 12.8 |  0.7 |  -- | 0.9 |  275
+    Shad, whole                 | 50.1 | 35.2 |  9.4 |  4.8 |  -- | 0.7 |  380
+    Shad, roe                   |   -- | 71.2 | 20.9 |  3.8 |  2.6| 1.5 |  600
+  Fish, preserved:              |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Cod, salt                   | 24.9 | 40.2 | 16.0 |  0.4 |  -- |18.5 |  325
+    Herring, smoked             | 44.4 | 19.2 | 20.5 |  8.8 |  -- | 7.4 |  755
+  Fish, canned                  |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Salmon                      |   -- | 63.5 | 21.8 | 12.1 |  -- | 2.6 |  915
+    Sardines                    |[A]5.0| 53.6 | 23.7 | 12.1 |  -- | 5.3 |  950
+  Shellfish:                    |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Clams                       |  --  | 80.8 | 10.6 | 1.1  | 5.2 |  2.3|  340
+    Crabs                       | 52.4 | 36.7 |  7.9 | 0.9  | 0.6 |  1.5|  200
+    Lobsters                    | 61.7 | 30.7 |  5.9 | 0.7  | 0.2 |  0.8|  145
+  Eggs: Hen's eggs           [B]|11.2  | 65.5 | 13.1 | 9.3  | --  |  0.9|  635
+  Dairy products, etc.:         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Butter                      |  --  | 11.0 |  1.0 |85.0  | --  |  3.0| 3410
+    Whole milk                  |  --  | 87.0 |  3.3 | 4.0  | 5.0 |  0.7|  310
+    Skim milk                   |  --  | 90.5 |  3.4 | 0.3  | 5.1 |  0.7|  165
+    Buttermilk                  |  --  | 91.0 |  3.0 | 0.5  | 4.8 |  0.7|  160
+    Condensed milk              |  --  | 26.9 |  8.8 | 8.3  |54.1 |  1.9| 1430
+    Cream                       |  --  | 74.0 |  2.5 |18.5  | 4.5 |  0.5|  865
+    Cheese, Cheddar             |  --  | 27.4 | 27.7 |36.8  | 4.1 |  4.0| 2075
+    Cheese, full cream          |  --  | 34.2 | 25.9 |33.7  | 2.4 |  3.8| 1885
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  VEGETABLE FOOD                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Flour, meal, etc.:            |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Entire wheat flour          |  --  | 11.4 | 13.8 | 1.9  |71.9 |  1.0| 1650
+    Graham flour                |  --  | 11.3 | 13.3 | 2.2  |71.4 |  1.8| 1645
+    Wheat flour, patent         |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+        roller process          |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+      High-grade and medium     |  --  | 12.0 | 11.4 | 1.0  |75.1 |  0.5| 1635
+      Low grade                 |  --  | 12.0 | 14.0 | 1.9  |71.2 |  0.9| 1640
+    Macaroni, vermicelli, etc   |  --  | 10.3 | 13.4 | 0.9  |74.1 |  1.3| 1645
+    Wheat breakfast food        |  --  |  9.6 | 12.1 | 1.8  |75.2 |  1.3| 1680
+    Buckwheat flour             |  --  | 13.6 |  6.4 | 1.2  |77.9 |  0.9| 1605
+    Rye flour                   |  --  | 12.9 |  6.8 | 0.9  |78.7 |  0.7| 1620
+    Corn meal                   |  --  | 12.5 |  9.2 | 1.9  |75.4 |  1.0| 1635
+    Oat breakfast food          |  --  |  7.7 | 16.7 | 7.3  |66.2 |  2.1| 1800
+    Rice                        |  --  | 12.3 |  8.0 | 0.3  |79.0 |  0.4| 1620
+    Tapioca                     |  --  | 11.4 |  0.4 | 0.1  |88.0 |  0.1| 1650
+    Starch                      |  --  |  --  |  --  | --   |90.0 |  -- | 1675
+  Bread, pastry, etc.:          |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    White bread                 |  --  | 35.3 |  9.2 | 1.3  |53.1 |  1.1| 1200
+    Brown bread                 |  --  | 43.6 |  5.4 | 1.8  |47.1 |  2.1| 1040
+  Bread, pastry, etc.:          |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+   Graham bread                 |  --  | 35.7 |  8.9 |   1.8| 52.1| 1.5 | 1195
+  Whole wheat bread             |  --  | 38.4 |  9.7.|   0.9| 49.7| 1.3 | 1130
+  Rye bread                     |  --  | 35.7 |  9.0.|   0.6| 53.2| 1.5 | 1170
+  Cake                          |  --  | 19.9 |  6.3.|   9.0| 63.3| 1.5 | 1630
+  Cream crackers                |  --  |  6.8 |  9.7.|  12.1| 69.7| 1.7 | 1925
+  Oyster crackers               |  --  |  4.8 | 11.3.|  10.5| 70.5| 2.9 | 1910
+  Soda crackers                 |  --  |  5.9 |  9.8.|   9.1| 73.1| 2.1 | 1875
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Sugars, etc.:                 |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Molasses                      |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- | 70.0| --  | 1225
+  Candy[C]                      |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- | 96.0| --  | 1680
+  Honey                         |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- | 81.0| --  | 1420
+  Sugar, granulated             |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- |100.0| --  | 1750
+  Maple sirup                   |  --  |  --  |  --  |   -- | 71.4| --  | 1250
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Vegetables:[D]                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+  Beans, dried                  |  --  | 12.6 | 22.5.|   1.8| 59.6| 3.5 | 1520
+  Beans, Lima, shelled          |  --  | 68.5 |  7.1.|   0.7| 22.0| 1.7 |  540
+  Beans, string                 |  7.0 | 83.0 |  2.1.|   0.3|  6.9| 0.7 |  170
+  Beets                         | 20.0 | 70.0 |  1.3.|   0.1|  7.7| 0.9 |  160
+  Cabbage                       | 15.0 | 77.7 |  1.4.|   0.2|  4.8| 0.9 |  115
+  Celery                        | 20.0 | 75.6 |  0.9.|   0.1|  2.6| 0.8 |   65
+  Corn, green (sweet),          |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+          edible portion        |  --  | 75.4 |  3.1 |   1.1| 19.7| 0.7 |  440
+  Cucumbers                     | 15.0 | 81.1 |  0.7.|   0.2|  2.6| 0.4 |   65
+  Lettuce                       | 15.0 | 80.5 |  1.0.|   0.2|  2.5| 0.8 |   65
+  Mushrooms                     | --   | 88.1 |  3.5 |   0.4|  6.8| 1.2 |  185
+  Onions                        | 10.0 | 78.9 |  1.4.|   0.3|  8.9| 0.5 |  190
+  Parsnips                      | 20.0 | 66.4 |  1.3.|   0.4| 10.8| 1.1 |  230
+  Peas _(Pisum sativum),_       |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+      dried.                    |  --  |  9.5 | 24.6 |   1.0| 62.0| 2.9 | 1565
+      shelled                   |  --  | 74.6 |  7.0 |   0.5| 16.9| 1.0 |  440
+  Cowpeas, dried                |  --  | 13.0 | 21.4.|   1.4| 60.8| 3.4 | 1505
+  Potatoes                      | 20.0 | 62.6 |  1.8.|   0.1| 14.7| 0.8 |  295
+  Vegetables:                   |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Rhubarb                     | 40.0 | 56.6 |  0.4 |  0.4 |  2.2| 0.4 |   60
+    Sweet potatoes              | 20.0 | 55.2 |  1.4 |  0.6 | 21.9| 0.9 |  440
+    Spinach                     |  --  | 92.3 |  2.1 |  0.3 |  3.2| 2.1 |   95
+    Squash                      | 50.0 | 44.2 |  0.7 |  0.2 |  4.5| 0.4 |  100
+    Tomatoes                    |  --  | 94.3 |  0.9 |  0.4 |  3.9| 0.5 |  100
+    Turnips                     | 30.0 | 62.7 |  0.9 |  0.1 |  5.7| 0.6 |  120
+  Vegetables, canned:           |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Baked beans                 |  --  | 68.9 |  6.9 |  2.5 | 19.6| 2.1 |  555
+    Peas _(Pisum sativum),_     |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+        green                   |  --  | 85.3 |  3.6 |  0.2 |  9.8| 1.1 |  235
+    Corn, green                 |  --  | 76.1 |  2.8 |  1.2 | 19.0| 0.9 |  430
+    Succotash                   |  --  | 75.9 |  3.6 |  1.0 | 18.6| 0.9 |  425
+    Tomatoes                    |  --  | 94.0 |  1.2 |  0.2 |  4.0| 0.6 |   95
+  Fruits, berries, etc.,        |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+              fresh: [E]        |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Apples                      | 25.0 | 63.3 |  0.3 |  0.3 | 10.8| 0.3 |  190
+    Bananas                     | 35.0 | 48.9 |  0.8 |  0.4 | 14.3| 0.6 |  260
+    Grapes                      | 25.0 | 58.0 |  1.0 |  1.2 | 14.4| 0.4 |  295
+    Lemons                      | 30.0 | 62.5 |  0.7 |  0.5 |  5.9| 0.4 |  125
+    Muskmelons                  | 50.0 | 44.8 |  0.3 |  --  |  4.6| 0.3 |   80
+    Oranges                     | 27.0 | 63.4 |  0.6 |  0.1 |  8.5| 0.4 |  150
+    Pears                       | 10.0 | 76.0 |  0.5 |  0.4 | 12.7| 0.4 |  230
+    Persimmons, edible portion  |  --  | 66.1 |  0.8 |  0.7 | 31.5| 0.9 |  550
+    Raspberries                 |  --  | 85.8 |  1.0 |  --  | 12.6| 0.6 |  220
+    Strawberries                |  5.0 | 85.9 |  0.9 |  0.6 |  7.0| 0.6 |  150
+    Watermelons                 | 59.4 | 37.5 |  0.2 |  0.1 |  2.7| 0.1 |   50
+  Fruits, dried:                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Apples                      |  --  | 28.1 |  1.6 |  2.2 | 66.1| 2.0 | 1185
+    Apricots                    |  --  | 29.4 |  4.7 |  1.0 | 62.5| 2.4 | 1125
+    Dates                       | 10.0 | 13.8 |  1.9 |  2.5 | 70.6| 1.2 | 1275
+  Fruits, dried:                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Rhubarb                     | 40.0 | 56.6 |  0.4 |  0.4 |  2.2| 0.4 |   60
+                                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Figs                        |  --  | 18.8 |  4.3 |  0.3 | 74.2| 2.4 | 1280
+    Raisins                     | 10.0 | 13.1 |  2.3 |  3.0 | 68.5| 3.1 | 1265
+    Nuts:                       |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Almonds                     | 45.0 |  2.7 | 11.5 | 30.2 |  9.5| 1.1 | 1515
+    Brazil nuts                 | 49.6 |  2.6 |  8.6 | 33.7 |  3.5| 2.0 | 1485
+    Butternuts                  | 86.4 |  0.6 |  3.8 |  8.3 |  0.5| 0.4 |  385
+    Chestnuts, fresh            | 16.0 | 37.8 |  5.2 |  4.5 | 35.4| 1.1 |  915
+    Chestnuts, dried            | 24.0 |  4.5 |  8.1 |  5.3 | 56.4| 1.7 | 1385
+    Cocoanuts                [F]| 48.8 |  7.2 |  2.9 | 25.9 | 14.3| 0.9 | 1295
+    Cocoanut, prepared          |  --  |  3.5 |  6.3 | 57.4 | 31.5| 1.3 | 2865
+    Filberts                    | 52.1 |  1.8 |  7.5 | 31.3 |  6.2| 1.1 | 1430
+    Hickory nuts                | 62.2 |  1.4 |  5.8 | 25.5 |  4.3| 0.8 | 1145
+    Pecans, polished            | 53.2 |  1.4 |  5.2 | 33.3 |  6.2| 0.7 | 1465
+    Peanuts                     | 24.5 |  6.9 | 19.5 | 29.1 | 18.5| 1.5 | 1775
+    Pinon _(Pinus edulis)_      | 40.6 |  2.0 |  8.7 | 36.8 | 10.2| 1.7 | 1730
+    Walnuts, black              | 74.1 |  0.6 |  7.2 | 14.6 |  3.0| 0.5 |  730
+    Walnuts, English            | 58.1 |  1.0 |  6.9 | 26.6 |  6.8| 0.6 | 1250
+  Miscellaneous:                |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+    Chocolate                   |  --  |  5.9 | 12.9 | 48.7 | 30.3| 2.2 | 5625
+    Cocoa, powdered             |  --  |  4.6 | 21.6 | 28.9 | 37.7| 7.2 | 2160
+    Cereal coffee, infusion     |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+       (1 part boiled in        |      |      |      |      |     |     |
+       20 parts water)[G]       |  --  | 98.2 |  0.2 |  --  |  1.4| 0.2 |   30
+  =============================================================================
+
+
+[Footnote A: Refuse, oil.]
+[Footnote B: Refuse, shell.]
+
+[Footnote C: Plain confectionery not containing nuts, fruit, or
+chocolate.]
+
+[Footnote D: Such vegetables as potatoes, squash, beets, etc., have a
+certain amount of inedible material, skin, seeds, etc The amount varies
+with the method of preparing the vegetables, and cannot be accurately
+estimated The figures given for refuse of vegetables, fruits, etc., are
+assumed to represent approximately the amount of refuse in these foods
+as ordinarily prepared.]
+
+[Footnote E: Fruits contain a certain proportion of inedible materials,
+as skin, seeds, etc., which are properly classed as refuse. In some
+fruits, as oranges and prunes, the amount rejected in eating is
+practically the same as refuse. In others, as apples and pears, more or
+less of the edible material is ordinarily rejected with the skin and
+seeds and other inedible portions. The edible material which is thus
+thrown away, and should properly be classed with the waste, is here
+classed with the refuse. The figures for refuse here given represent, as
+nearly as can be ascertained, the quantities ordinarily rejected.]
+
+[Footnote F: Milk and shell.]
+
+[Footnote G: The average of five analyses of cereal coffee grain is:
+Water 6.2, protein 13.3, fat 3.4, carbohydrates 72.6, and ash 4.5 per
+cent. Only a portion of the nutrients, however, enter into the infusion.
+The average in the table represents the available nutrients in the
+beverage. Infusions of genuine coffee and of tea like the above contain
+practically no nutrients.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+DIETARY STUDIES
+
+
+244. Object of Dietary Studies.--The quantity of food which different
+families purchase varies between wide limits; a portion being lost
+mechanically in preparation and a still larger and more variable amount
+in the refuse and non-edible parts. If a record is made of all foods
+purchased and the waste and non-edible portions are deducted, the
+nutrients consumed by a family may be calculated by multiplying the
+weight of each food by the average composition. If such calculations be
+made, it will be found that in some families nearly a half pound per day
+of both protein and fat is consumed by adults, while in other families
+less than half of this amount is used. The object of dietary studies is
+to determine the source, cost, composition, and nutritive value of the
+foods consumed by different families; they also enable comparisons to be
+made of the amounts of nutrients purchased. Extensive dietary studies
+have been made by the United States Department of Agriculture, and the
+results have been published in various bulletins.[76]
+
+245. Wide and Narrow Rations.--When the amount of carbohydrates in a
+ration is small in comparison with the protein, it is called a narrow
+ration, while a wide ration is one in which the carbohydrates are much
+in excess of the protein. When a ration contains 0.40 of a pound of
+protein, 0.40 of a pound of fat, and 1 pound of carbohydrates, it has a
+nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.8 and is a narrow ration. To calculate the
+nutritive ratio, the fat is multiplied by 2-1/4, the product added to
+the carbohydrates, and this sum divided by the protein. It is not
+possible to designate accurately the amount of protein and other
+nutrients that should be in the daily ration of all persons, because the
+needs of the body vary so with different individuals. Hard and fast
+rules governing the amounts of nutrients to be consumed cannot as yet be
+formulated, as our knowledge of the subject is too limited. It is known
+that both excessive and scant amounts are alike injurious. While the
+appetite may indicate either hunger or satiety, it alone cannot always
+be relied upon as a safe guide for determining the amount and kind of
+food to consume, although the demands of appetite should not be
+disregarded until it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that it is not
+voicing the needs of nature. There has been a tendency which perhaps was
+a survival of the Puritanical ideas of the early days to stamp as
+hurtful whatever seemed desirable and pleasant; as examples might be
+cited the craving for water by fever patients, and for sugar by growing
+children, which have now been proven to be normal demands of nature.
+
+246. Dietary Standards.--As a result of a large number of dietary
+studies and digestion experiments, dietary standards have been
+prepared. Atwater in this country and Voit in Germany have proposed such
+standards for men employed at different kinds of labor, as follows:
+
+
+  ==========================================================================
+                                   |Protein| Fat|Carbo-  | Fuel   |Nutritive
+                                   |       |    |hydrates| Value  |
+  ---------------------------------|-------|----|-----------------|---------
+                                   |  lb.  | lb.|   lb.  |Calories| Ratio
+  Man with little physical exercise| 0.20  |0.20|  0.66  |  2450  |  5.5
+  Man with light muscular work     | 0.22  |0.22|  0.77  |  2800  |  5.7
+  Man with moderate muscular work  | 0.28  |0.28|  0.99  |  3520  |  5.8
+  Man with active muscular work    | 0.33  |0.33|  1.10  |  4060  |  5.6
+  Man with hard muscular work      | 0.39  |0.55|  1.43  |  5700  |  6.9
+  ==========================================================================
+
+In the table it will be seen that the quantity of nutrients increases
+with the labor to be performed. In order to secure the necessary heat
+and energy, rations for men at heavy labor contain proportionally more
+fat and carbohydrates than are required for light work. All dietary
+standards, however, should be regarded as tentative only. Opinions
+differ greatly on different points; for example, as to the amount of
+protein a ration should contain. This is a matter that can be determined
+only from extended investigations under a variety of conditions, and as
+yet results are too meager to formulate other than tentative standards.
+Chittenden has found that the body can be sustained on very much less
+protein than is called for in the standard ration.[77] The amount of
+protein in the ration should be ample to sustain the body weight and
+maintain a nitrogen equilibrium; that is, the income and outgo of
+nitrogen from the body should be practically equal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--DIETARIES AND DIETARY
+STANDARDS.
+
+(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]
+
+     "While one freely admits that health and a large measure of
+     muscular strength may be maintained upon a minimum supply of
+     protein, yet I think that a dispassionate survey of mankind will
+     show that races which adopt such a diet are lacking in what, for
+     want of a better word, one can only describe as energy." [28]
+
+On the other hand, excessive and unnecessarily large amounts of protein
+are sometimes consumed, adding greatly to the cost of the ration and
+necessitating additional labor on the part of the body for its
+elimination.
+
+247. Number of Meals per Day.--Some persons advocate two meals per day
+rather than three, but dietary studies show that the best results are
+secured when the food is divided among three rather than two meals, and
+with a two-meal system the tendency is to consume a larger total amount
+of food than when three meals are eaten. It is not essential that the
+food be equally divided among the three meals. Any one of them may be
+lighter or more substantial as the habits and inclinations of the
+individual dictate. If it is found necessary to reduce the total
+quantity of food consumed, this may be done by a proportional reduction
+of each of the meals, or of any one of them instead of decreasing the
+number of meals per day. The occasional missing of a meal is sometimes
+beneficial, in cases of digestion disorders, but the ordinary
+requirements of persons in normal health who have either mental or
+physical labor to perform are best met when three meals per day are
+consumed, as this insures an even supply of nutrients. For persons of
+sedentary habits, the kind and quantity of food at each meal must be
+regulated largely by the individual from knowledge based on personal
+experience.
+
+     "In the matter of diet every man must, in the last resort, be a law
+     unto himself; but he should draw up his dietetic code intelligently
+     and apply it honestly, giving due heed to the warnings which nature
+     is sure to address to him should he at any time transgress."[28]
+
+If there is trouble in digesting the food, it is well to study the other
+habits of life along with the food question, for it may be the
+difficulty arises from some other cause, and would be remedied by more
+exercise and fresh air, avoiding rush immediately after meals, more
+thorough mastication, or less worry. It is a serious matter to shut off
+the supply of food from a person not suffering from some disease and who
+is working; as well cut off the supply of fuel from a furnace and then
+expect a full amount of energy and heat. But unlike the furnace, when
+the human body is deprived of needed nutrients it preys upon itself and
+uses up its reserve that should be drawn upon only in cases of illness
+or extreme nervous strain. Some persons live in such a way as to never
+have any reserve of strength and energy to call upon but use up each day
+all the body can produce and so become physical bankrupts when they
+should be in their prime. Food is required for the production of nerve
+energy as well as physical energy.[78]
+
+248. Mixed Dietary Desirable.--Experiments in the feeding of farm
+animals show that the best results come from the combination of a number
+of foods to form a mixed ration, rather than from the use of one food
+alone,[79] for in this way the work of digestion is more evenly
+distributed, and a higher degree of efficiency is secured from the foods
+consumed. The same is true in human feeding; the best results are
+secured from a mixed diet. Ordinarily, about two fifths of the nutrients
+of a ration are derived from animal and three fifths from vegetable
+sources.
+
+249. Animal and Vegetable Foods; Economy of Production.--Animal foods
+can never compete in cheapness of the nutrients with cereals and
+vegetables, as it takes six to eight pounds or more of a cereal,
+together with forage crops, to make a pound of meat. Hence the returns
+in food value are very much larger from the direct use of the cereals as
+human food, than from the feeding of cereals to cattle and the use of
+the meat. As the population of a country increases, and foods
+necessarily become more expensive, cereals are destined to replace
+animal foods to a great extent, solely as a matter of economy.
