initial commit of ebook 20590HEADmain

414 files changed, 12148 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/20590-8.txt b/20590-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fb2aeb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3470 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Letters and Lettering, by Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Letters and Lettering
+       A Treatise With 200 Examples
+
+Author: Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+Release Date: February 16, 2007 [EBook #20590]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTERS AND LETTERING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+LETTERS &
+LETTERING
+
+A TREATISE WITH 200 EXAMPLES
+
+FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BOSTON
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY
+
+MCMXXI
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Copyright, 1921, by_
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY
+
+Printed by
+PERRY & ELLIOTT CO
+LYNN BOSTON
+
+Printed in the U. S. A.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTE
+
+This book is intended for those who have felt the need of a varied
+collection of alphabets of standard forms, arranged for convenient use.
+
+The alphabets illustrated, while primarily intended to exhibit the letter
+shapes, have in most cases been so arranged as to show also how the letters
+compose into words, except in those instances where they are intended to be
+used only as initials. The application of classic and medieval letters to
+modern usages has been, as far as possible, suggested by showing modern
+designs in which similar forms are employed.
+
+In view of the practical aim of this treatise it has been deemed advisable
+to include a larger number of illustrative examples rather than to devote
+space to the historical evolution of the letter forms.
+
+To the artists, American and European, who have so kindly furnished him
+with drawings of their characteristic letters--and without whose cordial
+assistance this book would hardly have been possible--to the
+master-printers who have allowed him to show types specially designed for
+them, and to the publishers who have given him permission to borrow from
+their books and magazines, the author wishes to express his sincere
+obligations.
+
+F. C. B.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+1 AND 2 ALPHABET AFTER SEBASTIAN SERLIO (1473-1554). Reconstructed by
+Albert R. Ross.
+
+3 WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B.
+
+4 DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. For cutting in granite. Letter forms
+based upon those shown in figures 1 and 2. F. C. B.
+
+5 PHOTOGRAPH OF INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in granite from drawing shown
+in figure 4
+
+6 INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. From the Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 A.D. From
+a photograph
+
+7 MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Used for inscriptions cut in granite on
+Boston Public Library. McKim, Mead & White, Architects. Photographed from a
+cast
+
+8 ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. From fragments in marble. National Museum,
+Naples. Rubbing
+
+9 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph
+
+10 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph
+
+11 DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Showing composition. Redrawn
+from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+12 "RUSTIC" ROMAN CAPITALS. Of pen forms, but cut in stone. Redrawn from a
+rubbing. From fragment in the National Museum, Naples. F. C. B.
+
+13 ROMAN CAPITALS FROM FRAGMENTS OF INSCRIPTIONS. Showing various
+characteristic letter forms. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B.
+
+14 MODERN ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. Executed in sandstone. From the Harvard
+Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass. McKim, Mead & White, Architects
+
+15 LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1 AND 2, IN COMPOSITION. By Albert R. Ross
+
+16 and 17 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings made
+in the Forum, Rome. F. C. B.-21
+
+18 and 19 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Late period. Cut in marble. Redrawn from
+rubbings. F. C. B.
+
+20 PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION. With supplied letters. Redrawn from a
+rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+21 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. Incised in marble. Redrawn from a rubbing.
+F. C. B.
+
+22 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. In stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+23 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. Square-sunk in marble. From a
+photograph of a mortuary slab
+
+24 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. By Vittore Pisano. 15th Century. From a
+photograph
+
+25 MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. By Oscar Roty. From a photograph of the original in
+the Luxembourg, Paris
+
+26 CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B.
+
+27 SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. By Juan de Yciar. From "Arte por la qual
+se ese[=n]a a escrevir perfectamente." (Saragossa, 1550)
+
+28 RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+29 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. From an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. (Compare figure 28.) Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+30 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. From Raphael's tomb, Pantheon, Rome. From a
+photograph
+
+31 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa
+Croce, Florence, 1455. Rubbing
+
+32 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From a floor-slab in Santa
+Croce, Florence. Early 15th Century. Rubbing
+
+33 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from inscription on the Marsuppini
+Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. (Compare figure 31.) F. C. B.
+
+34 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from rubbings of inscriptions in
+Santa Croce, Florence. F. C. B.
+
+35 and 36 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera
+arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+37 and 38 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Albrecht Dürer. Adapted from
+'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, [u]n richtscheyt, in Linien,
+etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525)
+
+39 and 40 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Sebastian Serlio. (1473-1554.)
+Compare figures 1 and 2
+
+41 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Urbain Wÿss. From 'Libellus valde doctus
+... scribendarum literarum genera complectens.' (Zurich, 1549)
+
+42 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. Above the door of the Badia, Florence.
+Redrawn by Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Minor Italian Palaces.' (Cutler
+Manufacturing Company, Rochester, N.Y., 1898)
+
+43 MODERN TITLE IN ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. (Compare
+figure 46.) From 'The Quest of Merlin.' (Small, Maynard & Co., Boston,
+1891)
+
+44 MODERN TITLE WITH CHARACTERISTICS OF 16TH CENTURY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By
+Walter Crane. (Compare figure 49.) From 'The Story of Don Quixote.' (John
+Lane, New York, 1900)
+
+45 TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By W. Eden Nesfield. From 'Specimens of
+Medieval Architecture.' (Day & Sons, London, 1862)
+
+46 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 6TH CENTURY. From 'The Rule of St. Benedict.'
+Bodleian Library, Oxford
+
+47 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 7TH CENTURY. From 'The Gospels of St. Cuthbert'
+
+48 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10TH CENTURY. From an Anglo-Saxon Bible
+
+49 EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th Century. From tomb of Henry VII,
+Westminster Abbey, London
+
+50 and 51 SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.
+
+52 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+53 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco
+Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+54 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+55 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco
+Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+56 ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. By J. F. Cresci. From 'Perfetto Scrittore.'
+(Rome, 1560)
+
+57 ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY LETTERS. Incised in slate. From tombstones
+
+58 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. After C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen Alphabete und
+Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883)
+
+59 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. Based on Venetian types
+cut by Nicholas Jenson, 1471-81
+
+60 INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY TOMBSTONE. From slate tombstone at
+Chippenham, England. 1691. F. C. B.
+
+61 ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. Designed by William Caslon. From his Specimen
+Book. (London, 1734)
+
+62 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MONTAIGNE." Designed by Bruce Rogers for The
+Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass.
+
+63 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "RENNER." Designed by Theo. L. De Vinne for The De
+Vinne Press, New York
+
+64 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MERRYMOUNT." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The
+Merrymount Press, Boston, Mass.
+
+65 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE." Designed by Bertram G.
+Goodhue for The Cheltenham Press, New York. (Owned by American Type
+Founders Company and Linotype Company)
+
+66 MODERN GREEK TYPE. Designed by Selwyn Image for The Macmillan Company,
+London
+
+67 MODERN ROMAN TYPE. Designed by C. R. Ashbee for a Prayerbook for the
+King of England
+
+68 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by J. M. Olbrich
+
+69 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Gustave Lemmen. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+70 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Alois Ludwig
+
+71 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Otto Eckmann
+
+72 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Otto Hupp. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+73 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Joseph Plécnik. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+74 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Franz Stuck
+
+75 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. Arranged from originals. F. C. B.
+
+76 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Bernhard Pankok
+
+77 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Libre Esthétique.' By Theo. van Rysselberghe
+
+78 MODERN FRENCH BOOK-COVER. By M. P. Verneuil. From 'L'Animal dans la
+décoration.' (E. Lévy, Paris)
+
+79 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. After lettering by M. P. Verneuil
+
+80 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Revue Blanche.' By P. Bonnard
+
+81 MODERN FRENCH MAGAZINE COVER DESIGN. By George Auriol. From 'L'Image.'
+(Floury, Paris, 1897)
+
+82 MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. By Alphons M. Mucha. From 'Beispiele
+Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+83 MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE IN "CURSIVE." By George Auriol. From 'Le
+Premier Livre des Cachets, etc.' (Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris,
+1901)
+
+84 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS, "CURSIVE." By George Auriol
+
+85 MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. By Eugène Grasset. From 'Art et Décoration.'
+(Paris)
+
+86 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+87 MODERN ENGLISH THEATRICAL POSTER. By Walter Crane
+
+88 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Alphabets Old and New.'
+(B. T. Batsford, London, 1899)
+
+89 MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunsterischer
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+90 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Joseph W. Simpson. From 'The Book of
+Book-plates.' (Williams & Norgate, Edinburgh)
+
+91 MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. By Joseph W. Simpson
+
+92 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By William Nicholson. From 'London Types.'
+(R. H. Russell, New York, 1898)
+
+93 MODERN ENGLISH MAGAZINE COVER. By Lewis F. Day. From 'The Art Journal.'
+(H. Virtue & Co., London)
+
+94 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Gordon Craig. From 'The Page' (The Sign of the
+Rose, Hackbridge, Surrey)
+
+95 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Lewis F. Day. From 'Alphabets Old and New.'
+(B. T. Batsford, London, 1899)
+
+96 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE PAGE. By Robert Anning Bell. From 'Poems by John
+Keats.' (George Bell & Sons, London, 1897)
+
+97 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Edmund H. New. From 'The Natural History
+of Selborne.' (John Lane, London, 1900)
+
+98 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Selwyn Image. From 'Representative
+Painters of the 19th Century.' (Sampson, Low, Marston & Co., London, 1899)
+
+99 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. Anonymous. From an advertisement
+
+100 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Charles Ricketts. From 'Nimphidia and the
+Muses Elizium.' (The Vale Press, London)
+
+101 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Selections from the
+Poetry of Robert Herrick.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899)
+
+102 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)
+
+103 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's
+Weekly.' (New York)
+
+104 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Edward Penfield
+
+105 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Edward Penfield
+
+106 MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. By H. Van Buren Magonigle
+
+107 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. Van Buren Magonigle
+
+108 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Masters in Art.'
+(Boston, 1900)
+
+109 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Will Bradley. From 'The Book List of Dodd,
+Mead & Co.' (New York, 1899)
+
+110 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. By Will Bradley. From
+'Bradley, His Book.' (The Wayside Press, Springfield, Mass., 1896)
+
+111 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Will Bradley. From 'The
+International Studio.' (New York)
+
+112 MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. By A. J. Iorio
+
+113 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Will Bradley
+
+114 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Maxfield Parrish
+
+115 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Maxfield Parrish. From 'Knickerbocker's
+History of New York.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1900)
+
+116 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+117 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+118 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+119 MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+120 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+121 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Literature.'
