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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Letters and Lettering, by Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Letters and Lettering
+       A Treatise With 200 Examples
+
+Author: Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+Release Date: February 16, 2007 [EBook #20590]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTERS AND LETTERING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+LETTERS &
+LETTERING
+
+A TREATISE WITH 200 EXAMPLES
+
+FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BOSTON
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY
+
+MCMXXI
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Copyright, 1921, by_
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY
+
+Printed by
+PERRY & ELLIOTT CO
+LYNN BOSTON
+
+Printed in the U. S. A.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTE
+
+This book is intended for those who have felt the need of a varied
+collection of alphabets of standard forms, arranged for convenient use.
+
+The alphabets illustrated, while primarily intended to exhibit the letter
+shapes, have in most cases been so arranged as to show also how the letters
+compose into words, except in those instances where they are intended to be
+used only as initials. The application of classic and medieval letters to
+modern usages has been, as far as possible, suggested by showing modern
+designs in which similar forms are employed.
+
+In view of the practical aim of this treatise it has been deemed advisable
+to include a larger number of illustrative examples rather than to devote
+space to the historical evolution of the letter forms.
+
+To the artists, American and European, who have so kindly furnished him
+with drawings of their characteristic letters--and without whose cordial
+assistance this book would hardly have been possible--to the
+master-printers who have allowed him to show types specially designed for
+them, and to the publishers who have given him permission to borrow from
+their books and magazines, the author wishes to express his sincere
+obligations.
+
+F. C. B.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+1 AND 2 ALPHABET AFTER SEBASTIAN SERLIO (1473-1554). Reconstructed by
+Albert R. Ross.
+
+3 WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B.
+
+4 DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. For cutting in granite. Letter forms
+based upon those shown in figures 1 and 2. F. C. B.
+
+5 PHOTOGRAPH OF INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in granite from drawing shown
+in figure 4
+
+6 INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. From the Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 A.D. From
+a photograph
+
+7 MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Used for inscriptions cut in granite on
+Boston Public Library. McKim, Mead & White, Architects. Photographed from a
+cast
+
+8 ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. From fragments in marble. National Museum,
+Naples. Rubbing
+
+9 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph
+
+10 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph
+
+11 DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Showing composition. Redrawn
+from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+12 "RUSTIC" ROMAN CAPITALS. Of pen forms, but cut in stone. Redrawn from a
+rubbing. From fragment in the National Museum, Naples. F. C. B.
+
+13 ROMAN CAPITALS FROM FRAGMENTS OF INSCRIPTIONS. Showing various
+characteristic letter forms. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B.
+
+14 MODERN ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. Executed in sandstone. From the Harvard
+Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass. McKim, Mead & White, Architects
+
+15 LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1 AND 2, IN COMPOSITION. By Albert R. Ross
+
+16 and 17 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings made
+in the Forum, Rome. F. C. B.-21
+
+18 and 19 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Late period. Cut in marble. Redrawn from
+rubbings. F. C. B.
+
+20 PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION. With supplied letters. Redrawn from a
+rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+21 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. Incised in marble. Redrawn from a rubbing.
+F. C. B.
+
+22 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. In stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+23 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. Square-sunk in marble. From a
+photograph of a mortuary slab
+
+24 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. By Vittore Pisano. 15th Century. From a
+photograph
+
+25 MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. By Oscar Roty. From a photograph of the original in
+the Luxembourg, Paris
+
+26 CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B.
+
+27 SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. By Juan de Yciar. From "Arte por la qual
+se ese[=n]a a escrevir perfectamente." (Saragossa, 1550)
+
+28 RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+29 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. From an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. (Compare figure 28.) Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+30 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. From Raphael's tomb, Pantheon, Rome. From a
+photograph
+
+31 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa
+Croce, Florence, 1455. Rubbing
+
+32 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From a floor-slab in Santa
+Croce, Florence. Early 15th Century. Rubbing
+
+33 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from inscription on the Marsuppini
+Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. (Compare figure 31.) F. C. B.
+
+34 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from rubbings of inscriptions in
+Santa Croce, Florence. F. C. B.
+
+35 and 36 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera
+arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+37 and 38 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Albrecht Duerer. Adapted from
+'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, [u]n richtscheyt, in Linien,
+etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525)
+
+39 and 40 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Sebastian Serlio. (1473-1554.)
+Compare figures 1 and 2
+
+41 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Urbain Wyss. From 'Libellus valde doctus
+... scribendarum literarum genera complectens.' (Zurich, 1549)
+
+42 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. Above the door of the Badia, Florence.
+Redrawn by Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Minor Italian Palaces.' (Cutler
+Manufacturing Company, Rochester, N.Y., 1898)
+
+43 MODERN TITLE IN ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. (Compare
+figure 46.) From 'The Quest of Merlin.' (Small, Maynard & Co., Boston,
+1891)
+
+44 MODERN TITLE WITH CHARACTERISTICS OF 16TH CENTURY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By
+Walter Crane. (Compare figure 49.) From 'The Story of Don Quixote.' (John
+Lane, New York, 1900)
+
+45 TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By W. Eden Nesfield. From 'Specimens of
+Medieval Architecture.' (Day & Sons, London, 1862)
+
+46 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 6TH CENTURY. From 'The Rule of St. Benedict.'
+Bodleian Library, Oxford
+
+47 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 7TH CENTURY. From 'The Gospels of St. Cuthbert'
+
+48 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10TH CENTURY. From an Anglo-Saxon Bible
+
+49 EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th Century. From tomb of Henry VII,
+Westminster Abbey, London
+
+50 and 51 SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.
+
+52 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+53 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco
+Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+54 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+55 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco
+Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+56 ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. By J. F. Cresci. From 'Perfetto Scrittore.'
+(Rome, 1560)
+
+57 ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY LETTERS. Incised in slate. From tombstones
+
+58 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. After C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen Alphabete und
+Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883)
+
+59 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. Based on Venetian types
+cut by Nicholas Jenson, 1471-81
+
+60 INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY TOMBSTONE. From slate tombstone at
+Chippenham, England. 1691. F. C. B.
+
+61 ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. Designed by William Caslon. From his Specimen
+Book. (London, 1734)
+
+62 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MONTAIGNE." Designed by Bruce Rogers for The
+Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass.
+
+63 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "RENNER." Designed by Theo. L. De Vinne for The De
+Vinne Press, New York
+
+64 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MERRYMOUNT." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The
+Merrymount Press, Boston, Mass.
+
+65 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE." Designed by Bertram G.
+Goodhue for The Cheltenham Press, New York. (Owned by American Type
+Founders Company and Linotype Company)
+
+66 MODERN GREEK TYPE. Designed by Selwyn Image for The Macmillan Company,
+London
+
+67 MODERN ROMAN TYPE. Designed by C. R. Ashbee for a Prayerbook for the
+King of England
+
+68 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by J. M. Olbrich
+
+69 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Gustave Lemmen. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+70 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Alois Ludwig
+
+71 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Otto Eckmann
+
+72 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Otto Hupp. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+73 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Joseph Plecnik. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+74 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Franz Stuck
+
+75 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. Arranged from originals. F. C. B.
+
+76 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Bernhard Pankok
+
+77 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Libre Esthetique.' By Theo. van Rysselberghe
+
+78 MODERN FRENCH BOOK-COVER. By M. P. Verneuil. From 'L'Animal dans la
+decoration.' (E. Levy, Paris)
+
+79 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. After lettering by M. P. Verneuil
+
+80 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Revue Blanche.' By P. Bonnard
+
+81 MODERN FRENCH MAGAZINE COVER DESIGN. By George Auriol. From 'L'Image.'
+(Floury, Paris, 1897)
+
+82 MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. By Alphons M. Mucha. From 'Beispiele
+Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+83 MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE IN "CURSIVE." By George Auriol. From 'Le
+Premier Livre des Cachets, etc.' (Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris,
+1901)
+
+84 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS, "CURSIVE." By George Auriol
+
+85 MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. By Eugene Grasset. From 'Art et Decoration.'
+(Paris)
+
+86 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+87 MODERN ENGLISH THEATRICAL POSTER. By Walter Crane
+
+88 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Alphabets Old and New.'
+(B. T. Batsford, London, 1899)
+
+89 MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunsterischer
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+90 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Joseph W. Simpson. From 'The Book of
+Book-plates.' (Williams & Norgate, Edinburgh)
+
+91 MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. By Joseph W. Simpson
+
+92 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By William Nicholson. From 'London Types.'
+(R. H. Russell, New York, 1898)
+
+93 MODERN ENGLISH MAGAZINE COVER. By Lewis F. Day. From 'The Art Journal.'
+(H. Virtue & Co., London)
+
+94 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Gordon Craig. From 'The Page' (The Sign of the
+Rose, Hackbridge, Surrey)
+
+95 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Lewis F. Day. From 'Alphabets Old and New.'
+(B. T. Batsford, London, 1899)
+
+96 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE PAGE. By Robert Anning Bell. From 'Poems by John
+Keats.' (George Bell & Sons, London, 1897)
+
+97 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Edmund H. New. From 'The Natural History
+of Selborne.' (John Lane, London, 1900)
+
+98 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Selwyn Image. From 'Representative
+Painters of the 19th Century.' (Sampson, Low, Marston & Co., London, 1899)
+
+99 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. Anonymous. From an advertisement
+
+100 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Charles Ricketts. From 'Nimphidia and the
+Muses Elizium.' (The Vale Press, London)
+
+101 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Selections from the
+Poetry of Robert Herrick.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899)
+
+102 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)
+
+103 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's
+Weekly.' (New York)
+
+104 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Edward Penfield
+
+105 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Edward Penfield
+
+106 MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. By H. Van Buren Magonigle
+
+107 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. Van Buren Magonigle
+
+108 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Masters in Art.'
+(Boston, 1900)
+
+109 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Will Bradley. From 'The Book List of Dodd,
+Mead & Co.' (New York, 1899)
+
+110 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. By Will Bradley. From
+'Bradley, His Book.' (The Wayside Press, Springfield, Mass., 1896)
+
+111 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Will Bradley. From 'The
+International Studio.' (New York)
+
+112 MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. By A. J. Iorio
+
+113 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Will Bradley
+
+114 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Maxfield Parrish
+
+115 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Maxfield Parrish. From 'Knickerbocker's
+History of New York.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1900)
+
+116 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+117 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+118 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+119 MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+120 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+121 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Literature.'
+(New York)
+
+122 MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEADING. By Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+123 MODERN AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT. By H. L. Bridwell. (Strowbridge
+Lithographic Co., Cincinnati)
+
+124 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. L. Bridwell
+
+125 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Frank Hazenplug
+
+126 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS, "HEAVY FACE." By Frank Hazenplug
+
+127 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From ''Ickery Ann and
+other Girls and Boys.' (Herbert S. Stone & Co., Chicago, 1899)
+
+128 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edward Edwards. From 'Harper's Pictorial
+History of the War with Spain.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899)
+
+129 MODERN AMERICAN CATALOGUE COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From the Catalogue
+of the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society. (Chicago)
+
+130 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Guernsey Moore. From 'The Saturday Evening
+Post.' (Philadelphia)
+
+131 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Harry Everett Townsend. From 'The Blue Sky.'
+(Langworthy & Stevens, Chicago, 1901)
+
+132 MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. By Howard Pyle. From 'Harper's Magazine.' (New
+York)
+
+133 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. Compiled from various sources. F. C. B.
+
+134 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Orson Lowell
+
+135 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.
+
+136 MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)
+
+137 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)
+
+138 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. For rapid use. F. C. B.
+
+139 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC. For use in lettering architects' plans, etc. By
+Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+140 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, "CURSIVE." For rapid use. By Maxfield Parrish
+
+141 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. After Lucantonii Giunta. Redrawn
+from 'Graduale Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae.' (Venice, 1500)
+
+142 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th Century. Redrawn from Italian
+originals
+
+143 SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+144 GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. By Albrecht Duerer. From 'Underweyssung
+der messung, mit dem zirckel, [=u]n richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.'
+(Nuremberg, 1525)
+
+145 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. Redrawn from manuscripts
+
+146 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With rounded angles. Redrawn from manuscripts
+
+147 ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. By Jacopus Philippus Foresti
+(Bergomensis). From 'De Claris Mulieribus, etc.' (Ferrara, 1497)
+
+148 GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. By Albrecht Duerer. From the Prayerbook
+designed by him for the Emperor Maximilian. (Nuremberg, 1515)
+
+149 GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS WITH BLACKLETTER INSCRIPTION. Ascribed to
+Albrecht Duerer. Cathedral of Meissen, 1510. From 'Fac-similes of Monumental
+Brasses on the Continent of Europe.' (W. F. Creeney, Norwich, 1884)
+
+150 MODERN AMERICAN CALENDAR COVER IN BLACKLETTER. By Bertram G. Goodhue.
+From 'Every Day's Date Calendar.' (Fleming, Schiller & Carnrick, New York,
+1897)
+
+151 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. By Walter Puttner. From 'Jugend.' (Munich)
+
+152 MODERN GERMAN TITLE IN BLACKLETTER. By Otto Hupp. From 'Muenchener
+Kalendar.' (Munich, 1900)
+
+153 MODERN AMERICAN PAGE IN ENGLISH BLACKLETTER. By Edwin A. Abbey. From
+'Scribner's Magazine.' (New York)
+
+154 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 12th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+155 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 13th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+156 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. Redrawn from 14th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+157 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After J. Weale. Redrawn from
+'Portfolio of Ancient Capital Letters.' (London, 1838-9)
+
+158 ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS, IN THE "PAPAL" HAND. From a Florentine
+manuscript of 1315. British Museum, London. F. C. B.
+
+159 SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Juan de Yciar. Adapted from 'Arte
+por la qual se ese[=n]a escrevir perfectamente.' (Saragossa, 1550)
+
+160 VENETIAN WALL PANEL, of Marble, Inscribed with Uncial Gothic Letters.
+15th Century. From the Church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. Rubbing
+
+161 VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15th Century. Redrawn from the rubbing shown
+in figure 160. F. C. B.
+
+162 GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS. 1341. Redrawn from a memorial brass in the
+Cathedral of Luebeck
+
+163 FRENCH AND SPANISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After W. S.