+
+250. Food Habits.--Long-established dietary habits and customs are not
+easily changed, and when the body becomes accustomed to certain foods,
+substitution of others, although equally valuable, may fail to give
+satisfactory results. For example, immigrants from southern Europe
+demand foods with which they are familiar, as macaroni, olive oil, and
+certain kinds of cheese, foods which are generally imported and more
+expensive than the staples produced in this country,[80] and when they
+are compelled to live on other foods, even though they have as many
+nutrients, they complain of being underfed. Previously acquired food
+habits appear to affect materially the process of digestion and
+assimilation. Sudden and pronounced change in the feeding of farm
+animals is attended with unsatisfactory results, and whenever changes
+are made in the food of either humans or animals they should be gradual
+rather than radical.
+
+251. Underfed Families.--As the purchasing of food is often done by
+inexperienced persons, palatability rather than nutritive value is made
+the basis of choice. Dietary studies show that because of lack of
+knowledge of the nutritive value of foods, whole families are often
+underfed. Particularly is this true where the means for purchasing foods
+are limited. In dietary studies among poor families in New York
+City,[81] the United States Department of Agriculture notes: "It is
+quite evident that what is needed among these families more than
+anything else is instruction in the way to make the little they have go
+the farthest." Some classes of the rich too are equally liable to be
+underfed, as they are more prone to food notions and are able to indulge
+them. Among the children of the rich are found some as poorly nourished
+as among the poor.
+
+252. Cheap and Expensive Foods.--Among the more expensive items of a
+ration are meats, butter, and canned fruits. The difference in
+composition and nutritive value between various cuts of meat is small,
+being largely physical, and affecting taste and flavor rather than
+nutritive value. Expensive cuts of meat, high-priced breakfast cereals,
+tropical fruits and foods which impart special flavors, add little in
+the way of nutritive value to the ration, but greatly enhance the cost
+of living. Ordinarily the cheapest foods are corn meal, wheat flour and
+bread, milk, beans, cheese, sugar, and potatoes.[7] The amount of animal
+and vegetable foods to combine with these to form a balanced ration may
+be governed largely by personal preference or cost, as there is little
+difference in nutritive value. The selection of foods on the basis of
+cost and nutritive value is discussed in Chapter XVI.
+
+253. Food Notions.--Many erroneous ideas exist as to the nutritive
+value of foods, and often wholesome and valuable foods are discriminated
+against because of prejudice. Skim milk is usually regarded as
+containing little if any nourishing material, when in reality it has a
+high protein content, and can be added to other foods to increase their
+nutritive value. The less expensive cuts of meat contain more total
+nutrients than many of the more expensive ones. Beef extracts have been
+erroneously said to contain more nutrients than beef,[51] and mushrooms
+to be equal in value of beefsteak; chemical analyses fail to confirm
+either statement. The banana also has been overestimated as to food
+value, and while it contains more nutrients than many fruits, it is not
+the equal of cereals, as has been claimed.[82] Cocoa, although a
+valuable beverage, adds but little in the way of nutrients to a ration
+unless it is made with milk. The value of a food should be based upon
+its composition as determined by chemical analysis, its digestibility as
+founded upon digestion experiments, and its palatability and mechanical
+structure. Food notions have, in many instances, been the cause of
+banishing from the dietary wholesome and nutritious foods, of greatly
+increasing the cost of living, as well as of promulgating incorrect
+ideas in regard to foods, so that individuals and in some cases entire
+families have suffered from improper or insufficient food.
+
+254. Dietary of Two Families Compared.--A dietary study often reveals
+ways in which it is possible to improve the ration in kinds and amounts
+of food, and sometimes at less expense. The following dietaries of two
+families for the same period show that one family expends over twice as
+much in the purchase of foods as the other family, and yet the one whose
+food costs the less actually secures the larger amount of nutritive
+material and is better fed than the family where more money is expended
+for food.[13]
+
+  FOOD CONSUMED, ONE WEEK
+
+  FAMILY No. 1
+
+  20 loaves of bread                               $1.00
+  10 to 12 lb. loin steak, or meat of similar cost  2.00
+  20 to 25 lb. rib roast, or similar meat           4.40
+  4 lb. high-priced cereal breakfast food, 20 ct.   0.80
+  Cake and pastry purchased                         3.00
+  8 lb. butter, 30 ct.                              2.40
+  Tea, coffee, spices, etc                          0.75
+  Mushrooms                                         0.75
+  Celery                                            1.00
+  Oranges                                           2.00
+  Potatoes                                          0.25
+  Miscellaneous canned goods                        2.00
+  Milk                                              0.50
+  Miscellaneous foods                               2.00
+  3 doz. eggs                                       0.60
+                                                  ------
+                                                  $23.45
+
+  FAMILY No. 2
+
+  15 lb. flour, bread home-made (skim milk used)      $0.45
+  Yeast, shortening and skim milk                      0.10
+  10 lb. steak (round. Hamburger and some loin)        1.50
+  10 lb. other meats, boiling pieces, rump roast, etc. 1.00
+  5 lb. cheese, 16 cents                               0.80
+  5 lb. oatmeal (bulk)                                 0.15
+  5 lb. beans                                          0.25
+  Home-made cake and pastry                            1.00
+  6 lb. butter, 30 ct.                                 1.80
+  3 lb. home-made shortening                           0.25
+  Tea, coffee, and spices                              0.40
+  Apples                                               0.50
+  Prunes                                               0.25
+  Potatoes                                             0.25
+  Milk                                                 1.00
+  Miscellaneous foods                                  1.00
+  3 doz. eggs                                          0.60
+                                                     ------
+                                                     $11.30
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--COST AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF RATIONS.]
+
+In comparing the foods used by the two families, it will be observed
+that family No. 1 purchased their bread at the bakery at a cost of $
+1.00, while the bread of family No. 2 was home-made, skim milk being
+used in its preparation, the flour, milk, yeast, and shortening costing
+about 55 cents. Family No. 1 consumed 10 pounds of expensive steaks,
+family No. 2 consumed the same number of pounds, a portion being cheaper
+cuts. Instead of the 20 pounds of roast or similar beef used by family
+No. 1, only one half as much and cheaper cuts as boiling pieces, stew,
+rump roast, etc., were used by family No. 2; 5 pounds of beans and 5
+pounds of cheese taking the place of some of the meat. Family No. 1
+consumed 4 pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods, supposing they
+contained a larger amount of nutrients than were actually present. In
+place of the 4 pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods of family
+No. 1, family No. 2 used 5 pounds of oatmeal purchased in bulk. Family
+No. 1 bought their cake and pastry for $3.00, while those of family No.
+2 were home made and cost $1.00. Family No. 2 used 2 pounds less butter
+per week because of the preparation and use of home-made shortening from
+beef suet and milk. They also purchased a smaller amount of tea, coffee,
+and spices than family No. 1. Family No. 2 consumed a larger quantity of
+less expensive fruits and vegetables than family No. 1, who ate 75
+cents' worth of mushrooms with the idea that they contained as much
+protein as meat, but analyses show that mushrooms contain no more
+nutrients than potatoes and similar vegetables. In place of the celery
+and oranges, apples and prunes were used by family No. 2. The same
+amount of potatoes was used by each. Fifty cents was spent for milk by
+family No. 1 and $1.00 by family No. 2. The total amount expended for
+food by family No. 1 was $23.45, while family No. 2 purchased a greater
+variety of foods for $11.30, as well as foods containing more nutrients.
+The approximate amounts of nutrients in the foods purchased by the two
+families are given in the following table, from which it will be
+observed that family No. 2 obtained a much larger amount of total
+nutrients and was better fed at considerably less expense than family
+No. 1.
+
+NUTRIENTS IN FOODS CONSUMED.--FAMILY NO. 1
+
+  =============================================
+                   |PROTEIN| FAT |CARBOHYDRATES
+                   |  LB.  | LB. |   LB.
+  -------------------------|-----|-------------
+  20 lb. bread     |  1.98 | 0.28| 11.42
+  10 lb. loin steak|  1.59 | 1.76|   --
+  20 lb. rib roast |  2.68 | 4.26|   --
+  4 lb. cereals    |  0.42 | 0.06|  2.75
+  8 lb. butter     |  0.04 | 6.80|   --
+  25 lb. potatoes  |  0.45 | 0.03|  3.83
+  20 lb. milk      |  0.70 | 0.80|  1.00
+                   |-------|-----|-------------
+                   |  7.86 |13.99| 19.00
+  =============================================
+
+  FAMILY NO. 2
+  =====================================================
+                           |PROTEIN| FAT |CARBOHYDRATES
+                           |  LB.  | LB. |   LB.
+  -------------------------|-------|-----|-------------
+  15 lb. flour             |  1.89 | 0.12|  11.15
+  5 lb. skim milk          |  0.16 | 0.01|   0.26
+  10 lb. round steak       |  1.81 | 1.26|    --
+  10 lb. beef              |  1.32 | 2.02|    --
+  5 lb. cheese             |  1.40 | 1.75|    --
+  5 lb. oatmeal            |  0.78 | 0.36|   3.40
+  6 lb. butter             |  0.03 | 5.10|    --
+  3 lb. shortening         |   --  | 2.55|    --
+  3 lb. prunes             |  0.03 |  -- |   0.60
+  25 lb. apples            |  0.12 |  -- |   2.50
+  25 lb. potatoes          |  0.45 | 0.03|   3.83
+  40 lb. milk              |  1.44 | 1.60|   1.90
+  5 lb. beans              |  1.12 |  -- |   3.00
+  -------------------------|-------|-----|------------------
+                           | 10.55 |14.80|  26.64
+  -------------------------|-------|-----|------------------
+  Difference in nutrients  |
+  in favor of family No. 2,|
+  consuming the cheaper    |2.69  0.81  7.64
+  combination of foods     |
+  =====================================================
+
+255. Food in its Relation to Mental and Physical Vigor.--When the body
+is not properly supplied with food, the best results in the form of
+productive work cannot be secured. There is a close relationship between
+the nature of the food consumed and mental activity, also ability to
+satisfactorily perform physical labor. "The productive power of the
+individual as well as of the nation depends doubtless upon many factors
+other than food, such as race, climate, habit, etc., but there is no
+gainsaying the fact that diet has also a profound and direct influence
+upon it."[83]
+
+If the body is diseased, it cannot make the right uses of the food, and
+often the food is blamed when the trouble is due primarily to other
+causes. The fact that a diseased digestive tract is unable to utilize
+some foods is no valid reason why these foods should be discarded in the
+dietary of persons in normal health, particularly when the food is in no
+way responsible for the disease.
+
+Some diseases are most prevalent in the case of a restricted diet. A
+change in the dietary of the Japanese navy greatly improved the health
+of the sailors.
+
+     "The prevalence of kakke or beriberi in the navy turned the
+     attention of many medical specialists toward the problem of
+     nutrition.... It was generally believed that there was some very
+     close connection between the disease and the rice diet.... One
+     outcome of these investigations was the passage of the food supply
+     act of the navy in 1884. The ration provided in accordance with
+     this act was sufficient to furnish an abundance of protein and
+     energy.... Following the change of ration in 1884, the prevalence
+     of the disease was very materially diminished, and at the end of
+     three years cases of kakke were practically unknown among the
+     marines."[83]
+
+256. Dietary Studies in Public Institutions.--Dietary studies in
+public institutions, as prisons, and asylums for the insane, show that
+it is possible to secure greater variety of food containing a larger
+amount of nutrients, and even at a reduction in cost.[84] In such
+institutions it is important that the food should be not only ample in
+amount, but wholesome and nutritious, as many of the inmates respond
+both physically and mentally to an improved diet. For humanitarian as
+well as economic reasons institutional dietetics should more generally
+be placed under the supervision of skilled dietists.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+RATIONAL FEEDING OF MAN
+
+
+257. Object.--Rational feeding of man has for its object the
+regulation of the food supply in accord with the demands of the body. It
+is based upon the same principles as the rational feeding of animals; in
+each, the best results in the way of health, amount of labor performed,
+and economy are secured when the body receives nutrients sufficient for
+the production of heat and energy and for the repair of worn-out
+tissues. Rational feeding is simply regulation of the food, both as to
+kind and amount, to meet the needs of the body.[72]
+
+258. Standard Rations.--In human feeding, as in animal feeding, it is
+not possible to lay down hard and fast rules as to the quantity of
+nutrients required for a standard ration.[85] As stated in the chapter
+on Dietary Studies, such standards have been proposed, but they are to
+be considered as tentative rather than absolute, for the amount of food
+required by different persons must necessarily vary with the
+individuality. While it is impossible to establish absolute standards,
+any large variation from the provisional standards usually results in
+lessened ability to accomplish work, ill health, or increased expense.
+
+259. Amounts of Food Consumed.--The approximate amounts of some food
+articles consumed per day are as follows:
+
+  ===================================
+          |   RANGE   | APPROXIMATE
+          |           |AMOUNT IN LBS.
+  --------|--------------------------
+  Bread   |6 to 14 oz.| 0.50
+  Butter  |2 to  5 oz.| 0.12
+  Potatoes|8 to 16 oz.| 0.75
+  Cheese  |1 to  4 oz.| 0.12
+  Beans   |1 to  4 oz.| 0.12
+  Milk    |8 to 32 oz.|  --
+  Sugar   |2 to  5 oz.| 0.20
+  Meats   |4 to 12 oz.| 0.25
+  Oatmeal |1 to  4 oz.| 0.12
+  ===================================
+
+In the calculation of rations it is desirable that the amount of any
+food article should not exceed that designated, unless for some special
+reason it has been found the food can consistently be increased. The
+amount of nutrients given in dietary standards is for one day, and the
+nutrients may be divided among the three meals as desired. It is to be
+noted that, ordinarily, the foods which supply carbohydrates are flour,
+corn meal, cereal products, potatoes, beans, sugar, and milk; those
+which supply fat are milk, butter, lard, and meats; and those which
+supply protein in liberal amounts are beans, cheese, meats, oatmeal,
+cereals, bread, and milk.
+
+260. Average Composition of Foods.--The amounts of nutrients in foods
+are determined from the average composition of the foods. These figures
+for average composition are based upon analyses of a large number of
+samples of food materials.[7] In individual cases it will be found that
+foods may vary from the standards given; as for example, milk may
+contain from 2.5 to 5 per cent of fat, while the protein and fat of
+meats vary appreciably from the figures given for average composition.
+With the cereals and vegetable foods, variations from the standards are
+small. In the table, the composition of the food as purchased represents
+all of the nutrients in the food, including those in the refuse,
+trimmings, or waste, while the figures for the edible portion represent
+the nutrients in the food after deducting what is lost as refuse. In
+making calculations, the student should use the figures given for the
+foods as purchased, unless the weights are of the edible portion only.
+The figures in the table are on the basis of percentage amounts, or
+nutrients in 100 pounds of food. By moving the decimal point two places
+to the left, the figures will represent the nutrients in one pound, and
+if this is multiplied by the number of pounds or fraction of a pound
+used, the quantity of nutrients is secured. For example, suppose bread
+contains 9.5 per cent of protein and 56 per cent of carbohydrates, 1
+pound would contain 0.095 pound of protein, 0.56 pound of
+carbohydrates; and 0.5 of a pound would contain approximately 0.05 pound
+of protein and 0.28 pound of carbohydrates. In calculating rations, it
+is not necessary to carry the figures to the third decimal place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--FOOD ARTICLES FOR A HUMAN RATION.]
+
+261. Example of a Ration.--Suppose it is desired to calculate a ration
+for a man at light muscular work. First, note the requirements in the
+way of nutrients in the table "Dietary Standards," Section 246. Such a
+ration should supply approximately 0.22 pound each of protein and fat,
+and 0.77 pound of carbohydrates, and should yield 2800 calories. A trial
+ration is made by combining the following:
+
+  ==========================================================
+                                                 | Pound
+  Bread                                          |  0.50
+  Butter                                         |  0.12
+  Potatoes                                       |  0.75
+  Milk                                           |  1.00
+  Sugar                                          |  0.12
+  Beef                                           |  0.25
+  Ham                                            |  0.20
+  Oatmeal                                        |  0.12
+  Eggs                                           |  0.25
+  ==========================================================
+
+The quantities of nutrients in these food materials are approximately as
+follows:
+
+
+RATION FOR MAN AT MODERATE WORK
+
+  ===================================================================
+                           |      | PROTEIN | FAT  | C.H. |
+                           | LB.  |   LB.   | LB.  | LB.  | CALORIES
+  -------------------------+------+---------+------+------+----------
+  Bread                    | 0.50 |   0.05  | 0.01 | 0.29 |    653
+  Butter                   | 0.12 |    --   | 0.10 |  --  |    432
+  Potato                   | 0.75 |   0.01  |  --  | 0.12 |    244
+  Milk                     | 1.00 |   0.04  | 0.04 | 0.05 |    323
+  Sugar                    | 0.12 |    --   |  --  | 0.12 |    192
+  Beef (round)             | 0.25 |   0.05  | 0.03 |  --  |    218
+  Ham                      | 0.20 |   0.03  | 0.07 |  --  |    331
+  Oatmeal                  | 0.12 |   0.02  | 0.01 | 0.08 |    223
+  Eggs                     | 0.25 |   0.03  | 0.03 |  --  |    164
+  Squash                   | 0.20 |    --   |  --  | 0.01 |     25
+                           |------+---------+------+------+----------
+                           |      |   0.23  | 0.29 | 0.67 |   2805
+  ===================================================================
+
+It is to be noted that this ration contains approximately the amount of
+protein called for in the standard ration, while the fat is slightly
+more and the carbohydrates are less. The food value of the ration is
+practically that called for in the standard. This ration is sufficiently
+near the standard to supply the nutrient requirements of a man at light
+muscular work. To supply palatability, some fruit and vegetables should
+be added to the ration. These will contribute but little to the nutrient
+content, but are necessary in order to secure health and the best
+returns from the other foods, and as previously stated, they are not to
+be estimated entirely upon the basis of nutrient content. A number of
+food articles could be substituted in this ration, if desired, either in
+the interests of economy, palatability, or personal preference.
+
+262. Requisites of a Balanced Ration.--Reasonable combinations of
+foods should be made to form balanced rations.[2] A number of foods slow
+of digestion, or which require a large amount of intestinal work, should
+not be combined; neither should foods which are easily digested and
+which leave but little indigestible residue. After a ration has been
+calculated and found to contain the requisite amount of nutrients, it
+should be critically examined to see whether or not it fulfills the
+following requirements:
+
+     1. Economy and adaptability to the work required.
+
+     2. Necessary bulk or volume.
+
+     3. Desired physiological influence of the foods upon the digestive
+     tract, whether constipating or laxative in character.
+
+     4. Ease of digestion.
+
+     5. Effect upon health. It is recognized that there are foods
+     wholesome and nutritious, that cannot be used by some persons,
+     while with others the same foods can be consumed with impunity.
+
+As explained in the chapter on Dietary Studies, the nutrients should be
+supplied from a number of foods rather than from a few, because it is
+believed the various nutrients, particularly the proteins, are not
+absolutely identical from all sources, or equal in nutritive value.
+
+
+EXAMPLES
+
+1. Calculate a ration for a man with little physical exercise.
+
+2. Calculate a ration for a man at hard muscular labor, and give the
+approximate cost of the ration.
+
+3. Calculate the amounts of food and the nutrient requirements for a
+family of seven for 10 days; five of the family to consume 0.8 as much
+as an adult. Calculate the cost of the food; then calculate on the same
+basis the probable cost of food for one year, adding 20 per cent for
+fluctuation in market price and additional foods not included in the
+list.
+
+4. Weigh out the food articles used in problem No. 2, and apportion them
+among three meals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+WATER
+
+
+263. Importance.--Water is one of the most essential food materials.
+It enters into the composition of the body, and without it the nutrients
+of foods would be unavailable, and life could not be sustained. Water
+unites chemically with various elements to form plant tissue and
+supplies hydrogen and oxygen for the production of organic compounds
+within the leaves of plants. In the animal economy it is not definitely
+known whether or not water furnishes any of the elements of which the
+tissues are composed, as the food contains liberal amounts of hydrogen
+and oxygen; it is necessary mainly as the vehicle for distributing
+nutrients in suspension and solution, and as a medium in which chemical,
+physical, and physiological changes essential to life processes take
+place. From a sanitary point of view, the condition of the water supply
+is of great importance, as impure water seriously affects the health of
+the consumer.[87]
+
+264. Impurities in Water.--Waters are impure because of: (1) excessive
+amounts of alkaline salts and other mineral compounds; (2) decaying
+animal and vegetable matters which act chemically as poisons and
+irritants, and which may serve as food for the development of
+objectionable bacterial bodies; and (3) injurious bacteria. The most
+common forms of impurities are excess of organic matter and bacterial
+contamination. The sanitary condition of water is greatly influenced by
+the character of the soil through which it flows and the extent to which
+it has been polluted by surface drainage.[88]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--DIRT AND IMPURITIES IN A SURFACE WELL WATER.]
+
+265. Mineral Impurities.--- The mineral impurities of water are mainly
+soluble alkaline and similar compounds dissolved by the water in passing
+through various layers of soil and rock. When water contains a large
+amount of sodium chloride, sodium sulphate or carbonate, or other
+alkaline salts, it is termed an "alkali water." Where water passes
+through soil that has been largely formed from the decay of rocks
+containing alkaline minerals, the water dissolves some of these minerals
+and becomes alkaline. The kind of alkali determines the character of the
+water; in some cases it is sodium carbonate, which is particularly
+objectionable. The continued use of strong alkali water causes digestion
+disorders, because of the irritating action upon the digestive tract.
+Hard waters are due to the presence of lime compounds. In regions where
+limestone predominates, the carbon dioxid in water acts as a solvent,
+producing hard waters. Waters that are hard on account of the presence
+of calcium carbonate give a deposit when boiled, due to liberation of
+the carbon dioxid which is the material that renders the lime soluble.