+(New York)
+
+122 MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEADING. By Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+123 MODERN AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT. By H. L. Bridwell. (Strowbridge
+Lithographic Co., Cincinnati)
+
+124 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. L. Bridwell
+
+125 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Frank Hazenplug
+
+126 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS, "HEAVY FACE." By Frank Hazenplug
+
+127 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From ''Ickery Ann and
+other Girls and Boys.' (Herbert S. Stone & Co., Chicago, 1899)
+
+128 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edward Edwards. From 'Harper's Pictorial
+History of the War with Spain.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899)
+
+129 MODERN AMERICAN CATALOGUE COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From the Catalogue
+of the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society. (Chicago)
+
+130 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Guernsey Moore. From 'The Saturday Evening
+Post.' (Philadelphia)
+
+131 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Harry Everett Townsend. From 'The Blue Sky.'
+(Langworthy & Stevens, Chicago, 1901)
+
+132 MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. By Howard Pyle. From 'Harper's Magazine.' (New
+York)
+
+133 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. Compiled from various sources. F. C. B.
+
+134 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Orson Lowell
+
+135 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.
+
+136 MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)
+
+137 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)
+
+138 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. For rapid use. F. C. B.
+
+139 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC. For use in lettering architects' plans, etc. By
+Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+140 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, "CURSIVE." For rapid use. By Maxfield Parrish
+
+141 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. After Lucantonii Giunta. Redrawn
+from 'Graduale Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae.' (Venice, 1500)
+
+142 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th Century. Redrawn from Italian
+originals
+
+143 SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+144 GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. By Albrecht Dürer. From 'Underweyssung
+der messung, mit dem zirckel, [=u]n richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.'
+(Nuremberg, 1525)
+
+145 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. Redrawn from manuscripts
+
+146 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With rounded angles. Redrawn from manuscripts
+
+147 ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. By Jacopus Philippus Foresti
+(Bergomensis). From 'De Claris Mulieribus, etc.' (Ferrara, 1497)
+
+148 GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. By Albrecht Dürer. From the Prayerbook
+designed by him for the Emperor Maximilian. (Nuremberg, 1515)
+
+149 GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS WITH BLACKLETTER INSCRIPTION. Ascribed to
+Albrecht Dürer. Cathedral of Meissen, 1510. From 'Fac-similes of Monumental
+Brasses on the Continent of Europe.' (W. F. Creeney, Norwich, 1884)
+
+150 MODERN AMERICAN CALENDAR COVER IN BLACKLETTER. By Bertram G. Goodhue.
+From 'Every Day's Date Calendar.' (Fleming, Schiller & Carnrick, New York,
+1897)
+
+151 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. By Walter Puttner. From 'Jugend.' (Munich)
+
+152 MODERN GERMAN TITLE IN BLACKLETTER. By Otto Hupp. From 'Münchener
+Kalendar.' (Munich, 1900)
+
+153 MODERN AMERICAN PAGE IN ENGLISH BLACKLETTER. By Edwin A. Abbey. From
+'Scribner's Magazine.' (New York)
+
+154 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 12th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+155 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 13th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+156 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. Redrawn from 14th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+157 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After J. Weale. Redrawn from
+'Portfolio of Ancient Capital Letters.' (London, 1838-9)
+
+158 ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS, IN THE "PAPAL" HAND. From a Florentine
+manuscript of 1315. British Museum, London. F. C. B.
+
+159 SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Juan de Yciar. Adapted from 'Arte
+por la qual se ese[=n]a escrevir perfectamente.' (Saragossa, 1550)
+
+160 VENETIAN WALL PANEL, of Marble, Inscribed with Uncial Gothic Letters.
+15th Century. From the Church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. Rubbing
+
+161 VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15th Century. Redrawn from the rubbing shown
+in figure 160. F. C. B.
+
+162 GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS. 1341. Redrawn from a memorial brass in the
+Cathedral of Lübeck
+
+163 FRENCH AND SPANISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After W. S.
+Weatherley
+
+164 and 165 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. After G. A. Tagliente, in 'La vera
+arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+166 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By Giovanni Battista Palatino. From 'Libro nel
+qual s'insegna a scrivere.' (Rome, 1548)
+
+167, 168 and 169 GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By P. Frank. Nuremberg, 1601. From
+Petzendorfer's 'Schriften-Atlas.' (Stuttgart, 1889)
+
+170 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples
+
+171 GOTHIC CAPITALS OF ENGLISH FORM. 16th Century. Redrawn from old
+examples
+
+172 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various examples
+
+173 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various manuscripts
+
+174 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts
+
+175 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts
+
+176 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS, HEAVY FACED
+
+177 ENGLISH GOTHIC "TEXT," INITIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From
+manuscripts
+
+178 ENGLISH GOTHIC UNCIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From Queen
+Eleanor's tomb. F. C. B.
+
+179 ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From tomb of
+Richard II, Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B.
+
+180 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. From a brass. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+181 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With Albrecht Dürer's initials. 16th Century.
+F. C. B.
+
+182 ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello
+eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+183 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century
+
+184 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century
+
+185 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century
+
+186 ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. Late 15th Century. Redrawn from a brass.
+F. C. B.
+
+187 ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. From a marble slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+188 and 189 MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS WITH GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Bertram
+G. Goodhue
+
+190 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Julius Diez
+
+191 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B.
+
+192 GERMAN ITALIC. By Gottlieb Münch. From 'Ordnung der Schrift.' (Munich,
+1744)
+
+193 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid,
+1802)
+
+194 SPANISH SCRIPTS. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid,
+1802)
+
+195 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.'
+(Madrid, 1577)
+
+196 SPANISH CURSIVE. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.'
+(Madrid, 1577)
+
+197 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From an
+advertisement
+
+198 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By George Wharton Edwards. From
+'Collier's Weekly.' (New York)
+
+199 FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th Century. F. C. B.
+
+200 GERMAN SCRIPT. 18th Century forms. Adapted from C. Hrachowina's
+'Initialen, Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna,
+1883)
+
+201 SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. Early 18th Century. Adapted from a Spanish
+Writing-book. F. C. B.
+
+202 SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. Late 17th Century. Adapted from Spanish
+Writing-books. F. C. B.
+
+203 ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. Redrawn from inscriptions in slate and stone in
+Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B.
+
+204 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT BOOK TITLE. By Bruce Rogers. From cover design
+of 'The House of the Seven Gables.' (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1899)
+
+205 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. By Bruce Rogers
+
+206 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT CAPITALS. After lettering by Frank Hazenplug
+
+207 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B.
+
+208 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New
+York)
+
+209 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's
+Weekly.' (New York)
+
+210 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from upper left corner
+
+211 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from perpendicular center
+line
+
+END PAPERS. From an embroidered Altar-cloth. 17th Century. Church of St.
+Mary, Soest, Westphalia, Germany.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  I. ROMAN CAPITALS                          1
+  II. MODERN ROMAN LETTERS                   52
+  III. GOTHIC LETTERS                        127
+  IV. ITALIC AND SCRIPT                      182
+  V. TO THE BEGINNER                         199
+
+[1]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ROMAN CAPITALS
+
+In speaking of the "Roman" letter throughout this chapter its capital
+form--the form in monumental use among the Romans--will always be implied.
+The small or "minuscule" letters, which present nomenclature includes under
+the general title of "Roman" letters, and which will be considered in the
+following chapter, were of later formation than the capitals; and indeed
+only attained their definitive and modern form after the invention of
+printing from movable types.
+
+The first point to be observed in regard to the general form of the Roman
+capital is its characteristic squareness. Although the letter as used
+to-day varies somewhat in proportions from its classic prototype, its
+skeleton is still based on the square.
+
+Next to this typical squareness of outline, the observer should note that
+the Roman letter is composed of thick and thin lines. At first sight it may
+seem that no systematic rules determine which of these lines should be
+thick and which thin; but closer investigation will discover that the
+alternate widths of line were evolved quite methodically, and that they
+exactly fulfil the functions of making the letters both more legible and
+more decorative. Arbitrary rearrangements of these thick and thin lines,
+differing from the arrangement of them in the classic examples, have, [2]
+indeed, been often attempted; but such rearrangements have never resulted
+in improvement, and, except in eccentric lettering, have fallen into
+complete disuse.
+
+The original thickening and thinning of the lines of the classic Roman
+capitals was partly due to the imitation in stone inscriptions of the
+letter forms as they were written on parchment with the pen. The early
+Latin scribes held their stiff-nibbed reed pens almost directly upright and
+at right angles to the writing surface, so that a down stroke from left to
+right and slanted at an angle of about forty-five degrees would bring the
+nib across the surface broadwise, resulting in the widest line possible to
+the pen. On the other hand, a stroke drawn at right angles to this, the pen
+being still held upright, would be made with the thin edge of the nib, and
+would result in the narrowest possible line. From this method of handling
+the pen the variations of line width in the standard Roman forms arose; and
+we may therefore deduce three logical rules, based upon pen use, which will
+determine the proper distribution of the thick and thin lines:
+
+I, Never accent horizontal lines. II, Always accent the sloping down
+strokes which run from left to right, including the so-called "swash"
+lines, or flying tails, of Q and R; but never weight those which,
+contrariwise, slope up from left to right, with a single exception in the
+case of the letter Z, in which, if rule I be followed, the sloping line (in
+this case made with a down stroke) will be the only one possible to accent.
+III, Always accent the directly perpendicular lines, except in the N, where
+these lines seem originally to have been made with an up stroke of the pen;
+and the first line of the M, where the perpendiculars originally sloped in
+towards the top of the letter (see 2). On the round letters [3] the accents
+should occur at the sides of the circle, as virtually provided in rule III,
+or on the upper right and lower left quarters (see 1-2), where in pen-drawn
+letters the accent of the down sloping stroke would naturally occur, as
+virtually determined in rule II.
+
+The "serif"--a cross-stroke or tick--finishes the free ends of all lines
+used in making a Roman capital. The value of the serif in stone-cut letters
+seems obvious. To define the end of a free line a sharp cut was made across
+it with the chisel, and as the chisel was usually wider than the thin line
+this cut extended beyond it. Serifs were added to the ends of the thick
+lines either for the sake of uniformity, or may have been suggested by the
+chisel-marked guide lines themselves. Indeed in late stone-cut Roman work
+the scratched guide lines along the top and bottom of each line of the
+inscription are distinctly marked and merge into the serifs, which extend
+farther than in earlier examples. The serif was adopted in pen letters
+probably from the same reasons that caused it to be added to the stone-cut
+letters, namely, that it definitely finished the free lines and enhanced
+the general squareness and finish of the letter's aspect.
+
+[Illustration: 1. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 2. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 3. WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F.C.B.]