+Weatherley
+
+164 and 165 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. After G. A. Tagliente, in 'La vera
+arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+166 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By Giovanni Battista Palatino. From 'Libro nel
+qual s'insegna a scrivere.' (Rome, 1548)
+
+167, 168 and 169 GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By P. Frank. Nuremberg, 1601. From
+Petzendorfer's 'Schriften-Atlas.' (Stuttgart, 1889)
+
+170 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples
+
+171 GOTHIC CAPITALS OF ENGLISH FORM. 16th Century. Redrawn from old
+examples
+
+172 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various examples
+
+173 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various manuscripts
+
+174 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts
+
+175 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts
+
+176 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS, HEAVY FACED
+
+177 ENGLISH GOTHIC "TEXT," INITIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From
+manuscripts
+
+178 ENGLISH GOTHIC UNCIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From Queen
+Eleanor's tomb. F. C. B.
+
+179 ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From tomb of
+Richard II, Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B.
+
+180 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. From a brass. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+181 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With Albrecht Duerer's initials. 16th Century.
+F. C. B.
+
+182 ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello
+eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+183 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Duerer. 16th Century
+
+184 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Duerer. 16th Century
+
+185 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Albrecht Duerer. 16th Century
+
+186 ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. Late 15th Century. Redrawn from a brass.
+F. C. B.
+
+187 ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. From a marble slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+188 and 189 MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS WITH GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Bertram
+G. Goodhue
+
+190 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Julius Diez
+
+191 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B.
+
+192 GERMAN ITALIC. By Gottlieb Muench. From 'Ordnung der Schrift.' (Munich,
+1744)
+
+193 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid,
+1802)
+
+194 SPANISH SCRIPTS. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid,
+1802)
+
+195 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.'
+(Madrid, 1577)
+
+196 SPANISH CURSIVE. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.'
+(Madrid, 1577)
+
+197 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From an
+advertisement
+
+198 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By George Wharton Edwards. From
+'Collier's Weekly.' (New York)
+
+199 FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th Century. F. C. B.
+
+200 GERMAN SCRIPT. 18th Century forms. Adapted from C. Hrachowina's
+'Initialen, Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna,
+1883)
+
+201 SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. Early 18th Century. Adapted from a Spanish
+Writing-book. F. C. B.
+
+202 SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. Late 17th Century. Adapted from Spanish
+Writing-books. F. C. B.
+
+203 ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. Redrawn from inscriptions in slate and stone in
+Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B.
+
+204 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT BOOK TITLE. By Bruce Rogers. From cover design
+of 'The House of the Seven Gables.' (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1899)
+
+205 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. By Bruce Rogers
+
+206 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT CAPITALS. After lettering by Frank Hazenplug
+
+207 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B.
+
+208 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New
+York)
+
+209 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's
+Weekly.' (New York)
+
+210 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from upper left corner
+
+211 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from perpendicular center
+line
+
+END PAPERS. From an embroidered Altar-cloth. 17th Century. Church of St.
+Mary, Soest, Westphalia, Germany.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  I. ROMAN CAPITALS                          1
+  II. MODERN ROMAN LETTERS                   52
+  III. GOTHIC LETTERS                        127
+  IV. ITALIC AND SCRIPT                      182
+  V. TO THE BEGINNER                         199
+
+[1]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ROMAN CAPITALS
+
+In speaking of the "Roman" letter throughout this chapter its capital
+form--the form in monumental use among the Romans--will always be implied.
+The small or "minuscule" letters, which present nomenclature includes under
+the general title of "Roman" letters, and which will be considered in the
+following chapter, were of later formation than the capitals; and indeed
+only attained their definitive and modern form after the invention of
+printing from movable types.
+
+The first point to be observed in regard to the general form of the Roman
+capital is its characteristic squareness. Although the letter as used
+to-day varies somewhat in proportions from its classic prototype, its
+skeleton is still based on the square.
+
+Next to this typical squareness of outline, the observer should note that
+the Roman letter is composed of thick and thin lines. At first sight it may
+seem that no systematic rules determine which of these lines should be
+thick and which thin; but closer investigation will discover that the
+alternate widths of line were evolved quite methodically, and that they
+exactly fulfil the functions of making the letters both more legible and
+more decorative. Arbitrary rearrangements of these thick and thin lines,
+differing from the arrangement of them in the classic examples, have, [2]
+indeed, been often attempted; but such rearrangements have never resulted
+in improvement, and, except in eccentric lettering, have fallen into
+complete disuse.
+
+The original thickening and thinning of the lines of the classic Roman
+capitals was partly due to the imitation in stone inscriptions of the
+letter forms as they were written on parchment with the pen. The early
+Latin scribes held their stiff-nibbed reed pens almost directly upright and
+at right angles to the writing surface, so that a down stroke from left to
+right and slanted at an angle of about forty-five degrees would bring the
+nib across the surface broadwise, resulting in the widest line possible to
+the pen. On the other hand, a stroke drawn at right angles to this, the pen
+being still held upright, would be made with the thin edge of the nib, and
+would result in the narrowest possible line. From this method of handling
+the pen the variations of line width in the standard Roman forms arose; and
+we may therefore deduce three logical rules, based upon pen use, which will
+determine the proper distribution of the thick and thin lines:
+
+I, Never accent horizontal lines. II, Always accent the sloping down
+strokes which run from left to right, including the so-called "swash"
+lines, or flying tails, of Q and R; but never weight those which,
+contrariwise, slope up from left to right, with a single exception in the
+case of the letter Z, in which, if rule I be followed, the sloping line (in
+this case made with a down stroke) will be the only one possible to accent.
+III, Always accent the directly perpendicular lines, except in the N, where
+these lines seem originally to have been made with an up stroke of the pen;
+and the first line of the M, where the perpendiculars originally sloped in
+towards the top of the letter (see 2). On the round letters [3] the accents
+should occur at the sides of the circle, as virtually provided in rule III,
+or on the upper right and lower left quarters (see 1-2), where in pen-drawn
+letters the accent of the down sloping stroke would naturally occur, as
+virtually determined in rule II.
+
+The "serif"--a cross-stroke or tick--finishes the free ends of all lines
+used in making a Roman capital. The value of the serif in stone-cut letters
+seems obvious. To define the end of a free line a sharp cut was made across
+it with the chisel, and as the chisel was usually wider than the thin line
+this cut extended beyond it. Serifs were added to the ends of the thick
+lines either for the sake of uniformity, or may have been suggested by the
+chisel-marked guide lines themselves. Indeed in late stone-cut Roman work
+the scratched guide lines along the top and bottom of each line of the
+inscription are distinctly marked and merge into the serifs, which extend
+farther than in earlier examples. The serif was adopted in pen letters
+probably from the same reasons that caused it to be added to the stone-cut
+letters, namely, that it definitely finished the free lines and enhanced
+the general squareness and finish of the letter's aspect.
+
+[Illustration: 1. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 2. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 3. WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F.C.B.]
+
+An excellent model for constructing the Roman capitals in a standard form
+will be found in the beautiful adaptation by Mr. A. R. Ross, 1 and 2, from
+an alphabet of capitals drawn by Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect,
+engraver and painter of the sixteenth century, who devised some of the most
+refined variants of the classic Roman letter. Serlio's original forms,
+which are shown in 39 and 40, were intended for pen or printed use; but in
+altering Serlio's scheme of proportions it will be observed that Mr. Ross
+[6] has partially adapted the letter for use in stone, and has further
+varied it in details, notably in serif treatment. In most modern stone-cut
+letters, however, the thin strokes would be made even wider than in this
+example, as in 14. Mr. Ross's adaptation shows excellently how far the
+classic letters do or do not fill out the theoretical square.
+
+Width proportions, which may be found useful in laying out lettering for
+lines of a given length, are shown in 3 in a more modern style of the Roman
+capital. In the classic Roman letter the cross-bar is usually in the exact
+center of the letter height, but in 3 the center line has been used as the
+bottom of the cross-bar in B, E, H, P, and R, and as the top of the
+cross-bar in A; and in letters like K, Y and X the "waist lines," as the
+meeting points of the sloping lines are sometimes called, have been
+slightly raised to obtain a more pleasant effect.
+
+The Roman alphabet, although the one most in use, is unfortunately the most
+difficult to compose into words artistically, as the spacing between the
+letters plays a great share in the result. The effect of even color over a
+whole panel is obtained by keeping as nearly as possible the same area of
+white between each letter and its neighbor; but the shape of this area will
+be determined in every case by the letters which happen to be juxtaposed.
+Individual letters may, however, be widened or condensed to help fill an
+awkward "hole" in a line of lettering;--the lower lobe of the B may be
+extended, the center bar of the E pulled out (in which case the F should be
+made to correspond), the lower slant stroke of the K may be used as a swash
+tail, and the R may have its tail extended or drawn closely back against
+the upright line, and so on. Indeed, each and [8] every letter of the
+alphabet is susceptible to such similar modifications in shape as may make
+it best suit the space left for it by its neighbors. Observe, for example,
+the spacing of the word MERITAE in 34, and notice how the tail of the R is
+lengthened to hold off the I because the T on the other side is perforce
+held away by its top. In the page of capitals, 124, by Mr. Bridwell, see
+also how the different spacing of the word FRENCH in the first and second
+lines is managed. In the advertisement, 123, also by Mr. Bridwell, note how
+the letters are spaced close or wide in order to produce a definite effect.
+The whole problem of spacing is, however, one of such subtle interrelation
+and composition, that it can only be satisfactorily solved by the artistic
+sense of the designer. Any rules which might be here formulated would prove
+more often a drawback than a help.
+
+Certain optical illusions of some of the Roman letter forms should be
+briefly mentioned. These illusions are caused by the failure of certain
+letters to impinge squarely with determining serifs against the demarking
+top and bottom guide lines. The round letters C, G, O and Q often seem to
+be shorter and smaller than the other characters in a word unless the
+outsides of their curves run both above and below the guide lines. For the
+same reason S should be sometimes slightly increased in height, though in
+this case the narrowness of the letter makes less increase necessary; and
+J, on account of its kern, is governed by the same conditions as S, save
+when letters with distinct serifs come closely against it at the bottom.
+Theoretically the right side of D would require similar treatment, but
+actually this is seldom found necessary. The pointed ends of [9] the
+letters V and W should, for similar optical reasons, be extended slightly
+below the bottom guide lines, the amount of this extension being determined
+by the letters on each side of them. In the A, the Roman letterer at first
+got over the optical difficulty caused by its pointed top by running this
+letter also higher than its neighbors; but he later solved the problem by
+shaping its apex as shown in I, thus apparently getting the letter into
+line with its companions while still obtaining a sufficient width of top to
+satisfy the eye. Because of its narrowness, I should generally be allowed
+more proportionate white space on either side of it than the wider letters.
+
+Some idea of the proportionate variations required to counteract the
+optical illusions of the letters above named may be obtained from the
+practice of type-founders. In making the designs for a fount of type, it
+has been customary to first draw each letter at a very large size. Taking
+an arbitrary height of twelve inches as a standard, the points of A and V
+were made to extend about three-quarters of an inch above or below the
+guides, the letter O was run over about half an inch at both top and
+bottom, and the points of the w were made to project about the same
+distance. In pen lettering, however, it is possible and preferable to adapt
+each letter more perfectly to its individual surroundings by judgment of
+the eye than to rely upon any hard and fast rules.
+
+Certain variations between the stone-cut forms of the Roman letters and
+their forms as drawn or printed should be understood before an intelligent
+adaptation of stone forms to drawn forms, or the opposite, is possible.
+When drawn or printed a character is seen in black against a [10] white
+ground with no illusory alterations of its line widths caused by varying
+shadows. In stone-cut letters, on the other hand, where the shadows rather
+than the outlines themselves reveal the forms, different limitations govern
+the problem. The thin lines of a letter to be V-sunk should generally be
+made slightly thicker in proportion to the wide lines than is the case with
+the pen-drawn letter, especially as the section is likely to be less deeply
+and sharply cut nowadays than in the ancient examples, for the workmanship
+of to-day seems to be less perfect and the materials used more friable. A
+slight direct sinkage before beginning to cut the V-sunk section is a
+useful method of [11] partially atoning for modern shallow cutting, as
+shadows more directly defining the outlines are thus obtained. The student
+should, however, be warned at the outset that all reproductions or tracings
+from rubbings of ancient stone-cut letters are apt to be more or less
+deceptive, as all the accidental variations of the outlines are
+exaggerated, and where the stone of the original has been chipped or worn
+away it appears in the reproduction as though the letter had been actually
+so cut.
+
+[Illustration: 4. DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN GRANITE. F.C.B]
+
+[Illustration: 5. PHOTOGRAPH FROM INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS SHOWN IN 4]
+
+[Illustration: 6. INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME]
+
+The photograph of a panel of lettering from the upper part of the Arch of
+Constantine, Rome, shown in 6, well indicates the effect of shadows in
+defining the classic Roman letters; and the effect of shadows on an incised
+letter may be clearly observed by comparing 4 and 5, the former showing a
+drawing for an inscription in which the Serlio-Ross [14] alphabet was used
+as a basis for the letter forms, and the latter being a photograph of the
+same inscription, as cut in granite. It will be noted how much narrower the
+thin lines appear when defined only by shadow than in the drawing. The
+model used for the lettering on the frieze of the Boston Public Library, 7,
+which shows some interesting modern forms intended for cutting in granite,
+should be studied for the effect of the cast shadows; while 14, a redrawing
+of inscriptions on the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass.,
+exhibits an excellent type of letter with widened thin lines for v-cutting
+in sandstone.
+
+[Illustration: 7. MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. McKIM, MEAD & WHITE]
+
+[Illustration: 8. ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. FROM A RUBBING]
+
+The special requirements of the stone-cut forms for either incised or
+raised inscriptions are, however, quite apart from the subject of this
+book, and are too various to be taken up in greater detail here. It is
+important, nevertheless, that the designer should be reminded always to
+make allowance for the material in which a letter was originally executed.
+Otherwise, if exactly copied in other materials, he may find the result
+annoyingly unsatisfactory.
+
+[15]
+
+[Illustration: 9. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA]
+
+[Illustration: 10. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA]
+
+The examples of letters taken from Roman and Renaissance Italian monuments,
+shown in the pages of this chapter, will illustrate the variety of
+individual letter forms used by the Classic and Renaissance designers. The
+shape of the same letter will often be found to vary in the same
+inscription and even in apparently analogous cases. The designers evidently
+had in mind more than the directly adjacent words, and sometimes even
+considered [16] the relation of their lettering to objects outside the
+panel altogether. This is especially true in the work of the Italian
+Renaissance, which is almost invariably admirable in both composition and
+arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: 11. DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 12. ROMAN CAPITALS OF PEN FORMS CUT IN STONE. F.C.B.]