+Calcium sulphate, or gypsum, on the other hand, imparts permanent
+hardness. There is no deposit when such waters are boiled. A large
+number of minerals are found in various waters, often sufficient in
+amount to impart physiological properties. Water that is highly charged
+with mineral matter is difficult to improve sufficiently for household
+purposes. About the only way is by distillation.[89]
+
+266. Organic Impurities.--Water that flows over the surface of the
+ground comes in contact with animal and vegetable material in various
+stages of decay, and as a result some is dissolved and some is
+mechanically carried along by the water. After becoming soluble, the
+organic matter undergoes further chemical changes, as oxidation and
+nitrification caused by bacteria. If the organic matter contain a large
+amount of nitrogenous material, particularly of proteid origin, a series
+of chemical changes induced by bacterial action takes place, resulting
+in the production of nitrites. The nitrifying organisms first produce
+nitrous acid products (nitrites), and in the further development of the
+nitrifying process these are changed to nitrates. The ammonia formed as
+the result of the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter readily
+undergoes nitrification changes. Nitrates and nitrites alone are not
+injurious in water, but they are usually associated with objectionable
+bacteria and generally indicate previous contamination.[90]
+
+267. Interpretation of a Water Analysis.--"Total solid matter"
+represents all the mineral, vegetable, and animal matter which a water
+contains. It is the residue obtained by evaporating the water to dryness
+at a temperature of 212 deg. F. Average drinking water contains from 20 to
+90 grains per gallon of solid matter. "Free ammonia" is that formed as a
+result of the decomposition of animal or vegetable matter containing
+nitrogen. Water of high purity usually contains less than 0.07 parts
+per million of free ammonia. "Albuminoid ammonia" is derived from the
+partially decomposed animal or vegetable material in water. The greater
+the amount of nitrogenous organic impurities, the higher the albuminoid
+ammonia. A good drinking water ought not to contain more than 0.10 part
+per million of albuminoid ammonia. An abnormal quantity of chlorine
+indicates surface drainage or sewage contamination, or an excess of
+alkaline matter, as common salt. Nitrites should not be present, as they
+are generally associated with matter not completely oxidized. Nitrites
+are usually considered more objectionable than nitrates; both are
+innocuous unless associated with disease-producing nitrooerganisms.
+
+268. Natural Purification of Water.--River waters are sometimes dark
+colored because of large amounts of dissolved organic matter, but in
+contact with the sun and air they gradually undergo natural purification
+and the organic matter is oxidized. However, absolute reliance cannot be
+placed upon natural purification of a bad water, as the objectionable
+organisms often have great resistive power. There is no perfectly pure
+water except that prepared in the chemical laboratory by distillation.
+All natural waters come in contact with the soil and air, and
+necessarily contain impurities proportional to the extent of their
+contamination.
+
+269. Water in Relation to Health.--There are many diseases, of which
+typhoid fever is a type, that are distinctly water-born. The typhoid
+bacilli, present in countless numbers in the feces of persons suffering
+or convalescent from typhoid fever, find their way into streams, lakes,
+and wells.[91] They retain their vitality, and when they enter the
+digestive tract of an individual, rapidly increase in numbers. Numerous
+disastrous outbreaks of typhoid fever have been traced to contamination
+of water. Coupled with the sanitary improvement of a city's water
+supply, there is diminution of typhoid fever cases, and a noticeable
+lowering of the death rate. Many cities and villages are dependent for
+their water upon rivers and lakes into which surface drainage finds its
+way, with all contaminating substances. Mechanical sedimentation and
+filtration greatly improve waters of this class, but do not necessarily
+render them entirely pure. Compounds of iron and aluminium are sometimes
+added in small amounts, under chemical supervision, to such waters to
+precipitate the organic impurities. Spring waters are not entirely above
+suspicion, as oftentimes the soil through which they flow is highly
+polluted. All water of doubtful purity should be boiled, and there are
+but few natural waters of undoubted purity. There is no such thing as
+absolutely pure water in a state of nature. The mountain streams perhaps
+approach nearest to it where there are no humans to pollute the banks;
+but then there are always the beasts and birds, and they, too, are
+subject to disease. There are very few waters that at some time of the
+year and under some conditions are not contaminated with
+disease-producing organisms. No matter how carefully guarded are the
+banks of lakes furnishing the water supply of cities, more or less
+objectionable matter will get in. In seasons of heavy rains, large
+amounts of surface water enter the lakes, carrying along the filth
+gathered from many acres of land drained by the streams entering the
+lakes. Some of the most serious outbreaks of typhoid fever have come
+from temporary contamination of ordinarily fairly good drinking water.
+In general, too little attention is given to the purity of drinking
+water. It is just as important that water should be boiled as that food
+should be cooked. One of the objects of cooking is to destroy the
+injurious bacteria, and they are frequently more numerous in the
+drinking water than in the food.
+
+The argument is sometimes advanced that the mineral matter present in
+water is needed for the construction of the bone and other tissues of
+the body, and that distilled water fails to supply the necessary mineral
+matter. This is an erroneous assumption, as the mineral matter in the
+food is more than sufficient for this purpose. When water is highly
+charged with mineral salts, additional work for their elimination is
+called for on the part of the organs of excretion, particularly the
+kidneys; and furthermore, water nearly saturated with minerals cannot
+exert its full solvent action.
+
+In discussing the immediate benefits resulting from improvement of
+water, Fuertes says:[92]
+
+     "Immediately after the change to the 'four mile intake' at Chicago
+     in 1893, there was a great reduction in typhoid. Lawrence, Mass.,
+     showed a great improvement with the setting of the filters in
+     operation in September, 1893; fully half of the deaths in 1894 were
+     among persons known to have used the unfiltered canal water. The
+     conclusion is warranted that for the efficient control of the death
+     rate from typhoid fever it is necessary to have efficient sewerage
+     and drainage, proper methods of living, and pure water. The reason
+     why our large cities, which are all provided with sewerage, have
+     such high death rates is therefore without doubt their continuance
+     of the filthy practice of supplying drinking water which carries in
+     solution and suspension the washings from farms, from the streets,
+     from privies, from pigpens, and the sewage of cities.... And also
+     we should recognize the importance of flies and other winged
+     insects and birds which feed on offal as carriers of bacteria of
+     specific diseases from points of infection to the watersheds, and
+     the consequent washing of newly infected matter into our drinking
+     water by rains."
+
+There is a very close relationship between the surface water and that of
+shallow wells. A shallow well is simply a reservoir for surface water
+accumulations. It is stated that, when an improved system of drainage
+was introduced into a part of London, many of the shallow wells became
+dry, indicating the source from which they received their supply. Direct
+subterranean connection between cesspools and wells is often traced in
+the following way: A small amount of lithium, which gives a distinct
+flame reaction, and a minute trace of which can be detected with the
+spectroscope, is placed in the cesspool, and after a short time a
+lithium reaction is secured from the well water.
+
+Rain water is relied upon in some localities for drinking purposes. That
+collected in cities and in the vicinity of barns and dwellings contains
+appreciable amounts of organic impurities. The brown color is due to the
+impurities, ammonium carbonate being one of these. There are also traces
+of nitrates and nitrites obtained from the air. When used for drinking,
+rain water should be boiled.
+
+270. Improvement of Waters.--Waters are improved by: (1) boiling,
+which destroys the disease-producing organisms; (2) filtration, which
+removes the materials mechanically suspended in the water; and (3)
+distillation, which eliminates the impurities in suspension and
+solution, as well as destroys all germ life.
+
+271. Boiling Water.--In order to destroy the bacteria that may be in
+drinking water, it is not sufficient to heat the water or merely let it
+come to a boil. It has been found that if water is only partially
+sterilized and then cooled in the open air, the bacteria develop more
+rapidly than if the water had not been heated at all. It should boil
+vigorously five to ten minutes; cholera and typhoid bacteria succumb in
+five minutes or less. Care should be taken in cooling that the water is
+not exposed to dust particles from the air nor placed in open vessels in
+a dirty refrigerator. It should be kept in perfectly clean,
+tight-stoppered bottles. These bottles should be frequently scalded.
+Great reliance may be placed upon this method of water purification when
+properly carried out.
+
+272. Filtration.--Among the most efficient forms of water filters are
+the Berkefeld and Pasteur. The Pasteur filter is made of unglazed
+porcelain, and the Berkefeld of fine infusorial earth (finely divided
+SiO_{2}). Both are porous and allow a moderately rapid flow of water.
+The flow from the Berkefeld filter is more rapid than from the Pasteur.
+The mechanical impurities of the water are deposited upon the filtering
+surface, due to the attraction which the material has for particles in
+suspension. These particles usually are the sources of contamination and
+carry bacteria. When first used, filters are satisfactory, but unless
+carefully looked after they soon lose their ability to remove germs from
+the water and may increase the impurity by accumulation. Small faucet
+filters are made of porous stone, asbestos, charcoal, etc. Many of them
+are of no value whatever or are even worse than valueless. Filters
+should be frequently cleansed in boiling water or in steam under
+pressure. Unless this is done, the filters may become incubators for
+bacteria.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--PASTEUR WATER FILTERS.]
+
+273. Distillation.--When an unquestionably pure water supply is
+desired, distillation should be resorted to. There are many forms of
+stills for domestic use which are easily manipulated and produce
+distilled water economically.[93] The mineral matter of water is in no
+way essential for any functional purpose, and hence its removal through
+distillation is not detrimental.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--WATER STILL.]
+
+274. Chemical Purification.--Purification of water by the use of
+chemicals should not be attempted in the household or by inexperienced
+persons. When done under supervision of a chemist or bacteriologist, it
+may be of great value to a community. Turneaure and Russell,[94] in
+discussing the purification of water by addition of chemicals, state:
+
+     "There are a considerable number of chemical substances that may be
+     added to water in order to purify it by carrying down the suspended
+     matter as well as bacteria, by sedimentation. Such a process of
+     purification is to be seen in the addition of alum, sulphate of
+     iron, and calcium hydrate to water. Methods of this character are
+     directly dependent upon the flocculating action of the chemical
+     added, and the removal of the bacteria is accomplished by
+     subsidence."
+
+275. Ice.--The purity of the ice supply is also of much importance.
+While freezing reduces the number of organisms and lessens their
+vitality, it does not make an impure water absolutely wholesome. The
+way, too, in which ice is often handled and stored subjects it to
+contamination, and foods which are placed in direct contact with it
+mechanically absorb the impurities which it contains. For cooling water,
+ice should be placed around rather than in it. Diseases have frequently
+been traced to impure ice. The only absolutely pure ice is that made
+from distilled water.
+
+276. Mineral Waters.--When water is charged with carbonic acid gas
+under pressure, carbonated water results, and when minerals, as salts of
+sodium, potassium, or lithium, are added, artificial mineral waters are
+produced. Natural mineral waters are placed on the market to some
+extent, but most mineral waters are artificial products and they are
+sometimes prepared from water of low sanitary character. Mineral waters
+should not be used extensively except under medical direction, as many
+have pronounced medicinal properties. Some of the constituents are
+bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, and lithium; sulphates of magnesium
+(Epsom salts) and calcium; and chloride of sodium. The sweetened mineral
+waters, as lemonade, orangeade, ginger ale, and beer, contain sugar and
+organic acids, as citric and tartaric, and are flavored with natural or
+artificial products. Most of them are prepared without either fruit or
+ginger. Natural mineral waters used under the direction of a physician
+are often beneficial in cases of chronic digestion disorders or other
+diseases.
+
+277. Materials for Softening Water.--The materials most commonly used
+for softening water are sodium carbonate (washing soda), borax, ammonia,
+ammonium carbonate, potash, and soda lye. Waters that are very hard with
+limestone should have a small amount of washing soda added to them. Two
+ounces for a large tub of water is the most that should be used, and it
+should first be dissolved in a little water. If too much soda is used,
+it is injurious, as only a certain amount can be utilized for softening
+the water, and the excess simply injures the hands and fabric. When hard
+limewater is boiled and a very little soda lye added, a precipitate of
+carbonate of lime is formed, and then if the water is strained, it is
+greatly improved for washing purposes. Borax is valuable for making some
+hard waters soft. It is not as strong in its action as is sodium
+carbonate. For the hardest water 1/4 pound of borax to a large tubful
+may be used; most waters, however, do not need so much. Ammonia is one
+of the most useful reagents for softening water. It is better than
+washing soda and borax, because the ammonia is volatile and does not
+leave any residue to act on the clothes, thus causing injury. For
+bathing purposes, the water should be softened with ammonia, in
+preference to any other material. Ammonia should not be poured directly
+into hot water; it should be added to the water while cold, or to a
+small quantity of cold water, and then to the warm water, as this
+prevents the ammonia from vaporizing too readily. Ammonia produces the
+same effect as potash or soda lye, without leaving a residue in the
+garments washed. It is especially valuable in washing woolen goods or
+materials liable to shrink. Waters which are hard with alum salts are
+greatly benefited by the addition of ammonia. A little in such a water
+will cause a precipitate to form, and when the water is strained it is
+in good condition for cleaning purposes. Ammonium carbonate is used to
+some extent as a softening and cleaning agent, and is valuable, as there
+is no injurious effect upon clothing, because it readily volatilizes.
+Caustic potash and caustic soda are sometimes employed for softening
+water, but they are very active and are not adapted to washing colored
+or delicate fabrics. They may be used for very heavy and coarse articles
+that are greasy,--not more than a gram in a gallon of water. Bleaching
+powder is not generally a safe material for cleansing purposes, as it
+weakens the texture of clothing. After a contagious disease, articles
+may be soaked in water containing a little bleaching powder and a few
+drops of carbolic acid, followed by thorough rinsing and bleaching in
+the sun. But as a rule formaline is preferable for disinfecting
+clothing. It can be used at the rate of about one pound to 100 gallons
+of water. Bleaching powder, caustic potash or soda, and strong soap are
+not suitable for cleaning woodwork, because of the action of the alkali
+on paint and wood; they roughen the surface and discolor the paint.
+Waters vary so in composition, that a material suitable for softening
+one may not prove to be the best for softening another. The special kind
+must be determined largely by trial, and it should be the aim to use as
+little as possible. When carbolic acid, formaline, bleaching powder, and
+caustic soda are used, the hands should be protected and the clothes
+should be well rinsed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--TYPHOID BACILLI.]
+
+278. Economic Value of a Pure Water Supply.--From a financial point of
+view, the money spent in securing pure water is one of the best
+investments a community can make. Statisticians estimate the death of an
+adult results in a loss to the state of from $1000 to $5000; and to the
+losses sustained by death must be added those incurred by sickness and
+by lessened quality and quantity of work through impaired
+vitality,--all caused by using poor drinking water. Wherever plants have
+been installed for improving the sanitary condition of the water supply,
+the death rate has been lowered and the returns to the community have
+been far greater than the cost of the plant. Impure water is the most
+expensive food that can be consumed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+FOOD AS AFFECTED BY HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND STORAGE
+
+
+279. Injurious Compounds in Foods.--An ordinary chemical analysis of a
+food determines only the nutrients, as protein, carbohydrates, and fats;
+and unless there is reason to believe the food contains injurious
+substances no special tests for these are made. There are a number of
+poisonous compounds that foods may contain, and many of them can but
+imperfectly be determined by chemical analysis. Numerous organic
+compounds are produced in foods as the result of the workings of
+microoerganisms; some of these are poisonous, while others impart only
+special characteristics, as taste and odor. The poisonous bacteria
+finding their way into food produce organic compounds of a toxic
+character; and hence it is that the sanitary condition of a food, as
+influenced by preparation and storage, is often of more vital importance
+than the nutrient content.[95]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--TUBERCULOSIS BACILLI. (After CONN.)
+
+Often present in dust particles and contaminated foods.]
+
+280. Sources of Contamination of Food.--As a rule, too little
+attention is given to the sanitary handling and preparation of foods.
+They are often exposed to impure air and to the dust and filth from
+unclean streets and surroundings, and as a result they become inoculated
+with bacteria, which are often the disease-producing kind. Gelatine
+plates exposed by bacteriologists under the same conditions as foods
+develop large numbers of injurious microoerganisms. In order to avoid
+contamination in the handling of food, there must be: (1) protection
+from impure air and dust; (2) storage in clean, sanitary, and ventilated
+storerooms and warehouses; (3) storage of perishable foods at a low
+temperature so as to retard fermentation changes; and (4) workmen free
+from contagious diseases in all occupations pertaining to the
+preparation of foods. Ordinarily, foods should not be stored in the
+paper wrappers in which they are purchased, as unclean paper is often a
+source of contamination.
+
+281. Sanitary Inspection of Food.--During recent years some state and
+city boards of health have introduced sanitary inspection of foods, with
+a view of preventing contamination during manufacture and
+transportation, and this has done much to improve the quality and
+wholesomeness. Putrid meats, fish, and vegetables are not allowed to be
+sold, and foods are required to be handled and stored in a sanitary way.
+Next to a pure water supply, there is no factor that so greatly
+influences for good the health of a community as the sanitary condition
+of the food. While the cooking of foods destroys many organisms, it
+often fails to render innocuous the poisons which they produce, and
+furthermore the unsound foods when cooked are not entirely wholesome,
+and they have poor keeping qualities.
+
+Often meats, vegetables, and other foods eaten uncooked, as well as the
+numerous cooked foods, are exposed in dirty market places, and
+accumulate large amounts of filth, and are inoculated with disease germs
+by flies. Protection of food from flies is a matter of vital importance,
+as they are carriers of many diseases. In the case of typhoid fever,
+next to impure drinking water flies are credited with being the greatest
+distributors of the disease germs.[96]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--DIPHTHERIA BACILLI. (After CONN.)
+
+Often present in dust particles and in food unprotected from dust.]
+
+282. Infection from Impure Air.--The dust particles of the air contain
+decayed animal and vegetable matter in which bacteria are present; these
+find their way into the food when it is not carefully protected, into
+the water supply, and also into the lungs and other organs of the body.
+When foods are protected from the mechanical impurities which gain
+access through the air, and fermentation is delayed by storage at a low
+temperature, digestion disorders are greatly lessened. From a sanitary
+point of view, the air of food storerooms and of living rooms should be
+of equally high purity. When foods are kept in unventilated living
+rooms, they become contaminated with the impurities thrown off from the
+lungs in respiration, which include not only carbon dioxid, but the more
+objectionable toxic organic materials.
+
+Vegetable foods need to be stored in well-ventilated places, as the
+plant cells are still alive and carrying on life functions, as the
+giving off of carbon dioxid, which is akin to animal respiration; in
+fact, it is plant-cell respiration. Provision should be made for the
+removal of the carbon dioxid and other products, as they contaminate the
+air. When vegetable tissue ceases to produce carbon dioxid, death and
+decay set in, accompanied by fermentation changes.
+
+283. Storage of Food in Cellars.--Cellars are often in a very
+unsanitary condition, damp, poorly lighted, unventilated, and the air
+filled with floating particles from decaying vegetables. The walls and
+shelves absorb the dust and germs from the foul air and are bacterially
+contaminated, and whenever a sound food is stored in such a cellar, it
+readily becomes inoculated with bacteria. There is a much closer
+relationship existing between the atmosphere of the cellar and that of
+the house than is generally realized. An unclean cellar means
+contaminated air throughout the house. When careful attention is given
+to the sanitary condition of the cellar, many of the more common
+diseases are greatly reduced. Cases of rheumatism have often been traced
+to a damp cellar. In some localities where the cellars are unusually
+unsanitary, there is in the season of spring rains, when they are
+especially damp and contain the maximum of decayed vegetation, a
+prevalence of what might be called "cellaritis." The symptoms differ and
+the trouble is variously attributed, but the real cause is the same,
+although overlooked, for, unfortunately, doctors do not visit the
+cellar.
+
+Cellars should be frequently cleaned and disinfected, using for the
+purpose some of the well-known disinfectants, as formaline, bleaching
+powder, or a dilute solution of carbolic acid. It has been found in
+large cities, when the spread of such diseases as yellow fever was
+imminent, that a general and thorough cleaning up of streets and cellars
+with the improved sanitary conditions resulting greatly lowered the
+usual death rate.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--DUNG FUNGUS. (After BUTTERS.)
+
+Often present on surface of unclean vegetables.]
+
+284. Sunlight, Pure Water, and Pure Air as Disinfectants.--The most
+effectual and valuable disinfectants are sunlight, pure water, and pure
+air. Many kinds of microoerganisms, particularly those that are
+disease-producing, are destroyed when exposed for a time to sunlight.
+The chemical action of the sun's rays is destructive to the organic
+material which makes up the composition of many of these organisms,
+while higher forms of organic life are stirred into activity by it. The
+disinfecting power of sunlight should be made use of to the fullest
+extent, not only in the house, but plenty of sunlight should also be
+planned for in constructing barns and other buildings where milk-and
+meat-producing animals are kept. Pure water is also a disinfectant, but
+when water becomes polluted it loses this power. Many disease-producing
+organisms are rendered inactive when placed in pure water. Water
+contains more dissolved oxygen than air, and apparently a portion of the
+oxygen in water is in a more active condition than that in air. Pure
+air, too, is a disinfectant; the ozone and hydrogen peroxide and oxides
+of nitrogen, which are present in traces, exert a beneficial influence
+in oxidizing organic matter. Fresh air and sunlight, acting jointly, are
+nature's most effectual disinfectants. Sunshine, fresh air, and pure
+water are a health-producing trinity. In discussing the importance of
+pure air, water, and sunlight, Ellen H. Richards[97] says:
+
+     "The country dweller surrounds his house with evergreens or shade
+     trees, the city dweller is surrounded with high brick walls.
+     Blinds, shades, or thick draperies shut out still more, and prevent
+     the beneficial sunlight from acting its role of germ prevention and
+     germ destruction. Bright-colored carpets and pale-faced children
+     are the opposite results which follow. Sunlight, pure air, and pure
+     water are our common birthright which we often bargain away for
+     so-called comforts."