+
+An excellent model for constructing the Roman capitals in a standard form
+will be found in the beautiful adaptation by Mr. A. R. Ross, 1 and 2, from
+an alphabet of capitals drawn by Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect,
+engraver and painter of the sixteenth century, who devised some of the most
+refined variants of the classic Roman letter. Serlio's original forms,
+which are shown in 39 and 40, were intended for pen or printed use; but in
+altering Serlio's scheme of proportions it will be observed that Mr. Ross
+[6] has partially adapted the letter for use in stone, and has further
+varied it in details, notably in serif treatment. In most modern stone-cut
+letters, however, the thin strokes would be made even wider than in this
+example, as in 14. Mr. Ross's adaptation shows excellently how far the
+classic letters do or do not fill out the theoretical square.
+
+Width proportions, which may be found useful in laying out lettering for
+lines of a given length, are shown in 3 in a more modern style of the Roman
+capital. In the classic Roman letter the cross-bar is usually in the exact
+center of the letter height, but in 3 the center line has been used as the
+bottom of the cross-bar in B, E, H, P, and R, and as the top of the
+cross-bar in A; and in letters like K, Y and X the "waist lines," as the
+meeting points of the sloping lines are sometimes called, have been
+slightly raised to obtain a more pleasant effect.
+
+The Roman alphabet, although the one most in use, is unfortunately the most
+difficult to compose into words artistically, as the spacing between the
+letters plays a great share in the result. The effect of even color over a
+whole panel is obtained by keeping as nearly as possible the same area of
+white between each letter and its neighbor; but the shape of this area will
+be determined in every case by the letters which happen to be juxtaposed.
+Individual letters may, however, be widened or condensed to help fill an
+awkward "hole" in a line of lettering;--the lower lobe of the B may be
+extended, the center bar of the E pulled out (in which case the F should be
+made to correspond), the lower slant stroke of the K may be used as a swash
+tail, and the R may have its tail extended or drawn closely back against
+the upright line, and so on. Indeed, each and [8] every letter of the
+alphabet is susceptible to such similar modifications in shape as may make
+it best suit the space left for it by its neighbors. Observe, for example,
+the spacing of the word MERITAE in 34, and notice how the tail of the R is
+lengthened to hold off the I because the T on the other side is perforce
+held away by its top. In the page of capitals, 124, by Mr. Bridwell, see
+also how the different spacing of the word FRENCH in the first and second
+lines is managed. In the advertisement, 123, also by Mr. Bridwell, note how
+the letters are spaced close or wide in order to produce a definite effect.
+The whole problem of spacing is, however, one of such subtle interrelation
+and composition, that it can only be satisfactorily solved by the artistic
+sense of the designer. Any rules which might be here formulated would prove
+more often a drawback than a help.
+
+Certain optical illusions of some of the Roman letter forms should be
+briefly mentioned. These illusions are caused by the failure of certain
+letters to impinge squarely with determining serifs against the demarking
+top and bottom guide lines. The round letters C, G, O and Q often seem to
+be shorter and smaller than the other characters in a word unless the
+outsides of their curves run both above and below the guide lines. For the
+same reason S should be sometimes slightly increased in height, though in
+this case the narrowness of the letter makes less increase necessary; and
+J, on account of its kern, is governed by the same conditions as S, save
+when letters with distinct serifs come closely against it at the bottom.
+Theoretically the right side of D would require similar treatment, but
+actually this is seldom found necessary. The pointed ends of [9] the
+letters V and W should, for similar optical reasons, be extended slightly
+below the bottom guide lines, the amount of this extension being determined
+by the letters on each side of them. In the A, the Roman letterer at first
+got over the optical difficulty caused by its pointed top by running this
+letter also higher than its neighbors; but he later solved the problem by
+shaping its apex as shown in I, thus apparently getting the letter into
+line with its companions while still obtaining a sufficient width of top to
+satisfy the eye. Because of its narrowness, I should generally be allowed
+more proportionate white space on either side of it than the wider letters.
+
+Some idea of the proportionate variations required to counteract the
+optical illusions of the letters above named may be obtained from the
+practice of type-founders. In making the designs for a fount of type, it
+has been customary to first draw each letter at a very large size. Taking
+an arbitrary height of twelve inches as a standard, the points of A and V
+were made to extend about three-quarters of an inch above or below the
+guides, the letter O was run over about half an inch at both top and
+bottom, and the points of the w were made to project about the same
+distance. In pen lettering, however, it is possible and preferable to adapt
+each letter more perfectly to its individual surroundings by judgment of
+the eye than to rely upon any hard and fast rules.
+
+Certain variations between the stone-cut forms of the Roman letters and
+their forms as drawn or printed should be understood before an intelligent
+adaptation of stone forms to drawn forms, or the opposite, is possible.
+When drawn or printed a character is seen in black against a [10] white
+ground with no illusory alterations of its line widths caused by varying
+shadows. In stone-cut letters, on the other hand, where the shadows rather
+than the outlines themselves reveal the forms, different limitations govern
+the problem. The thin lines of a letter to be V-sunk should generally be
+made slightly thicker in proportion to the wide lines than is the case with
+the pen-drawn letter, especially as the section is likely to be less deeply
+and sharply cut nowadays than in the ancient examples, for the workmanship
+of to-day seems to be less perfect and the materials used more friable. A
+slight direct sinkage before beginning to cut the V-sunk section is a
+useful method of [11] partially atoning for modern shallow cutting, as
+shadows more directly defining the outlines are thus obtained. The student
+should, however, be warned at the outset that all reproductions or tracings
+from rubbings of ancient stone-cut letters are apt to be more or less
+deceptive, as all the accidental variations of the outlines are
+exaggerated, and where the stone of the original has been chipped or worn
+away it appears in the reproduction as though the letter had been actually
+so cut.
+
+[Illustration: 4. DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN GRANITE. F.C.B]
+
+[Illustration: 5. PHOTOGRAPH FROM INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS SHOWN IN 4]
+
+[Illustration: 6. INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME]
+
+The photograph of a panel of lettering from the upper part of the Arch of
+Constantine, Rome, shown in 6, well indicates the effect of shadows in
+defining the classic Roman letters; and the effect of shadows on an incised
+letter may be clearly observed by comparing 4 and 5, the former showing a
+drawing for an inscription in which the Serlio-Ross [14] alphabet was used
+as a basis for the letter forms, and the latter being a photograph of the
+same inscription, as cut in granite. It will be noted how much narrower the
+thin lines appear when defined only by shadow than in the drawing. The
+model used for the lettering on the frieze of the Boston Public Library, 7,
+which shows some interesting modern forms intended for cutting in granite,
+should be studied for the effect of the cast shadows; while 14, a redrawing
+of inscriptions on the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass.,
+exhibits an excellent type of letter with widened thin lines for v-cutting
+in sandstone.
+
+[Illustration: 7. MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. McKIM, MEAD & WHITE]
+
+[Illustration: 8. ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. FROM A RUBBING]
+
+The special requirements of the stone-cut forms for either incised or
+raised inscriptions are, however, quite apart from the subject of this
+book, and are too various to be taken up in greater detail here. It is
+important, nevertheless, that the designer should be reminded always to
+make allowance for the material in which a letter was originally executed.
+Otherwise, if exactly copied in other materials, he may find the result
+annoyingly unsatisfactory.
+
+[15]
+
+[Illustration: 9. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA]
+
+[Illustration: 10. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA]
+
+The examples of letters taken from Roman and Renaissance Italian monuments,
+shown in the pages of this chapter, will illustrate the variety of
+individual letter forms used by the Classic and Renaissance designers. The
+shape of the same letter will often be found to vary in the same
+inscription and even in apparently analogous cases. The designers evidently
+had in mind more than the directly adjacent words, and sometimes even
+considered [16] the relation of their lettering to objects outside the
+panel altogether. This is especially true in the work of the Italian
+Renaissance, which is almost invariably admirable in both composition and
+arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: 11. DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 12. ROMAN CAPITALS OF PEN FORMS CUT IN STONE. F.C.B.]
+
+Figures 8 to 22 show examples, drawn from various sources, which exhibit
+different treatments of the classic Roman letter forms. The differentiation
+will be found to lie largely in the widths of the letters themselves, and
+in the treatment of the serifs, angles, and varying widths of line. Figures
+11 to 13 and 16 to 22 are redrawn from rubbings [17] of Roman incised
+inscriptions. Figures 16 and 17 show beautifully proportioned letters cut
+in marble with unusual care and refinement, considering the large size of
+the originals. A later Roman form of less refinement but of greater
+strength and carrying power, and for that reason better adapted to many
+modern uses, is shown in 18 and 19. In this case the original letters were
+cut about seven and [27] one-half inches high. The letters in 20 are
+curiously modern in character. Part of the panel of Roman lettering shown
+in 21 exhibits the use of a form very like that shown in 18 and 19. Figure
+11 shows a detail composed in a quite representative fashion; while on the
+other hand figure 12 depicts a Roman letter of quite unusual character, and
+of a form evidently adapted from pen work, in which the shapes are narrow
+and crowded, while the lines are thickened as though they were of the
+classical square outline. The bits of old Roman inscriptions shown in 8 to
+10 and in 13 are included to exhibit various different forms and treatments
+of classic capitals.
+
+[Illustration: 13. ROMAN CAPITALS FROM INSCRIPTIONS. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 14. MODERN INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN SANDSTONE.
+ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1-2, IN COMPOSITION. ALBERT R.
+ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 16. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 18. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 19. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 20. PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION WITH SUPPLIED LETTERS.
+F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 21. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE FROM A RUBBING.
+F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 22. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN STONE FROM A RUBBING.
+F.C.B.]
+
+After the fall of Rome and during the Dark Ages the practice of lettering,
+at least in so far as the Roman form was concerned, was distinctly
+retrograde. With the advent of the Renaissance, however, the purest classic
+forms were revived; and indeed the Italian Renaissance seems to have been
+the golden age of lettering. With the old Roman fragments of the best
+period constantly before their eyes the Renaissance artists of Italy seem
+to have grasped the true spirit of classicism; and their work somehow
+acquired a refinement and delicacy lacking in even the best of the Roman
+examples. As much of the Italian Renaissance lettering was intended for use
+on tombs or monuments where it might be seen at close range, and was cut in
+fine marble, the increased refinement may be due, at least in part, to
+different conditions.
+
+[Illustration: 23. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE.]
+
+[Illustration: 24. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. PISANO.]
+
+[Illustration: 25. MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. O ROTY.]
+
+The panel from Raphael's tomb in the Pantheon, Rome, 30, shows a beautiful
+and pure form of typical Renaissance letter; and the composition of the
+panel is as well worthy [28] of careful study as are the letter forms.