+
+Figures 8 to 22 show examples, drawn from various sources, which exhibit
+different treatments of the classic Roman letter forms. The differentiation
+will be found to lie largely in the widths of the letters themselves, and
+in the treatment of the serifs, angles, and varying widths of line. Figures
+11 to 13 and 16 to 22 are redrawn from rubbings [17] of Roman incised
+inscriptions. Figures 16 and 17 show beautifully proportioned letters cut
+in marble with unusual care and refinement, considering the large size of
+the originals. A later Roman form of less refinement but of greater
+strength and carrying power, and for that reason better adapted to many
+modern uses, is shown in 18 and 19. In this case the original letters were
+cut about seven and [27] one-half inches high. The letters in 20 are
+curiously modern in character. Part of the panel of Roman lettering shown
+in 21 exhibits the use of a form very like that shown in 18 and 19. Figure
+11 shows a detail composed in a quite representative fashion; while on the
+other hand figure 12 depicts a Roman letter of quite unusual character, and
+of a form evidently adapted from pen work, in which the shapes are narrow
+and crowded, while the lines are thickened as though they were of the
+classical square outline. The bits of old Roman inscriptions shown in 8 to
+10 and in 13 are included to exhibit various different forms and treatments
+of classic capitals.
+
+[Illustration: 13. ROMAN CAPITALS FROM INSCRIPTIONS. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 14. MODERN INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN SANDSTONE.
+ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1-2, IN COMPOSITION. ALBERT R.
+ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 16. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 18. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 19. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 20. PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION WITH SUPPLIED LETTERS.
+F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 21. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE FROM A RUBBING.
+F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 22. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN STONE FROM A RUBBING.
+F.C.B.]
+
+After the fall of Rome and during the Dark Ages the practice of lettering,
+at least in so far as the Roman form was concerned, was distinctly
+retrograde. With the advent of the Renaissance, however, the purest classic
+forms were revived; and indeed the Italian Renaissance seems to have been
+the golden age of lettering. With the old Roman fragments of the best
+period constantly before their eyes the Renaissance artists of Italy seem
+to have grasped the true spirit of classicism; and their work somehow
+acquired a refinement and delicacy lacking in even the best of the Roman
+examples. As much of the Italian Renaissance lettering was intended for use
+on tombs or monuments where it might be seen at close range, and was cut in
+fine marble, the increased refinement may be due, at least in part, to
+different conditions.
+
+[Illustration: 23. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE.]
+
+[Illustration: 24. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. PISANO.]
+
+[Illustration: 25. MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. O ROTY.]
+
+The panel from Raphael's tomb in the Pantheon, Rome, 30, shows a beautiful
+and pure form of typical Renaissance letter; and the composition of the
+panel is as well worthy [28] of careful study as are the letter forms.
+Figure 34, devised from a tomb in Santa Croce, portrays a letter not only
+beautiful in itself, but one which, with two minor changes (for the top bar
+of the T might advantageously be shortened to allow its neighbors to set
+closer, and the M might be finished at the top with a serif, after the
+usual fashion), is exactly applicable to the purposes of the modern
+draughtsman. This type of letter appears to best advantage when used in
+such panel forms as those shown in the rubbing from the Marsuppini tomb,
+31, and in the floor slab from the same church, 32. Two very refined
+examples, 28 and 29, also from slabs in Santa Croce, Florence, date from
+about the same period. The latter exhibits the alphabet itself, and the
+former shows a similar letter form as actually used. The letters in 33,
+redrawn from rubbings from the Marsuppini tomb, are shown for comparison
+with the rubbing itself, which is reproduced in smaller size in 31. Taken
+together, plates 30, 31 and 32 will fairly represent not only the usual
+fashion of composing Renaissance panels, but capital forms which illustrate
+some of the most excellent work of this period.
+
+[30]
+
+A very different and interesting type of letter was used on many of the
+best medals of the Italian Renaissance (see 24), which has been recently
+adapted and employed by modern medal designers in France, as exhibited in
+figure 25. Although absolutely plain, it is, when properly composed, much
+more effective in the service for which it was intended than a more
+elaborate and fussy form; and although sometimes adapted with good results
+to other uses, it is particularly appropriate for casting in metal. Similar
+forms rendered in pen and ink are shown in 26.
+
+[Illustration: 26. CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 27. SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. JUAN De YCIAR, 1550]
+
+[Illustration: 28. RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 29. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SANTA CROCE. F. C. B.]
+
+Figures 27, and 35 to 41 show various pen or printed forms of capital
+letters redrawn from the handiwork of Renaissance masters. The capital
+letters shown in 27 are unusually beautiful, and their purity of form is
+well [31] displayed in the outline treatment. Perhaps the best known
+standard example of a Renaissance pen-drawn letter is that by Tagliente,
+reproduced in 35 and 36. In spite of their familiarity it has seemed
+impossible to omit the set of capitals, with variants, by Albrecht Duerer,
+37 and 38; for Duerer's letters were taken as a basis by nearly all such
+Renaissance designers of lettering as Geoffrey Tory, Leonardo da Vinci,
+etc. It should be observed in the Duerer [32] alphabet that among the
+variant forms of individual letters shown, one is usually intended for
+monumental use, while another exhibits pen treatment in the characteristic
+swelling of the round letters, etc.
+
+[Illustration: 30. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL FROM RAPHAEL'S TOMB. PANTHEON
+ROME.]
+
+[Illustration: 31. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. MARSUPPINI TOMB,
+FLORENCE.]
+
+[Illustration: 32. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION FLOOR SLAB IN SANTA
+CROCE, FLORENCE.]
+
+Serlio's alphabet, 39 and 40, should be compared with Mr. Ross's
+modification of it, reproduced in 1 and 2. The alphabet shown in 41 is a
+somewhat expanded form of classic capital, contrasting markedly in various
+respects with more typical forms.
+
+[Illustration: 33. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. MARSUPPINI TOMB. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 34. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS FROM RUBBINGS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 35. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524]
+
+[Illustration: 36. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524]
+
+[Illustration: 37. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 1525]
+
+[Illustration: 38. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 1525]
+
+[Illustration: 39. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 40. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 41. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. URBAIN WYSS, 16th CENTURY.]
+
+[45]
+
+A practically unlimited number of other examples might have been included
+to show various capital forms of Renaissance letters; but the specimens
+chosen will adequately illustrate all the more distinctive and refined
+types of the individual letters.
+
+[Illustration: 42. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL, FLORENCE. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+Before, during and after the Renaissance movement many local and extraneous
+influences temporarily modified the forms of the Roman letters. There are,
+for instance, numerous examples of lettering in which Byzantine and
+Romanesque traits are strongly apparent, such as the free manipulation of
+the letter forms in order to make them fit into given lines and spaces. The
+drawing of the panel over the doorway of the Badia, Florence, 42, notable
+for the characteristic placing and composition of the letters, will serve
+as a case in point. This example is further interesting because it shows
+how the Uncial form of the letter was beginning to react and find a use in
+stone--a state of affairs which at first glance might seem anomalous, for
+the Uncial letter was distinctly a pen-drawn form; but it was discovered
+that its rounder forms made it particularly useful for inscribing stones
+which were likely to chip or sliver, in carving which it was consequently
+desirable to avoid too acute angles. The Roman letter underwent various
+salient modifications [46] at the hands of the scribes of extra-Italian
+nations. We find very crude variants of the Roman letter, dating hundreds
+of years after the Roman form had reached its highest development; and, on
+the other hand, some very beautiful and individual national variants were
+produced. The continual interchange of manuscripts among the nations on the
+continent of Europe probably explains the more conventional character and
+strong general resemblance of most of the early Continental work; but the
+scribes of insular England, less influenced by contemporary progress and
+examples, produced forms of greater individuality (see 46, 47, 48). In
+Ireland, letter forms originally derived from early Roman models were
+developed through many decades with no ulterior influences, and resulted in
+some wonderfully distinctive and beautiful variations of the Roman letters,
+[47] though the beauty of these Irish examples can only be faintly
+suggested by reproductions limited to black and white, and without the
+decorations of the originals.
+
+[Illustration: 43. MODERN TITLE (compare 46). B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 44. MODERN TITLE (compare 49). WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 45. TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. W. E. NESFIELD]
+
+Figures 43 and 44 illustrate, respectively, modern employments of such
+strongly characteristic letters as those shown in 46 and 49. From these
+ancient examples the designers have evolved letters suitable to the
+character of their work. In 44 Mr. Crane has engrafted upon a form quite
+personal to himself a characteristic detail of treatment borrowed from the
+letter shown in 49. Figure 45 shows a similar and modernized employment of
+a standard form of Uncial capital.
+
+[Illustration: 46. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 6th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 47. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 7th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 48. ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 49. EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th CENTURY]
+
+[52]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+MODERN ROMAN LETTERS
+
+The small or "minuscule" letter that we now use in all printed books
+attained its modern and definitive form only after the invention of
+printing. The first printed books were made to imitate, as closely as
+possible, the handwritten work of the scribes of the early fifteenth
+century, and as printing was first done in Germany, the earliest book types
+were those modeled upon German scripts, somewhat similar to that shown in
+141, and their condensed or blackletter variants. The Italian printers, of
+a more classical taste, found the German types somewhat black and clumsy;
+for though Gothic characters were also used in Italy, they had become
+lighter and more refined there. The Italians, therefore, evolved a new form
+of type letter, based upon the _Italian_ pen letters then in use, which
+though fundamentally Gothic in form had been refined by amalgamation with
+an earlier letter known as the "Caroline", from its origin under the
+direction of Charlemagne. The "Caroline" was in its turn an imitation of
+the Roman "Half-uncial." The close relationship of the first small type
+letter forms in Italy with the current writing hand of the best Italian
+scribes is well indicated by the legend that the "Italic," or sloped small
+letter, was taken directly from the handwriting of Petrarch. The new
+Italian types, in which classic capitals were combined with the newly
+evolved minuscule [53] letters, were called "Roman" from the city of their
+origin, and sprang into almost immediate popularity, spreading from Italy
+into England, France and Spain. In Germany, on the other hand, the national
+blackletter form persisted, and is still in use to-day.
+
+The minuscule "Roman" letters thus evolved were developed to their most
+perfect individual forms by the master-printers of Venice; and it is to the
+models which they produced that we must revert to-day when we attempt to
+devise or reproduce an elegant small letter of any conservative form. The
+modern pen draughtsman should bear in mind, however, that, perfect as such
+forms of letters may be for the uses of the printer, the limitations of
+type have necessarily curtailed the freedom and variety of their serif and
+swash lines, and that therefore, though accepting their basic forms, he
+need not be cramped by their restrictions, nor imitate the unalterable and
+sometimes awkwardly inartistic relations of letter to letter for which he
+finds precedents in the printed page. Indeed, the same general rules for
+spacing and the same freedom in the treatment of the serifs, kerns and
+swash lines are quite as applicable to pen-drawn small letters as to the
+capital forms. The only true path of progress lies in this freedom of
+treatment; and if the same fertile artists of the Renaissance who have
+bequeathed to us such beautiful examples of their unfettered use of the
+capital had used the minuscule also, we should undoubtedly possess small
+letters of far more graceful and adaptable forms than those which we now
+have.
+
+[Illustration: 50. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS.
+F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 51. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS.
+F. C. B.]
+
+In 50 and 51 may be found an attempt to formulate a scheme to assist in the
+reconstruction of an alphabet of Roman small letters, after somewhat the
+same fashion as [56] that devised for the Roman capitals by Mr. Ross, in 1
+and 2. A small-letter diagram must, for obvious reasons, be less exact and
+detailed than one for the more defined capital form; but the diagram given
+will serve to determine sufficiently the main outlines and proportions. In
+their shapes the letters shown in 50 and 51 adhere fairly closely to the
+best type forms of the small letter; and the drawing will serve, further,
+to show the space generally allowed by modern founders between one
+lower-case letter and another when set into type words. This spacing is
+based on the m of the fount employed. The open space between all but k, w
+and y (in which the outlines of the letters themselves hold them further
+away from their neighbors) and the round letters being the space between
+the upright strokes of the m; an interval represented in the diagram by a
+square and a half. The round letters, as has already been said in speaking
+of the capital forms, should be spaced nearer together; and it will be
+observed that they are only separated by one square in the diagram.
+Although suggestive, the rules which govern the spacing of types are not to
+be blindly followed by the pen letterer. In type, for instance, it would be
+impossible, for mechanical reasons, to allow the kerns of the f, j and y to
+project far over the body of the next letter, and in these letters the
+kerns consequently have either to be restrained or the letters spaced
+farther apart. In pen lettering, however, the designer is not restrained by
+such limitations, and his spacing of letters should be governed solely by
+the effect.
+
+The disposition of the accented lines in the small letters follow the same
+general rules that govern those of the capitals (see page 2); the only
+deviation being in the case of [57] the g, in which the shading of the
+bottom seems to have been determined largely by the effect upon the eye.
+
+It will be noticed in the diagram that the "ascenders" of the smaller
+letters rise about three squares to their extreme top points above the body
+of the letter; that the body of each letter is inclosed in a square that is
+three units high, and that the "descenders" fall but two squares below the
+letter body. These proportions are not by any means invariable, however,
+and indeed there is no fixed rule by which the proportions of ascenders and
+descenders to the body of the Roman minuscule may be determined. In some
+forms of the letter both are of the same length, and sometimes that length
+is the same as the body height of the letter. In general a better result is
+obtained by making both ascenders and descenders of less than the length of
+the body, and keeping the descenders shorter than the ascenders in about
+the proportion of two-fifths to three-fifths.
+
+Parallel lines of small letters cannot be spaced closer to each other than
+the ascenders and descenders will allow; the projections above and below
+the line are awkward, and interrupt the definite lines of demarkation at
+the top and bottom of the letter-bodies; the capitals necessarily used in
+connection with the small letters add to the irregularity of the line--all
+of which reasons combine to limit the employment of minuscule for formal or
+monumental uses. On the other hand, the small letter form is excellently
+adapted for the printed page, where the occasional capitals but tend to
+break the monotony, while the ascenders and descenders strongly
+characterize and increase the legibility of the letter forms.