+
+And Dr. Woods Hutchinson says of sunlight:
+
+     "It is a splendid and matchless servant in the promoting of
+     healthfulness of the house, for which no substitute has yet been
+     discovered. It is the foe alike of bacilli and the blues; the best
+     tonic ever yet invented for the liver and for the scalp, and for
+     everything between, the only real complexion restorer, and the
+     deadliest foe of dirt and disease."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--DIRT AND MANURE EMBEDDED IN SURFACE OF CELERY.]
+
+285. Utensils for Storage of Food.--In order that dishes and household
+utensils may be kept in the best sanitary condition, they should be free
+from seams, cracks, and crevices where dust and dirt particles can find
+lodgment. From the seams of a milk pail that has not been well washed,
+decaying milk solids can be removed with the aid of a pin or a
+toothpick. This material acts as a "starter" or culture when pure, fresh
+milk is placed in the pail, contaminating it and causing it to become
+sour. Not only is this true of milk, but also of other foods. Wooden
+utensils are not satisfactory for the handling, storage, or preparation
+of foods, as it is difficult to keep wood in a sanitary condition.
+Uncleanliness of dishes in which foods are placed is too often caused by
+the use of foul dishcloths and failure to thoroughly wash and rinse the
+dishes. It is always well to rinse dishes with scalding water, as colds
+and skin diseases may be communicated from the edges of drinking
+glasses, and from forks and spoons, and, unless the dish towels are kept
+scrupulously clean, it is more sanitary to drain the dishes than to wipe
+them.
+
+286. Contamination from Unclean Dishcloths.--When the dishcloth is
+foul, the fat absorbed by the fibers becomes rancid, the proteids
+undergo putrefaction changes with formation of ill-smelling gases
+containing nitrogen, the carbohydrates ferment and are particularly
+attractive to flies, and all the various disease germs collected on the
+surface of the dishcloth are, along with the rancid fat and other
+putrifying materials, distributed over the surface of the dishes with
+which the cloth comes in contact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--CONTAMINATION OF WELL WATER FROM SURFACE DRAINAGE.
+
+(After Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. Agr.)]
+
+287. Refrigeration.--At a low temperature the insoluble or unorganized
+ferments become inactive, but the chemical ferments or enzymes are still
+capable of carrying on fermentation. Thus it is that a food, when placed
+in a refrigerator or in cold storage, continues to undergo chemical
+change. An example of such enzymic action is the curing of beef and
+cheese in cold storage. A small amount of ventilation is required when
+foods are refrigerated, just sufficient to keep up a slight circulation
+of air. It seems not to be generally understood that all fermentation
+changes do not cease when food is placed in refrigerators, and this
+often leads to neglect in their care. Cleanliness is equally as
+essential, or more so, in the refrigeration of food as in its handling
+in other ways. Too often the refrigerator is neglected, milk and other
+food is spilt, filling the cracks, and slow decomposition sets in. A
+well-cared-for refrigerator is an important factor in the preservation
+of food, but when it is neglected, it becomes a source of contamination.
+Unclean vegetables and food receptacles, impure ice and foul air, are
+the most common forms of contamination. The chemical changes which
+foods undergo during refrigeration are such as result in softening of
+the tissues.
+
+288. Soil.--The soil about dwellings and places where foods are stored
+frequently becomes polluted with decaying animal and vegetable matter,
+and in such soils disease-producing organisms readily find lodgment.
+Poorly drained soils containing an excess of vegetable matter furnish a
+medium in which the tapeworm and the germs of typhoid fever, lockjaw,
+and various diseases affecting the digestive tract, may propagate. The
+wind carries the dust particles from these contaminated places into
+unprotected food, where they cause fermentation changes and the disease
+germs multiply. In considering the sanitary condition of a locality, the
+character of the soil is an important factor. Whenever there is reason
+to suspect that a soil is unsanitary, it should be disinfected with lime
+or formaldehyde. Soils about dwellings need care and frequent
+disinfecting to keep them in a sanitary condition, equally as much as do
+the rooms in the dwellings.[99] In the growing of garden vegetables,
+frequently large quantities of fertilizers of unsanitary character are
+used, and vegetables often retain mechanically on their surfaces
+particles of these. To this dirt clinging to the vegetables have been
+traced diseases, as typhoid fever and various digestion disorders.
+
+289. Disposal of Kitchen Refuse.--Refuse, as vegetable parings, bones,
+and meat scraps, unless they are used for food for animals or collected
+as garbage, should preferably be burned; then there is no danger of
+their furnishing propagating media for disease germs. Garbage cans
+should be kept clean, and well covered to protect the contents from
+flies. Where the refuse cannot be burned, it should be composted. For
+this, a well-drained place should be selected, and the refuse should be
+kept covered with earth to keep off the flies and absorb the odors that
+arise from the fermenting material, and to prevent its being carried
+away by the wind. Lime should be sprinkled about the compost heap, and
+from time to time it should be drawn away and the place covered with
+clean earth. It is very unsanitary to throw all of the kitchen refuse in
+the same place year after year without resorting to any means for
+keeping the soil in a sanitary condition. Although composting refuse is
+not as sanitary as burning, it is far more sanitary than neglecting to
+care for it at all, as is too frequently the case.
+
+Ground polluted with kitchen refuse containing large amounts of fatty
+material and soap becomes diseased, so that the natural fermentation
+changes fail to take place, and the soil becomes "sewage sick" and gets
+in such a condition that vegetation will not grow. Failure to properly
+dispose of kitchen refuse is frequently the cause of the spread of germ
+diseases, through the dust and flies that are attracted by the material
+and carry the germs from the refuse pile to food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--PLUMBING OF SINK.
+
+1, 1, house side of trap, filled with water; 2, vent pipe; 3, drain pipe
+connecting with sewer.]
+
+Where there is no drainage system, disposal of the liquid refuse is a
+serious problem. Drain basins and cesspools are often resorted to, and
+these may become additional sources of contamination. As stated in the
+chapter on well water, direct communication is frequently established
+between such places and shallow wells. Where the only place for the
+disposal of waste water is the surface of the ground, it should be
+thrown some distance from the house and where it will drain from and not
+toward the well. The land should be well drained and open to the
+sunlight. Coarse sand and lime should be sprinkled over it frequently,
+and occasionally the soil should be removed and replaced with fresh.
+Sunlight, aeration, and disinfection of the soil and good drainage are
+necessary, in order to keep in a sanitary condition the place where the
+dish water is thrown.
+
+Poor plumbing is often the cause of contaminated food. The gases which
+escape from unclean traps may carry with them solid particles of organic
+matter in various stages of decay. The "house side" of traps always
+ventilates into the rooms, and hence it is important that they be kept
+scrupulously clean. Where the drip pipe from the refrigerator drains
+directly into the sewerage system, there is always danger. Special
+attention should be given to the care of plumbing near places where
+foods are stored. Frequently there are leaky joints due to settling of
+the dwellings or to extreme changes in temperature, and the plumbing
+should be occasionally inspected by one familiar with the subject.[100]
+
+290. General Considerations.--In order to keep food in the most
+wholesome condition, special care should be taken that all of its
+surroundings are sanitary. The air, the dishes in which the food is
+placed, the refrigerator, cellar or closet where stored, and the other
+food with which it comes in contact, all influence the wholesomeness or
+cause contamination. A food may contain sufficient nutrients to give it
+high value, and yet, on account of products formed during fermentation,
+be poisonous. Foods are particularly susceptible to putrefaction
+changes, and chemicals and preservatives added as preventives, with a
+view of retarding these changes, are objectionable, besides failing to
+prevent all fermentation from taking place. Intelligent thought should
+be exercised in the care of food, for the health of the consumer is
+largely dependent upon the purity and wholesomeness of the food supply.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--A PETRI DISH, SHOWING COLONIES OF
+BACTERIA PRODUCED BY ALLOWING A HOUSE FLY TO CRAWL OVER SURFACE.
+
+(From Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 93.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+LABORATORY PRACTICE
+
+
+Object of Laboratory Practice, Laboratory Note-book, and Suggestions
+for Laboratory Practice.--The aim of the laboratory practice is to give
+the students an idea of the composition, uses, and values of food
+materials, and the part which chemistry takes in sanitation and
+household affairs; also to enable them by simple tests to detect some of
+the more common adulterants in foods.
+
+Before performing an experiment, the student is advised to review those
+topics presented in the text which have a bearing upon the experiment,
+so that a clear conception may be gained of the relationship between the
+laboratory work and that of the class room. The student should endeavor
+to cultivate the power of observation and to grasp the principle
+involved in the work, rather than do it in a merely mechanical and
+perfunctory way. Neatness is one of the essentials for success in
+laboratory practice, and too much emphasis cannot be laid upon this
+requisite to good work. The student should learn to use his time in the
+laboratory profitably and economically. He should obtain a clear idea of
+what he is to do, and then do it to the best of his ability. If the
+experiment is not a success, repeat it. While the work is in progress it
+should be given undivided attention. Care should be exercised to prevent
+anything getting into the sinks that will clog the plumbing; soil,
+matches, broken glass, and paper should be deposited in the waste jars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--APPARATUS USED IN LABORATORY WORK.
+
+See page 301 for names.]
+
+A careful record of the experiments should be kept by each student in a
+suitable note-book. It is suggested that those students desiring more
+time in writing out the experiments than the laboratory period affords,
+take notes as they make the various tests, and then amplify and
+rearrange them in the evening study time. The final writing up of the
+notes should, however, be done before the next laboratory period.
+Careful attention should be given to the spelling, language, and
+punctuation, and the note-book should represent the student's individual
+work. He who attempts to cheat by copying the results of others, only
+cheats himself. In recording the results of an experiment, the student
+should state briefly and clearly the following:
+
+
+  1. Number and title of experiment.
+  2. How the experiment is performed.
+  3. What was observed.
+  4. What the experiment proves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--BALANCE AND WEIGHTS.]
+
+
+LIST OF APPARATUS USED IN EXPERIMENTS
+
+   1 Crucible Tongs
+   2 Evaporating Dishes
+   1 Casserole
+   6 Beakers
+  12 Test Tubes
+   1 Wooden Stand
+   1 Test Tube Stand
+   1 Sand Bath
+   2 Funnels
+   1 Tripod
+   1 Stoddart Test Tube Clamp
+   1 Test Tube Brush
+   1 Burner and Tubing
+   2 Stirring Rods
+   6 Watch Glasses
+   2 Erlenmeyer Flasks
+   1 Package Filter Paper
+   1 Box Matches
+   1 Wire Gauze
+   2 Burettes
+   1 Porcelain Crucible
+   1 Aluminum Dish
+
+Directions for Weighing.--Place the dish or material to be weighed in
+the left-hand pan of the balance. With the forceps lay a weight from the
+weight box on the right-hand pan. Do not touch the weights with the
+hands. If the weight selected is too heavy, replace it with a lighter
+weight. Add weights until the pans are counterpoised; this will be
+indicated by the needle swinging nearly as many divisions on one side of
+the scale as on the other. The brass weights are the gram weights. The
+other weights are fractions of a gm. The 500, 200, 100 mg. (milligram)
+weights are recorded as 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1 gm. The 50, 20, and 10 mg.
+weights as 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01 gm. If the 10, and 2 gm., and the 200,
+the 100, and the 50 mg. weights are used, the resulting weight is 12.35
+gms. No moist substances should ever come in contact with the scale
+pans. The weights and forceps should always be replaced in the weight
+box. Too much care and neatness cannot be exercised in weighing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Pouring Reagent from Bottle.]
+
+Directions for Measuring.--Reagents are measured in graduated
+cylinders (see Fig. 74). When the directions call for the addition of 5
+or 10 cc. of a reagent, unless so directed it is not absolutely
+necessary to measure the reagent in a measuring cylinder. A large test
+tube holds about 30 cc. of water. Measure out 5 cc. of water and
+transfer it to a large test tube. Note its volume. Add approximately 5
+cc. of water directly to the test tube. Measure it. Repeat this
+operation until you can judge with a fair degree of accuracy the part of
+a test tube filled by 5 cc. In the experiments where a burette is used
+for measuring reagents, the burette is first filled with the reagent by
+means of a funnel. The tip of the burette is allowed to fill before the
+readings are made, which are from the lowest point or meniscus. When
+reagents are removed from bottles, the stopper should be held between
+the first and second fingers of the right hand (see Fig. 75). Hold the
+test tube or receptacle that is to receive the reagent in the left hand.
+Pour the liquid slowly until the desired amount is secured. Before
+inserting the stopper, touch it to the neck of the bottle to catch the
+few drops on the edge, thus preventing their streaking down the sides of
+the bottle on to the shelf. Replace the bottle in its proper place.
+Every precaution should be taken to prevent contamination of reagents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--MICROSCOPE AND ACCESSORIES.
+
+1, eye-piece or ocular; 2, objective; 3, stage; 4, cover glass; 5,
+slide; 6, mirror.]
+
+Use of the Microscope.--Special directions in the use of the
+microscope will be given by the instructor. The object or material to be
+examined is placed on a microscopical slide. Care should be exercised to
+secure a representative sample, and to properly distribute the substance
+on the slide. If a pulverized material is to be examined, use but little
+and spread it in as thin a layer as possible. If a liquid, one or two
+drops placed on the slide will suffice. The material on the slide is
+covered with a cover glass, before it is placed on the stage of the
+microscope. In focusing, do not allow the object glass of the microscope
+to come in contact with the cover glass. Focus upward, not downward.
+Special care should be exercised in focusing and in handling the
+eye-piece and objective. A camel's-hair brush, clean dry chamois skin,
+or clean silk only should be used in polishing the lenses. Always put
+the microscope back in its case after using.
+
+
+Experiment No. 1
+
+Water in Flour
+
+Carefully weigh a porcelain or aluminum dish. (Porcelain must be used if
+the ash is to be determined on the same sample.) Place in it about 2 gm.
+of flour; record the weight; then place the dish in the water oven for
+at least 6 hours. After drying, weigh again, and from the loss of weight
+calculate the per cent of water in the flour. (Weight of flour and dish
+before drying minus weight of flour and dish after drying equals weight
+of water lost. Weight of water divided by weight of flour taken,
+multiplied by 100, equals the per cent of water in the flour.)
+
+How does the amount of water you obtained compare with the amount given
+in the tables of analysis?
+
+
+Experiment No. 2
+
+Water in Butter
+
+Carefully weigh a clean, dry aluminum dish, place in it about 2 gms. of
+butter, and weigh again. Record the weights. Place the dish containing
+butter in the water oven for 5 or 6 hours and then weigh. The loss in
+weight represents the water in the butter. Calculate the per cent of
+water. Care must be taken to get a representative sample of the butter
+to be tested; preferably small amounts should be taken with the butter
+trier from various parts of the package.
+
+
+Experiment No. 3
+
+Ash in Flour
+
+Place the porcelain dish containing flour from the preceding experiment
+in a muffle furnace and let it remain until the organic matter is
+completely volatilized. Cool, weigh, and determine the per cent of ash.
+The flour should be burned at the lowest temperature necessary for
+complete combustion.
+
+
+Experiment No. 4
+
+Nitric Acid Test for Nitrogenous Organic Matter
+
+To 3 cc. of egg albumin in a test tube add 2 cc. of HNO_{3} (conc.) and
+heat. When cool add NH_{4}OH. The nitric acid chemically reacts upon the
+albumin, forming yellow xanthoprotein. What change occurs in the
+appearance of the egg albumin when the HNO_{3} is added? Is this a
+physical or chemical change? What is the name of the compound formed?
+What change occurs on adding NH_{4}OH?
+
+
+Experiment No. 5
+
+Acidity of Lemons
+
+With a pipette measure into a small beaker 2 cc. of lemon juice. Add 25
+cc. of water and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator. From the
+burette run in N/10 KOH solution until a faint pink tinge remains
+permanently. Note the number of cubic centimeters of KOH solution
+required to neutralize the citric acid in the lemon juice. Calculate the
+per cent of citric acid.
+
+(1 cc. of N/10 KOH solution equals 0.00642 gm. citric acid. 1 cc. of
+H_{2}O weighs 1 gm. Because of sugar and other matter in solution 1 cc.
+of lemon juice weighs approximately 1.03 gm.)
+
+1. What is the characteristic acid of lemons? 2. What is the salt formed
+when the lemon juice is neutralized by the KOH solution? 3. Describe
+briefly the process for determining the acidity of lemon juice. 4. What
+per cent of acidity did you obtain? 5. How does this compare with the
+acidity of vinegar?
+
+
+Experiment No. 6
+
+Influence of Heat on Potato Starch Grains
+
+With the point of a knife scrape slightly the surface of a raw potato
+and place a drop of the starchy juice upon the microscopical slide.
+Cover with cover glass and examine under the microscope.
+
+In the evaporating dish cook a small piece of potato, then place a very
+small portion upon the slide, and examine with the microscope.
+
+Make drawings of the starch grains in raw and in cooked potatoes.
+
+
+Experiment No. 7
+
+Influence of Yeast on Starch Grains
+
+Moisten a small portion of the dough prepared with yeast and with the
+stirring rod place a drop of the starchy water upon the slide. Cover
+with cover glass and examine under the microscope.
+
+Repeat, examining a drop of starchy water washed from flour.
+
+Make drawing of wheat starch grain in flour and in dough prepared with
+yeast.
+
+
+Experiment No. 8
+
+Mechanical Composition of Potatoes
+
+Wash one potato. Weigh, then peel, making the peeling as thin as
+possible. Weigh the peeled potato and weigh the peeling or refuse.
+Calculate the per cent of potato that is edible and the per cent that is
+refuse.
+
+
+Experiment No. 9
+
+Pectose from Apples
+
+Reduce a small peeled apple to a pulp. Squeeze the pulp through a clean
+cloth into a beaker. Add 10 cc. H_{2}O and heat on a sand bath to
+coagulate the albumin. Filter, adding a little hot water if necessary.
+To the filtrate add 5 cc. alcohol. The precipitate is the pectose
+material.
+
+1. Is the pectose from the apple soluble? 2. Is it coagulated by heat?
+3. Is it soluble in alcohol?
+
+
+Experiment No. 10
+
+Lemon Extract
+
+To 5 cc. of the extract in a test tube add an equal volume of water. A
+cloudy appearance indicates the presence of lemon oil. If the solution
+remains clear after adding the water, the extract does not contain lemon
+oil.
+
+Why does the extract containing lemon oil become cloudy on adding water?
+
+
+Experiment No. 11
+
+Vanilla Extract
+
+Pour into a test tube 5 cc. of the extract to be tested. Evaporate to
+one third. Then add sufficient water to restore the original volume. If
+a brown, flocculent precipitate is formed, the sample contains pure
+vanilla extract. Resin is present in vanilla beans and is extracted in
+the essence. The resin is readily soluble in 50 per cent alcohol. If
+the alcohol is removed from the extract, the excess of resin is
+precipitated, or if free from alkali, it may be precipitated by diluting
+the original solution with twice its volume of water. Test the two
+samples and compare.
+
+  (Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+
+1. Describe the appearance of each sample after evaporating and adding
+water. 2. Which sample contains pure vanilla extract? 3. State the
+principle underlying this test.
+
+
+Experiment No. 12
+
+Testing Olive Oil for Cotton Seed Oil
+
+Pour into a test tube 5 cc. of the oil to be tested and 5 cc. of
+Halphen's Reagent. Mix thoroughly. Plug the test tube loosely with
+cotton, and heat in a bath of boiling saturated brine for 15 minutes. If
+cotton seed oil is present, a deep red or orange color is produced. Test
+two samples and compare.
+
+Halphen's Reagent.--Mix equal volumes of amyl alcohol and carbon
+disulphid containing about one per cent of sulphur in solution.
+
+  (Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+
+
+Experiment No. 13
+
+Testing for Coal Tar Dyes
+
+Dilute 20 to 30 cc. of the material to 100 cc.; boil for 10 minutes with
+10 cc. of a 10 per cent solution of potassium bisulphate and a piece of
+white woolen cloth which has previously been boiled in a 0.1 per cent
+solution of NaOH and thoroughly washed in water. Remove the cloth from
+the solution, wash in boiling water, and dry between pieces of filter
+paper. A bright red indicates coal tar dye. If the coloring matter is
+entirely from fruit, the woolen cloth will be either uncolored or will
+have a faint pink or brown color which is changed to green or yellow by
+ammonia and is not restored by washing. This is the Arata test.
+
+  (Adapted, Winston, Conn. Experiment Station Report.)
+
+1. Describe Arata's wool test for coal tar dyes. 2. What is the
+appearance of the woolen cloth when the coloring matter is entirely from
+fruit? 3. What effect has NH_{4}OH upon the color? 4. Why is NaOH used?
+5. Why may not cotton cloth be used instead of woolen? 6. What can you
+say of the use of coal tar dyes in foods?
+
+
+Experiment No. 14
+
+Determining the Per Cent of Skin in Beans
+
+Place in an evaporating dish 10 gm. of beans, 50 cc. of water, and 1/2
+gm. of baking soda. Boil 10 minutes or until the skins are loosened,
+then drain off the water. Add cold water and rub the beans together till
+the skins slip off. Collect the skins, place on a watch glass and dry in
+the water oven for 1/2 hour. Weigh the dried skins and calculate the per
+cent of "skin."
+
+1. What does the soda do? 2. What effect would hard limewater have upon
+the skins? 3. How does removal of skins affect food value of beans and
+digestibility?
+
+
+Experiment No. 15
+
+Extraction of Fat from Peanuts
+
+Shell three or four peanuts and with the mortar and pestle break them
+into small pieces. Place in a test tube and pour over them about 10 cc.
+of ether. Cork the test tube and allow it to stand 30 minutes, shaking
+occasionally. Filter on to a watch glass and let stand until the ether
+evaporates, and then observe the fat.
+
+1. What is the appearance of the peanut fat? 2. What is the solvent of
+the fat? 3. What becomes of the ether? 4. Why should the peanuts be
+broken into small pieces?