+Figure 34, devised from a tomb in Santa Croce, portrays a letter not only
+beautiful in itself, but one which, with two minor changes (for the top bar
+of the T might advantageously be shortened to allow its neighbors to set
+closer, and the M might be finished at the top with a serif, after the
+usual fashion), is exactly applicable to the purposes of the modern
+draughtsman. This type of letter appears to best advantage when used in
+such panel forms as those shown in the rubbing from the Marsuppini tomb,
+31, and in the floor slab from the same church, 32. Two very refined
+examples, 28 and 29, also from slabs in Santa Croce, Florence, date from
+about the same period. The latter exhibits the alphabet itself, and the
+former shows a similar letter form as actually used. The letters in 33,
+redrawn from rubbings from the Marsuppini tomb, are shown for comparison
+with the rubbing itself, which is reproduced in smaller size in 31. Taken
+together, plates 30, 31 and 32 will fairly represent not only the usual
+fashion of composing Renaissance panels, but capital forms which illustrate
+some of the most excellent work of this period.
+
+[30]
+
+A very different and interesting type of letter was used on many of the
+best medals of the Italian Renaissance (see 24), which has been recently
+adapted and employed by modern medal designers in France, as exhibited in
+figure 25. Although absolutely plain, it is, when properly composed, much
+more effective in the service for which it was intended than a more
+elaborate and fussy form; and although sometimes adapted with good results
+to other uses, it is particularly appropriate for casting in metal. Similar
+forms rendered in pen and ink are shown in 26.
+
+[Illustration: 26. CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 27. SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. JUAN De YCIAR, 1550]
+
+[Illustration: 28. RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 29. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SANTA CROCE. F. C. B.]
+
+Figures 27, and 35 to 41 show various pen or printed forms of capital
+letters redrawn from the handiwork of Renaissance masters. The capital
+letters shown in 27 are unusually beautiful, and their purity of form is
+well [31] displayed in the outline treatment. Perhaps the best known
+standard example of a Renaissance pen-drawn letter is that by Tagliente,
+reproduced in 35 and 36. In spite of their familiarity it has seemed
+impossible to omit the set of capitals, with variants, by Albrecht Dürer,
+37 and 38; for Dürer's letters were taken as a basis by nearly all such
+Renaissance designers of lettering as Geoffrey Tory, Leonardo da Vinci,
+etc. It should be observed in the Dürer [32] alphabet that among the
+variant forms of individual letters shown, one is usually intended for
+monumental use, while another exhibits pen treatment in the characteristic
+swelling of the round letters, etc.
+
+[Illustration: 30. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL FROM RAPHAEL'S TOMB. PANTHEON
+ROME.]
+
+[Illustration: 31. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. MARSUPPINI TOMB,
+FLORENCE.]
+
+[Illustration: 32. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION FLOOR SLAB IN SANTA
+CROCE, FLORENCE.]
+
+Serlio's alphabet, 39 and 40, should be compared with Mr. Ross's
+modification of it, reproduced in 1 and 2. The alphabet shown in 41 is a
+somewhat expanded form of classic capital, contrasting markedly in various
+respects with more typical forms.
+
+[Illustration: 33. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. MARSUPPINI TOMB. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 34. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS FROM RUBBINGS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 35. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524]
+
+[Illustration: 36. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524]
+
+[Illustration: 37. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525]
+
+[Illustration: 38. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525]
+
+[Illustration: 39. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 40. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 41. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. URBAIN WŸSS, 16th CENTURY.]
+
+[45]
+
+A practically unlimited number of other examples might have been included
+to show various capital forms of Renaissance letters; but the specimens
+chosen will adequately illustrate all the more distinctive and refined
+types of the individual letters.
+
+[Illustration: 42. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL, FLORENCE. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+Before, during and after the Renaissance movement many local and extraneous
+influences temporarily modified the forms of the Roman letters. There are,
+for instance, numerous examples of lettering in which Byzantine and
+Romanesque traits are strongly apparent, such as the free manipulation of
+the letter forms in order to make them fit into given lines and spaces. The
+drawing of the panel over the doorway of the Badia, Florence, 42, notable
+for the characteristic placing and composition of the letters, will serve
+as a case in point. This example is further interesting because it shows
+how the Uncial form of the letter was beginning to react and find a use in
+stone--a state of affairs which at first glance might seem anomalous, for
+the Uncial letter was distinctly a pen-drawn form; but it was discovered
+that its rounder forms made it particularly useful for inscribing stones
+which were likely to chip or sliver, in carving which it was consequently
+desirable to avoid too acute angles. The Roman letter underwent various
+salient modifications [46] at the hands of the scribes of extra-Italian
+nations. We find very crude variants of the Roman letter, dating hundreds
+of years after the Roman form had reached its highest development; and, on
+the other hand, some very beautiful and individual national variants were
+produced. The continual interchange of manuscripts among the nations on the
+continent of Europe probably explains the more conventional character and
+strong general resemblance of most of the early Continental work; but the
+scribes of insular England, less influenced by contemporary progress and
+examples, produced forms of greater individuality (see 46, 47, 48). In
+Ireland, letter forms originally derived from early Roman models were
+developed through many decades with no ulterior influences, and resulted in
+some wonderfully distinctive and beautiful variations of the Roman letters,
+[47] though the beauty of these Irish examples can only be faintly
+suggested by reproductions limited to black and white, and without the
+decorations of the originals.
+
+[Illustration: 43. MODERN TITLE (compare 46). B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 44. MODERN TITLE (compare 49). WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 45. TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. W. E. NESFIELD]
+
+Figures 43 and 44 illustrate, respectively, modern employments of such
+strongly characteristic letters as those shown in 46 and 49. From these
+ancient examples the designers have evolved letters suitable to the
+character of their work. In 44 Mr. Crane has engrafted upon a form quite
+personal to himself a characteristic detail of treatment borrowed from the
+letter shown in 49. Figure 45 shows a similar and modernized employment of
+a standard form of Uncial capital.
+
+[Illustration: 46. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 6th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 47. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 7th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 48. ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 49. EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th CENTURY]
+
+[52]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+MODERN ROMAN LETTERS
+
+The small or "minuscule" letter that we now use in all printed books
+attained its modern and definitive form only after the invention of
+printing. The first printed books were made to imitate, as closely as
+possible, the handwritten work of the scribes of the early fifteenth
+century, and as printing was first done in Germany, the earliest book types
+were those modeled upon German scripts, somewhat similar to that shown in
+141, and their condensed or blackletter variants. The Italian printers, of
+a more classical taste, found the German types somewhat black and clumsy;
+for though Gothic characters were also used in Italy, they had become
+lighter and more refined there. The Italians, therefore, evolved a new form
+of type letter, based upon the _Italian_ pen letters then in use, which
+though fundamentally Gothic in form had been refined by amalgamation with
+an earlier letter known as the "Caroline", from its origin under the
+direction of Charlemagne. The "Caroline" was in its turn an imitation of
+the Roman "Half-uncial." The close relationship of the first small type
+letter forms in Italy with the current writing hand of the best Italian
+scribes is well indicated by the legend that the "Italic," or sloped small
+letter, was taken directly from the handwriting of Petrarch. The new
+Italian types, in which classic capitals were combined with the newly
+evolved minuscule [53] letters, were called "Roman" from the city of their
+origin, and sprang into almost immediate popularity, spreading from Italy
+into England, France and Spain. In Germany, on the other hand, the national
+blackletter form persisted, and is still in use to-day.
+
+The minuscule "Roman" letters thus evolved were developed to their most
+perfect individual forms by the master-printers of Venice; and it is to the
+models which they produced that we must revert to-day when we attempt to
+devise or reproduce an elegant small letter of any conservative form. The
+modern pen draughtsman should bear in mind, however, that, perfect as such
+forms of letters may be for the uses of the printer, the limitations of
+type have necessarily curtailed the freedom and variety of their serif and
+swash lines, and that therefore, though accepting their basic forms, he
+need not be cramped by their restrictions, nor imitate the unalterable and
+sometimes awkwardly inartistic relations of letter to letter for which he
+finds precedents in the printed page. Indeed, the same general rules for
+spacing and the same freedom in the treatment of the serifs, kerns and
+swash lines are quite as applicable to pen-drawn small letters as to the
+capital forms. The only true path of progress lies in this freedom of
+treatment; and if the same fertile artists of the Renaissance who have
+bequeathed to us such beautiful examples of their unfettered use of the
+capital had used the minuscule also, we should undoubtedly possess small
+letters of far more graceful and adaptable forms than those which we now
+have.
+
+[Illustration: 50. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS.
+F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 51. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS.
+F. C. B.]
+
+In 50 and 51 may be found an attempt to formulate a scheme to assist in the
+reconstruction of an alphabet of Roman small letters, after somewhat the
+same fashion as [56] that devised for the Roman capitals by Mr. Ross, in 1
+and 2. A small-letter diagram must, for obvious reasons, be less exact and
+detailed than one for the more defined capital form; but the diagram given
+will serve to determine sufficiently the main outlines and proportions. In
+their shapes the letters shown in 50 and 51 adhere fairly closely to the
+best type forms of the small letter; and the drawing will serve, further,
+to show the space generally allowed by modern founders between one
+lower-case letter and another when set into type words. This spacing is
+based on the m of the fount employed. The open space between all but k, w
+and y (in which the outlines of the letters themselves hold them further
+away from their neighbors) and the round letters being the space between
+the upright strokes of the m; an interval represented in the diagram by a
+square and a half. The round letters, as has already been said in speaking
+of the capital forms, should be spaced nearer together; and it will be
+observed that they are only separated by one square in the diagram.
+Although suggestive, the rules which govern the spacing of types are not to
+be blindly followed by the pen letterer. In type, for instance, it would be
+impossible, for mechanical reasons, to allow the kerns of the f, j and y to
+project far over the body of the next letter, and in these letters the
+kerns consequently have either to be restrained or the letters spaced
+farther apart. In pen lettering, however, the designer is not restrained by
+such limitations, and his spacing of letters should be governed solely by
+the effect.
+
+The disposition of the accented lines in the small letters follow the same
+general rules that govern those of the capitals (see page 2); the only
+deviation being in the case of [57] the g, in which the shading of the
+bottom seems to have been determined largely by the effect upon the eye.
+
+It will be noticed in the diagram that the "ascenders" of the smaller
+letters rise about three squares to their extreme top points above the body
+of the letter; that the body of each letter is inclosed in a square that is
+three units high, and that the "descenders" fall but two squares below the
+letter body. These proportions are not by any means invariable, however,
+and indeed there is no fixed rule by which the proportions of ascenders and
+descenders to the body of the Roman minuscule may be determined. In some
+forms of the letter both are of the same length, and sometimes that length
+is the same as the body height of the letter. In general a better result is
+obtained by making both ascenders and descenders of less than the length of
+the body, and keeping the descenders shorter than the ascenders in about
+the proportion of two-fifths to three-fifths.