+
+[Illustration: 52. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 53. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 54. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS,
+1577]
+
+[Illustration: 55. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS,
+1577]
+
+[Illustration: 56. ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. J. F. CRESCI, 1560]
+
+[Illustration: 57. ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY INCISED LETTERS. FROM TOMBSTONES]
+
+[Illustration: 58. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. AFTER HRACHOWINA]
+
+[Illustration: 59. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+[64]
+
+Figures 52 to 59 show several forms of small letter alphabets; those shown
+in 52 to 56 being taken from "Writing books" by Spanish and Italian writing
+masters. These writing masters often chose to show their skill by imitating
+type forms of letters with the pen, but though similar in the individual
+forms of the letters the written examples exhibit a freedom and harmony in
+composition impossible for type to equal, and therefore are immeasurably
+more interesting to the modern penman. Figure 61 illustrates a type form of
+minuscule which may be commended for study. Other examples of small letters
+by modern designers will be found in 105, 110, 118 and 131, where they are
+used in connection with their capital forms.
+
+[Illustration: 60. INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH SLATE TOMBSTONES, 1691.
+F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 61. ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. FROM THE SPECIMEN BOOK OF WILLIAM
+CASLON, 1734]
+
+The minuscule alphabet by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, 59, is a carefully
+worked-out form which in its lines closely follows a type face devised by
+Jenson, the celebrated Venetian printer who flourished toward the end of
+the sixteenth century. This example together with those shown in 50, 51 and
+56 exhibits some conservative variations of the standard models for
+minuscule letters; and the same may be said of the modern type faces shown
+in 62, 63 and 64. The various other examples of the small-letter forms
+illustrated evidence how original and interesting modifications of
+conservative shapes may be evolved without appreciable loss of legibility.
+
+[Illustration: 62. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "MONTAIGNE". BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 63. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "RENNER". THEO. L. DE VINNE]
+
+[Illustration: 64. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "MERRYMOUNT" BY B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 65. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "CHELTENHAM" BY B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Figure 61 shows the capital, small letter and italic forms of a type based
+on old Venetian models, cut by William Caslon in the early part of the
+eighteenth century, and ever [69] since known by his name. This face has
+comparatively recently been revived by modern type-founders; and though
+this revival has provided us with a text letter far superior to the forms
+previously in use, the modern imitation falls short of the beauty of
+Caslon's original, as may be seen by comparing the letters shown in 61,
+which are reproduced from Caslon's specimen-book, issued by him about the
+middle of the eighteenth century, with the type used in printing this
+volume, which is a good modern "Caslon."
+
+Figures 62 to 67 show some newly devised type faces, all designed by
+artists of reputation. Figure 62 illustrates a fount called the "Montaigne"
+which has been recently completed by Mr. Bruce Rogers for the Riverside
+Press, Cambridge, Mass., and cut under his immediate direction, with
+especial insistance upon an unmechanical treatment of serifs, etc. As a
+result the "Montaigne" is, for type, remarkable in its artistic freedom,
+and its forms are well worthy the study of the designer. Both its capitals
+and small letters suggest the purity of the Italian Renaissance shapes. The
+letters space rather farther apart than in most types, and the result makes
+for legibility. Although several other modern faces of type have been
+designed on much the same lines, notably one for The Dove's Press in
+England, the "Montaigne" seems the best of them all, because of its
+freedom, and its absolute divorce from the overdone, exaggerated,
+heavy-faced effects of the Morris styles of type.
+
+Mr. De Vinne of the De Vinne Press, New York City, has introduced a new
+type called the "Renner", 63, which was originally cut for some of the
+Grolier Club's publications. The letters were first photographed from a
+selected page of Renner's "Quadrigesimale," then [71] carefully studied and
+redrawn before the punches were cut. Mr. De Vinne has added small capitals
+and italics to the fount, as well as dotted letters to serve as substitutes
+for the italic for those who prefer them. The "Renner" type would have been
+more effective on a larger body; but for commercial usefulness it is
+generally deemed expedient to employ as small a body as the face of a type
+will allow. Mr. De Vinne notes, in this connection, that all the important
+types of the early printers were large, and that a fount designed to-day
+with regard only to its artistic effectiveness would be cast upon a large
+body and be of good size.
+
+Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue has designed two founts of Roman type, and is now at
+work on a Blackletter face. His first fount, cut for Mr. D. B. Updike, of
+the Merrymount Press, Boston, and known as the "Merrymount," is shown in
+64. Intended for large pages and rough paper it necessarily shows to
+disadvantage in the example given, where the blackness and weight of the
+letters makes them seem clumsy, despite the refinement of their forms.
+
+[Illustration: 66. MODERN GREEK TYPE. SELWYN IMAGE]
+
+[Illustration: 67. MODERN ROMAN TYPE. C. R. ASHBEE]
+
+The "Cheltenham Old Style," 65, is the other Roman face recently designed
+by the same artist. It was cut for the Cheltenham Press of New York City;
+and embodies in its present form many ideas suggested by Mr. Ingalls
+Kimball of that press. Observe especially the excess in length of the
+ascenders over the descenders, and that the serifs have been reduced to the
+minimum. Contrary to the usual custom in type cutting, the round letters do
+not run above or below the guide lines. The capitals compose excellently;
+but the small letters are too closely spaced and seem too square for the
+best effect, and weight has been obtained by so thickening the lines that
+much delicacy and variety has been lost. [72] The "Cheltenham Old Style"
+is, however, very legible when composed into words, and is effective on the
+page.
+
+Any attempt to get the effect of Blackletter with the Roman form is likely
+to result clumsily. The celebrated Roman faces designed by William Morris
+(too familiar to require reproduction here) are, despite their real beauty,
+over-black on the page, and awkward when examined in detail. While the
+stimulus Morris's work gave to typography was much needed at that time, the
+present reaction toward more refined faces is most gratifying. By precept
+and example Mr. Morris produced a salutary revolt against the too thin and
+light and mechanical type faces before in use, but he went too far in the
+opposite direction, and we are now certainly falling back upon a more
+desirable mean.
+
+Mr. Herbert P. Horne is at present designing a new fount of type for the
+Merrymount Press, Boston, to be [73] known as the "Mont' Allegro," which
+seems, from the designs so far as at present completed, likely to prove in
+some respects the most scholarly and severe of modern faces.
+
+The Greek type designed for the Macmillan Company of England, by Mr. Selwyn
+Image, 66, is of sufficient interest to be shown here, despite the fact
+that it is not strictly germane to our subject. In this face Mr. Image has
+[74] returned to the more classic Greek form, although the result may at
+first glance seem illegible to the reader familiar with the more common
+cursive letters.
+
+The type shown in 67 is a new English face designed by Mr. C. R. Ashbee for
+a prayerbook for the King. Interesting as it is, it seems in many ways too
+extreme and eccentric to be wholly satisfactory: the very metal of type
+would seem to postulate a less "tricky" treatment.
+
+It is interesting to attempt a discrimination between the various national
+styles of pen letters which the recently revived interest in the art of
+lettering is producing; and it is especially worth while to note that the
+activity seems, even in Germany, to be devoted almost exclusively to the
+development and variation of the Roman forms. It is noteworthy, too, after
+so long a period of the dull copying of bad forms, and particularly of bad
+type forms, that the modern trend is distinctly in the direction of
+freedom; though this freedom is more marked in French and German [75] than
+in English or American work. Hand in hand with this increased freedom of
+treatment has naturally come a clearer disclosure of the mediums employed;
+and indeed in much of the best modern work the designer has so far lent
+himself to his tools that the tools themselves have, in great measure,
+become responsible for the resulting letter forms. [76] Moreover modern
+designers are showing a welcome attention to minuscule letters, and it even
+seems possible that before long some small letter forms that shall be
+distinctively of the pen may be developed, and that the use of type models
+for minuscule pen letters will no longer be found necessary or commendable.
+
+[Illustration: 68. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER J. M. OLBRICH]
+
+[Illustration: 69. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. GUSTAVE LEMMEN]
+
+[Illustration: 70. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER ALOIS LUDWIG]
+
+[Illustration: 71. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER OTTO ECKMANN]
+
+Another noticeable tendency in modern lettering seems to be the gradual
+promotion of small letter forms to the dignity of capitals, (see 79 and 98
+for examples) in much the same way as the Uncial letter and its immediate
+derivatives produced the present small letter. It is surely to be hoped
+that this movement may not lose vitality before it has had time to enrich
+us with some new and excellent forms.
+
+[Illustration: 72. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. OTTO HUPP]
+
+[Illustration: 73. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. JOSEPH PLECNIK]
+
+[Illustration: 74. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER FRANZ STUCK]
+
+[82]
+
+[Illustration: 75. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 76. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER BERNHARD PANKOK]
+
+[Illustration: 77. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. THEO. VAN RYSSELBERGHE]
+
+[Illustration: 78. MODERN FRENCH COVER. M. P. VERNEUIL]
+
+The influence of nationality is strongly shown in the modern lettering of
+all countries; and it is generally as easy to recognize a specimen as the
+work of a German, French, English, or American artist, respectively, no
+matter how individual he may be, as it is to tell the difference between
+the work of two different designers.
+
+The modern German seems to have an undeniable freshness of outlook on the
+Roman alphabet. He treats it with a freedom and variety and a certain
+disregard of precedent--induced, perhaps, by his schooling in
+Blackletter--that often produces delightful, though sometimes, be it added,
+direful results. But if the extreme and bizarre forms be thrown aside the
+designer may obtain suggestions of great benefit and value from the more
+restrained examples of German work. Many eminent German draughtsmen, whose
+work is all too little known in this country, are [84] using letters with
+the same distinction that has of late years marked their purely decorative
+work, as the specimens shown in 68 to 76 will evidence. Figures 68 and 75
+show forms which are perhaps especially representative of the general
+modern tendency in German work and many German artists are using letters of
+very similar general forms to these although, of course, with individual
+variations. Figures 70 and 73 show two very original and pleasing styles,
+also markedly German. In spite of the national drift toward the Roman, much
+modern German lettering still takes the Gothic and Blackletter forms; and
+the specimen reproduced in 71 shows a curious combination of the Gothic,
+Uncial and Roman forms pervaded by the German spirit. The beautiful
+lettering in 72 seems to have been inspired from a stone-cut Uncial. Figure
+74 shows an almost strictly Roman letter, and yet is as unmistakably German
+in handling as any of the other examples shown.
+
+[Illustration: 79. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. AFTER M. P. VERNEUIL]
+
+[Illustration: 80. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. P. BONNARD]
+
+[Illustration: 81. MODERN FRENCH COVER. GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 82. MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. ALPHONS M. MUCHA]
+
+[86]
+
+Among the examples of modern French lettering, those shown in 78 and 79 are
+perhaps the most typical of the modern school. This style of letter was
+given its most consistent form by the joint efforts of M. P. Verneuil and
+some of the pupils of Eugene Grasset, after whose letter it was originally
+modeled. Grasset freely varies his use of this form in his different
+designs, as in 85, but founds many of his best specimens upon the earlier
+French models.
+
+[Illustration: 83. MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE. GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 84. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS "CURSIVE". GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 85. MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. EUGENE GRASSET]
+
+[Illustration: 86. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[88]
+
+M. George Auriol has extended the modern use of drawn letters by publishing
+a number of small books which he has handwritten throughout, although the
+form of letter he generally uses for this purpose is purely modern and not
+at all like the texts of the medieval scribes. M. Auriol's letter is
+beautifully clear, readable and original; "brushy" in its technique, yet
+suitable for rapid writing. He calls [91] it a "Cursive" letter, and has
+recently made designs for its use in type. The page shown in 83 is from the
+preface to a book of his well-known designs for monograms, and the entire
+text is written in this cursive form. The individual letters of this
+"Cursive" may be more easily studied in 84. The cover for "L'Image", 81,
+shows the same designer's use of a more conventional Roman form.
+
+The poster by M. Theo. van Rysselberghe shown in 77 exhibits two
+interesting forms of French small letters that are worthy of study and
+suggestive for development.
+
+M. Alphons Mucha employs a distinctive letter, especially fitted to his
+technique, which he uses almost invariably, 82.
+
+Much recent French lettering inclines toward a certain formlessness, that,
+although sometimes admirable when regarded merely from the point of view of
+harmony with the design, has little value otherwise. A typical specimen of
+such formless lettering is that shown in the very charming [92] "Revue
+Blanche" poster, 80. Excellent when considered with the design, the
+lettering alone makes but an indifferent showing.
+
+The Italian designers of letters have not yet evolved any very distinctive
+national forms. In many ways Italian work resembles the German. It has less
+originality, but greater subtlety and refinement.
+
+[Illustration: 87. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 88. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 89. MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 90. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON]
+
+The strongest personality among modern British letterers is Mr. Walter
+Crane. Characteristic examples of his work are shown in 86, 87, 88 and 89.
+Although sometimes apparently careless and too often rough, his lettering
+has the merit and charm of invariably disclosing the instrument and the
+material employed. Mr. Crane is especially fond of an Uncial pen form,
+which he varies with masterful freedom. It may be mentioned in passing that
+he is perhaps the only designer who has been able to make the wrongly
+accented Q seem consistent (compare 86), or who has conquered its swash
+tail when the letter is accented in this unusual way.
+
+[93]
+
+Mr. Lewis F. Day has become a recognized authority on lettering, both
+through his writings and his handiwork. His great versatility makes it
+difficult to select a specimen which may be taken as characteristic of his
+work; but perhaps the lettering shown in 95 is as representative as any
+that could be chosen. Among his designs the magazine cover, 93, is an
+unusually free and effective composition, and its letter forms possess the
+variety required to satisfy the eye when so much of the whole effect of the
+design depends upon them.
+
+[Illustration: 91. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON]
+
+[Illustration: 92. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. WILLIAM NICHOLSON]
+
+[Illustration: 93. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. LEWIS F. DAY]
+
+[Illustration: 94. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. GORDON CRAIG]
+
+The style of lettering ordinarily employed by Mr. Selwyn Image--a style of
+marked originality and distinction--is well exhibited in the design for a
+book cover, 98.
+
+The name of Mr. Charles Ricketts is intimately associated with the Vale
+Press. The detail of the title-page reproduced in 100 shows a
+characteristic bit of his work.
+
+Mr. J. W. Simpson, one of the younger British draughtsmen, uses a graceful
+and interestingly linked Roman form shown in the panel from a title-page,
+90. The bizarre [95] letter by the same artist, 91, is fairly
+representative of a style recently come into vogue among the younger
+British draughtsmen, which is related to a form of letter brought into
+fashion by the new English school of designers on wood, among whom may be
+mentioned Mr. William Nicholson and Mr. Gordon Craig, both of whom have
+done lettering distinguished by its indication of the medium employed.