+
+
+Experiment No. 16
+
+Microscopic Examination of Milk
+
+Place a drop of milk on a microscopical slide and cover with cover
+glass. Examine the milk to detect impurities, as dust, hair, refuse,
+etc. Make drawings of any foreign matter present.
+
+
+Experiment No. 17
+
+Formaldehyde in Cream or Milk
+
+To 10 cc. of milk in a casserole add 10 cc. of the acid reagent. Heat
+slowly over the flame nearly to boiling, holding the casserole in the
+hand and giving it a slight rotary movement while heating. The presence
+of formaldehyde is indicated by a violet coloration varying in depth
+with the amount present. In the absence of formaldehyde the solution
+slowly turns brown.
+
+Acid Reagent.--Commercial hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) containing 2
+cc. per liter of 10 per cent ferric chlorid.
+
+  (Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+
+1. How may the presence of formaldehyde in milk be detected? 2. Why in
+this test is it necessary to use acid containing ferric chlorid? 3.
+Describe the appearance of the two samples of milk after adding the acid
+reagent and heating. 4. Which sample showed the presence of
+formaldehyde?
+
+
+Experiment No. 18
+
+Gelatine in Cream or Milk
+
+To 20 cc. of milk or cream in a beaker add 20 cc. of acid mercuric
+nitrate and about 40 cc. of H_{2}O. Let stand for a few minutes and
+filter. Filtrate will be cloudy if gelatine is present.
+
+Add 1/2 cc. of a dilute solution of picric acid--a heavy yellow
+precipitate indicates gelatine.
+
+Acid Mercuric Nitrate.--1 part by weight of Hg, 2 parts HNO_{3} (sp.
+gr. 1.42). Dilute 25 times with water.
+
+
+Experiment No. 19
+
+Testing for Oleomargarine
+
+Apply the following tests to two samples of the material:
+
+Boiling or Spoon Test.--Melt the sample to be tested--a piece about
+the size of a chestnut--in a large spoon, hastening the process by
+stirring with a splinter. Then, increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a
+boil as possible and stir thoroughly, not neglecting the outer edges.
+Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, sputtering like a
+mixture of grease and water, and produce no foam, or but very little.
+Genuine butter boils with less noise and produces an abundance of foam.
+
+Waterhouse Test.--Into a small beaker pour 50 cc. of sweet milk. Heat
+nearly to boiling and add from 5 to 10 gms. of butter or oleomargarine.
+Stir with a glass rod until fat is melted. Then place the beaker in cold
+water and stir the milk until the temperature falls sufficiently for the
+fat to congeal. At this point the fat, if oleomargarine, can easily be
+collected into one lump by means of the rod; while if butter, it will
+granulate and cannot be collected.
+
+  (From Farmers' Bul. 131, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
+
+1. Name two simple tests for distinguishing butter and oleomargarine. 2.
+Describe these tests. 3. Why do butter and oleomargarine respond
+differently to these tests? 4. Are these tests based upon chemical or
+physical properties of the fats?
+
+
+Experiment No. 20
+
+Testing for Watering or Skimming of Milk
+
+_a._ Fat Content of Milk by Means of Babcock Test.--Measure with
+pipette into test bottle 17.6 cc. of milk. Sample should be carefully
+taken and well mixed. Measure with cylinder 17.5 cc. commercial
+H_{2}SO_{4} and add to milk in test bottle. (See Fig. 25.) Mix acid and
+milk by rotating the bottle. Then place test bottles in centrifugal
+machine and whirl 5 minutes. Add sufficient hot water to test bottles to
+bring contents up to about the 8th mark on stem. Then whirl bottles 2
+minutes longer and read fat. Read from extreme lowest to highest point.
+Each large division as 1 to 2 represents a whole per cent, each small
+division 0.2 of a per cent.
+
+_b._ Determining Specific Gravity by Means of Lactometer.--Pour 150
+cc. of milk into 200 cc. cylinder. Place lactometer in milk and note
+depth to which it sinks as indicated on stem. Note also temperature of
+milk. For each 10 deg. above 60 deg. F. add 1 to the lactometer number,
+in order to make the necessary correction for temperature. For example, if
+milk has sp. gr. of 1.032 at temperature of 70 deg., it will be equivalent
+to sp. gr. of 1.033 at 60 deg. Ordinarily milk has a sp. gr. of 1.029 to
+1.034. If milk has sp. gr. less than 1.029, or contains less than 3 per
+cent fat, it may be considered watered milk. If the milk has a high sp.
+gr. (above 1.035) and a low content of fat, some of the fat has been
+removed.
+
+  (For extended direction for milk testing see Snyder's "Dairy Chemistry.")
+
+
+Experiment No. 21
+
+Boric Acid in Meat
+
+Cut into very small pieces 5 gms, of meat, removing all the fat
+possible. Place in an evaporating dish with 20 to 25 cc. of water to
+which a few drops of HCl have been added and warm slightly. Dip a piece
+of turmeric paper in the meat extract and dry. A rose-red color of the
+turmeric paper after drying (turned olive by a weak ammonia solution) is
+indicative of boric acid.
+
+1. How may meat be tested for boric acid? 2. Why is HCl added to the
+water? 3. Why is the water containing the meat warmed slightly? 4. What
+is the appearance of the turmeric paper after being dipped in the meat
+extract and dried? 5. What change takes place when it is moistened with
+ammonia, and why?
+
+
+Experiment No. 22
+
+Microscopic Examination of Cereal Starch Grains
+
+Make a microscopic examination and drawings of wheat, corn, rice, and
+oat starch grains, comparing them with the drawings of the different
+starch grains on the chart. If the material is coarse, pulverize in a
+mortar and filter through cloth. Place a drop or two of the starchy
+water on the slide, cover with a cover glass, and examine.
+
+
+Experiment No. 23
+
+Identification of Commercial Cereals
+
+Examine under the microscope two samples of cereal breakfast foods, and
+by comparison with the wheat, corn, and oat starch grains previously
+examined tell of what grains the breakfast foods are made and their
+approximate food value.
+
+
+Experiment No. 24
+
+Granulation and Color of Flour
+
+Arrange on glass plate, in order of color, samples of all the different
+grades of flour. Note the differences in color. How do these differences
+correspond with the grades of the flour? Examine the flour with a
+microscope, noting any coarse or dark-colored particles of bran or dust.
+Rub some of the flour between the thumb and forefinger. Note if any
+granular particles can be detected.
+
+
+Experiment No. 25
+
+Capacity of Flour to absorb Water
+
+Weigh out 15 gms. of soft wheat flour into an evaporating dish; then add
+from burette a measured quantity of water sufficient to make a stiff
+dough. Note the amount of water required for this purpose. Repeat the
+operation, using hard wheat flour.
+
+1. How may the absorptive power of a flour be determined? 2. To what is
+it due? 3. Why do some flours absorb more water than others?
+
+
+Experiment No. 26
+
+Acidity of Flour
+
+Weigh into a flask 20 gms. of flour and add 200 cc. distilled water.
+Shake vigorously. After letting stand 30 minutes, filter and then
+titrate 50 cc. of the filtrate against standard KOH solution, using
+phenolphthalein as indicator, 1 cc. of the alkali equals 0.009 gms.
+lactic acid. Calculate the per cent of acid present.
+
+1. How may the acidity of a flour be determined? 2. The acidity is
+expressed in percentage amounts of what acid? 3. What per cent of
+acidity is found in normal flours? 4. What does a high acidity of a
+flour indicate?
+
+
+Experiment No. 27
+
+Moist and Dry Gluten
+
+Weigh 30 gms. of flour into a porcelain dish. Make the flour into a
+stiff dough. After 30 minutes obtain the gluten by washing, being
+careful to remove all the starch and prevent any losses. Squeeze the
+water from the gluten as thoroughly as possible. Weigh the moist gluten
+and calculate the per cent. Dry the gluten in the water oven and
+calculate the per cent of dry gluten.
+
+
+Experiment No. 28
+
+Gliadin from Flour
+
+Place in a flask 10 gms. of flour, 30 cc. of alcohol, and 20 cc. of
+water. Cork the flask and shake, and after a few minutes shake again.
+Allow the alcohol to act on the flour for an hour, or until the next
+day. Then filter off the alcohol solution and evaporate the filtrate to
+dryness over the water bath. Examine the residue; to a portion add a
+little water; burn a small portion and observe odor.
+
+1. Describe the appearance of the gliadin. 2. What was the result when
+water was added? 3. When burned, what was the odor of the gliadin, and
+what does this indicate? 4. What is gliadin?
+
+
+Experiment No. 29
+
+Bread-making Test
+
+Make a "sponge" by mixing together:
+
+  12 gm. sugar,
+  12 gm. yeast (compressed),
+  4 gm. salt,
+  175 cc. water (temp. 32 deg. C.).
+
+Let stand 1/2 hour at a temperature of 30 deg. C. In a large bowl, mix
+with a knife or spatula 7.7 gms. of lard with 248.6 gms. of flour. Then
+add 160 cc. of the "sponge," or as much as is needed to make a good stiff
+dough, and mix thoroughly, using the spatula. With some flours as small
+a quantity as 150 cc. of sponge may be used. If more moisture is
+necessary, add H_{2}O. Keep at temperature of 30 deg. C. Allow the dough
+to stand 50 minutes to first pulling, 40 minutes to second pulling, and
+30 to 50 minutes to the pan. Let it rise to top of pan and then bake for
+1/2 hour in an oven at a temperature of 180 deg. C. One loaf of bread is
+made of patent flour of known quality as a standard for comparison, and
+other loaves of the flours to be tested. Compare the loaves as to size
+(cubic contents), color, porosity, odor, taste, nature of crust, and
+form of loaf.
+
+
+Experiment No. 30
+
+Microscopic Examination of Yeast
+
+On a watch glass mix thoroughly a very small piece of yeast with about
+5 cc. of water and then with the stirring rod place a drop of this
+solution on the microscopical slide, adding a drop of very dilute methyl
+violet solution. Cover with the cover glass and examine under the
+microscope. The living active cells appear colorless while the decayed
+and lifeless ones are stained. Yeast cells are circular or oval in
+shape. (See Fig. 46.)
+
+  (Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")
+
+
+Experiment No. 31
+
+Testing Baking Powders for Alum
+
+Place about 2 gms. of flour in a dish with 1/2 gm. baking powder. Add
+enough water to make a dough and then 2 or 3 drops of tincture of
+logwood and 2 or 3 drops of ammonium carbonate solution. Mix well and
+observe; a blue color indicates alum. Try the same test, using flour
+only for comparison.
+
+1. How do you test a baking powder for alum? 2. What difference in color
+did you observe in the test with the baking powder containing alum and
+in that with the flour only? 3. Why is the (NH_{4})_{2}CO_{3} solution
+used?
+
+
+Experiment No. 32
+
+Testing Baking Powders for Phosphoric Acid
+
+Dissolve 1/2 gm. of baking powder in 5 cc. of H_{2}O and 3 cc. HNO_{3}.
+Filter and add 3 cc. ammonium molybdate. Heat gently. A yellow
+precipitate indicates phosphoric acid.
+
+1. How do you test a baking powder for phosphoric acid? 2. What is the
+yellow precipitate obtained in this test?
+
+
+Experiment No. 33
+
+Testing Baking Powders for Ammonia
+
+Dissolve 1/2 gm. of material in 10 cc. water; filter off any insoluble
+residue and to the filtrate add 2 or 3 cc. NaOH and apply heat. Test the
+gas given off with moistened turmeric paper. If NH_{3} is present, the
+paper will be colored brown. Do not allow the paper to come in contact
+with the liquid or sides of the test tube. (Perform the tests on two
+samples of baking powder.)
+
+1. How do you test a baking powder for ammonia? 2. Why do you add NaOH?
+3. Why must you be careful not to let the turmeric paper touch the sides
+of the test tube or the liquid?
+
+
+Experiment No. 34
+
+Vinegar Solids
+
+Into a weighed aluminum or porcelain dish pour 10 cc. of vinegar. Weigh
+and then evaporate over boiling water. To drive off the last traces of
+moisture dry in the water oven for an hour. Cool and weigh. Calculate
+the per cent of solids. Observe the appearance of the solids. Test both
+samples and compare.
+
+1. How may the per cent of solids in vinegar be determined? 2. Describe
+the appearance of the solids from the good and from the poor sample of
+vinegar. 3. What is the legal standard for vinegar solids in your state?
+
+
+Experiment No. 35
+
+Specific Gravity of Vinegar
+
+Pour 170 cc. vinegar into 200 cc. cylinder. Place a hydrometer for heavy
+liquids (sp. gr. 1 to 1.1) in the cylinder. Note the depth to which it
+sinks and the point registered on the scale on the stem. Note
+temperature of vinegar. Record specific gravity of vinegar.
+
+1. What effect would addition of water to vinegar have upon its specific
+gravity? 2. What effect would addition of such material as sugar have
+upon specific gravity? 3. Why should the specific gravity of vinegar be
+fairly constant? 4. What would be the weight of 1000 cc. of vinegar
+calculated from the specific gravity?
+
+
+Experiment No. 36
+
+Acidity of Vinegar
+
+Into a small beaker pour 6 cc. of vinegar and 10 cc. of water and a few
+drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Run in standard KOH solution from a
+burette until a faint pink tinge remains permanently. Note the number of
+cubic centimeters of KOH solution required to neutralize the acid.
+Divide this number by 10, which will give approximately the per cent of
+acetic acid.
+
+1. How may the per cent of acidity of vinegar be determined? 2. Why was
+phenolphthalein used? 3. Why was KOH used? 4. What acids does vinegar
+contain? 5. What is the legal requirement in this state for acetic acid
+in vinegar? 6. How did the acidity you obtained compare with this legal
+requirement?
+
+
+Experiment No. 37
+
+Deportment of Vinegar with Reagents
+
+To 10 cc. of vinegar in a test tube add 8 or 10 drops of lead
+sub-acetate and shake. Observe the precipitate. Lead sub-acetate
+precipitates mainly the malic acid which is always present in cider
+vinegar.
+
+1. How may the presence of malic acid in a vinegar be detected? 2.
+Describe the precipitate. 3. What does malic acid in a vinegar indicate?
+
+
+Experiment No. 38
+
+Testing Mustard for Turmeric
+
+Place 1 gm. of ground mustard on a small watch glass and moisten
+slightly with water. Add 2 or 3 drops of NH_{4}OH, stirring well with a
+glass rod. A brown color indicates turmeric present in considerable
+quantity.
+
+Test a sample of good mustard and one adulterated with turmeric and
+compare the results.
+
+
+Experiment No. 39
+
+Examination of Tea Leaves
+
+Soak a small amount of tea and unroll 8 or 10 of the leaves. Make a
+drawing of a tea leaf. Observe the proportion of stems in each of three
+samples of tea; also the relative proportion of large and small leaves.
+Observe if the leaves are even as to size and of a uniform color.
+
+
+Experiment No. 40
+
+Action of Iron Compounds upon Tannic Acid
+
+Make an infusion of tea by placing 3 gms. of tea in 100 cc. of hot water
+and stirring well. Filter off some of the infusion and test 5 cc. with
+ferrous sulphate solution made by dissolving 1 gm. FeSO_{4} in 10 cc.
+H_{2}O and filtering. Note the result.
+
+1. What change in color did you observe when the ferrous sulphate
+solution was added to the tea infusion? 2. What effect would waters
+containing iron have upon the tea infusion?
+
+
+Experiment No. 41
+
+Identification of Coffee Berries
+
+Examine Rio, Java, and Mocha coffee berries. Describe each. Note the
+characteristics of each kind of coffee berry.
+
+
+Experiment No. 42
+
+Detecting Chicory in Coffee
+
+Fill a beaker with water and place about a teaspoonful of ground coffee
+on the surface. If much of the ground material sinks and it imparts a
+dark brown color to the lower portion of the liquid, it is an indication
+of the presence of chicory. Pure coffee floats on water. Chicory has a
+higher specific gravity than coffee.
+
+1. How may the presence of chicory in ground coffee be detected? 2. Why
+does coffee float on the water while chicory sinks? 3. What effect does
+chicory have upon the color of water?
+
+
+Experiment No. 43
+
+Testing Hard and Soft Waters
+
+Partially fill a large cylinder with very hard water. This may be
+prepared by dissolving 0.1 to 0.2 gm. calcium chloride in 500 cc. of
+ordinary water. Add to this a measured quantity of soap solution. Mix
+well and notice how many cubic centimeters of soap solution must be used
+before a permanent lather is formed, also notice the precipitate of
+"lime soap." Repeat this experiment, using either rain or distilled
+water, and compare the cubic centimeters of soap solution used with that
+in former test. Repeat the test, using tap water.
+
+Soap Solution.--Scrape 10 gms. of castile soap into fine shavings and
+dissolve in a liter of alcohol, dilute with 1/3 water. Filter if not
+clear and keep in a tightly stoppered bottle.
+
+1. Why is more soap required to form a lather with hard water than with
+soft water? 2. What is meant by "lime soap"? Describe its appearance. 3.
+How may hard waters be softened for household purposes?
+
+
+Experiment No. 44
+
+Solvent Action of Water on Lead
+
+Put 1 gm. of clean bright lead shavings into a test tube containing 10
+cc. of distilled water. After 24 hours decant the clear liquid into a
+second test tube, acidify slightly with HCL, and add a little hydrogen
+sulphid water. A black or brownish coloration indicates lead in
+solution.
+
+  (Adapted from Caldwell and Breneman, "Introductory Chemical Practice.")
+
+Under what conditions may lead pipes be objectionable?
+
+
+Experiment No. 45
+
+Suspended Matter in Water
+
+Place a drop of water on the microscopical slide, cover with cover
+glass, and examine with the microscope. Note the occurrence and
+appearance of any suspended matter in the water.
+
+
+Experiment No. 46
+
+Organic Matter in Water
+
+Pour into the evaporating dish 100 cc. H_{2}O and evaporate to dryness
+over the sand bath. Ignite the solids. If the solids blacken when
+ignited, the water contains organic matter.
+
+
+Experiment No. 47
+
+Deposition of Lime by Boiling Water
+
+Boil for a few minutes about 200 cc. of water in a flask. After the
+water is cool, note any sediment of lime or turbidity of the water due
+to expelling the carbon dioxid.
+
+1. What is meant by a "hard" water? 2. What do the terms "temporary" and
+"permanent" hardness of water mean? 3. What acts as a solvent of the
+lime in water? 4. Why does boiling cause the lime to be deposited?
+
+
+Experiment No. 48
+
+Qualitative Tests for Minerals in Water
+
+Test for Chlorids.--To 10 cc. of H_{2}O add a few drops of HNO_{3} and
+2 cc. of AgNO_{3}. A white precipitate indicates the presence of
+chlorids, usually in the form of sodium chlorid.
+
+Test for Sulphates.--To 10 cc. of water add 2 cc. of dilute HCl and 2
+cc. of BaCl_{2}. A cloudiness or the formation of a white precipitate
+indicates the presence of sulphates.
+
+Test for Iron.--If a brown sediment is formed in water exposed to the
+air for some time, it is probably iron hydroxid. To 10 cc. of the water
+add a few drops of HNO_{3}, heat, and then add 1/2 cc. of NH_{4}CNS. A
+red color indicates the presence of iron.
+
+Test for CaO and MgO.--To 10 cc. of H_{2}O add 5 cc. NH_{4}OH. If a
+precipitate forms, filter it off, and to the filtrate add 3 cc. NH_{4}Cl
+and 5 cc. (NH_{4})_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. The precipitate is CaC{2}O_{4}, and
+the filtrate contains the magnesia. Filter and add 5 cc. Na_{3}PO_{4} to
+precipitate MgNH_{4}PO_{4}.
+
+1. How would you test a water to detect the presence of organic matter?
+2. Name some mineral impurities often found in water. 3. Describe the
+test for chlorids; for sulphates; for iron; for lime; for magnesium. 4.
+Of the two classes of impurities found in water, which is the more
+harmful? 5. Name three ways of purifying waters known to be impure, and
+tell which is the most effectual.
+
+
+Experiment No. 49
+
+Testing for Nitrites in Water
+
+To 50 cc. of water in a small beaker add with a pipette 2 cc. of
+naphthylamine hydrochloride and then 2 cc. of sulphanilic acid. Stir
+well and wait 20 minutes for color to develop. A pink color indicates
+nitrites.
+
+
+REAGENTS USED
+
+Sulphanilic Acid.--Dissolve 5 gm. in 150 cc. of dilute acetic acid;
+sp. gr. 1.04.
+
+Naphthylamine Hydrochloride.--Boil 0.1 gm. of solid [Greek:
+a]-amidonaphthaline (naphthylamine) in 20 cc. of water, filter the
+solution through a plug of absorbent cotton, and mix the nitrate with
+180 cc. of dilute acetic acid. All water used must be free from
+nitrites, and all vessels must be rinsed out with such water before
+tests are applied.
+
+1. Would a water showing the presence of nitrites be a safe drinking
+water? Why? 2. What are nitrites? 3. What does the presence of nitrites
+indicate? 4. Are small amounts of nitrites, when not associated with
+bacteria, injurious?
+
+
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GENERAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS
+
+1. To what extent is water present in foods? 2. What foods contain the
+most, and what foods the least water? 3. How does the water content of
+some foods vary with the hydroscopicity of the air? 4. How may changes
+in water content of foods affect their weight? 5. Why is it necessary to
+consider the water content of foods in assigning nutritive values? 6.
+How is the dry matter of a food determined? 7. Why is the determination
+of the water in a food often a difficult process? 8. What is the ash or
+mineral matter of a food? 9. How is it obtained? 10. What is its source?
+11. Of what is the ash of plants composed? 12. What part in plant life
+do these ash elements take? 13. Name the ash elements essential for
+plant growth. 14. Which of the mineral elements take the most essential
+part in animal nutrition? 15. In what form are these elements usually
+considered most valuable? 16. Why is sodium chloride or common salt
+necessary for animal life? 17. How do food materials differ in ash
+content? 18. Define organic matter of foods. 19. How is it obtained? 20.