+
+Parallel lines of small letters cannot be spaced closer to each other than
+the ascenders and descenders will allow; the projections above and below
+the line are awkward, and interrupt the definite lines of demarkation at
+the top and bottom of the letter-bodies; the capitals necessarily used in
+connection with the small letters add to the irregularity of the line--all
+of which reasons combine to limit the employment of minuscule for formal or
+monumental uses. On the other hand, the small letter form is excellently
+adapted for the printed page, where the occasional capitals but tend to
+break the monotony, while the ascenders and descenders strongly
+characterize and increase the legibility of the letter forms.
+
+[Illustration: 52. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 53. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 54. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS,
+1577]
+
+[Illustration: 55. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS,
+1577]
+
+[Illustration: 56. ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. J. F. CRESCI, 1560]
+
+[Illustration: 57. ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY INCISED LETTERS. FROM TOMBSTONES]
+
+[Illustration: 58. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. AFTER HRACHOWINA]
+
+[Illustration: 59. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+[64]
+
+Figures 52 to 59 show several forms of small letter alphabets; those shown
+in 52 to 56 being taken from "Writing books" by Spanish and Italian writing
+masters. These writing masters often chose to show their skill by imitating
+type forms of letters with the pen, but though similar in the individual
+forms of the letters the written examples exhibit a freedom and harmony in
+composition impossible for type to equal, and therefore are immeasurably
+more interesting to the modern penman. Figure 61 illustrates a type form of
+minuscule which may be commended for study. Other examples of small letters
+by modern designers will be found in 105, 110, 118 and 131, where they are
+used in connection with their capital forms.
+
+[Illustration: 60. INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH SLATE TOMBSTONES, 1691.
+F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 61. ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. FROM THE SPECIMEN BOOK OF WILLIAM
+CASLON, 1734]
+
+The minuscule alphabet by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, 59, is a carefully
+worked-out form which in its lines closely follows a type face devised by
+Jenson, the celebrated Venetian printer who flourished toward the end of
+the sixteenth century. This example together with those shown in 50, 51 and
+56 exhibits some conservative variations of the standard models for
+minuscule letters; and the same may be said of the modern type faces shown
+in 62, 63 and 64. The various other examples of the small-letter forms
+illustrated evidence how original and interesting modifications of
+conservative shapes may be evolved without appreciable loss of legibility.
+
+[Illustration: 62. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "MONTAIGNE". BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 63. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "RENNER". THEO. L. DE VINNE]
+
+[Illustration: 64. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "MERRYMOUNT" BY B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 65. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "CHELTENHAM" BY B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Figure 61 shows the capital, small letter and italic forms of a type based
+on old Venetian models, cut by William Caslon in the early part of the
+eighteenth century, and ever [69] since known by his name. This face has
+comparatively recently been revived by modern type-founders; and though
+this revival has provided us with a text letter far superior to the forms
+previously in use, the modern imitation falls short of the beauty of
+Caslon's original, as may be seen by comparing the letters shown in 61,
+which are reproduced from Caslon's specimen-book, issued by him about the
+middle of the eighteenth century, with the type used in printing this
+volume, which is a good modern "Caslon."
+
+Figures 62 to 67 show some newly devised type faces, all designed by
+artists of reputation. Figure 62 illustrates a fount called the "Montaigne"
+which has been recently completed by Mr. Bruce Rogers for the Riverside
+Press, Cambridge, Mass., and cut under his immediate direction, with
+especial insistance upon an unmechanical treatment of serifs, etc. As a
+result the "Montaigne" is, for type, remarkable in its artistic freedom,
+and its forms are well worthy the study of the designer. Both its capitals
+and small letters suggest the purity of the Italian Renaissance shapes. The
+letters space rather farther apart than in most types, and the result makes
+for legibility. Although several other modern faces of type have been
+designed on much the same lines, notably one for The Dove's Press in
+England, the "Montaigne" seems the best of them all, because of its
+freedom, and its absolute divorce from the overdone, exaggerated,
+heavy-faced effects of the Morris styles of type.
+
+Mr. De Vinne of the De Vinne Press, New York City, has introduced a new
+type called the "Renner", 63, which was originally cut for some of the
+Grolier Club's publications. The letters were first photographed from a
+selected page of Renner's "Quadrigesimale," then [71] carefully studied and
+redrawn before the punches were cut. Mr. De Vinne has added small capitals
+and italics to the fount, as well as dotted letters to serve as substitutes
+for the italic for those who prefer them. The "Renner" type would have been
+more effective on a larger body; but for commercial usefulness it is
+generally deemed expedient to employ as small a body as the face of a type
+will allow. Mr. De Vinne notes, in this connection, that all the important
+types of the early printers were large, and that a fount designed to-day
+with regard only to its artistic effectiveness would be cast upon a large
+body and be of good size.
+
+Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue has designed two founts of Roman type, and is now at
+work on a Blackletter face. His first fount, cut for Mr. D. B. Updike, of
+the Merrymount Press, Boston, and known as the "Merrymount," is shown in
+64. Intended for large pages and rough paper it necessarily shows to
+disadvantage in the example given, where the blackness and weight of the
+letters makes them seem clumsy, despite the refinement of their forms.
+
+[Illustration: 66. MODERN GREEK TYPE. SELWYN IMAGE]
+
+[Illustration: 67. MODERN ROMAN TYPE. C. R. ASHBEE]
+
+The "Cheltenham Old Style," 65, is the other Roman face recently designed
+by the same artist. It was cut for the Cheltenham Press of New York City;
+and embodies in its present form many ideas suggested by Mr. Ingalls
+Kimball of that press. Observe especially the excess in length of the
+ascenders over the descenders, and that the serifs have been reduced to the
+minimum. Contrary to the usual custom in type cutting, the round letters do
+not run above or below the guide lines. The capitals compose excellently;
+but the small letters are too closely spaced and seem too square for the
+best effect, and weight has been obtained by so thickening the lines that
+much delicacy and variety has been lost. [72] The "Cheltenham Old Style"
+is, however, very legible when composed into words, and is effective on the
+page.
+
+Any attempt to get the effect of Blackletter with the Roman form is likely
+to result clumsily. The celebrated Roman faces designed by William Morris
+(too familiar to require reproduction here) are, despite their real beauty,
+over-black on the page, and awkward when examined in detail. While the
+stimulus Morris's work gave to typography was much needed at that time, the
+present reaction toward more refined faces is most gratifying. By precept
+and example Mr. Morris produced a salutary revolt against the too thin and
+light and mechanical type faces before in use, but he went too far in the
+opposite direction, and we are now certainly falling back upon a more
+desirable mean.
+
+Mr. Herbert P. Horne is at present designing a new fount of type for the
+Merrymount Press, Boston, to be [73] known as the "Mont' Allegro," which
+seems, from the designs so far as at present completed, likely to prove in
+some respects the most scholarly and severe of modern faces.
+
+The Greek type designed for the Macmillan Company of England, by Mr. Selwyn
+Image, 66, is of sufficient interest to be shown here, despite the fact
+that it is not strictly germane to our subject. In this face Mr. Image has
+[74] returned to the more classic Greek form, although the result may at
+first glance seem illegible to the reader familiar with the more common
+cursive letters.
+
+The type shown in 67 is a new English face designed by Mr. C. R. Ashbee for
+a prayerbook for the King. Interesting as it is, it seems in many ways too
+extreme and eccentric to be wholly satisfactory: the very metal of type
+would seem to postulate a less "tricky" treatment.
+
+It is interesting to attempt a discrimination between the various national
+styles of pen letters which the recently revived interest in the art of
+lettering is producing; and it is especially worth while to note that the
+activity seems, even in Germany, to be devoted almost exclusively to the
+development and variation of the Roman forms. It is noteworthy, too, after
+so long a period of the dull copying of bad forms, and particularly of bad
+type forms, that the modern trend is distinctly in the direction of
+freedom; though this freedom is more marked in French and German [75] than
+in English or American work. Hand in hand with this increased freedom of
+treatment has naturally come a clearer disclosure of the mediums employed;
+and indeed in much of the best modern work the designer has so far lent
+himself to his tools that the tools themselves have, in great measure,
+become responsible for the resulting letter forms. [76] Moreover modern
+designers are showing a welcome attention to minuscule letters, and it even
+seems possible that before long some small letter forms that shall be
+distinctively of the pen may be developed, and that the use of type models
+for minuscule pen letters will no longer be found necessary or commendable.
+
+[Illustration: 68. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER J. M. OLBRICH]
+
+[Illustration: 69. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. GUSTAVE LEMMEN]
+
+[Illustration: 70. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER ALOIS LUDWIG]
+
+[Illustration: 71. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER OTTO ECKMANN]
+
+Another noticeable tendency in modern lettering seems to be the gradual
+promotion of small letter forms to the dignity of capitals, (see 79 and 98
+for examples) in much the same way as the Uncial letter and its immediate
+derivatives produced the present small letter. It is surely to be hoped
+that this movement may not lose vitality before it has had time to enrich
+us with some new and excellent forms.
+
+[Illustration: 72. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. OTTO HUPP]
+
+[Illustration: 73. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. JOSEPH PLÉCNIK]
+
+[Illustration: 74. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER FRANZ STUCK]
+
+[82]
+
+[Illustration: 75. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 76. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER BERNHARD PANKOK]
+
+[Illustration: 77. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. THEO. VAN RYSSELBERGHE]
+
+[Illustration: 78. MODERN FRENCH COVER. M. P. VERNEUIL]
+
+The influence of nationality is strongly shown in the modern lettering of
+all countries; and it is generally as easy to recognize a specimen as the
+work of a German, French, English, or American artist, respectively, no
+matter how individual he may be, as it is to tell the difference between
+the work of two different designers.
+
+The modern German seems to have an undeniable freshness of outlook on the
+Roman alphabet. He treats it with a freedom and variety and a certain
+disregard of precedent--induced, perhaps, by his schooling in
+Blackletter--that often produces delightful, though sometimes, be it added,
+direful results. But if the extreme and bizarre forms be thrown aside the
+designer may obtain suggestions of great benefit and value from the more
+restrained examples of German work. Many eminent German draughtsmen, whose
+work is all too little known in this country, are [84] using letters with
+the same distinction that has of late years marked their purely decorative
+work, as the specimens shown in 68 to 76 will evidence. Figures 68 and 75
+show forms which are perhaps especially representative of the general
+modern tendency in German work and many German artists are using letters of
+very similar general forms to these although, of course, with individual
+variations. Figures 70 and 73 show two very original and pleasing styles,
+also markedly German. In spite of the national drift toward the Roman, much
+modern German lettering still takes the Gothic and Blackletter forms; and
+the specimen reproduced in 71 shows a curious combination of the Gothic,
+Uncial and Roman forms pervaded by the German spirit. The beautiful
+lettering in 72 seems to have been inspired from a stone-cut Uncial. Figure
+74 shows an almost strictly Roman letter, and yet is as unmistakably German
+in handling as any of the other examples shown.