+Figure 92 shows Mr. Nicholson's favorite type of letter [96] fairly, and
+the style of Mr. Craig's work is suggested by the title for a book cover in
+94.
+
+The book cover, 97, by Mr. Edmund H. New, shows variants of the Roman
+capital and minuscule forms, which closely adhere to classic models.
+
+Mr. Robert Anning Bell has done much distinctive lettering in intimate
+association with design. Figure 96 is fairly representative of his style of
+work.
+
+[Illustration: 95. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. LEWIS F. DAY]
+
+[Illustration: 96. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. ROBERT ANNING BELL]
+
+[Illustration: 97. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. EDMUND H. NEW]
+
+[Illustration: 98. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. SELWYN IMAGE]
+
+Such other British artists as Messrs. Alfred Parsons, James F. Sullivan,
+Hugh Thompson, Herbert Railton, Byam Shaw, H. Granville Fell and A. Garth
+Jones, although much better known for their designs than for their letters,
+[97] occasionally give us bits of lettering which are both unusual and
+excellent; but these bits are commonly so subordinated to the designs in
+which they are used and so involved with them as to be beyond the scope of
+the present book.
+
+[Illustration: 99. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 100. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. CHARLES RICKETTS]
+
+In illustrating the lettering of American artists it has been unfortunately
+found necessary to omit the work of many well-known designers, either
+because their usual style of lettering is too similar in fundamental forms
+to the work of some other draughtsman, or because the letters they commonly
+employ are not distinctive or individual.
+
+[Illustration: 101. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWIN A. ABBEY]
+
+[Illustration: 102. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 103. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+Mr. Edwin A. Abbey is a notable example of an artist who has not disdained
+to expend both time and practice on such a minor art as lettering [100]
+that he might be able to letter his own designs, as the beautiful page,
+shown in 153 in the succeeding chapter, will sufficiently prove. The
+lettering of the title-page for Herrick's poems, 101, by the same
+draughtsman, is likewise excellent, being both original and appropriate.
+The letters in both these examples are modeled after old work, and both
+display an unusually keen grasp of the limitations and possibilities of the
+forms employed, especially in the former, 153, where the use of capitals to
+form words is particularly noteworthy, while in general composition and
+spacing the spirit of the letter used (compare 179) has been perfectly
+preserved.
+
+[Illustration: 104. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+[Illustration: 105. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+[Illustration: 106. MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE]
+
+[Illustration: 107. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE]
+
+Mr. Edward Penfield's work first attracted attention through the series of
+posters which he designed for 'Harper's Magazine' with unfailing fertility
+of invention for several years. During this time he evolved a style of
+letter which exactly fitted the character of his work. The cover design
+shown in 103 displays his characteristic letter in actual use; while the
+two interesting pages of large and small letter alphabets by him, 104 and
+105, show the latest and best development of these letter forms. The
+heading [102] shown in 102 exhibits a slightly different letter, evidently
+based upon that used by Mr. Penfield.
+
+The capitals by Mr. H. Van B. Magonigle, shown in 107, are derived from
+classic Roman forms but treated with a modern freedom that makes them
+unusually attractive. They appear, however, to better advantage in actual
+use in conjunction with a design, 106, than when shown in the necessarily
+restricted form of an alphabetical page panel.
+
+[Illustration: 108. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue, whose designs for type have already been mentioned,
+is a [104] most facile and careful letterer. Although his name is more
+intimately associated with Blackletter (examples of his work in that style
+are shown in the following chapter), he has devised some very interesting
+variations of the Roman forms, such as that used in 108, as an example.
+
+[Illustration: 109. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. WILL BRADLEY]
+
+Mr. Will Bradley uses a very individual style of the Roman capital, often
+marked by a peculiar exaggeration in the width of the round letters,
+contrasted with narrow tall forms in such letters as E, F and L. Mr.
+Bradley has become more free and unconventional in his later work, but his
+specimens have always been noteworthy for beauty of line and spacing; see
+111. Figure 109 shows his employment of a brush-made variant of the Roman
+form; [107] and 110 shows both capitals and small letters drawn in his
+earlier and less distinctive style.
+
+[Illustration: 110. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. WILL
+BRADLEY (1896)]
+
+[Illustration: 111. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. WILL BRADLEY]
+
+[Illustration: 112. MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. A. J. IORIO]
+
+The ticket, 112, designed by Mr. A. J. Iorio, suggests what our theatre
+tickets might be made. In spacing and general arrangement of the letters
+and the freedom of treatment, Mr. Iorio's work may be compared with much of
+the [110] work of Mr. Bradley. Figure 113 shows a modern Roman capital form
+modeled upon the work of Mr. Bradley.
+
+[Illustration: 113. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER WILL BRADLEY]
+
+[Illustration: 114. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+[Illustration: 115. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+[Illustration: 116. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+Mr. Maxfield Parrish commonly employs a widely spaced letter, fashioned
+closely after the old German models, beautiful in its forms, and displaying
+the individuality of the artist in its composition. The form and use of Mr.
+Parrish's usual letter is well shown in 114; and the title from a book
+cover design, 115, shows yet another example of the letter in service.
+
+The lettering of Mr. A. B. Le Boutillier is always notable for spacing and
+composition. Figures 117 and 118 exhibit excellent capital and small-letter
+forms (which, by the way, were drawn at the same size as the
+reproductions); and [111] the two other specimens of Mr. Le Boutillier's
+work, 116 and 119, which are reproduced to show his letters in use, will be
+found exemplars for spacing, composition, balance of weight and color, and,
+in the latter drawing, for harmony between the lettering and the treatment
+of the design.
+
+[Illustration: 117. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 118. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 119. MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. A. B. LE BOUTTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 120. AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+The form of letter preferred by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon is represented
+by the page of small letters, 59, which, as we have already said, are
+closely modeled on the type alphabet designed by Jenson. In Mr. Bragdon's
+version they represent an excellently useful and conservative style of
+small letter. They are shown in use, with harmonious capitals and italics,
+in the 'Literature' cover design, 121. In the small book-plate, reproduced
+in 120, Mr. [112] Bragdon has used a very graceful variant, especially
+noteworthy for its freedom of serif treatment; and in the letter-heading,
+122, he has employed an attractive capital of still different character.
+
+[Illustration: 121. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 122. MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEAD. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+Mr. H. L. Bridwell has originated the singularly excellent letter shown in
+124, which is founded upon some of the modern French architectural forms.
+He uses it with great freedom and variety in spacing according to the
+effect that he desires to produce. In one instance he will jam the letters
+together in an oddly crowded line, while in another we find them spread far
+apart, but always with excellent results as regards the design as a whole.
+Something of this variation of spacing is shown in 123. In the numerous
+theatrical posters which Mr. Bridwell has designed--and which too seldom
+bear his signature--he employs a great variety of lettering. Sometimes, of
+course, the freedom of his work is restricted by the conservatism of
+clients; but often the letter forms here illustrated add to the style and
+distinction of his designs.
+
+[Illustration: 123. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. H. L. BRIDWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 124. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. L. BRIDWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 125. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 126. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[116]
+
+[Illustration: 127. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+Mr. Frank Hazenplug, the author of much clever decorative lettering, has
+evolved a very black and striking style of capital that still retains
+grace. Figures 125 and 126 show two sets of Mr. Hazenplug's capitals. A
+book cover on which he has used small letters in an original way is
+reproduced in 127. Figure 129 shows the employment of a heavy-faced letter
+similar to that exhibited in alphabet 126, but suggestive in its serif
+treatment of Mr. Penfield's letter.
+
+[Illustration: 128. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD EDWARDS]
+
+Mr. Edward Edwards employs a letter, 128, which, though rather conventional
+in its lines, is noteworthy for its treatment of serifs and its spacing.
+
+Mr. Guernsey Moore's letters shown in 130 are naturally better both in
+intrinsic form, spacing and composition than the widely used "Post Old
+Style" types which were based upon them. The large and small letters
+displayed in 133 show a form that, at the present writing, seems to be in
+considerable favor. It is, however, too extreme, and its peculiarities are
+too exaggerated to allow it to become a permanent style. But like the
+extravagant German forms [117] already referred to, it has also apparent
+advantages; and a few of its characteristics are not unlikely to survive in
+some more conservative adaptation.
+
+[Illustration: 129. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 130. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GUERNSEY MOORE]
+
+[Illustration: 131. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. HARRY E. TOWNSEND]
+
+The letter by Mr. Harry Everett Townsend shown in 131 is most distinctive
+in effect--a more refined form of the rapidly drawn character shown in 138.
+
+Mr. Howard Pyle often gives us charming bits of lettering in connection
+with his illustrations. The heading, 132, shows a characteristic line. Most
+of Mr. Pyle's lettering is "Colonial" or Georgian in style, though the
+initials he uses with it are generally rendered in the fashions of the
+early German woodcuts, somewhat similar to Holbein's initials for the
+"Dance of Death."
+
+[Illustration: 132. MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. HOWARD PYLE]
+
+One of the most original of American letterers is Mr. Orson Lowell. Usually
+closely conjoined with design, his lettering does not show to its full
+value when reproduced apart from its surroundings, for much of its charm
+depends [118] upon its harmony in line and color with the accompanying
+drawing Mr. Lowell has taken the same basic forms as those used by Mr.
+Penfield, and has played with them until he has developed a series of most
+ingenious and fanciful letters. The examples reproduced in 136 and 137 but
+inadequately show a few of the many forms that Mr. Lowell employs with
+remarkable fertility of invention and delightfully decorative effect of
+line. The small letters, 135, shown opposite his capitals, 134, are not by
+Mr. Lowell, nor are they in any way equal to his own small letters, of
+which regrettably few appear in his published work; but they may serve to
+exhibit a similar method of treating a much more conventional form of
+minuscule than Mr. [122] Lowell would himself use for the same purpose.
+Despite its unconventionally, however, an examination of Mr. Lowell's work
+will show that each letter has been developed to fit the space between its
+neighbors and to balance and relieve their forms; and that, fanciful as
+some of the shapes may appear, they have invariably been knowingly worked
+out, and always appear harmonious and fit.
+
+[Illustration: 133. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 134. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER ORSON LOWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 135. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 136. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. ORSON LOWELL]
+
+The pages of letters shown in 138, 139 and 140 are intended to suggest
+forms which, while suitable for rapid use, yet possess some individuality
+and character. The so-called "Cursive" letter by Mr. Maxfield Parrish, 140,
+is particularly effective for such informal use--in fact, its very charm
+lies in its informality--and is quite as distinctively "pen-ny" as any of
+Mr. Crane's work of the same kind.
+
+A glance over the field of modern examples will disclose, first, a general
+tendency to break away from the older type models in pen-drawn forms;
+second, a growing partiality for the small letter, and third, a sporadic
+disposition to use capital and minuscule forms interchangeably. The first
+[123] trend may be noticed by comparing the letter shown in 132, which is
+closely modeled after type, with that shown in 136, in which an opposite
+method is followed, and the letters are so treated in handling form and
+color as to best harmonize with the design itself. The possibilities latent
+in the small letter are indicated by such interesting uses as those shown
+in figures 77, 89, 98, 101, 111, 112, 121, 127, 130 and 131. American
+designers seem to be especially interested in the development of the small
+letter. Of the intermingling of the capital and small letter shapes
+examples may be found in figures 71, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 98, 127
+and 134. In these examples it will be noted that the minuscules seem to be
+more easily transformed into capitals than do the capitals into minuscules;
+only a few of the latter appearing to lend themselves harmoniously to the
+small letter guise.
+
+[Illustration: 137. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ORSON LOWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 138. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, FOR RAPID USE. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 139. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC, FOR PLANS, ETC. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 140. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+Such tendencies as these, if allowed to develop slowly and naturally, are
+certain to evolve new forms--a process of modification which it should be
+fully as instructive and entertaining to observe as any of the historical
+changes that have already become incorporated into our present letter
+shapes.
+
+[127]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GOTHIC LETTERS
+
+The name "Gothic" applies rather to the spirit than to the exact letter
+forms of the style. The same spirit of freedom and restlessness
+characterises the architecture of the period wherein this style of letter
+was developed; and Gothic letters are in many ways akin to the fundamental
+forms of Gothic architecture. Their effect is often tiring and confusing to
+the eye because of the constant recurrence of very similar forms with
+different letter meanings; yet this very similarity is the main cause of
+the pleasing aspect of a page of Gothic lettering.
+
+Unlike the Roman letters, which attained a complete and final development,
+Gothic letters never reached authoritative and definitive forms, any more
+than did Gothic architecture. Every individual Gothic letter has several
+quasi-authoritative shapes, and all of these variants may be accepted, as
+long as they display an intelligent conception of the spirit of the style
+as a whole. Because of this lack of finality, however, it is impossible to
+analyze each of the letter forms as we were able to do with the Roman
+alphabet in Chapter I; yet this very variability and variety constitute at
+once the peculiar beauty of Gothic and the great difficulty of so drawing
+it as to preserve its distinctive character.
+
+Any letter of Gothic form is usually called either "Gothic" or
+"Blackletter" indiscriminately, but this use is inexact [128] and
+confusing. The term "Blackletter" should, strictly, be applied only to
+letters in which the amount of black in the line overbalances the white;
+and the proper application of the title should be determined rather by this
+balance or weight of the letter than by its form.
+
+[Illustration: 141. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 1500]
+
+The original Gothic letter was a gradual outgrowth from the round Roman
+Uncial. Its early forms retained all the roundness of its Uncial parent;
+but as the advantages of a condensed form of letter for the saving of space
+became manifest, (parchment was expensive and bulky) and the [131] beauty
+of the resulting blacker page was noticed, the round Gothic forms were
+written closer and narrower, the ascenders and descenders were shortened,
+with marked loss of legibilty, that the lines of lettering might be brought
+closer together, until a form was evolved in which the black overbalanced
+the white--the Blackletter which still survives in the common German text
+of to-day. Thus, though a Gothic letter may not be a Blackletter, a
+Blackletter is _always_ Gothic, because it is constructed upon Gothic
+lines. On the other hand, a Roman Blackletter would be an obvious
+impossibility. The very essential and fundamental quality of a Roman letter
+lies in the squareness or circularity of its skeleton form.