+Of what is it composed? 21. Into what is the organic matter converted
+when it is burned? 22. Give the two large classes of organic compounds
+found in food materials. 23. Name the various subdivisions of the
+non-nitrogenous compounds. 24. What are the carbohydrates? 25. Give
+their general composition. 26. What is cellulose? 27. Where is it found?
+28. What is its function in plants? 29. What is its food value? 30. In
+what way may cellulose be of value in a ration? 31. In what way may it
+impart a negative value to a ration? 32. What is starch? 33. Where is
+it mainly found in plants? 34. Give the mechanical structure of the
+starch grain. 35. Why is starch insoluble in cold water? 36. How do
+starch grains from different sources differ in structure? 37. What
+effect does heat have upon starch? 38. Define hydration of starch. 39.
+Under what conditions does this change take place? 40. What value as a
+nutrient does starch possess? 41. What is sugar? 42. How does it
+resemble and how differ in composition from starch? 43. What are the
+pectose substances? 44. How are they affected by heat? 45. What food
+value do they possess? 46. What is nitrogen-free-extract? 47. How is it
+obtained? 48. How may the nitrogen-free-extract of one food differ from
+that of another? 49. What are the fats? 50. How do they differ in
+composition from the starches? 51. Why does fat when burned or digested
+produce more heat than starch or sugar? 52. Name the separate fats of
+which animal and vegetable foods are composed. 53. Give some of the
+physical characteristics of fat. 54. What is the iodine absorption
+number of a fat? 55. How does the specific gravity of fat compare with
+that of water? 56. Into what two constituents may all fats be separated?
+57. What is ether extract? 58. How does the ether extract in fats vary
+in composition and nutritive value? 59. What are the organic acids? 60.
+Name those most commonly met with in foods. 61. What nutritive value do
+they possess? 62. What dietetic value? 63. What value are they to the
+growing plant? 64. What organic acids are found in animal foods? 65.
+What are the essential oils? 66. How do they differ from the fixed oils,
+or fats? 67. What property do the essential oils impart to foods? 68.
+What food value do they possess? 69. What dietetic value? 70. What are
+the mixed compounds? 71. How may a compound impart a negative value to a
+food? 72. What is the nutritive value of the non-nitrogenous compounds,
+taken as a class? 73. Why is it necessary that nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds be blended in a ration? 74. What are the
+nitrogenous compounds? 75. How do they differ from the non-nitrogenous
+compounds? 76. Name the four subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds.
+77. What is protein? 78. What is characteristic as to its nitrogen
+content? 79. What are some of the derivative products that can be
+obtained from the protein molecule? 80. How does the protein content of
+animal bodies compare with that of plants? 81. Name the various
+subdivisions of the proteins. 82. What is albumin, and how may it be
+obtained from a food? 83. What is globulin, and how is it obtained from
+a food? 84. Give some examples of globulins. 85. What are the
+albuminates, and how are they affected by the action of acids and
+alkalies? 86. What are the peptones, and how do they differ from the
+albumins? 87. How are the peptones produced from other proteids? 88.
+What are the insoluble proteids? 89. Give an example. 90. Which of the
+proteids are found to the greatest extent in foods? 91. Why may proteids
+from different sources vary in their nutritive value? 92. What general
+change do the proteids undergo during digestion? 93. What is crude
+protein? 94. How is the crude protein content of a food calculated? 95.
+Why is the nitrogen content of a food more absolute than the crude
+protein content? 96. What food value do the proteins possess? 97. Why
+may proteins serve so many functions in the body? 98. Why is protein
+necessary as a nutrient? 99. What is the effect of an excess of protein
+in the ration? 100. What is the effect of a scant amount of protein in a
+ration? 101. What are the albuminoids? 102. Name borne materials that
+contain large amounts of albuminoids. 103. What food value do the
+albuminoids possess? 104. What are the amids? 105. How are they formed
+in plants? 106. What is their source in animals? 107. What general
+changes does the element nitrogen undergo in plant and animal bodies?
+108. What is the food value of the amids? 109. What are the alkaloids?
+110. What is their food value? 111. What effect do some alkaloids exert
+upon the animal body? 112. How may they be produced in animal foods?
+113. What general relationship exists between the various nitrogenous
+compounds? 114. Why is it essential that the animal body be supplied
+with nitrogenous food in the form of proteids? 115. Name the cycle of
+changes through which the element nitrogen passes in plant and animal
+bodies.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND PREPARATION
+
+116. How do raw and cooked foods compare in general composition? 117. In
+what ways are foods acted upon during cooking? 118. What causes chemical
+changes to take place during cooking? 119. What are the principal
+compounds that are changed during the process of cooking? 120. How does
+cooking affect the cellulose of foods? 121. What change does starch
+undergo during cooking? 122. When foods containing starch are baked,
+what change occurs? 123. How are the sugars acted upon when foods are
+cooked? 124. What effect does dry heat have upon sugar? 125. What change
+occurs to the fats during cooking? 126. How does this affect nutritive
+value? 127. What changes do the proteids undergo during cooking? 128.
+Why does the action of heat affect various proteids in different ways?
+129. Why are chemical changes, as hydration, often desirable in the
+cooking and preparation of foods? 130. What physical changes do
+vegetable and animal tissues undergo when cooked? 131. How do foods
+change in weight during cooking? 132. Why is a prolonged high
+temperature unnecessary to secure the best results in cooking? 133. To
+what extent is the energy of fuels utilized for producing mechanical and
+chemical changes in foods during cooking? 134. What effect does cooking
+have upon the bacterial flora of foods? 135. In what ways do bacteria
+exert a favorable influence in the preparation of foods? 136. How may
+certain classes of bacteria exert unfavorable changes in the preparation
+of foods? 137. What are the insoluble ferments? 138. What are the
+soluble ferments? 139. What part do they take in animal and plant
+nutrition? 140. Define aerobic ferments. 141. Define anaerobic ferments.
+142. What general relationship exists between the chemical, physical,
+and bacteriological changes that take place in foods? 143. Why should
+foods also possess an esthetic value? 144. What kinds of colors should
+be used in the preparation of foods? 145. What processes should be used
+for removal of coloring materials from foods?
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+VEGETABLE FOODS
+
+146. Give the general composition of vegetable foods as a class. 147.
+How do vegetable foods differ from animal foods? 148. Name some
+vegetables which contain the maximum, and some which contain the minimum
+percentage of protein. 149. Give the general composition of potatoes.
+150. Of what is the dry matter mainly composed? 151. How much of the
+crude protein of potatoes is true protein? 152. What ratio exists
+between the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in the potato?
+153. Give the chemical composition of the potato. 154. What influence do
+different methods of boiling have upon the crude protein content of
+potatoes? 155. To what extent are the nutrients of potatoes digested and
+absorbed by the body? 156. What value do potatoes impart to the ration?
+157. How do sweet potatoes differ in chemical composition and food value
+from white potatoes? 158. How do carrots differ in composition from
+potatoes? 159. What is characteristic of the dry matter of the carrot?
+160. How do carrots and milk differ in composition? 161. To what is the
+color of the carrot due? 162. To what extent are the nutrients removed
+in the cooking of carrots? 163. What is the value of carrots in a
+ration? 164. Give the characteristics of the composition of parsnips.
+165. How does the starch of parsnips differ from that of potatoes? 166.
+How does the mineral matter of parsnips differ from that of potatoes?
+167. How does the cabbage differ in general composition from many
+vegetables? 168. To what extent are nutrients extracted in the boiling
+of cabbage? 169. Give the nutritive value of cabbage. 170. How does the
+cauliflower differ from cabbage? 171. Give the general composition of
+beets. 172. Give the general composition of cucumbers. 173. What
+nutritive value has lettuce? 174. Give the composition and dietetic
+value of onions. 175. How does the ratio of nitrogenous and
+non-nitrogenous compounds in spinach differ from that in many other
+vegetables? 176. Give the general composition and nutritive value of
+asparagus. 177. How much nutritive material do melons contain? 178. What
+are the principal compounds of tomatoes? 179. What nutrients do they
+supply to the ration? 180. In the canning of tomatoes, why is it
+desirable to conserve the juices? 181. How does sweet corn differ in
+composition from fully matured corn? 182. What nutritive value does the
+egg plant possess? 183. What are the principal nutrients of squash? 184.
+What nutritive material does celery contain? 185. To what does celery
+owe its dietetic value? 186. Why are vegetables necessary in a ration?
+187. Why is it not possible to value many vegetable foods simply on the
+basis of percentage of nutrients present? 188. Name the miscellaneous
+compounds which many vegetables contain, and the characteristics which
+these may impart. 189. Why is it necessary to consider the sanitary
+conditions of vegetables? 190. How do canned vegetables differ in
+composition and food value from fresh vegetables? 191. What proportion
+of vegetables is refuse and non-edible parts? 192. Why is it necessary
+to consider the refuse of a food in determining its nutritive value?
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+FRUITS
+
+193. To what extent do fruits contain water and dry matter? 194. Give
+the general composition of fruits. 195. What compounds impart taste and
+flavor? 196. How much nutrients do fruits add to a ration? 197. Why is
+it not right to determine the value of fruits entirely on the basis of
+nutrients? 198. Give the general composition of apples? 199. What
+compound is present to the greatest extent in the dry matter of apples?
+200. How do apples differ in composition? 201. Give the general physical
+composition of oranges. 202. What nutrients are present to the greatest
+extent in oranges? 203. How do lemons differ in composition from
+oranges? 204. How does grape fruit resemble and how differ in chemical
+composition from oranges and lemons? 205. What are the main compounds in
+strawberries? 206. In what ways are strawberries valuable in a ration?
+207. Of what is grape juice mainly composed? 208. What acid is in
+grapes, and what is its commercial value? 209. To what are the
+differences in flavor and taste due? 210. How do ripe olives differ in
+composition from green olives? 211. What is the food value of the olive?
+212. What physiological property does olive oil have? 213. What is the
+principal nutrient in peaches? 214. What compounds give flavor to
+peaches? 215. Of what does the dry matter of plums mainly consist? 216.
+How do plums differ in composition from many other fruits? 217. What are
+prunes? What is their food value? 218. How do dried fruits differ in
+composition from fresh fruits? 219. What should be the stage of ripeness
+of fruit in order to secure the best results in canning? 220. How do
+canned fruits differ in composition and nutritive value from fresh
+fruits? 221. To what extent are metals dissolved by fruit juices? 222.
+Why should tin in which canned goods are preserved be of good quality?
+223. What preservatives are sometimes used in the preparation of canned
+fruits? 224. What is the objection to their use? 225. Why are fruits
+necessary in the ration? 226. What change does heat bring about in the
+pectose substances of fruits?
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SUGAR, MOLASSES, SIRUPS, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS
+
+227. What is sugar? 228. From what sources are sugars obtained? 229.
+Name the two divisions into which sugars are divided. 230. How are
+sugars graded commercially? 231. What per cent of purity has granulated
+sugar? 232. How is the coloring material of sugar removed? 233. How is
+sugar treated to make it whiter? 234. What value as a nutrient does
+sugar possess? 235. Why should sugar be combined with other nutrients?
+236. What foods contain appreciable amounts of sugar? 237. Why is an
+excessive amount of sugar in a ration undesirable? 238. Does sugar
+possess more than condimental value? 239. What is the average quantity
+of sugar consumed in this country? 240. What is maple sugar? 241. How
+does it differ in composition from other sugar? 242. How is adulterated
+maple sugar detected? 243. To what extent is granulated sugar
+adulterated? 244. Why is it not easily adulterated? 245. What are the
+dextrose sugars? 246. How do they differ chemically from sucrose? 247.
+What is the inversion of sugar? 248. In what way does acid act upon
+sugar? 249. How are the acid products removed? 250. What is the food
+value of glucose? 251. What is molasses? 252. How is it obtained? 253.
+Of what is it composed? 254. What gives taste and flavor to molasses?
+255. How may molasses act upon metalware? 256. What is the food value of
+molasses? 257. What is sirup? 258. Name three kinds of sirup, and
+mention materials from which they are prepared. 259. What is the
+polariscope, and how is it employed in sugar work? 260. What is honey?
+261. How does it differ in composition from sugar? 262. How is strained
+honey adulterated? 263. What materials are used in the preparation of
+confections? 264. What changes take place in their manufacture? 265.
+What materials are used for imparting color? 266. What can you say in
+regard to the coal tar colors? 267. What should be the position of candy
+in the dietary? 268. What can you say of the comparative value of cane
+and beet sugar? 269. How do the commercial grades of sugar compare as to
+nutritive value? 270. What are some of the impurities in candy? 271.
+What is saccharine? 272. What are its properties?
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+LEGUMES AND NUTS
+
+273. What nutrients do the legumes contain in comparatively large
+amounts? 274. How does the amount of this nutrient compare with that
+found in meats? 275. Why are legumes valuable crops in general farming
+and for the feeding of farm animals? 276. Give the general composition
+of beans. 277. How do beans compare in protein content with cereals?
+278. How does the protein of beans differ from that of many other food
+materials? 279. To what extent are the nutrients of beans digested? 280.
+What influence does the combination of beans with other foods have upon
+digestibility? 281. What influence does removal of skins have upon
+digestibility? 282. In what part of the digestive tract are beans mainly
+digested? 283. How does the cost of the nutrients in beans compare with
+that of the nutrients in other foods? 284. How do string beans differ
+from green beans? 285. Give the general composition, digestibility, and
+nutritive value of peas. 286. What can you say of the use of copper
+sulphate in the preparation of canned peas? 287. What nutrients do
+peanuts contain in large amounts? 288. Give the general composition of
+nuts. 289. What are the characteristics of pistachio? 290. Give the
+general composition of the cocoanut. 291. What is cocoanut butter? 292.
+To what extent may nuts contribute to the nutritive value of a ration?
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
+
+293. What can you say as to the importance of dairy products in the
+dietary? 294. Give the general composition of milk. 295. What compound
+in milk is most variable? 296. To what extent are the nutrients in milk
+digestible? 297. What influence does milk have upon the digestibility of
+other foods? 298. Why is cheese cured in cold storage? 299. How can the
+tendency of a milk diet to produce costiveness be overcome? 300. Why is
+it necessary to consider the sanitary condition of milk? 301. What
+factors influence the sanitary condition of milk? 302. What is certified
+milk? 303. What is pasteurized milk? 304. How can milk be pasteurized
+for family use? 305. What is tyrotoxicon? 306. What is its source in
+milk? 307. To what is the color of milk due? 308. To what extent is
+color associated with fat content? 309. What causes souring of milk?
+310. What change occurs in the milk sugar? 311. What are the most
+favorable conditions for the souring of milk? 312. What are some of the
+preservatives used in milk. 313. What objection is urged against their
+use? 314. What is condensed milk? 315. What is buttermilk, and what
+dietetic value has it? 316. How does goats' milk differ from cows' milk?
+317. What is koumiss, and how is it prepared? 318. What are the prepared
+milks? 319. How does human milk differ in composition from cows' milk?
+320. Give the nutritive value of skim milk. 321. What content of fat
+should cream contain? 322. In what ways is milk adulterated? 323. How
+are these adulterations detected? 324. Give the general composition of
+butter. 325. What is the maximum amount of water that a butter may
+contain without being considered adulterated? 326. What can you say in
+regard to the digestibility of butter? 327. How is butter adulterated?
+328. How does oleomargarine compare in digestibility and food value with
+butter? 329. What is the food value of butter? 330. How does cheese
+differ in composition from butter? 331. Give the general composition of
+cheese. 332. To what are the flavor and odor of cheese due? 333. Why is
+cheese ripened? 334. What chemical changes take place during ripening?
+335. To what extent are the nutrients of cheese digested? 336. Why is
+cheese sometimes considered indigestible? 337. To what extent do the
+nutrients of different kinds of cheese vary in digestibility? 338. How
+does cheese compare in nutritive value and cost with meats? 339. What is
+cottage cheese? 340. What is Roquefort cheese? 341. Name four kinds of
+cheese, and say to what each owes its individuality. 342. How is cheese
+adulterated? 343. Why are dairy products in older agricultural regions
+generally cheaper than meats?
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS
+
+344. Give the general composition of meats. 345. How do meats differ in
+chemical composition from vegetable foods? 346. What is the principal
+non-nitrogenous compound of meats, and what of vegetables? 347. Name the
+different classes of proteins in meats. 348. Which class is present in
+largest amounts? 349. To what extent are amid compounds present in
+meats? 350. What characteristics do amids impart to meats? 351. How are
+alkaloids produced in meats? 352. In what ways does the lean meat of
+different kinds of animals vary chemically and physically? 353. Give the
+general composition of beef. 354. What relationship exists between the
+fat and water content of beef? 355. How much refuse have meats? 356. In
+what forms are the ash elements (mineral matter) present in meats? 357.
+How does veal differ in composition from beef? 358. What general changes
+in composition occur as animals mature? 359. How do these compare with
+the changes that take place when plants ripen and seeds are produced?
+360. How does mutton vary in composition from beef? 361. How does it
+compare in food value with beef? 362. How do lamb and mutton differ in
+composition? 363. To what extent do the various cuts differ in
+composition? 364. How do the more expensive cuts of lamb compare in
+nutritive value with the less expensive cuts? 365. How does pork differ
+in composition from other meats? 366. Give the general composition of
+ham. 367. Give the composition and nutritive value of bacon. 368. How
+does bacon compare in food value with other meats? 369. How does the
+character of the fat influence the composition and taste of the meat?
+370. What influences the texture or toughness of meats? 371. How do
+cooked meats compare in composition with raw meats? 372. To what extent
+are nutrients lost in the boiling of meats? 373. What influence does the
+temperature of the water in which the meat is placed for cooking have
+upon the amount of nutrients extracted? 374. To what is the shrinking of
+meats in cooking due? 375. Of what does meat extract mainly consist?
+376. To what do beef extracts owe their flavor? 377. What is their food
+value? 378. What is their dietetic value? 379. What is lard? 380. How
+does it differ in composition from other fats? 381. What is imparted to
+meats during the smoking process? 382. Why is saltpeter used in the
+preservation of meats? 383. Do vegetable foods contain nitrates and
+nitrites? 384. How does poultry resemble and how differ in composition
+from other meat? 385. Give the characteristics of sound poultry. 386.
+Give the general composition of fish. 387. How does the flesh of
+different kinds of fish vary in composition? 388. What influence does
+salting and preservation have upon composition? 389. How do fish and
+meat compare in digestibility? 390. How does the mineral matter and
+phosphate content of fish compare with that of other foods? 391. What
+are the main nutrients in oysters? 392. Give the general food value of
+oysters. 393. What is meant by the fattening of oysters? 394. What
+effect does the character of the water used in fattening have upon the
+sanitary value? 395. Give the general composition of the egg. 396. How
+do different parts of the egg differ in composition? 397. How does the
+egg differ in composition from the potato? 398. Is color an index to the
+composition of the egg? 399. What effect does cooking have upon the
+composition of the egg? 400. What factors influence the flavor of eggs?
+401. How do different ways of cooking affect the digestibility? 402.
+Under what conditions can eggs be used economically in the dietary? 403.
+Why should eggs be purchased and sold by weight? 404. How do canned
+meats differ in composition from fresh meats? 405. How do the nutrients
+of canned meats compare in cost with those of fresh meat? 406. What are
+the advantages of canned meats over fresh meats? 407. What are some of
+the materials used in the preservation of meats?
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CEREALS
+
+408. How are the cereals milled? 409. What are the cereals most commonly
+used for food purposes? 410. Give the general composition of cereals as
+a class. 411. What are the main nutrients in corn preparations? 412.
+What influence does the more complete removal of the bran and germ of
+corn have upon its digestibility? 413. How does the cost of nutrients in
+corn compare with other foods? 414. Why is corn alone not suitable for
+bread-making purposes? 415. Why should corn be combined in a ration with
+foods mediumly rich in protein? 416. What change takes place in corn
+meal from long storage? 417. Give the characteristics and composition of
+oat preparations. 418. How does removal of the oat hull affect the
+composition of the product? 419. To what extent do the various oat
+preparations on the market differ in composition and food value? 420. Do
+oats contain any special alkaloidal or stimulating principle? 421. Why
+should oatmeal receive longer and more-thorough cooking than many other
+foods? 422. To what extent are the nutrients in oatmeal digested? 423.
+How do wheat preparations differ in general composition from corn and
+oat preparations? 424. What influence upon the composition of the wheat
+breakfast foods has partial or complete removal of the bran? 425. What
+is the effect upon their digestibility and nutritive value? 426. What
+are the special diabetic flours, and how are they prepared? 427. What
+are the wheat middlings breakfast foods, and how do they compare in
+digestibility and food value with bread? 428. How do they differ
+mechanically? 429. How does barley differ from wheat in general
+composition? 430. What is barley water, and what nutritive material does
+it contain? 431. What cereal does rice resemble in composition? 432.
+With what food materials should rice be combined to make a balanced
+ration? 433. What can you say as to comparative ease and completeness
+of digestibility of rice? 434. Why are cereals valuable in the ration?
+435. In what way do they take a mechanical part in digestion? 436. What
+are predigested breakfast foods? 437. How would you determine the
+general nutritive value of a breakfast food, knowing the kind of cereal
+from which it was prepared? 438. To what extent are cereals modified or
+changed in composition by cooking? 439. To what extent are the nutrients
+of cereal foods digested and absorbed by the body? 440. To what extent
+do the cereals supply the body with mineral matter? 441. How does the
+phosphate content of cereals compare with that of meats and milk?
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+WHEAT FLOUR
+
+442. Why is wheat flour especially adapted to bread-making purposes?
+443. To what extent may wheat vary in protein content? 444. What are
+spring wheats? 445. What are winter wheats? 446. Give the general
+characteristics of each. 447. What are glutinous wheats? 448. What are
+starchy wheats? 449. Name the different proteids in wheat flour. 450.