+
+[Illustration: 79. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. AFTER M. P. VERNEUIL]
+
+[Illustration: 80. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. P. BONNARD]
+
+[Illustration: 81. MODERN FRENCH COVER. GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 82. MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. ALPHONS M. MUCHA]
+
+[86]
+
+Among the examples of modern French lettering, those shown in 78 and 79 are
+perhaps the most typical of the modern school. This style of letter was
+given its most consistent form by the joint efforts of M. P. Verneuil and
+some of the pupils of Eugène Grasset, after whose letter it was originally
+modeled. Grasset freely varies his use of this form in his different
+designs, as in 85, but founds many of his best specimens upon the earlier
+French models.
+
+[Illustration: 83. MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE. GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 84. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS "CURSIVE". GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 85. MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. EUGÈNE GRASSET]
+
+[Illustration: 86. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[88]
+
+M. George Auriol has extended the modern use of drawn letters by publishing
+a number of small books which he has handwritten throughout, although the
+form of letter he generally uses for this purpose is purely modern and not
+at all like the texts of the medieval scribes. M. Auriol's letter is
+beautifully clear, readable and original; "brushy" in its technique, yet
+suitable for rapid writing. He calls [91] it a "Cursive" letter, and has
+recently made designs for its use in type. The page shown in 83 is from the
+preface to a book of his well-known designs for monograms, and the entire
+text is written in this cursive form. The individual letters of this
+"Cursive" may be more easily studied in 84. The cover for "L'Image", 81,
+shows the same designer's use of a more conventional Roman form.
+
+The poster by M. Theo. van Rysselberghe shown in 77 exhibits two
+interesting forms of French small letters that are worthy of study and
+suggestive for development.
+
+M. Alphons Mucha employs a distinctive letter, especially fitted to his
+technique, which he uses almost invariably, 82.
+
+Much recent French lettering inclines toward a certain formlessness, that,
+although sometimes admirable when regarded merely from the point of view of
+harmony with the design, has little value otherwise. A typical specimen of
+such formless lettering is that shown in the very charming [92] "Revue
+Blanche" poster, 80. Excellent when considered with the design, the
+lettering alone makes but an indifferent showing.
+
+The Italian designers of letters have not yet evolved any very distinctive
+national forms. In many ways Italian work resembles the German. It has less
+originality, but greater subtlety and refinement.
+
+[Illustration: 87. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 88. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 89. MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 90. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON]
+
+The strongest personality among modern British letterers is Mr. Walter
+Crane. Characteristic examples of his work are shown in 86, 87, 88 and 89.
+Although sometimes apparently careless and too often rough, his lettering
+has the merit and charm of invariably disclosing the instrument and the
+material employed. Mr. Crane is especially fond of an Uncial pen form,
+which he varies with masterful freedom. It may be mentioned in passing that
+he is perhaps the only designer who has been able to make the wrongly
+accented Q seem consistent (compare 86), or who has conquered its swash
+tail when the letter is accented in this unusual way.
+
+[93]
+
+Mr. Lewis F. Day has become a recognized authority on lettering, both
+through his writings and his handiwork. His great versatility makes it
+difficult to select a specimen which may be taken as characteristic of his
+work; but perhaps the lettering shown in 95 is as representative as any
+that could be chosen. Among his designs the magazine cover, 93, is an
+unusually free and effective composition, and its letter forms possess the
+variety required to satisfy the eye when so much of the whole effect of the
+design depends upon them.
+
+[Illustration: 91. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON]
+
+[Illustration: 92. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. WILLIAM NICHOLSON]
+
+[Illustration: 93. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. LEWIS F. DAY]
+
+[Illustration: 94. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. GORDON CRAIG]
+
+The style of lettering ordinarily employed by Mr. Selwyn Image--a style of
+marked originality and distinction--is well exhibited in the design for a
+book cover, 98.
+
+The name of Mr. Charles Ricketts is intimately associated with the Vale
+Press. The detail of the title-page reproduced in 100 shows a
+characteristic bit of his work.
+
+Mr. J. W. Simpson, one of the younger British draughtsmen, uses a graceful
+and interestingly linked Roman form shown in the panel from a title-page,
+90. The bizarre [95] letter by the same artist, 91, is fairly
+representative of a style recently come into vogue among the younger
+British draughtsmen, which is related to a form of letter brought into
+fashion by the new English school of designers on wood, among whom may be
+mentioned Mr. William Nicholson and Mr. Gordon Craig, both of whom have
+done lettering distinguished by its indication of the medium employed.
+Figure 92 shows Mr. Nicholson's favorite type of letter [96] fairly, and
+the style of Mr. Craig's work is suggested by the title for a book cover in
+94.
+
+The book cover, 97, by Mr. Edmund H. New, shows variants of the Roman
+capital and minuscule forms, which closely adhere to classic models.
+
+Mr. Robert Anning Bell has done much distinctive lettering in intimate
+association with design. Figure 96 is fairly representative of his style of
+work.
+
+[Illustration: 95. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. LEWIS F. DAY]
+
+[Illustration: 96. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. ROBERT ANNING BELL]
+
+[Illustration: 97. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. EDMUND H. NEW]
+
+[Illustration: 98. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. SELWYN IMAGE]
+
+Such other British artists as Messrs. Alfred Parsons, James F. Sullivan,
+Hugh Thompson, Herbert Railton, Byam Shaw, H. Granville Fell and A. Garth
+Jones, although much better known for their designs than for their letters,
+[97] occasionally give us bits of lettering which are both unusual and
+excellent; but these bits are commonly so subordinated to the designs in
+which they are used and so involved with them as to be beyond the scope of
+the present book.
+
+[Illustration: 99. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 100. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. CHARLES RICKETTS]
+
+In illustrating the lettering of American artists it has been unfortunately
+found necessary to omit the work of many well-known designers, either
+because their usual style of lettering is too similar in fundamental forms
+to the work of some other draughtsman, or because the letters they commonly
+employ are not distinctive or individual.
+
+[Illustration: 101. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWIN A. ABBEY]
+
+[Illustration: 102. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 103. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+Mr. Edwin A. Abbey is a notable example of an artist who has not disdained
+to expend both time and practice on such a minor art as lettering [100]
+that he might be able to letter his own designs, as the beautiful page,
+shown in 153 in the succeeding chapter, will sufficiently prove. The
+lettering of the title-page for Herrick's poems, 101, by the same
+draughtsman, is likewise excellent, being both original and appropriate.
+The letters in both these examples are modeled after old work, and both
+display an unusually keen grasp of the limitations and possibilities of the
+forms employed, especially in the former, 153, where the use of capitals to
+form words is particularly noteworthy, while in general composition and
+spacing the spirit of the letter used (compare 179) has been perfectly
+preserved.
+
+[Illustration: 104. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+[Illustration: 105. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+[Illustration: 106. MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE]
+
+[Illustration: 107. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE]
+
+Mr. Edward Penfield's work first attracted attention through the series of
+posters which he designed for 'Harper's Magazine' with unfailing fertility
+of invention for several years. During this time he evolved a style of
+letter which exactly fitted the character of his work. The cover design
+shown in 103 displays his characteristic letter in actual use; while the
+two interesting pages of large and small letter alphabets by him, 104 and
+105, show the latest and best development of these letter forms. The
+heading [102] shown in 102 exhibits a slightly different letter, evidently
+based upon that used by Mr. Penfield.
+
+The capitals by Mr. H. Van B. Magonigle, shown in 107, are derived from
+classic Roman forms but treated with a modern freedom that makes them
+unusually attractive. They appear, however, to better advantage in actual
+use in conjunction with a design, 106, than when shown in the necessarily
+restricted form of an alphabetical page panel.
+
+[Illustration: 108. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue, whose designs for type have already been mentioned,
+is a [104] most facile and careful letterer. Although his name is more
+intimately associated with Blackletter (examples of his work in that style
+are shown in the following chapter), he has devised some very interesting
+variations of the Roman forms, such as that used in 108, as an example.
+
+[Illustration: 109. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. WILL BRADLEY]
+
+Mr. Will Bradley uses a very individual style of the Roman capital, often
+marked by a peculiar exaggeration in the width of the round letters,
+contrasted with narrow tall forms in such letters as E, F and L. Mr.
+Bradley has become more free and unconventional in his later work, but his
+specimens have always been noteworthy for beauty of line and spacing; see
+111. Figure 109 shows his employment of a brush-made variant of the Roman
+form; [107] and 110 shows both capitals and small letters drawn in his
+earlier and less distinctive style.
+
+[Illustration: 110. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. WILL
+BRADLEY (1896)]
+
+[Illustration: 111. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. WILL BRADLEY]
+
+[Illustration: 112. MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. A. J. IORIO]
+
+The ticket, 112, designed by Mr. A. J. Iorio, suggests what our theatre
+tickets might be made. In spacing and general arrangement of the letters
+and the freedom of treatment, Mr. Iorio's work may be compared with much of
+the [110] work of Mr. Bradley. Figure 113 shows a modern Roman capital form
+modeled upon the work of Mr. Bradley.
+
+[Illustration: 113. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER WILL BRADLEY]
+
+[Illustration: 114. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+[Illustration: 115. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+[Illustration: 116. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+Mr. Maxfield Parrish commonly employs a widely spaced letter, fashioned
+closely after the old German models, beautiful in its forms, and displaying
+the individuality of the artist in its composition. The form and use of Mr.
+Parrish's usual letter is well shown in 114; and the title from a book
+cover design, 115, shows yet another example of the letter in service.
+
+The lettering of Mr. A. B. Le Boutillier is always notable for spacing and
+composition. Figures 117 and 118 exhibit excellent capital and small-letter
+forms (which, by the way, were drawn at the same size as the
+reproductions); and [111] the two other specimens of Mr. Le Boutillier's
+work, 116 and 119, which are reproduced to show his letters in use, will be
+found exemplars for spacing, composition, balance of weight and color, and,
+in the latter drawing, for harmony between the lettering and the treatment
+of the design.
+
+[Illustration: 117. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 118. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 119. MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. A. B. LE BOUTTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 120. AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+The form of letter preferred by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon is represented
+by the page of small letters, 59, which, as we have already said, are
+closely modeled on the type alphabet designed by Jenson. In Mr. Bragdon's
+version they represent an excellently useful and conservative style of
+small letter. They are shown in use, with harmonious capitals and italics,
+in the 'Literature' cover design, 121. In the small book-plate, reproduced
+in 120, Mr. [112] Bragdon has used a very graceful variant, especially
+noteworthy for its freedom of serif treatment; and in the letter-heading,
+122, he has employed an attractive capital of still different character.
+
+[Illustration: 121. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 122. MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEAD. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+Mr. H. L. Bridwell has originated the singularly excellent letter shown in
+124, which is founded upon some of the modern French architectural forms.