+
+For clearness and convenience, then, the following discrimination between
+the terms Gothic and Blackletter will be adopted in this treatise: When a
+letter is Gothic but not a Blackletter it will be called "Round Gothic";
+when it is primarily a Blackletter it will be termed "Blackletter," the
+latter name being restricted to such compressed, narrow or angular forms as
+the small letters shown in 144, 147 and 148. The name "Round Gothic" will
+be applied only to the earlier forms, such as those shown in 141 and 142.
+Such a distinction has not, I believe, hitherto been attempted; but the
+confusion which otherwise results makes the discrimination seem advisable.
+
+The three pages of examples, figures 141, 142 and 143, exhibit the
+characteristic forms and standard variations of the Round Gothic. In lieu
+of any detailed analysis of these letter shapes, it may perhaps be
+sufficient to say that they were wholly and exactly determined by the
+position of the quill, which was held rigidly upright, after the fashion
+[132] already described in speaking of Roman lettering; and that the
+letters were always formed with a round swinging motion of hand and arm, as
+their forms and accented lines clearly evidence; for the medieval scribes
+used the Round Gothic as an easy and legible handwritten form, and linked
+many of the letters.
+
+[Illustration: 142. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 143. SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 144. GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. ALBRECHT DUeRER]
+
+Figures 158, 170, 172 and 173 show some capitals adapted for use with these
+Round Gothic letters; but the beginner should be extremely wary of
+attempting to use any Gothic capitals alone to form words, as their
+outlines are not suited for inter-juxtaposition. Occasionally they may thus
+be used, and used effectively, as is shown, for instance, in the beautiful
+page of lettering by Mr. Edwin A. Abbey, 153; but so successful a solution
+is rare, and implies an intimate knowledge of the historic examples and use
+of Gothic lettering.
+
+The late Gothic or Blackletter is condensed and narrowed in the extreme. No
+circles are employed in the construction of the small letters, which have
+angular and generally acute corners. As in all pen-drawn letters, the broad
+lines are made on the down right-sloping strokes, and the narrow lines are
+at right angles to these. Blackletter shapes, like those of the Round
+Gothic, cannot, as has been said, be defined by any set of general rules;
+the intrinsic quality of all Gothic letters almost demands a certain
+freedom of treatment that would transgress any laws that could be
+formulated. Indeed the individual forms should always be subservient to the
+effect of the line or page. Observe in almost every example shown how the
+form of the same letter constantly varies in some minor detail. The drawing
+by Albrecht Duerer, reproduced in 144, will, [134] however, serve to show
+the construction of an excellent Blackletter, which may fairly be
+considered as typical.
+
+[Illustration: 145. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 146. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS WITH ROUNDED ANGLES]
+
+The first essential of a good Blackletter line or page is that it shall be
+of a uniform color. Unlike the Roman, the Blackletter form does not permit
+that one word be wider spaced than others in the same panel. The amount of
+white left between the several letters should be as nearly as possible the
+same throughout, approximately the same as the space between the
+perpendicular strokes of the minuscule letters themselves. Usually, the
+less the white space the better will be the general effect of the page, for
+its beauty depends much upon a general blackness of aspect;--and let it be
+noted in passing that, for this reason, it is doubly difficult to judge of
+the final effect of a Blackletter page from any outlined pencil sketch.
+Even in the cases of those capital letters that extend both above and below
+the guide lines it will be found possible to so adjust the spaces [135] and
+blacks as not to interrupt the general uniformity of color, and it is
+sometimes advisable to fill awkward blanks by flourishes; although
+flourishing, even in Blackletter, is an amusement that should be indulged
+in cautiously. As a general rule the more solidly black a panel of
+Blackletter is the better (a principle too often disregarded in the modern
+use of the form); though on the other hand, the less legible the individual
+letters will become. The designer should therefore endeavor to steer a
+middle course, making his panel as black as he can without rendering the
+individual letters illegible.
+
+No style permits more of liberty in the treatment of its separate letter
+forms than the Blackletter. The same letter may require a different outline
+at the beginning of a word than in the middle or at the end. The ascenders
+and descenders may be drawn so short as hardly to transcend the guide lines
+of the minuscules, or may grow into [136] flourishes up and down, to the
+right or to the left, to fill awkward blanks. Indeed so variable are these
+forms that in ancient examples it is often difficult to recognize an
+individual letter apart from its context.
+
+The two pages drawn by Mr. Goodhue, 188 and 189, deserve careful study as
+examples of modern use of the Blackletter. It will be observed that almost
+as many variants of each letter are employed as the number used would
+permit, thus giving the panel variety and preventing any appearance of
+monotony or rigidity. Notice the freedom and variety of the swash lines in
+the capitals, and yet that each version is quite as graceful, logical and
+original as any of its variants.
+
+The examples of old lettering reproduced in figures 147, 148 and 149,
+together with the drawings by Mr. Goodhue, will indicate the proper spacing
+of Blackletter; but in most of the pages here devoted to illustrating the
+individual forms the letters have been spaced too wide for their proper
+effect that each separate shape might be shown distinctly. The style
+appears at its best in compositions which fill a panel of more or less
+geometrical form, as, for example, the beautiful title-page reproduced in
+147. Could anything be more delightful to the eye than its rich blackness,
+energetic lines, and refreshing virility? In this design surely we have a
+specimen that, from the proportion and balance of its blacks, is more
+effective than anything which could have been accomplished by the use of
+the more rigid Roman letter; but despite its many beauties it suffers from
+the inherent weakness of the individual letter forms,--it is more effective
+than readable!
+
+[Illustration: 147. ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. JACOPUS FORESTI, 1497]
+
+[Illustration: 148. GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 1515]
+
+[Illustration: 149. GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS. MEISSEN, 1510]
+
+[Illustration: 150. MODERN AMERICAN COVER IN BLACKLETTER. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Another excellent example of the old use of Blackletter is the page from
+the prayerbook of the Emperor Maximilian, [138] shown in 148, in which
+observe again the variety of the individual letter forms. Figure 149 shows
+the use of a Blackletter on an admirable monumental brass, which is reputed
+to have been designed by Albrecht Duerer. A similar Blackletter form, also
+from a brass, is shown at larger scale in 186.
+
+[139]
+
+Any of the minuscule forms of Blackletter which have been illustrated may
+be used with the Gothic capitals of figures 164-5, 166, 177, 179, 185,
+188-9; or with such Uncial capitals as are illustrated in 155 to 162; care
+being taken, of course, that these capitals are made to agree in style and
+weight with the small letters chosen. Although Uncial capitals are
+historically more closely allied with the Round Gothic, we have abundant
+precedent for their use with the minuscule Blackletter in many of the best
+medieval specimens.
+
+When the Gothic Uncial capitals were cut in stone and marble there was
+naturally a corresponding change in character, as is shown in the Italian
+examples illustrated in 160 [140] and 161. These examples, which are
+reproduced from rubbings, exhibit the characteristic stone cut forms very
+clearly. A Gothic Uncial alphabet redrawn from a German brass is
+illustrated in 162. The group of specimens from 154 to 159 exhibit the
+chronological growth of the Uncial capitals, which were used, as has been
+said, with the various small Blackletter forms, though they were also used
+alone to form words, as is shown in 160. The historical progression in
+these Uncial examples is most interesting; and, allowing for the variations
+of national temperament, traces itself connectedly enough. Figures 154 to
+159 are pen forms, while 160 to 163 are from stone or metal-cut letters.
+
+Figures 164 to 166 show alphabets of Gothic pen-drawn capitals that will
+serve as a basis for such adaptations as are shown in the modern examples
+152 and 153. Figures 167 to 169 show a more elaborate but an excellent and
+typical variety of this form of capital, which is one of the most beautiful
+and distinctive of Gothic letters. Shorn of its fussy small lines the main
+skeleton is eminently virile; and, though extremely difficult to draw, it
+cannot be surpassed for certain limited uses. Figures 170 to 173 exhibit a
+group of Gothic capitals more or less allied in character and all pen
+letters. Figures 174 to 176 show forms similar to those of the previous
+group, but adapted for use in various materials.
+
+[Illustration: 151. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. WALTER PUTTNER]
+
+[Illustration: 152. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. OTTO HUPP]
+
+[Illustration: 153. MODERN BLACKLETTER. EDWIN A. ABBEY]
+
+Figures 177 to 179 show some English Gothic letters, the last being that
+employed so effectively in the pen-drawn page by Mr. Abbey, 153. Figures
+180 to 184 illustrate various forms of Blackletter: 180 is from a German
+brass, 182 illustrates an Italian pen form, and 183 and 184 show [141]
+Blackletters drawn by Albrecht Duerer, the latter being the simplest and
+strongest variant in this style. It is the same letter that is employed to
+show Blackletter construction in diagram 144. Figure 185 shows the
+well-known and unusually beautiful initials designed by Duerer. Figure 186
+is a Blackletter from an English brass, although the letter forms in this
+example, as well as those of many other English brasses, may perhaps have
+been derived from Flanders, as many of the finest early Continental brasses
+were imported from the Netherlands.
+
+The Italian forms of Gothic Blackletters are generally too fussy and
+finikin to be of practical value for modern use, though they often possess
+suggestive value. The letters shown in 182 are fairly typical of the
+characteristic Blackletter minuscules of Italy. Figure 187 exhibits an
+example of beautiful lettering in the Italian style, redrawn from a rubbing
+of an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. The omission of capitals
+in long, confined lines is typical of many Blackletter inscriptions, as may
+be seen in 149, as well as in the plate just mentioned.
+
+In view of the number of fine specimens of Blackletter which have been
+handed down to us, it has been deemed [142] unnecessary to reproduce many
+examples of its employment by modern draughtsmen. The pages by Mr. Goodhue,
+188-9, have already been referred to; and figure 150 shows a very
+consistent and representative use of similar letter forms by the same
+designer. Figures 190 and 191 illustrate two modern varieties of
+Blackletter, one very simple and the other very ornate. The small cuts, 151
+and 152, show excellent modern Blackletters; the first, of unusually narrow
+form, being by Herr Walter Puttner, and the second, with its flourished
+initials, by Herr Otto Hupp.
+
+[Illustration: 154. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 12TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 155. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 13TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 156. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 157. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 158. ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 159. SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. JUAN DE YCIAR, 1550]
+
+[Illustration: 160. VENETIAN WALL PANEL, 15TH CENTURY. FROM RUBBING]
+
+[Illustration: 161. VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15TH CENTURY. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 162. GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS, FROM A BRASS. 14TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 163. FRENCH AND SPANISH UNCIAL CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 164. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 165. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 166. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. GIOV. PALATINO, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 167. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 168. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 169. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 170. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 171. ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 172. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 173. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 174. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 175. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 176. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 177. ENGLISH GOTHIC TEXT LETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 178. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 179. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 180. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS FROM A BRASS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 181. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. 16th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 182. ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 183. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 184. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 185. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 186. ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 187. ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 188. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 189. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 190. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. AFTER JULIUS DIEZ]
+
+[Illustration: 191. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B.]
+
+[182]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ITALIC AND SCRIPT
+
+The regrettable modern neglect of those free and very interesting forms of
+the Roman letter, Italic and Script, seem to authorize consideration of
+them in a separate chapter, even at the risk of appearing to give them
+undue importance.
+
+[Illustration: 192. GERMAN ITALIC. GOTTLIEB MUNCH, 1744]
+
+The first Italic type letter was derived, it is said, from the handwriting
+of Petrarch, and several admirable examples of the style, variously
+treated, have come down to us. As far as construction goes Italic is,
+theoretically, only the exact Roman form sloped, and with such changes as
+are necessitated by the sloping of the letters. Practically, however, it
+will be found that certain alterations in the outlines of the Roman letters
+must be made after giving them a slope in order to adapt them to their new
+requirements of inter-juxtaposition; and, by a reflex action, when words in
+Italic capitals are used in the same panel with upright Roman letters,
+certain variations must be made in the latter, such as accenting the Roman
+O in the same fashion as the Italic _O_ is accented, an altered treatment
+of serifs, and other changes in detail.
+
+The Script form of letter was developed out of the running or writing hand,
+and still retains a cursive tendency in the linking together of its
+letters; although in some forms it so closely approximates to Italic as to
+be almost [183] indistinguishable from it. Script lettering came into its
+greatest vogue during the Georgian period in England and at the same time
+in France; and was extensively employed, usually in conjunction with the
+upright Roman, in carved panels of stone or wood, and in engraving. The
+Script forms are well worthy of the attention of modern designers since
+they offer unusual opportunities for freedom and individuality of
+treatment; and because of this vitality and adaptility to modern uses the
+present chapter will be devoted largely to the illustration of Script
+examples.
+
+The old Spanish and Italian writing-books (referred to in a previous
+chapter), which in a measure took the place filled so much less
+artistically to-day by our modern school copybooks, contain many specimens
+of beautiful Script, both capitals and small letters. Figures 193 to 196
+show pages from such books published in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: 193. SPANISH SCRIPT. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802]
+
+[Illustration: 194. SPANISH SCRIPTS. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802]
+
+[Illustration: 195. SPANISH SCRIPT. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 196. SPANISH CURSIVE. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[188]
+
+A simple type of Spanish capital Script letter is shown in 201, while a
+corresponding small letter, redrawn from a Spanish source, is illustrated
+in 202. It should be noted in the latter figure that the three lower lines
+are further removed from the ordinary writing hand and are more interesting
+than the letters in the three upper lines.
+
+[Illustration: 197. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 198. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GEORGE WHARTON EDWARDS]
+
+The French artists and engravers were, as has been said, among the first to
+appreciate the qualities of Script, and used it in many of their engraved
+title-pages, especially during the reigns of Louis xv. and xvi. Figure 199
+shows a set of French Script capitals of the time of Louis XV., highly
+flourished but more formal than those shown in 201.
+
+A form of Script very nearly allied to the Italic was frequently used for
+the lettering on headstones and wall tombs in the churches and churchyards
+of England. Figure 203, in which the lettering is taken from a tomb in
+Westminster Abbey, illustrates this style of Script.
+
+A set of Script small letters with some unusual characteristics, adapted by
+Hrachowina from the German Renaissance form shown in outline in 192, is
+exhibited as a solid letter in figure 200.
+
+[Illustration: 199. FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 200. GERMAN SCRIPT AFTER HRACHOWINA. 18th CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 201. SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. EARLY 18th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 202. SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. LATE 17th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 203. ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. FROM INSCRIPTIONS. F. C. B.]