+About how much starch does wheat flour contain? 451. What other
+carbohydrates are also present? 452. What is the roller process of flour
+milling? 453. What is meant by the first break? 454. How are the
+different products of the wheat kernel separated? 455. What is meant by
+middlings flour? 456. What is break flour? 457. What is patent flour?
+458. Name the high grade flours. 459. Name the low grade flours. 460.
+How are the impurities removed from wheat flour? 461. What per cent of
+the wheat kernel is returned as flour? As offals? 462. What becomes of
+the wheat germ during milling? 463. What sized bolting cloths are used
+in milling? 464. What is graham flour? 465. How does it differ in
+mechanical and chemical composition from white flour? 466. What is
+entire wheat flour? 467. How does it differ in physical and chemical
+composition from white flour? 468. What effect has the refining of
+flour upon the ash content? 469. How do low and high grade flours differ
+in chemical composition? 470. How do the wheat offals differ in
+composition from the flour? 471. What are the factors which influence
+the composition of flours? 472. What effect does storage have upon the
+bread-making value of flour? 473. What change takes place when new wheat
+is stored in an elevator? 474. What is durum wheat flour, and how does
+it differ from other flour? 475. What gives flour its color? 476. Why is
+color an index of grade? 477. How is the color of a flour determined?
+478. How do flours differ in granulation? 479. How does the granulation
+affect the physical properties of flour? 480. How is the granulation of
+flour approximately determined? 481. How is the absorptive capacity of a
+flour determined? 482. What factors cause a variation in the capacity of
+flours to absorb water? 483. Give the characteristics of a good gluten.
+484. What causes unsound flours? 485. How is the bread-making value of a
+flour determined? 486. How are flours bleached? 487. How does bleaching
+affect the chemical composition of flour? 488. What influence does
+bleaching have upon bread-making value? 489. Traces of what compounds
+are formed during bleaching? 490. Are these compounds injurious to
+health? 491. What effect does bleaching have upon the color of fiber and
+debris particles in flour? 492. Is it possible to bleach low grade
+flours and cause them to resemble high grade flours? 493. Are flours
+usually adulterated? 494. Why? 495. How would mineral adulterants be
+detected? 496. How would the presence of other cereals be detected? 497.
+How does flour compare in nutritive value with other foods? 498. How
+does the cost of flour compare with that of other foods? 499. What
+causes flours to vary so in bread-making value? 500. Why may flours
+produced from the same type of wheat vary slightly in character from
+year to year? 501. What relationship exists between the nutritive and
+bread-making value of a flour?
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BREAD AND BREAD MAKING
+
+502. Define leavened and unleavened bread. 503. Why is yeast used in
+bread making? 504. Give the characteristics of a good loaf of bread.
+505. Why is flour used for bread making purposes? 506. Name the eight
+chemical changes that take place during bread making. 507. To what
+extent do losses in dry matter occur during bread making? 508. What
+compounds suffer losses during bread making? 509. What is yeast? 510.
+What chemical changes does it produce? 511. What becomes of these
+products during bread making? 512. How is compressed yeast made? 513.
+What part does the alcohol take in bread making? 514. What temperature
+is reached in the interior of the loaf during bread making? 515. Through
+what chemical changes does starch pass during bread making? 516. To what
+extent are soluble carbohydrates formed? 517. In what way is starch
+acted upon mechanically? 518. Explain the structure of the starch grains
+in flour and in dough after they have been acted upon by the yeast
+ferments. 519. To what extent are acids produced in bread making? 520.
+What becomes of the acids formed? 521. How may the acids thus developed
+affect the properties of other chemical compounds? 522. To what extent
+are volatile carbon compounds, other than carbon dioxid and alcohol,
+liberated during bread making? 523. What changes occur to the various
+proteids during the process of bread making? 524. Why do flours vary in
+quality of gluten? 525. To what extent do losses of nitrogen occur
+during bread making? 526. How much of the total nitrogen of flour is
+present as proteids? 527. How is the fat of flour affected during the
+process of bread making? 528. What effect does the addition of 10 per
+cent of wheat starch to flour have upon the size of the loaf? 529. What
+effect does the addition of 10 per cent of wheat gluten to flour have
+upon the size of the loaf? 530. What relationship exists between gluten
+content and capacity of a flour to absorb water? 531. Give the general
+composition of bread. 532. What factors influence its composition? 533.
+What effect does the use of skim milk and lard in bread making have upon
+composition? 534. How does the temperature of the flour influence the
+bread-making process? 535. Why is it necessary to vary the process of
+bread making in order to get the best results with different kinds of
+flour? 536. To what extent are the nutrients of bread digested? 537. How
+does graham bread compare in digestibility with white bread? 538. How do
+graham and entire wheat breads compare in nutritive value with white
+bread? 539. What value do graham and entire wheat breads have in the
+dietary? 540. Why is white bread generally preferable in the dietary of
+the laboring man? 541. How do graham and entire wheat flours compare in
+chemical composition with white flour? 542. How do they compare in
+mechanical composition? 543. To what is the difference in digestibility
+supposed to be due? 544. Are graham and entire wheat breads necessary in
+a ration as a source of mineral elements? 545. What is the main
+difference in composition between old and new bread? 546. How do
+different kinds of bread made from the same flour compare in composition
+and nutritive value? 447. How does toast differ in composition from
+bread? 548. What influence does toasting have upon digestibility? 549.
+What is gained by toasting bread? 550. How does bread compare in
+nutritive value with other cereal foods? 551. How does bread compare in
+nutritive value with animal foods?
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BAKING POWDERS
+
+552. What is a baking powder? 553. What are the two kinds of materials
+which baking powders contain? 554. Name the different types of baking
+powders. 555. How does baking powder differ in its action from yeast?
+556. What are the cream of tartar baking powders? 557. What is the
+nature of the residue which they leave? 558. What are the phosphate
+baking powders? 559. What is the nature of the residue which they
+leave? 560. Why is the mineral phosphate not considered equally valuable
+with that naturally present in foods? 561. What are the alum baking
+powders? 562. What residue is left from the alum powders? 563. Which of
+the three classes of baking powders is considered the least
+objectionable? 564. Why is a new baking powder preferable to one that
+has been kept a long time? 565. Why should baking powders be kept in tin
+cans, and not in paper? 566. Why are fillers used in the manufacture of
+baking powders? 567. How may a baking powder be prepared at home? 568.
+How does such a baking powder compare in cost and efficiency with those
+purchased in the market?
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+VINEGARS, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS
+
+569. What is vinegar? 570. How is it made? 571. Give the three chemical
+changes that take place in its preparation. 572. Why is air necessary in
+the last stage of the process? 573. What ferments take part in the
+production of vinegar? 574. What is malt vinegar? 575. What materials
+other than apples can be used in the preparation of vinegar? 576. Give
+the characteristics of a good vinegar. 577. In what ways are vinegars
+adulterated? 578. What food value has vinegar? 579. Why should vinegars
+not be stored in metalware? 580. What dietetic value has vinegar? 581.
+To what materials do the spices owe their value? 582. What is pepper?
+583. What is the difference between white and black pepper? 584. What
+compounds give pepper its characteristics? 585. How are peppers
+adulterated? 586. What is mustard? 587. Give its general composition.
+588. How is it adulterated? 589. What is ginger? 590. How is it prepared
+for the market? 591. Give its general composition. 592. What is
+cinnamon? 593. What is cassia? 594. What gives these their taste and
+flavor? 595. What are cloves? 596. How are they prepared? 597. What is
+mace? 598. What is nutmeg? 599. Do the spices have any food value? 600.
+What is their dietetic value? 601. Why is excessive use of some of the
+spices objectionable?
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA
+
+602. What is tea? Name the two plants from which it is obtained, the
+countries where each grows best, and the number of flushes each yields.
+603. Upon what does the quality and grade of tea depend? 604. Give
+differences in the preparation and composition of green and black teas.
+605. The characteristic flavor of tea is imparted by what compound? 606.
+To what compound are its peculiar physiological properties due? 607.
+What can you say of the protein in tea as to amount and food value? 608.
+Why should tea--especially green tea--be infused for a very short time,
+never boiled? 609. What effect has tannin upon the digestion of
+proteids? 610. What three points are considered in judging a tea? 611.
+What is the most common form of tea adulteration? 612. Describe the
+coffee plant and fruit, and its method of preparation for market. 613.
+What is the difference in the chemical composition of tea and coffee?
+614. Name the characteristic alkaloid of coffee. How does it compare
+with theme? 615. Why may coffee not be considered a food? 616. Tell
+different ways in which coffee may be adulterated. 617. Which is more
+commonly practiced, tea or coffee adulteration? Why? 618. How may real
+coffee be distinguished from chicory? Why? 619. Name the three kinds of
+coffee in general use. Give distinguishing features of each. Which is
+usually considered best? 620. From what are cocoa and chocolate
+obtained? 621. Give the two methods of preparing cocoa. 622. What
+alkaloid similar to the theme and caffeine of tea and coffee is present
+in cocoa and chocolate? 623. What is the difference in preparation of
+cocoa and chocolate? 624. What are cereal coffee-substitutes? 625. What
+nutritive value have they? 626. How do they differ in composition from
+coffee? 627. To what extent does cocoa add to the nutritive value of a
+ration? 628. What is plain chocolate? 629. Why do chocolate preparations
+vary so widely in composition? 630. What treatment is given to the cocoa
+bean in its preparation for commerce? 631. What treatment is sometimes
+given to prevent separation of the cocoa fat? 632. In what ways may
+cocoa and chocolate preparations be adulterated?
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS
+
+633. Define the term nutrient. 634. Do all the nutrients of food have
+the same degree of digestibility? 635. What is a digestion coefficient?
+636. How is the digestibility of a food determined? 637. What volatile
+products are formed during the digestion of food? 638. Define digestible
+protein; digestible carbohydrates, digestible fat. 639. What is the
+available energy of a ration? 640. How is it determined? 641. How do the
+nutrients, protein, fat, and carbohydrates, compare as to available
+energy? 642. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a
+ration? 643. Is the protein molecule as completely oxidized in the body
+as starch or fat? 644. What residue is left from the digestion of
+protein? 645. What part do the soluble ferments take in digestion? 646.
+To what extent are the nutrients of animal foods digested? 647. Which
+nutrient, protein or fat, is the most completely digested? 648. How do
+vegetable foods compare in digestibility with animal foods? 649. What
+effect does cellulose have upon digestibility? 650. Which of the
+nutrients of vegetables, protein or carbohydrates, is more completely
+digested? 651. What mechanical value may cellulose have in a ration?
+652. Why must bulk be considered in a ration, as well as nutrient
+content? 653. Name the eight most important factors influencing the
+digestibility of foods. 654. To what extent does the combination of
+foods affect the digestibility of the nutrients? 655. Why does a mixed
+ration give better results than when only a single food is used? 656.
+How does the amount consumed affect the completeness of the digestive
+process? 657. To what extent does the method of preparing food affect
+digestibility? 658. What is gained, so far as digestibility is
+concerned, by the cooking of foods? 659. To what extent does the
+mechanical condition of food affect its digestibility? 660. Why is it
+desirable to have some coarsely granulated foods in a ration? 661. Why
+should the ration not be composed exclusively of finely granulated
+foods? 662. Why is some coarsely granulated food more essential in the
+dietary of the sedentary than in the dietary of the laborer? 663. How
+does palatability affect the digestive process? 664. Do psychological
+processes in any way affect digestion? 665. What physiological
+properties do some foods possess? 666. To what are these physiological
+properties due? 667. To what extent is individuality a factor in
+digestion? 668. To what extent does digestibility differ with
+individuals? 669. Why do some foods affect individuals in different
+ways? 670. Why is it necessary that the quantity, quality, and character
+of the food should vary with different individuals? 671. In what
+different ways is the expression "digestibility of a food" used? 672.
+Why is it necessary to consider the digestibility of food, as well as
+its composition? 673. Does the digestibility of a food necessarily
+indicate the economic uses that will be made of it by the body? 674. How
+is it possible for one food containing 10 per cent of digestible
+protein, and other nutrients in like amounts, to be more valuable than
+another food with the same per cent of digestible protein and other
+nutrients? 675. How is it possible for one food to contain less total
+protein than another food and yet be more valuable from a nutritive
+point of view? 676. Why is it necessary to consider the mechanical
+condition of a food and its combination with other foods, as well as its
+chemical composition? 677. What effect does lack of a good supply of air
+have upon the completeness of the digestion process? 678. In what ways
+does the digestion of food resemble the combustion of fuel? 679. What is
+gained by a study of the digestibility of foods? 680. Why may two foods
+of the same general character give different results when used for
+nutritive purposes?
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS
+
+681. To what extent do the nutritive value and the market price of foods
+vary? 682. How is the value of one food expressed in terms of another
+food? 683. How determine the amount of nutrients that can be procured in
+a food for a given sum of money? 684. How compare the amounts of
+nutrients that can be procured in two foods for a given sum of money?
+685. How is it possible to determine approximately which of two foods is
+cheaper, when the price and composition of the foods are known? 686. To
+what nutrient is preference usually given in assigning a value to a
+food? 687. When the difference in this nutrient between two foods is
+small, then the preference is given to what nutrients? 688. At ordinary
+prices, what are the cheapest vegetable foods? 689. What are among the
+cheapest animal foods? 690. Why is it not possible to determine the
+value of a food absolutely from its composition and digestibility? 691.
+Why is it necessary to consider the physical as well as the chemical
+composition of foods? 692. What proportion of the income of the laboring
+man is usually expended for food? 693. What are the most expensive
+foods? 694. What foods furnish the largest amount of nutrients at the
+least cost?
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+DIETARY STUDIES
+
+695. What is a dietary study? 696. How is a dietary study made? 697.
+What is the value of the dietary study of a family? 698. To what extent
+does the protein in the dietary range? 699. Why is a scant amount of
+protein in a ration undesirable? 700. Why is an excess of protein in the
+ration undesirable? 701. What are dietary standards? 702. How are such
+standards obtained? 703. Why is it desirable in a ration to secure the
+protein and other nutrients from a variety rather than from a few foods?
+704. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration? 705.
+How is this determined? 706. What is a wide nutritive ratio? 707. What
+is a narrow nutritive ratio? 708. Why should the amount of nutrients
+consumed vary with the work performed? 709. How should the nutrients be
+apportioned among the meals? 710. What are some of the most common
+dietary errors? 711. What analogy exists between human and animal
+feeding? 712. What is gained by the rational feeding of both humans and
+animals? 713. What use can be made of the results of dietary studies for
+improvement of the dietary? 714. Why is it not possible for animal foods
+to compete in economy with cereal and vegetable foods? 715. Is a
+well-balanced ration and one containing an ample supply of nutrients
+necessarily an expensive ration? 716. Show how it is possible for one
+family to spend less money for food than another family, and yet secure
+more digestible nutrients and energy. 717. What are some of the most
+erroneous ideas as to food values? 718. Why is it necessary to consider
+previously acquired food habits in the selection of foods? 719. In
+general, what portion of the nutrients of a ration should be derived
+from vegetable foods, and what portion from meats? 720. To what extent
+may a ration vary from the dietary standards? 721. Why are some
+inexpensive foods often expensive when prepared for the table? 722. What
+are some of the ways in which the cost of a ration can be decreased
+without sacrificing nutritive value? 723. Why do different nationalities
+acquire distinct food habits? 724. Why is it not possible to make sudden
+and radical changes in the dietary? 725. Why is it not possible for a
+dietary which gives ample satisfaction for one class of people to be
+applied to another class with equal satisfaction? 726. What relationship
+exists between the dietary of a nation and its physical development?
+727. What relationship exists between dietary habits and mental
+development and vigor? 728. Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to
+regulate absolutely the amount of nutrients consumed in the daily
+ration? 729. What is the general tendency as to quantity of food and
+amount of nutrients consumed? 730. Why do people of sedentary habits
+require a different dietary from those pursuing active, out-of-door
+occupations?
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+RATIONAL FEEDING OF MAN
+
+731. What is the object of the rational feeding of man? 732. On what is
+it based? 733. How does it compare with the rational feeding of animals?
+734. What is a standard ration? 735. How is it determined? 736. To what
+extent may the nutrients of a ration vary from the standard? 737. How do
+you combine foods to form a balanced ration? 738. What foods are
+valuable for supplying protein? 739. What foods supply fats? 740. What
+foods are rich in carbohydrates? 741. What other requisites should a
+ration have in addition to supplying the necessary nutrients? 742. Why
+is it necessary to consider the calorie value of a ration? 743. If a
+ration contained an excess of carbohydrates and a scant amount of
+protein, how could it be improved? 744. How do you calculate the
+nutrients in a fraction of a pound of food? 745. Give the amounts of the
+common food materials, as potatoes, bread, butter, milk, and cheese,
+ordinarily combined to form a ration. 746. To what extent may foods
+differ in composition from the average analysis given? 747. What foods
+are subject to the greatest and what foods to the least variation?
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+WATER
+
+748. Why is water regarded as a food? 749. Does it enter chemically into
+the composition of plants? Of animals? 750. In addition to serving as a
+food, why is water necessary for life processes? 751. In what ways may
+water be improved? 752. What are the most common forms of impurities?
+753. What are the mineral impurities of water? 754. What is their
+source? 755. What effect do some of these minerals have upon the value
+of the water? 756. What causes some waters to dissolve limestone? 757.
+What are permanently hard waters? 758. To what is temporary hardness in
+water due? 759. What is the best way to remove mineral matter from
+water? 760. What are the organic impurities of water? 761. What are the
+sources of the organic impurities? 762. What change does the organic
+matter of water undergo? 763. What becomes of the nitrogen of the
+organic matter? 764. What does the presence of nitrates in water
+indicate? Nitrites? 765. What is the total solid matter of a water, and
+how is it obtained? 766. Define the terms free ammonia; albuminoid
+ammonia. 767. What does the presence of chlorine in a surface well water
+indicate? 768. Explain natural purification of water. 769. Can natural
+purification always be relied upon? 770. Why does the character of the
+drinking water affect health? 771. What diseases are mainly caused by
+impure drinking water? 772. With what materials in water are the
+disease-producing organisms associated? 773. Why should a water of
+questionable purity be boiled? 774. State how the boiling should be
+done, to be effective. 775. Why should boiled water receive further care
+in its storage? 776. What effect does improvement of the water supply of
+a city have upon the death rate? 777. How may connections between
+cesspools and surface well waters be traced? 778. What impurities do
+rain waters contain? 779. Explain the workings of the Pasteur and
+Berkefeld water filters. 780. Why must special attention be given to
+cleaning the water filter? 781. Explain the processes employed for the
+removal of mechanical impurities of water by sedimentation and the use
+of chemicals. 782. Why should such purification be under the supervision
+of a chemist or bacteriologist? 783. What effect does freezing have upon
+the purity of water? 784. Why are precautions necessary in the use of
+ice for refrigeration? 785. What are mineral waters? 786. How are
+artificial mineral waters prepared? 787. What are the more common
+materials used in their preparation? 788. Why should mineral waters be
+extensively used only by the advice of a physician? 789. What are some
+of the materials used for softening water? 790. Which are the least
+objectionable of these materials? 791. Which are the most objectionable?
+792. What can you say of the use of ammonia and ammonium carbonate for
+softening waters? 793. In washing clothing after contagious diseases,
+what materials may be used for disinfecting? 794. Why, in softening
+waters for household purposes, must caustic soda, potash, and bleaching
+powder be used with caution? 795. Why is it necessary to determine by
+trial the material most suitable for softening water? 796. What
+advantage, from a pecuniary point of view, results from the improvement
+of the water supply of a community?
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND STORAGE
+
+797. What are the compounds usually determined in a food analysis? 798.
+Does such an analysis necessarily indicate the presence of injurious
+compounds? 799. What are the sources of the injurious organic compounds
+in foods? 800. Why is it necessary to consider sanitary condition as
+well as chemical composition? 801. What are the sources of contamination
+of foods? 802. What is the object of the sanitary inspection of food?
+803. How may flies carry germ diseases? 804. Why should food be
+protected from impure air and dust particles? 805. Why should places
+where vegetables are stored be well ventilated? 806. How may the dirt
+adhering to vegetables be the carrier of germ diseases? 807. Why should
+the cellar in which food is stored be in a sanitary condition? 808. What
+effect does the cleaning of streets and improvement of the sanitation of
+cities have upon the death rate? 809. Name the three natural
+disinfectants, and explain the action of each. 810. Why must dishes and
+utensils in which foods are placed be thoroughly cleaned? 811. Explain
+the principle of refrigeration. 812. What kind of ferment action may
+take place at a low temperature? 813. Why is some ventilation necessary
+in refrigeration? 814. What effect does refrigeration have upon the
+composition of food? 815. What relationship exists between unsanitary
+condition of soils about dwellings and contamination of the food? 816.
+Why should special attention be given to the sanitary disposal of
+kitchen refuse? 817. Name the ways in which this can be accomplished.
+818. How may foods become contaminated through imperfect plumbing? 819.
+Mention the conditions necessary in order to keep foods sanitary.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+
+The following list of references is given for the use of the student in
+case additional information is desired upon some of the subjects
+discussed in this work. The list is not intended as a complete
+bibliography of the subject of foods. The advanced student will find
+extended references in the Experiment Station Record and the various
+chemical, physiological, and bacteriological journals.
+
+1. SNYDER: The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life.
+
+2. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Human Food
+Investigations.
+
+3. CROSS AND BEVANS: Cellulose.
+
+4. WILEY: Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis,
+Vol. III.
+
+5. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 74: Human Food
+Investigations.
+
+6. PARRY: The Chemistry of Essential Oils, etc.
+
+7. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 142:
+Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food.
+
+8. MANN: Chemistry of the Proteids.
+
+9. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 85: Wheat and Flour
+Investigations.
+
+10. ARMSBY: Principles of Animal Nutrition.