+He uses it with great freedom and variety in spacing according to the
+effect that he desires to produce. In one instance he will jam the letters
+together in an oddly crowded line, while in another we find them spread far
+apart, but always with excellent results as regards the design as a whole.
+Something of this variation of spacing is shown in 123. In the numerous
+theatrical posters which Mr. Bridwell has designed--and which too seldom
+bear his signature--he employs a great variety of lettering. Sometimes, of
+course, the freedom of his work is restricted by the conservatism of
+clients; but often the letter forms here illustrated add to the style and
+distinction of his designs.
+
+[Illustration: 123. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. H. L. BRIDWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 124. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. L. BRIDWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 125. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 126. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[116]
+
+[Illustration: 127. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+Mr. Frank Hazenplug, the author of much clever decorative lettering, has
+evolved a very black and striking style of capital that still retains
+grace. Figures 125 and 126 show two sets of Mr. Hazenplug's capitals. A
+book cover on which he has used small letters in an original way is
+reproduced in 127. Figure 129 shows the employment of a heavy-faced letter
+similar to that exhibited in alphabet 126, but suggestive in its serif
+treatment of Mr. Penfield's letter.
+
+[Illustration: 128. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD EDWARDS]
+
+Mr. Edward Edwards employs a letter, 128, which, though rather conventional
+in its lines, is noteworthy for its treatment of serifs and its spacing.
+
+Mr. Guernsey Moore's letters shown in 130 are naturally better both in
+intrinsic form, spacing and composition than the widely used "Post Old
+Style" types which were based upon them. The large and small letters
+displayed in 133 show a form that, at the present writing, seems to be in
+considerable favor. It is, however, too extreme, and its peculiarities are
+too exaggerated to allow it to become a permanent style. But like the
+extravagant German forms [117] already referred to, it has also apparent
+advantages; and a few of its characteristics are not unlikely to survive in
+some more conservative adaptation.
+
+[Illustration: 129. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 130. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GUERNSEY MOORE]
+
+[Illustration: 131. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. HARRY E. TOWNSEND]
+
+The letter by Mr. Harry Everett Townsend shown in 131 is most distinctive
+in effect--a more refined form of the rapidly drawn character shown in 138.
+
+Mr. Howard Pyle often gives us charming bits of lettering in connection
+with his illustrations. The heading, 132, shows a characteristic line. Most
+of Mr. Pyle's lettering is "Colonial" or Georgian in style, though the
+initials he uses with it are generally rendered in the fashions of the
+early German woodcuts, somewhat similar to Holbein's initials for the
+"Dance of Death."
+
+[Illustration: 132. MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. HOWARD PYLE]
+
+One of the most original of American letterers is Mr. Orson Lowell. Usually
+closely conjoined with design, his lettering does not show to its full
+value when reproduced apart from its surroundings, for much of its charm
+depends [118] upon its harmony in line and color with the accompanying
+drawing Mr. Lowell has taken the same basic forms as those used by Mr.
+Penfield, and has played with them until he has developed a series of most
+ingenious and fanciful letters. The examples reproduced in 136 and 137 but
+inadequately show a few of the many forms that Mr. Lowell employs with
+remarkable fertility of invention and delightfully decorative effect of
+line. The small letters, 135, shown opposite his capitals, 134, are not by
+Mr. Lowell, nor are they in any way equal to his own small letters, of
+which regrettably few appear in his published work; but they may serve to
+exhibit a similar method of treating a much more conventional form of
+minuscule than Mr. [122] Lowell would himself use for the same purpose.
+Despite its unconventionally, however, an examination of Mr. Lowell's work
+will show that each letter has been developed to fit the space between its
+neighbors and to balance and relieve their forms; and that, fanciful as
+some of the shapes may appear, they have invariably been knowingly worked
+out, and always appear harmonious and fit.
+
+[Illustration: 133. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 134. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER ORSON LOWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 135. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 136. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. ORSON LOWELL]
+
+The pages of letters shown in 138, 139 and 140 are intended to suggest
+forms which, while suitable for rapid use, yet possess some individuality
+and character. The so-called "Cursive" letter by Mr. Maxfield Parrish, 140,
+is particularly effective for such informal use--in fact, its very charm
+lies in its informality--and is quite as distinctively "pen-ny" as any of
+Mr. Crane's work of the same kind.
+
+A glance over the field of modern examples will disclose, first, a general
+tendency to break away from the older type models in pen-drawn forms;
+second, a growing partiality for the small letter, and third, a sporadic
+disposition to use capital and minuscule forms interchangeably. The first
+[123] trend may be noticed by comparing the letter shown in 132, which is
+closely modeled after type, with that shown in 136, in which an opposite
+method is followed, and the letters are so treated in handling form and
+color as to best harmonize with the design itself. The possibilities latent
+in the small letter are indicated by such interesting uses as those shown
+in figures 77, 89, 98, 101, 111, 112, 121, 127, 130 and 131. American
+designers seem to be especially interested in the development of the small
+letter. Of the intermingling of the capital and small letter shapes
+examples may be found in figures 71, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 98, 127
+and 134. In these examples it will be noted that the minuscules seem to be
+more easily transformed into capitals than do the capitals into minuscules;
+only a few of the latter appearing to lend themselves harmoniously to the
+small letter guise.
+
+[Illustration: 137. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ORSON LOWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 138. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, FOR RAPID USE. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 139. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC, FOR PLANS, ETC. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 140. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+Such tendencies as these, if allowed to develop slowly and naturally, are
+certain to evolve new forms--a process of modification which it should be
+fully as instructive and entertaining to observe as any of the historical
+changes that have already become incorporated into our present letter
+shapes.
+
+[127]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GOTHIC LETTERS
+
+The name "Gothic" applies rather to the spirit than to the exact letter
+forms of the style. The same spirit of freedom and restlessness
+characterises the architecture of the period wherein this style of letter
+was developed; and Gothic letters are in many ways akin to the fundamental
+forms of Gothic architecture. Their effect is often tiring and confusing to
+the eye because of the constant recurrence of very similar forms with
+different letter meanings; yet this very similarity is the main cause of
+the pleasing aspect of a page of Gothic lettering.
+
+Unlike the Roman letters, which attained a complete and final development,
+Gothic letters never reached authoritative and definitive forms, any more
+than did Gothic architecture. Every individual Gothic letter has several
+quasi-authoritative shapes, and all of these variants may be accepted, as
+long as they display an intelligent conception of the spirit of the style
+as a whole. Because of this lack of finality, however, it is impossible to
+analyze each of the letter forms as we were able to do with the Roman
+alphabet in Chapter I; yet this very variability and variety constitute at
+once the peculiar beauty of Gothic and the great difficulty of so drawing
+it as to preserve its distinctive character.
+
+Any letter of Gothic form is usually called either "Gothic" or
+"Blackletter" indiscriminately, but this use is inexact [128] and
+confusing. The term "Blackletter" should, strictly, be applied only to
+letters in which the amount of black in the line overbalances the white;
+and the proper application of the title should be determined rather by this
+balance or weight of the letter than by its form.
+
+[Illustration: 141. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 1500]
+
+The original Gothic letter was a gradual outgrowth from the round Roman
+Uncial. Its early forms retained all the roundness of its Uncial parent;
+but as the advantages of a condensed form of letter for the saving of space
+became manifest, (parchment was expensive and bulky) and the [131] beauty
+of the resulting blacker page was noticed, the round Gothic forms were
+written closer and narrower, the ascenders and descenders were shortened,
+with marked loss of legibilty, that the lines of lettering might be brought
+closer together, until a form was evolved in which the black overbalanced
+the white--the Blackletter which still survives in the common German text
+of to-day. Thus, though a Gothic letter may not be a Blackletter, a
+Blackletter is _always_ Gothic, because it is constructed upon Gothic
+lines. On the other hand, a Roman Blackletter would be an obvious
+impossibility. The very essential and fundamental quality of a Roman letter
+lies in the squareness or circularity of its skeleton form.
+
+For clearness and convenience, then, the following discrimination between
+the terms Gothic and Blackletter will be adopted in this treatise: When a
+letter is Gothic but not a Blackletter it will be called "Round Gothic";
+when it is primarily a Blackletter it will be termed "Blackletter," the
+latter name being restricted to such compressed, narrow or angular forms as
+the small letters shown in 144, 147 and 148. The name "Round Gothic" will
+be applied only to the earlier forms, such as those shown in 141 and 142.
+Such a distinction has not, I believe, hitherto been attempted; but the
+confusion which otherwise results makes the discrimination seem advisable.
+
+The three pages of examples, figures 141, 142 and 143, exhibit the
+characteristic forms and standard variations of the Round Gothic. In lieu
+of any detailed analysis of these letter shapes, it may perhaps be
+sufficient to say that they were wholly and exactly determined by the
+position of the quill, which was held rigidly upright, after the fashion
+[132] already described in speaking of Roman lettering; and that the
+letters were always formed with a round swinging motion of hand and arm, as
+their forms and accented lines clearly evidence; for the medieval scribes
+used the Round Gothic as an easy and legible handwritten form, and linked
+many of the letters.
+
+[Illustration: 142. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 143. SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 144. GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. ALBRECHT DÜRER]
+
+Figures 158, 170, 172 and 173 show some capitals adapted for use with these
+Round Gothic letters; but the beginner should be extremely wary of
+attempting to use any Gothic capitals alone to form words, as their
+outlines are not suited for inter-juxtaposition. Occasionally they may thus
+be used, and used effectively, as is shown, for instance, in the beautiful
+page of lettering by Mr. Edwin A. Abbey, 153; but so successful a solution
+is rare, and implies an intimate knowledge of the historic examples and use
+of Gothic lettering.
+
+The late Gothic or Blackletter is condensed and narrowed in the extreme. No
+circles are employed in the construction of the small letters, which have
+angular and generally acute corners. As in all pen-drawn letters, the broad
+lines are made on the down right-sloping strokes, and the narrow lines are
+at right angles to these. Blackletter shapes, like those of the Round
+Gothic, cannot, as has been said, be defined by any set of general rules;
+the intrinsic quality of all Gothic letters almost demands a certain
+freedom of treatment that would transgress any laws that could be
+formulated. Indeed the individual forms should always be subservient to the
+effect of the line or page. Observe in almost every example shown how the
+form of the same letter constantly varies in some minor detail. The drawing
+by Albrecht Dürer, reproduced in 144, will, [134] however, serve to show
+the construction of an excellent Blackletter, which may fairly be
+considered as typical.