+
+[194]
+
+[Illustration: 204. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 205. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 206. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. AFTER FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 207. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B.]
+
+Among modern American designers, Mr. Bruce Rogers has admirably succeeded
+in catching the French and Georgian spirit in his treatment of the Script
+characters; yet, nevertheless, his lettering in this style is still modern
+in feeling. In the title from a book cover, 204, Mr. Rogers has allowed
+himself just the proper amount of interlacement and flourishing--both of
+which require the restraint of a subtle taste or the result may prove to be
+over-elaborate. The page of lettering by the same designer, shown in 205,
+is a successful solution of a difficult problem, and, together with the
+book cover, will serve to exhibit the possibilities of this style of
+Script.
+
+Mr. George Wharton Edwards is another modern designer who has a penchant
+for the Script form. He uses one distinctive and personal style of it in
+which the larger letters are formed by two black lines separated by a
+narrow white space, as exhibited in 198.
+
+The lines from an advertisement, 197, by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, in
+which Script, Italic and Roman letters are combined, are of especial
+interest from the easy manner in which the three different styles have been
+adapted to each other and made to harmonize in one small panel, [198] while
+still preserving an appropriate Georgian aspect. The interlacement and
+flourishing, too, are handled with commendable restraint.
+
+Few modern artists have so successfully treated Italic capitals with Script
+freedom as Mr. Will Bradley. Sometimes employing forms of Italic capitals
+and small letters little removed from type, he will again give us an
+example of his handiwork in which Italic is used with examplary freedom, as
+is shown in the specimen from a book catalogue, 109. The modern trick of
+wide spacing often lends itself aptly to the swing and freedom of the
+swashed and flourished lines of Script, as may be seen in figure 207.
+
+An excellent modern Script letter, adapted from a design by Mr. Frank
+Hazenplug, is shown in 206. Its heavy face and originality of form make it
+a useful and pleasing variant.
+
+[Illustration: 208. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 209. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+The magazine heading, by an anonymous designer, 208, and the line from the
+pen of Mr. Edward Penfield, 209, suggest still other useful varieties of
+the Script form.
+
+[199]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TO THE BEGINNER
+
+The beginner in any art or craft is likely to have an undue respect for the
+mere instruments of his trade. He will eventually learn that tools play a
+much less important part in his work than he at first thinks; but, as it is
+unlikely that any sudden change in human nature will occur, it seems as
+well to devote here some consideration to the tools which the student will
+always believe to be an important part of his equipment. He will ultimately
+ascertain for himself what is best adapted to his own individual needs.
+
+Though every draughtsman will recommend a pen that he has discovered to be
+especially suitable for his own use, few will be found to agree. Perhaps it
+is safe to say, however, that the best all-round pen for lettering is the
+Gillot No. 303. It is not too sharp, and when broken in is flexible and
+easy. The crowquill pen will be found of little use. It is an advantage to
+have at hand a large coarse pen of little flexibility and smooth point for
+drawing heavy lines of even width. In using water-color in place of ink
+such a pen will be found more satisfactory than the Gillot 303, as the
+thinness of the fluid causes the line to spread whenever pressure is
+applied to a limber and finely pointed pen, with the result that the line
+is not only broadened, but when dry shows darker than was intended, as more
+color is deposited than in a narrow line. When a [200] narrow line of even
+width and sharpness is desired it is best to use a new pen; an older pen
+will, on the other hand, allow of more ease in swelling and broadening the
+line under pressure. A thin dry line may be obtained by turning the pen
+over and drawing with the back of the nib, although if the pen so used be
+worn it is apt to have a "burr" over the point that may prevent its working
+satisfactorily in this way. A new hard pen is likely to be the cause of a
+"niggling" line; a too limber one of a careless or undesirably broad line.
+On rare occasions, and for obtaining certain effects, a stub pen may be
+found of value, but it cannot be recommended to the beginner, as it is very
+difficult to find one that has sufficient flexibility of nib. Quill pens
+are undoubtedly useful in drawing a few types of letters (see some of the
+designs by Mr. Walter Crane shown in previous pages, for examples) but, not
+to allude to the difficulty of properly pointing a quill, which seems to be
+a well-nigh lost art nowadays, the instrument possesses so many annoying
+peculiarities that it is as well to avoid its use until a satisfactory
+command over the more dependable steel pens has been obtained.
+
+A pencil is, of course, a necessity in laying out the first scheme for
+lettering. The softer the pencil the more felicitous will the composition
+seem; but the beginner should guard against being too easily pleased with
+the effect thus obtained, as it is often due to the deceptive
+indefiniteness of line and pleasant gray tone. When inked-in, in
+uncompromising black against the white paper, the draughtsman is apt to
+find that his sketch has developed many an imperfection, both in
+composition and in individual letter shapes, that the vague pencil lines
+did not reveal. [201]
+
+As to paper, Bristol-board has the best smooth surface for lettering. The
+English board is in some ways better than the American, but has the
+disadvantage of being made in smaller sheets. The difficulty with any
+smooth board is that erasures, even of pencil lines, are likely to spoil
+its surface. The rough "Strathmore" American board has a very grateful
+surface upon which the pen may be used with almost as much freedom as the
+pencil. All rough surfaces, however, while tending to promote interesting
+lines, are not suited for careful lettering, and the classic and Italian
+forms especially require to be drawn upon the smoothest possible surface.
+The American "Strathmore" board may also be obtained in smooth finish; and,
+indeed, is less injured by erasures than most Bristol-boards.
+
+The prepared India or carbon inks such as "Higgin's" or "Carter's" are best
+for the beginner; although all prepared inks have a tendency to get muddy
+if allowed to stand open, and the so-called "waterproof" inks are easily
+smudged.
+
+In devising a panel of lettering, such as a title-page for example, the
+draughtsman's first step would naturally be to sketch out the whole design
+at a very small size, say an inch and a half high, in pencil. This small
+sketch should determine, first, the general balance of the page; second,
+the inter-relations and spacings of the various lines and words and their
+relative importance and sizes. From this thumb-nail sketch the design
+should be drawn out at full size in pencil, and much more carefully. In
+this redrawing the separate letter shapes and their harmonious relations to
+each other should be determined, and such deviations made from the smaller
+sketch as seem to benefit the effect. [202] Some draughtsmen sketch out
+each line of lettering separately on thin paper, and then, after blackening
+the back of this sheet, lay each line over the place where it is needed in
+the design, tracing the outlines of the letters with a hard point, and thus
+transferring them to the design beneath. In this way a page of lettering
+may be studied out line by line, and accurately placed or centered; but the
+process is tedious, and there is always danger of losing sight of the
+effect as a whole.
+
+In outlining letters which are ultimately intended to be solidly
+blacked-in, the beginner should guard against making his outlines too wide,
+especially as regards the thin lines, for the eye in judging an outline
+sketch follows the insides of the bounding lines rather than the outsides
+which will really be the _out_lines of the blacked-in letter, so that when
+finished the letter is likely to look heavier and more clumsy than in the
+sketch.
+
+When the entire pencil scheme seems satisfactory in every detail, and each
+line has been exactly determined, the whole should be carefully inked-in.
+In inking-in letters the swing of the arm should be as free and
+unobstructed as possible. For the best result it is absolutely necessary to
+work at a wide board on a solid table of convenient height and angle. It is
+impossible to letter well in a cramped or unsteady position. One thing
+cannot be too strongly urged upon the beginner. Never use a T-square,
+triangle or ruling pen in inking-in lettering. It will be found ultimately
+much easier to train hand and eye to make a straight and true line
+free-hand than to attempt to satisfactorily combine a ruled and free-hand
+line. The free-hand method is, be it acknowledged, both more lengthy and
+[203] difficult at first, but when the draughtsman does finally gain a
+mastery over his line he has achieved something which he will find of the
+greatest value.
+
+In a drawing to be reproduced by mechanical processes, the proportions of
+the design are, of course, unalterably determined by the required panel or
+page; but the _size_ of the _drawing_ may be such as best suits the
+inclination and convenience of the draughtsman. If the drawing is to be
+reduced in size (and that is the usual method, because, in general, it is
+easier to draw large rather than small), the draughtsman must first decide
+on the amount of reduction to which his style of rendering and the subject
+itself are best adapted, remembering, however, that a drawing is sure to
+suffer from excessive reduction, not only in general effect but in
+interest, for the quality of the line is sure in a measure to disappear. A
+reduction of height or width by one-third is the usual amount; but many of
+our modern designers obtain their best effects by making their drawings but
+a trifle larger than the required reproduction. Some even make their
+drawings of the same size; others only from a twelfth to a sixth larger. As
+a rule, the less the reduction the less the departure from the effect of
+the original, and the more certainly satisfactory the result, although more
+careful drawing and greater exactness of line are necessary.
+
+[Illustration: 210. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL]
+
+To keep the outlines of a panel in the same proportion while enlarging its
+area for the purpose of making a drawing for reproduction, lay out the
+required _finished_ size of the panel near the upper left hand corner of
+the paper, and draw a diagonal line through the upper left hand and lower
+right hand corner of this panel, extending it beyond the panel [204]
+boundaries. From any given point along this diagonal, lines drawn parallel
+to the side and top lines of the original panel, and extended till they
+intersect the extended left side line and top line of the original panel,
+will give an outline of the same proportions as the required panel. By
+taking various points on the diagonal, panels of any height or width but
+still of the proper proportions may be obtained (see diagram 210). Diagram
+211 illustrates a variation of the previous method of enlarging the
+proportions of a panel, in which, by the use of two diagonals, both
+perpendicular and horizontal center lines are retained.
+
+When it is necessary to lay out a border of a predetermined width within
+the required panel, the foregoing method can only be used to determine the
+_outside_ lines of such a border, and it becomes necessary to make the
+drawing some numerical proportion, say, one-half as large again, or twice
+as large as the finished panel. The width of the border will then be of the
+same proportionate width.
+
+The beginner will find it always wise to base his lettering on penciled top
+and bottom guide lines, and occasionally to add "waist" guide lines, as in
+193. Indeed, it is rare that even accomplished letterers dispense with
+these simple aids. These guide lines should invariably be laid-in with the
+[205] T-square and triangle. After drawing the horizontal guides, it is
+often advisable to run a few perpendicular lines up and down the paper,
+which will serve to guard against the very common likelihood of the letters
+acquiring a tilt. In drawing Italic, Script, and all sloping letters
+numerous sloping guide lines are especially necessary; see 193.
+Perpendicular guide lines will be found of marked assistance, also in
+drawing Gothic small letters, which, as they do not come against the top
+and bottom guide lines squarely, but at an angle, are often deceptive.
+
+[Illustration: 211. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL]
+
+If it is desirable to make two lines of lettering of the same length,
+although they contain an unequal number of letters, this may be
+effected--provided, of course, that the number of letters does not vary too
+greatly--by broadening or narrowing the letters that occur in one line but
+not in the other, and by varying the spacings about the I's and the open
+letters. Note, for example, the spacing of the upper lines in the poster by
+Mr. Crane, 87. It is by no means essential to draw the same letter always
+exactly alike even in the same line; in fact, variation is generally
+demanded by the different surroundings and neighboring letters. So long as
+the general character of the letter remains unchanged in its distinctive
+features, such as weight, [206] treatment of serifs, angles, height of
+waist and cross lines, etc., its width and outlines may be varied and
+arranged to help out the spacing without interfering, to any noticeable
+extent, with the uniform appearance of the line.
+
+In Roman lettering emphasis may be obtained for any special word by spacing
+its letters farther apart. This has something of the same emphasizing
+effect as the use of Italic, without so greatly breaking the harmony of the
+line. Much of the lettering of the Italian Renaissance shows a very subtle
+appreciation of this use, and in some of the most beautiful inscriptions
+the important words are often so differentiated, while others are
+emphasized by slightly larger characters.
+
+As a general rule, and within certain limits, the wider a letter the more
+legible it is likely to be. Blackness and boldness of stem alone will not
+make a letter readable. Width, boldness of hair lines and serifs, and a
+proper amount of surrounding white space are more essential. The Roman
+letter is more legible than the Blackletter mainly because it is black
+against a roomy white ground; while Blackletter, on the contrary, is really
+defined by small interrupted areas of whites upon a black ground.
+
+A common limitation of many draughtsmen is that they become accomplished in
+the rendering of but one style of letter, and find themselves obliged to
+use it on all occasions, whether it be suited to the work in hand or not,
+because they can command no other. In the case of certain designers, of
+course, the individuality of their work is strong enough to bind both
+lettering and design so closely together that they can never seem at
+dissonance; but, speaking generally, the adherance to the use of but [207]
+one type of letter can be but narrowing. The beginner is urged, therefore,
+to practice the use of many styles, even at the expense of gaining an
+immediate mastery over no one form. He will find himself amply repaid in
+the end by the increase in freedom and variety.
+
+While the student should possess enough knowledge of the historic styles
+and examples of lettering to prevent him from using incongruous or
+anachronous forms in the same design, historic accuracy need not prevent
+him from engrafting the characteristics of dissimilar styles upon one
+another, provided that the results prove harmonious and appropriate.
+
+Finally, the draughtsman's first aim should be to make his lettering
+readable: after this has been accomplished he should strive to give it
+beauty. Art in lettering is only to be attained by solving the problem of
+legibility in the way most pleasing to the eye. Good lettering should
+appeal both to the eye and to the mind. Only when it combines legibility
+with beauty can it be excellent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  A., 6, 9.
+  Abbey, Edwin A., 97, 132, 140.
+  Accenting, of Blackletters, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 2;
+    of Minuscules, 56;
+    of Round Gothic, 132;
+    of Italic and Script, 182.
+  American Lettering, Modern Roman, 53, 64, 75, 82, 97;
+    Classic Roman, 3, 14;
+    Gothic, 132, 136, 140, 142;
+    Italic, 194, 198;
+    Script, 194, 198.
+  Anglo-Saxon Letters, 46, 47;
+    modern use of, 46.
+  Ascenders, height above body, 57;
+    in "Cheltenham Old Style" type, 71;
+    in Gothic, 131;
+    in Blackletters, 135.
+  Ashbee, C. R., 74.
+  Auriol, George, 88.
+
+  B., 6.
+  Badia, Florence, lettering from, 45.
+  Bell, Robert Anning, 96.
+  Blacked-in letters, 202.