+
+11. SHERMAN: Organic Analysis.
+
+12. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 43: Digestion Experiments with Potatoes and Eggs.
+
+13. Unpublished results of author.
+
+14. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
+No. 49: Cold Curing of Cheese.
+
+15. WILEY: Foods and Their Adulteration.
+
+16. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63: Miscellaneous
+Analyses.
+
+17. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 8: Canned Vegetables.
+
+18. LEACH: Food Inspection and Analysis.
+
+19. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 256:
+Preparation of Vegetables for the Table.
+
+20. U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1905: Fruit and its Uses
+as Food.
+
+21. Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 1893.
+
+22. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+94: Studies on Apples.
+
+23. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+69: Fruits and Fruit Products.
+
+24. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 203: Canned
+Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies.
+
+25. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+27: Sugar Beet Industry.
+
+26. SADTLER: A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry.
+
+27. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 86: The Food Value of
+Sugar. The Digestive Action of Milk.
+
+28. HUTCHISON: Food and Principles of Dietetics.
+
+29. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No 93: Sugar as
+Food.
+
+30. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 252: Maple Sugar and Sirup.
+
+31. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 6: Sugar, Molasses, Sirup, and Confections.
+
+32. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 121: Peas and
+Beans as Food.
+
+33. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 122: Nuts as
+Food.
+
+34. Maine Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Nuts as Food.
+
+35. California Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 107 and 132:
+Investigations among Fruitarians.
+
+36. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 74: Milk as
+Food.
+
+37. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 63: Care of
+Milk on the Farm.
+
+38. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 149:
+Digestibility of Milk.
+
+39. RUSSELL: Dairy Bacteriology.
+
+40. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13. Part 1: Dairy Products.
+
+41. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 131:
+Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter.
+
+42. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
+No 61: Relation of Bacteria to Flavor of Cheddar Cheese.
+
+43. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 92: The Digestibility and
+Nutritive Value of Cottage Cheese, etc.
+
+44. LAWES AND GILBERT: Experiments with Animals.
+
+45. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 34: Meats,
+Composition and Cooking.
+
+46. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 7: Lard and Lard Adulterants.
+
+47. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 193: Cooking of Meats as Affecting Digestibility.
+
+48. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 141: Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. See also
+Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 102: Losses in Cooking Meats.
+
+49. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 66: Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin.
+
+50. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 162: The Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of
+Meats.
+
+51. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 10: Preserved Meats.
+
+52. RICHARDSON, W. D., Journal of the American Chemical
+Society, December, 1907: The Occurrence of Nitrates in Vegetable Foods,
+in Cured Meats, and Elsewhere.
+
+53. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 182: Poultry as Food.
+
+54. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 85: Fish as
+Food.
+
+55. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, Experiment
+Station Work: Digestibility of Fish and Poultry.
+
+56. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 249: Cereal
+Breakfast Foods.
+
+57. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+50: Composition of Maize.
+
+58. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 305: Gluten Flour and Similar Foods.
+
+59. HAMMERSTON: Physiological Chemistry.
+
+60. EDGAR: The Wheat Berry.
+
+61. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 90: Composition and Value
+of Grains.
+
+62. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 101: Bread and Bread Making.
+
+63. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 156: Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and
+Macaroni Flour.
+
+64. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 67: Bread and Bread Making.
+
+65. University of Nebraska Bulletin No. 102: The Effect of Bleaching
+upon the Quality of Wheat Flour.
+
+66. SNYDER: Wheat Flour and Bread.
+
+67. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 126: Bread and Bread Making.
+
+68. LAWES AND GILBERT: Experiments on Some Points in the
+Composition of the Wheat Grain, of the Product in the Mill and Bread.
+
+69. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 5: Baking Powders.
+
+70. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 2: Spices and Condiments.
+
+71. Food Standards: U. S. Department of Agriculture. See Annual Reports
+of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
+
+72. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 21: Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry
+and Economy of Foods.
+
+73. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
+13, Part 7: Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Preparations.
+
+74. The Respiration Calorimeter: Year-book U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, 1904.
+
+75. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: Cost of Food as
+Related to its Nutritive Value.
+
+76. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletins Nos. 82, 71, 129, 116, 37, 55, 150. See also other bulletins
+of the Office of Experiment Stations.
+
+77. CHITTENDEN: Physiological Economy in Nutrition.
+
+78. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 98: Effect of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Work on Food
+Consumption.
+
+79. HENRY: Feeds and Feeding.
+
+80. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations:
+Dietary Studies in Chicago Bulletin No. 55.
+
+81. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 116: Dietary Studies in New York City.
+
+82. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 119: Banana
+Flour.
+
+83. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 159: Digest of Japanese Investigations on the Nutrition of
+Man.
+
+84. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 150: Dietary Studies at the Government Hospital for the
+Insane, Washington, D.C.
+
+85. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 149: Studies on the Food of Maine Lumbermen.
+
+86. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations
+Bulletin No. 143: Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of
+Bread at the Maine Experiment Station.
+
+87. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations,
+Experiment Station Work, Vol. III: Wells and Pure Water.
+
+88. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 88: Pure
+Water on the Farm.
+
+89 Mineral Impurities in Water. See various bulletins of the California
+and New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Stations.
+
+90. MASON: Examination of Water.
+
+91. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey: The Quality of
+Surface Waters in Minnesota.
+
+92. FUERTES: Water and Public Health.
+
+93. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 124:
+Distilled Drinking Water.
+
+94. TURNEAURE AND RUSSELL: Public Water Supplies.
+
+95. VAUGHAN AND NOVY: Ptomains and Lencomains.
+
+96. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Circular No.
+71: House Flies.
+
+97. ELLEN H. RICHARDS AND S. MARIA ELLIOTT: The Chemistry of
+Cooking and Cleaning.
+
+98. Dr. WOODS HUTCHINSON, _Saturday Evening Post_, 1908: The
+Real Angels of the House.
+
+99. HARRINGTON: Practical Hygiene.
+
+100. PRICE: Handbook of Sanitation.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Air, infection from impure, 287.
+    pure, disinfectant, 290.
+
+  Albuminoids, 23.
+
+  Alkaloids, 24.
+
+  Allspice, 202.
+
+  Almonds, 77.
+
+  Alum baking powder, 188.
+
+  Amids and Amines, 23.
+
+  Animal and vegetable foods, economy of, 250.
+
+  Animal foods, digestibility of, 220.
+
+  Apparatus used in experiments, 301.
+
+  Apples, 49.
+    pectose from, 307.
+
+  Ash, of foods, 4.
+    elements of plants, 5.
+
+  Asparagus, 43.
+
+  Available energy, 217.
+    nutrients, 216.
+
+
+  Bacteria in food, 32.
+
+  Baking powder, composition of, 186.
+    cream of tartar, 187.
+    phosphates, 189.
+    alum, 189.
+    inspection of, 191.
+    fillers, 191.
+    home-made, 191.
+    testing for alum, 315.
+    testing for ammonia, 316.
+    testing for phosphoric acid, 316.
+
+  Baking tests, 153-314.
+
+  Barley preparations, 128.
+
+  Beans, composition, 71.
+    digestibility, 72.
+    removal of skins, 72.
+    string, 73.
+    use of, in dietary, 74.
+
+  Beef, 101.
+    extracts, 110.
+
+  Beets, 41.
+
+  Beverages, composition, 213.
+
+  Bleaching of flour, 155.
+
+  Bolting cloth, 138.
+
+  Bread and bread making, 158-185.
+    leavened and unleavened bread, 158.
+    chemical changes during making, 159.
+    losses during bread making, 160.
+    production of carbon dioxide, 163.
+    production of alcohol, 163.
+    production of soluble carbohydrates, 165.
+    production of acids, 166.
+    production of volatile compounds, 167.
+    production of volatile nitrogenous compounds, 172.
+    wheat proteids, part taken by, 169.
+    oxidation of fat, 173.
+    starch, influence of, addition of, 173.
+    composition of bread, 174.
+    temperature of flour, 176.
+    use of skim milk, 176.
+    process of bread making, 177.
+    digestibility of bread, 178.
+    graham bread, use in the dietary, 179.
+    white and graham bread compared, 180.
+    mineral content of, 182.
+    new and old, 183.
+    action of heat on, 184.
+    different kinds of, 184.
+
+  Breakfast foods, 121-132.
+
+  Broth, 109.
+
+  Butter, composition, 91.
+    digestibility, 91.
+    adulteration, 92.
+    coloring, 92.
+    renovated, 92.
+    water in, 305.
+
+  Buttermilk, 88.
+
+
+  Cabbage, 41.
+
+  Candies, 69.
+
+  Canned meats, 118.
+    vegetables, 46.
+    peas, 75.
+
+  Carbohydrates defined, 8.
+
+  Carrots, 40.
+
+  Cauliflower, 41.
+
+  Cellars, storage of food in, 283.
+
+  Cellulose and properties, 8.
+
+  Cereals, 121-132.
+    preparation of, 121.
+    cost of, 121.
+    value of, 131.
+    use of, in dietary, 131.
+    corn preparations, 122.
+    oat preparations, 124.
+    wheat preparations, 126.
+    barley preparations, 128.
+    rice preparations, 129.
+    predigested, 130.
+    phosphates in, 131.
+    mineral matters of, 131.
+    coffees, 210.
+
+  Cesspools, 289.
+
+  Cheese, 92-96.
+    general composition, 92.
+    digestibility, 93.
+    use of, in dietary, 94.
+    cottage, 95.
+    different kinds of, 95.
+    adulteration, 96.
+
+  Chemical changes during cooking, 27-30.
+
+  Chemicals, use of, in preparation of foods permitted, 36.
+
+  Chestnuts, 76.
+
+  Chicory, detection in coffee, 319.
+
+  Chocolate, 212.
+    adulteration of, 213.
+
+  Cinnamon and cassia, 201.
+
+  Cloves, 201.
+
+  Coal tar dyes, testing for, 308.
+
+  Cocoa, 210.
+
+  Cocoanuts, 77.
+
+  Coffee, composition of, 207.
+    detection of chicory in, 319.
+    glazing of, 208.
+    substitutes, cereal, 210.
+    types of, 209.
+
+  Combustion of foods, 6.
+
+  Cooking, changes during, 27.
+    chemical, 27-30.
+    physical, 30-32.
+    bacteriological, 32.
+
+  Corn, sweet, 41.
+    preparations, 122.
+
+  Cream, 87.
+
+  Cream of tartar, 187.
+
+  Crude fiber of foods, 9.
+
+  Crude protein, 21.
+
+  Cucumbers, 42.
+
+
+  Dairy products, 80-97.
+    use of, in dietary, 96.
+
+  Dextrose, 64.
+
+  Dietary standards, 245.
+
+  Dietary studies, 244-260.
+    object of, 244.
+    mixed, desirable, 250.
+    of families compared, 253.
+    in public institutions, 259.
+
+  Digestibility of foods, 214.
+    of animal foods, 220.
+    of vegetable foods, 222.
+
+  Digestion, combination of foods, 223.
+    factors influencing, 223.
+    amount of food, 224.
+    method of preparation of food, 225.
+    mechanical condition of foods, 226.
+    psychological factors, 230.
+    individuality, 229.
+
+  Digestion and health, 219.
+
+  Dishcloth, unclean, 292.
+
+  Disinfectants, 281, 289, 295.
+
+  Drying of foods, 2.
+
+  Dry matter, 2.
+
+
+  Egg plant, 44.
+
+  Eggs, 114-118.
+    composition, 114.
+    digestibility, 116.
+    cooking of, 116.
+    use of, in dietary, 117.
+
+  Elements in foods, 7.
+
+  Energy, available, 217.
+
+  Energy value of rations, 246.
+
+  Entire wheat, 145.
+
+  Essential oils, 15.
+    occurrence, 15.
+    composition of, 16.
+    food value, 16.
+
+  Esthetic value of foods, 36.
+
+
+  Fat, occurrence in food, 12.
+    composition, 13.
+    physical properties, 14.
+    food value, 14.
+    individual fats, 14.
+    oxidation of, during bread making, 173.
+
+  Ferments, soluble, 34.
+    insoluble, 34.
+
+  Figs, 54.
+
+  Fish, 113.
+
+  Flavoring extracts, 56.
+
+  Flavors, composition of, 48.
+    occurrence of, 49.
+    food value, 49.
+
+  Flies, contamination of food by, 286, 295.
+
+  Foods, 215.
+    digestibility of, 215.
+    mechanical condition of, 226.
+    palatability of, 228.
+    physiological properties of, 228.
+    ash of, 4.
+    predigested, 130.
+    sodium chloride in, 4.
+    cost of, 231.
+    market price and nutritive value, 231-234.
+    composition of, 234-263.
+    comparative nutritive value, 231.
+    economy of production, 250.
+    habits, 250.
+    notions, 252.
+    relation to mental and physical vigor, 258.
+    amount consumed, 262.
+    injurious compounds in, 284.
+    contamination of, 284, 292.
+    sanitary inspection of, 286.
+    storage in cellars, 288.
+    infection from impure air, 287.
+    utensils for storage, 291.
+    raw, 27.
+    cheap and expensive, 252.
+
+  Fruits, composition of, 48.
+    canned, 54.
+    dried, 54.
+    canned and adulterated, 55.
+
+  Fruit extracts, 56.
+
+  Fruit flavors, 55.
+
+
+  Ginger, 200.
+
+  Gliadin, 314.
+
+  Gluten, addition of, to flour, 173.
+    moist and dry, 314.
+
+  Gluten properties of flour, 151.
+
+  Graham bread, 179.
+    use in dietary, 180.
+
+  Graham flour, 144.
+
+  Grape fruit, 51.
+
+  Grapes, 53.
+
+
+  Heat, action on foods, 30.
+
+  Hickory nuts, 77.
+
+  Honey, 68.
+
+
+  Ice, 279.
+
+  Inspection of food, 286.
+
+  Inversion of sugar, 64.
+
+
+  Kitchen refuse, 294.
+
+  Koumiss, 88.
+
+
+  Laboratory practice, 299.
+
+  Lard, 106.
+    substitutes, 107.
+
+  Legumes, 71-76.
+
+  Lemon extract, testing, 307.
+
+  Lemons, 51.
+    acidity of, 305.
+
+  Lettuce, 42.
+
+
+  Macaroni flour, 148.
+
+  Mace, 202.
+
+  Malted foods, 121.
+
+  Maple sugar, 62.
+
+  Meals, number of, per day, 248.
+
+  Measuring, directions for, 302.
+
+  Meat broth, 109.
+
+  Meats, 98-120.
+    general composition, 98.
+    proteids of, 99.
+    fat of, 100.
+    water of, 98.
+    texture of, 107.
+    cooking of, influence of, on composition, 108.
+    extractive materials, 110.
+    smoked, 111.
+    boric acid in, 312.
+    saltpeter in, 111.
+    canned, 118.
+
+  Melons, 43.
+
+  Microscope, use of, 304.
+
+  Milk, importance in dietary, 80.
+    general composition, 80.
+    souring of, 86.
+    condensed, 87.
+    digestibility, 81.
+    sanitary condition, 82.
+    certified milk, 84.
+    pasteurized, 84.
+    color of, 85.
+    preservatives in, 86.
+    goat's, 88.
+    human, 89.
+    adulteration of, 89.
+    prepared, 88.
+    formaldehyde in, 310.
+
+  Mineral matter, 4.
+    in ration, 5.
+
+  Mineral waters, 279.
+
+  Miscellaneous compounds, 16.
+
+  Mixed nitrogenous compounds, 25.
+
+  Mixed non-nitrogenous compounds, 16.
+
+  Moisture content of foods, variations in, 1.
+
+  Moisture in foods, how determined, 2.
+
+  Molasses, 65.
+
+  Mustard, 199.
+    testing for turmeric, 318.
+
+  Mutton, 103.
+
+
+  Nitrates in foods, 45.
+
+  Nitrites in foods, 111.
+
+  Nitrogen free extract, 11.
+    defined, 11.
+    composition, 12.
+    how determined, 12.
+    variable character of, 12.
+
+  Nitrogenous compounds, 17.
+    general composition, 17.
+
+  Non-nitrogenous compounds, classification of, 7.
+
+  Nutmeg, 202.
+
+  Nutrients, available, 216.
+
+  Nutritive value of nitrogenous compounds, 16.
+    starch, 9.
+    sugar, 11.
+    nitrogen free extract, 11.
+    fat, 12.
+    protein, 19.
+    amids, 23.
+
+  Nuts, 76-79.
+    use of, in dietary, 78.
+
+
+  Oat preparations, 124.
+
+  Oleomargarine, 92.
+    detecting, 310.
+
+  Olive oil, testing, 308.
+
+  Olives, 54.
+
+  Onions, 42.
+
+  Oranges, 50.
+
+  Organic acids, 15.
+    occurrence in foods, 15.
+    influence on digestion, 15.
+    use in plant economy, 15.
+    production during germination, 15.
+
+  Organic compounds, classification of, 7.
+
+  Organic matter, 6.
+
+  Oysters, 114.
+
+
+  Palatability of food, 228.
+
+  Parsnips, 40.
+
+  Peaches, 53.
+
+  Peanuts, 76.
+    fat from, 309.
+
+  Peas, 74.
+    canned, 75.
+
+  Pectose substances, 11.
+
+  Pepper, 198.
+
+  Phosphate baking powders, 189.
+
+  Physical changes during cooking, 30.
+
+  Physiological properties of foods, 228.
+
+  Pistachio, 77.
+
+  Plumbing, sanitary, 297.
+
+  Plums, 53.
+
+  Pork, 104.
+
+  Potatoes, 37.
+    composition, 39.
+    digestibility, 38.
+    nutritive value, 38.
+    sweet, 39.
+
+  Poultry, 112.
+
+  Predigested foods, 130.
+
+  Protein, composition of, 19.
+    properties of, 19.
+    combinations of, 20.
+    types of, 20.
+    crude, 21.
+    food value of, 22.
+    amount of, in ration, 246.
+
+  Psychological factors in digestion, 230.
+
+  Pumpkins, 45.
+
+
+  Rational feeding of man, 261-267.
+
+  Rations, wide and narrow, 245.
+    standard, 261.
+    object of, 261.
+    examples of, 264.
+    requisites of, 266.
+    protein requirements of, 246.
+    energy value of, 246.
+
+  References, 350.
+
+  Refrigeration, 292.
+
+  Refuse, disposal of, 294.
+
+  Renovated butter, 92.
+
+  Review questions, 323.
+
+  Rice preparations, 129.
+
+
+  Saccharine, 70.
+
+  Saltpeter in meats, 111.
+
+  Sanitary condition of vegetables, 45.
+
+  Sanitary inspection of food, 286.
+
+  Sausage, 111.
+
+  Sodium chloride in foods, 5.
+
+  Soil, sanitary condition of, 294.
+
+  Spices, 212.
+
+  Spinach, 42.
+
+  Squash, 45.
+
+  Starch, 9.
+    occurrence, 9.
+    composition, 9.
+    properties, 10.
+    food value, 10.
+    influence of heat on, 10.
+
+  Strawberries, 52.
+
+  Sugar, defined, 11.
+    beet, 58.
+    cane, 58.
+    commercial grades, 58.
+    manufacture of, 59.
+    sulphur in, 59.
+    digestibility of, 59.
+    value of, in dietary, 61.
+    adulteration of, 63.
+    maple, 62.
+    dextrose, 64.
+
+  Sunlight as a disinfectant, 290.
+
+  Sweet potatoes, 39.
+
+  Syrups, 66.
+    sorghum, 66.
+
+
+  Tea, 203-206.
+    black, 203.
+    green, 204.
+    composition of, 214.
+    judging of, 205.
+    adulteration of, 206.
+    physiological properties of, 206.
+    examination of leaves, 318.
+
+  Toast, 184.
+
+  Tomatoes, 43.
+
+
+  Underfed families, 251.
+
+
+  Vanilla extract, testing, 307.
+
+  Veal, 102.
+
+  Vegetable foods, 222.
+
+  Vegetables, 37-47.
+    edible portion, 47.
+    canned, 46.
+    sanitary condition of, 45.
+    digestibility of, 222.
+
+  Vinegar, 193-197.
+    preparation of, 193.
+    different kinds of, 195.
+    adulteration of, 196.
+    solids, 316.
+    specific gravity, 317.
+    acidity, 317.
+
+  Volatile matter, 6.
+
+
+  Water, drinking, 268-283.
+    importance, 268.
+    impurities in, 269.
+    mineral impurities, 270.
+    organic impurities, 271.
+    purification of, 272-278.
+    analysis, 271.
+    and typhoid fever, 273.
+    improvement of, 276.
+    boiling of, 276.
+    filtration of, 277.
+    distillation of, 278.
+    materials for softening water, 280.
+    testing purity of, 320.
+
+  Water in foods, 1.
+    how determined, 1.
+
+  Water supply, economic value, 282.
+
+  Waters, mineral, 279.
+
+  Weighing, directions for, 302.
+
+  Wheat cereal preparations, 126.
+
+  Wheat flour, 133.
+    spring and winter wheat flour, 133.
+    starchy and glutenous, 135.
+    composition of, 136.
+    process of milling, 136-140.
+    patent, 142.
+    grades of, 142.
+    composition of, 143.
+    ash content, 145.
+    graham, 145.
+    entire wheat, 145.
+    by-products, 146.
+    aging and curing, 147.
+    macaroni, 148.
+    color, 148.
+    granulation, 149.
+    capacity to absorb water, 150.
+    gluten, properties of, 151.
+    unsoundness of, 152.
+    baking tests, 153.
+    bleaching of, 155.
+    adulteration of, 156.
+    nutritive value of, 157.
+    water in, 304.
+    ash in, 305.
+    acidity of, 313.
+    moist and dry gluten, 314.
+
+
+  Yeast, action of, 161.
+    compressed, 162.
+    dry, 163.
+
+
+
+
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+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE
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