+  Blackletters, 127, 131, 132, 140, 141, 142;
+    accents of, 132;
+    ascenders and descenders of, 135;
+    capitals for use with, 134, 136, 139;
+    a condensed form of Gothic, 128;
+    construction of, 132, 141;
+    definition of, 128, 131;
+    effect of page of, 132;
+    with Roman letters, 72;
+    even color of, 134;
+    flourishes, 135;
+    individual letter forms, 132, 136;
+    illegibility of, 135, 136, 206;
+    a part-Roman form, 84;
+    a narrow form, 132;
+    old examples of, 136;
+    in panel forms, 136;
+    used solidly, 134, 135;
+    spacing of, 134, 136;
+    variety of, 82, 132, 135, 136.
+  Bonnard, Pierre, 91, 92.
+  Border, to lay out a, 204.
+  Boston Public Library, 14.
+  Bragdon, Claude Fayette, 64, 111, 194.
+  Brasses, Blackletters from, 138, 140.
+  Bridwell, H. L., 8, 112.
+  Bristol-board, 201.
+  Byzantine influence on Italian lettering, 45.
+
+  C., 8.
+  Capitals, used with Roman minuscules, 57;
+    with Round Gothic, 132;
+    with Blackletters, 136, 139;
+    (see also under Blackletter, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Modern Roman
+        Capitals, Script, Round Gothic, Uncial).
+  "Caroline" Text, 52.
+  Caslon, William, 64;
+    his type, 69.
+  Centering lines of lettering, 202.
+  Charlemagne, 52.
+  "Cheltenham Old Style" type, 71.
+  Cheltenham Press, The, 71.
+  Chisel-cut guide lines, 3.
+  Classic Capitals, see Roman Capitals.
+  Classic forms of letters, to draw, 3, 6, 201;
+    composition of, 6;
+    Italian Renaissance, 15, 27, 30.
+  "Colonial" lettering, 117.
+  Constantine, Arch of, lettering from, 11.
+  Construction, of Blackletters, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 3, 6;
+    of Roman Minuscules, 53, 56.
+  Craig, Gordon, 95, 96.
+  Crane, Walter, 47, 92, 200, 205.
+  Cross-bar in Roman Capitals, 6.
+  "Cursive" Letters, 91, 122.
+  Cursive tendency in Script lettering, 182.
+
+  D., 8.
+  'Dance of Death,' Holbein's, 117.
+  Day, Lewis F., 93.
+  Descenders, (see Ascenders).
+  De Vinne, Theo. L., 69.
+  Dove's Press, The, 69.
+  Drawing of letters, 201, 202, 205;
+    for reproduction, 203, 204.
+  Duerer, Albrecht, 31, 132, 138, 141.
+
+  E., 6, 104.
+  Early Gothic, (see Round Gothic).
+  Early Printing, 52, 64, 71.
+  Edwards, Edward B., 116.
+  Edwards, George Wharton, 194.
+  Emphasis in lettering, placing of, 206
+    (see also Accenting).
+  English Brasses derived from Flanders, 141.
+  English Gothic, 140, 141.
+  English lettering, modern, 75, 82, 92.
+  English, Letters, 47;
+    Script, 188,
+    (see also Anglo-Saxon).
+  Engraved Title-pages, French, 188.
+  Enlarging Drawings, 203, 204.
+
+  F., 6, 104.
+  f., 56.
+  Fell, H. Granville, 96.
+  Flanders, Brasses from, 141.
+  Flourishing, of Blackletters, 135;
+    of Script, 194, 198.
+  Free-hand lines, 202.
+  French, modern lettering, 74, 82, 86;
+    Script, 188, 194.
+  Freedom, in lettering, 53, 74, 82, 92, 102, 118, 122, 201;
+    in Blackletters, 136;
+    in Gothic, 127;
+    in Italic, 198;
+    in kerns, serifs and swash-lines, etc., 53;
+    in Roman letters, 82;
+    in Script, 183.
+
+  G., 8.
+  g., 57.
+  Georgian English lettering, 117, 183, 194, 198.
+  German lettering, modern, 74, 82, 84, 92;
+    early, 110, 117;
+    Script, 52, 188;
+    types, 52.
+  Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, 71, 102, 136, 142.
+  Gothic Capitals, for use with Blackletters, 139;
+    pen drawn, 140;
+    not to be used to form words, 132.
+  Gothic, English, (see English Gothic).
+  Gothic lettering, 127, 131, 134, 205;
+    cut in stone, 140;
+    (see also Blackletters and Uncial).
+  Granite, letters cut in, 11, 14,
+    (see also Stone-cut, V-sunk and Incised).
+  Grasset, Eugene, 86.
+  Greek type, 73.
+  Grolier Club, 69.
+  Guide-lines, 3, 204.
+
+  H., 6.
+  "Half-Uncial," 52.
+  Harvard Architectural Building, lettering on, 14.
+  Hazenplug, Frank, 116, 198.
+  Historic styles of lettering, knowledge of, 207.
+  Holbein's 'Dance of Death' initials, 117.
+  Horne, Herbert P., 72.
+  Hrachowina, C., 188.
+  Hupp, Otto, 142.
+
+  I., 8, 9;
+    space around, 205.
+  Illegibility of Blackletters, 135, 136.
+  Image, Selwyn, 73, 93.
+  Incised letters in stone, Gothic, 139, 140;
+    Classic Roman, 9, 14, 45;
+    (see also Granite, Inlaid, Marble, Sandstone, V-sunk and Stone-cut).
+  Ink, 201.
+  Inking-in lettering, 200, 202.
+  Inlaid lettering, Gothic, 141.
+  Interlacement of Script letters, 194.
+  Inter-relation of letters, 6, 135, 201.
+  Iorio, Adrian J., 107.
+  Irish letters, (see Anglo-Saxon).
+  Italian, Blackletters, 139, 141;
+    modern lettering, 92;
+    Renaissance (see Renaissance);
+    Roman small letters, 64;
+    types, 52;
+    writing-books, 64, 183;
+    letters, drawing of, 201.
+  Italic, 52, 182, 188, 194, 198;
+    capitals, 182, 198;
+    drawing of, 205;
+    emphasis of, 206.
+
+  J., 8.
+  j., 56.
+  Jenson, Nicholas, 64.
+  Jones, A. Garth, 96.
+
+  K., 6.
+  k., 56.
+  Kerns, 53, 56.
+  Kimball, H. Ingalls, 71.
+
+  L., 104.
+  Late Gothic, (see Blackletter).
+  Laying out, lettering, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205;
+    a border, 204.
+  Le Boutillier, Addison B., 110.
+  Legibility of lettering, 206, 207;
+    of Round Gothic, 132.
+  Letters, outlines of, 202, 206;
+    widths of, 206;
+    to lay out, 205;
+    execution of in various materials, 14;
+    (see also Brasses, Inlaid, Marble, Granite, Pen and Printed forms,
+        Sandstone, Type).
+  Lines, heavy, 199;
+    narrow, 199;
+    thin, 200;
+    in water-color, 200;
+    freehand, 202, 203;
+    ruled, 202.
+  Linking, of Blackletters, 136;
+    of Round Gothic, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 45;
+    of Script, 182.
+  Lowell, Orson, 117.
+
+  M., 2, 28.
+  m., 56.
+  Marble, letters cut in, 17, 27,
+    (see also Incised, Inlaid).
+  Marsuppini tomb, Florence, 28.
+  Magonigle, H. Van Buren, 102.
+  McKim, Mead & White, architects, 14.
+  Medals, lettering on, 30.
+  Merrymount Press, The, 71, 72.
+  "Merrymount" type, 71.
+  Minuscule, 1;
+    modern Roman, 52, 53, 56, 57, 64;
+    monumental uses, 57;
+    composition of, 64;
+    growing use of, 76, 122;
+    spacing of, 57;
+    (see also, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Script).
+  Modern lettering, (see under countries, American, English, French,
+      German, Italian).
+  Modern Roman Capitals, 6;
+    (see Chapter II).
+  Modern type, (see Type).
+  "Montaigne" type, 69.
+  "Mont' Allegro" type, 73.
+  Moore, Guernsey, 116.
+  Morris, William, 72;
+    types of, 69.
+  Mucha, Alphons M., 91.
+
+  N., 2.
+  Netherlands, brasses from, 141.
+  New, Edmund H., 96.
+  Nicholson, William, 95.
+
+  O., 8, 182.
+  o., 182
+  Optical Illusions in Roman Capitals, 8.
+  Outline letters, 202.
+
+  P., 6.
+  Pantheon, Rome, Raphael's tomb, 27.
+  Papers, drawing, 201.
+  Parchment, 128.
+  Parrish, Maxfield, 110, 122.
+  Parsons, Alfred, 96.
+  Pens, 199, 201;
+    crowquill, 199;
+    reed, 2;
+    ruling, 202;
+    stub, 200;
+    quill, 200.
+  Pen drawn forms of letters, 9, 27, 30, 31, 45, 56, 64, 74, 76, 122, 140,
+      182, 199, 202.
+  Pencils, 200, 201.
+  Penfield, Edward, 100, 116, 118, 198.
+  Petrarch, 52;
+    handwriting of, 182.
+  Pisano, Vittore, 30.
+  "Post Old Style" type, 116.
+  Presses, (see Merrymount, Vale, Riverside, Cheltenham, Dove's, and De
+      Vinne).
+  Printed forms of Roman letters, 9, 30, 52, 53, 56, 64, 69, 122.
+  Printers, German, 52;
+    Italian, 52, 64;
+    American, 69;
+    English, 64, 69, 72, 73;
+    Venetian, 53, 64.
+  Proportions of a design, 203.
+  Puttner, Walter, 142.
+  Pyle, Howard, 117.
+
+  Q., 2, 8, 92.
+  "Quadrigesimale," 69.
+  Quill pens, 200;
+    method of holding, 2, 131.
+
+  R., 2, 6, 8.
+  Railton, Herbert, 96.
+  Raphael's tomb, lettering from, 27.
+  Reduction of drawings, 203, 204.
+  Renaissance, letters, 15, 27, 30;
+    artists of the, 53;
+    lettering of the Italian, 206;
+    medals, 30;
+    purity of letter shapes, 69.
+  Renner, 69.
+  Renner type, 69.
+  Reproduction of drawings, 203.
+  Ricketts, Charles, 93.
+  Riverside Press, The, 69.
+  Rogers, Bruce, 69, 194.
+  Roman Capitals, 1, 27;
+    (see also Modern Roman);
+    thick and thin lines of, 1, 6;
+    model for, 3;
+    rules for, 2;
+    squareness of, 1, 6, 131;
+    peculiarities of, 6, 8.
+  Roman letters, 127, 136;
+    with Italic, 182;
+    combined with Script and Italic, 194;
+    cross bars of, 6;
+    definition of, 1;
+    legibility of, 206;
+    waist lines of, 6;
+    width proportions of, 6.
+  Roman minuscules, (see Minuscule).
+  Roman forms, Gothic Spirit in, 84;
+    Uncial, 128.
+  Romanesque influence on Italian lettering, 45.
+  Ross, Albert R., 3, 11, 32, 56.
+  Roty, O., 30.
+  Round Gothic, analysis of, 131;
+    definition of, 131;
+    capitals to use with, 132, 139.
+  Round letters, capitals, 2, 3;
+    Minuscules, 56, 71;
+    stone-cut, 3, 9.
+  Rubbings, from inscriptions, 11, 16.
+  Ruling pen, 202.
+
+  S., 8.
+  Sandstone, letters cut in, 14.
+  Santa Croce, Florence, lettering from, 28, 141.
+  Script, 182, 183, 188, 194, 198;
+    capitals, 188;
+    cursive tendency in, 182;
+    developed from writing hands, 182;
+    drawing of, 205;
+    French, 188;
+    German, 188;
+    on English headstones and wall tombs, 188;
+    Spanish, 188;
+    used in engravings, 188;
+    used with upright Roman, 182, 183.
+  Serifs, 8, 16;
+    definition of, 3;
+    in Minuscule letters, 53, 69, 71;
+    in Italic letters, 182;
+    treatment of, 206.
+  Serlio, Sebastian, 3, 11, 32.
+  Shadows in V-sunk letters, 10, 11, 14.
+  Shaw, Byam, 96.
+  Simpson, Joseph W., 93.
+  Small letters, (see Minuscule, also Modern Roman, Gothic, Script and
+      Italic).
+  Spacing, of Classic Roman letters, 6, 8;
+    of Blackletters, 128, 134, 136;
+    of Minuscules, 53, 56, 57;
+    of type, 56;
+    of "Montaigne" type, 69;
+    of "Cheltenham" type, 71;
+    of letters and words, 201, 205;
+    emphasis obtained by, 206.
+  Spanish, Script, 188;
+    Roman letters, 64;
+    writing-books, 64, 183.
+  Stone-cut letters, Roman, 3, 9, 14;
+    (see also Incised, V-sunk, Granite, Marble, Sandstone).
+  Sullivan, James F., 96.
+  Swash lines, 2, 53, 136.
+
+  T., 8, 28.
+  Tagliente, G. A., 31.
+  Thompson, Hugh, 96.
+  Tory, Geoffrey, 31.
+  Townsend, Harry Everett, 117.
+  Transferring of lettering, 202.
+  Type, 9, 52, 64, 74.
+  Type-founders, 9, 56, 64.
+  Type models for pen lettering, use of, 74, 76, 122.
+
+  Uncial letters, 45, 76, 84, 92, 128;
+    Gothic, 139;
+    meta forms of, 140;
+    pen forms of, 140;
+    stone-cut, 140;
+    stone and marble, 139.
+  Updike, D. Berkeley, 71.
+
+  V., 9.
+  Vale Press, The, 93.
+  Van Rysselberghe, Theo., 91.
+  Venetian printers, 53, 64.
+  Verneuil, M. P., 86.
+  Vinci, Leonardo da, 31.
+  V-sunk Roman lettering, 9, 10, 14;
+    (see also Incised).
+
+  W., 9.
+  w., 56.
+  Waist lines, 6, 204;
+    of Roman letters, 6, 204, 206.
+  Westminster Abbey, England, 188.
+  Width proportions, of Roman Capital letters, 6.
+  Writing-books, 64, 183.
+  Writing hand, 188;
+    of Petrarch, 182;
+    Script developed from, 182.
+
+  X., 6.
+
+  Y., 6.
+  y., 56.
+
+  Z., 2.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
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+
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+that has ever been written on the subject. The study is approached from the
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