+
+[Illustration: 145. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 146. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS WITH ROUNDED ANGLES]
+
+The first essential of a good Blackletter line or page is that it shall be
+of a uniform color. Unlike the Roman, the Blackletter form does not permit
+that one word be wider spaced than others in the same panel. The amount of
+white left between the several letters should be as nearly as possible the
+same throughout, approximately the same as the space between the
+perpendicular strokes of the minuscule letters themselves. Usually, the
+less the white space the better will be the general effect of the page, for
+its beauty depends much upon a general blackness of aspect;--and let it be
+noted in passing that, for this reason, it is doubly difficult to judge of
+the final effect of a Blackletter page from any outlined pencil sketch.
+Even in the cases of those capital letters that extend both above and below
+the guide lines it will be found possible to so adjust the spaces [135] and
+blacks as not to interrupt the general uniformity of color, and it is
+sometimes advisable to fill awkward blanks by flourishes; although
+flourishing, even in Blackletter, is an amusement that should be indulged
+in cautiously. As a general rule the more solidly black a panel of
+Blackletter is the better (a principle too often disregarded in the modern
+use of the form); though on the other hand, the less legible the individual
+letters will become. The designer should therefore endeavor to steer a
+middle course, making his panel as black as he can without rendering the
+individual letters illegible.
+
+No style permits more of liberty in the treatment of its separate letter
+forms than the Blackletter. The same letter may require a different outline
+at the beginning of a word than in the middle or at the end. The ascenders
+and descenders may be drawn so short as hardly to transcend the guide lines
+of the minuscules, or may grow into [136] flourishes up and down, to the
+right or to the left, to fill awkward blanks. Indeed so variable are these
+forms that in ancient examples it is often difficult to recognize an
+individual letter apart from its context.
+
+The two pages drawn by Mr. Goodhue, 188 and 189, deserve careful study as
+examples of modern use of the Blackletter. It will be observed that almost
+as many variants of each letter are employed as the number used would
+permit, thus giving the panel variety and preventing any appearance of
+monotony or rigidity. Notice the freedom and variety of the swash lines in
+the capitals, and yet that each version is quite as graceful, logical and
+original as any of its variants.
+
+The examples of old lettering reproduced in figures 147, 148 and 149,
+together with the drawings by Mr. Goodhue, will indicate the proper spacing
+of Blackletter; but in most of the pages here devoted to illustrating the
+individual forms the letters have been spaced too wide for their proper
+effect that each separate shape might be shown distinctly. The style
+appears at its best in compositions which fill a panel of more or less
+geometrical form, as, for example, the beautiful title-page reproduced in
+147. Could anything be more delightful to the eye than its rich blackness,
+energetic lines, and refreshing virility? In this design surely we have a
+specimen that, from the proportion and balance of its blacks, is more
+effective than anything which could have been accomplished by the use of
+the more rigid Roman letter; but despite its many beauties it suffers from
+the inherent weakness of the individual letter forms,--it is more effective
+than readable!
+
+[Illustration: 147. ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. JACOPUS FORESTI, 1497]
+
+[Illustration: 148. GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1515]
+
+[Illustration: 149. GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS. MEISSEN, 1510]
+
+[Illustration: 150. MODERN AMERICAN COVER IN BLACKLETTER. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Another excellent example of the old use of Blackletter is the page from
+the prayerbook of the Emperor Maximilian, [138] shown in 148, in which
+observe again the variety of the individual letter forms. Figure 149 shows
+the use of a Blackletter on an admirable monumental brass, which is reputed
+to have been designed by Albrecht Dürer. A similar Blackletter form, also
+from a brass, is shown at larger scale in 186.
+
+[139]
+
+Any of the minuscule forms of Blackletter which have been illustrated may
+be used with the Gothic capitals of figures 164-5, 166, 177, 179, 185,
+188-9; or with such Uncial capitals as are illustrated in 155 to 162; care
+being taken, of course, that these capitals are made to agree in style and
+weight with the small letters chosen. Although Uncial capitals are
+historically more closely allied with the Round Gothic, we have abundant
+precedent for their use with the minuscule Blackletter in many of the best
+medieval specimens.
+
+When the Gothic Uncial capitals were cut in stone and marble there was
+naturally a corresponding change in character, as is shown in the Italian
+examples illustrated in 160 [140] and 161. These examples, which are
+reproduced from rubbings, exhibit the characteristic stone cut forms very
+clearly. A Gothic Uncial alphabet redrawn from a German brass is
+illustrated in 162. The group of specimens from 154 to 159 exhibit the
+chronological growth of the Uncial capitals, which were used, as has been
+said, with the various small Blackletter forms, though they were also used
+alone to form words, as is shown in 160. The historical progression in
+these Uncial examples is most interesting; and, allowing for the variations
+of national temperament, traces itself connectedly enough. Figures 154 to
+159 are pen forms, while 160 to 163 are from stone or metal-cut letters.
+
+Figures 164 to 166 show alphabets of Gothic pen-drawn capitals that will
+serve as a basis for such adaptations as are shown in the modern examples
+152 and 153. Figures 167 to 169 show a more elaborate but an excellent and
+typical variety of this form of capital, which is one of the most beautiful
+and distinctive of Gothic letters. Shorn of its fussy small lines the main
+skeleton is eminently virile; and, though extremely difficult to draw, it
+cannot be surpassed for certain limited uses. Figures 170 to 173 exhibit a
+group of Gothic capitals more or less allied in character and all pen
+letters. Figures 174 to 176 show forms similar to those of the previous
+group, but adapted for use in various materials.
+
+[Illustration: 151. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. WALTER PUTTNER]
+
+[Illustration: 152. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. OTTO HUPP]
+
+[Illustration: 153. MODERN BLACKLETTER. EDWIN A. ABBEY]
+
+Figures 177 to 179 show some English Gothic letters, the last being that
+employed so effectively in the pen-drawn page by Mr. Abbey, 153. Figures
+180 to 184 illustrate various forms of Blackletter: 180 is from a German
+brass, 182 illustrates an Italian pen form, and 183 and 184 show [141]
+Blackletters drawn by Albrecht Dürer, the latter being the simplest and
+strongest variant in this style. It is the same letter that is employed to
+show Blackletter construction in diagram 144. Figure 185 shows the
+well-known and unusually beautiful initials designed by Dürer. Figure 186
+is a Blackletter from an English brass, although the letter forms in this
+example, as well as those of many other English brasses, may perhaps have
+been derived from Flanders, as many of the finest early Continental brasses
+were imported from the Netherlands.
+
+The Italian forms of Gothic Blackletters are generally too fussy and
+finikin to be of practical value for modern use, though they often possess
+suggestive value. The letters shown in 182 are fairly typical of the
+characteristic Blackletter minuscules of Italy. Figure 187 exhibits an
+example of beautiful lettering in the Italian style, redrawn from a rubbing
+of an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. The omission of capitals
+in long, confined lines is typical of many Blackletter inscriptions, as may
+be seen in 149, as well as in the plate just mentioned.
+
+In view of the number of fine specimens of Blackletter which have been
+handed down to us, it has been deemed [142] unnecessary to reproduce many
+examples of its employment by modern draughtsmen. The pages by Mr. Goodhue,
+188-9, have already been referred to; and figure 150 shows a very
+consistent and representative use of similar letter forms by the same
+designer. Figures 190 and 191 illustrate two modern varieties of
+Blackletter, one very simple and the other very ornate. The small cuts, 151
+and 152, show excellent modern Blackletters; the first, of unusually narrow
+form, being by Herr Walter Puttner, and the second, with its flourished
+initials, by Herr Otto Hupp.
+
+[Illustration: 154. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 12TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 155. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 13TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 156. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 157. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 158. ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 159. SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. JUAN DE YCIAR, 1550]
+
+[Illustration: 160. VENETIAN WALL PANEL, 15TH CENTURY. FROM RUBBING]
+
+[Illustration: 161. VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15TH CENTURY. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 162. GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS, FROM A BRASS. 14TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 163. FRENCH AND SPANISH UNCIAL CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 164. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 165. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 166. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. GIOV. PALATINO, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 167. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 168. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 169. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 170. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 171. ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 172. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 173. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 174. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 175. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 176. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 177. ENGLISH GOTHIC TEXT LETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 178. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 179. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 180. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS FROM A BRASS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 181. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. 16th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 182. ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 183. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 184. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 185. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 186. ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 187. ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 188. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 189. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 190. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. AFTER JULIUS DIEZ]
+
+[Illustration: 191. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B.]
+
+[182]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ITALIC AND SCRIPT
+
+The regrettable modern neglect of those free and very interesting forms of
+the Roman letter, Italic and Script, seem to authorize consideration of
+them in a separate chapter, even at the risk of appearing to give them
+undue importance.
+
+[Illustration: 192. GERMAN ITALIC. GOTTLIEB MUNCH, 1744]
+
+The first Italic type letter was derived, it is said, from the handwriting
+of Petrarch, and several admirable examples of the style, variously
+treated, have come down to us. As far as construction goes Italic is,
+theoretically, only the exact Roman form sloped, and with such changes as
+are necessitated by the sloping of the letters. Practically, however, it
+will be found that certain alterations in the outlines of the Roman letters
+must be made after giving them a slope in order to adapt them to their new
+requirements of inter-juxtaposition; and, by a reflex action, when words in
+Italic capitals are used in the same panel with upright Roman letters,
+certain variations must be made in the latter, such as accenting the Roman
+O in the same fashion as the Italic _O_ is accented, an altered treatment
+of serifs, and other changes in detail.
+
+The Script form of letter was developed out of the running or writing hand,
+and still retains a cursive tendency in the linking together of its
+letters; although in some forms it so closely approximates to Italic as to
+be almost [183] indistinguishable from it. Script lettering came into its
+greatest vogue during the Georgian period in England and at the same time
+in France; and was extensively employed, usually in conjunction with the
+upright Roman, in carved panels of stone or wood, and in engraving. The
+Script forms are well worthy of the attention of modern designers since
+they offer unusual opportunities for freedom and individuality of
+treatment; and because of this vitality and adaptility to modern uses the
+present chapter will be devoted largely to the illustration of Script
+examples.
+
+The old Spanish and Italian writing-books (referred to in a previous
+chapter), which in a measure took the place filled so much less
+artistically to-day by our modern school copybooks, contain many specimens
+of beautiful Script, both capitals and small letters. Figures 193 to 196
+show pages from such books published in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: 193. SPANISH SCRIPT. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802]
+
+[Illustration: 194. SPANISH SCRIPTS. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802]
+
+[Illustration: 195. SPANISH SCRIPT. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 196. SPANISH CURSIVE. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[188]
+
+A simple type of Spanish capital Script letter is shown in 201, while a
+corresponding small letter, redrawn from a Spanish source, is illustrated
+in 202. It should be noted in the latter figure that the three lower lines
+are further removed from the ordinary writing hand and are more interesting
+than the letters in the three upper lines.
+
+[Illustration: 197. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 198. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GEORGE WHARTON EDWARDS]
+
+The French artists and engravers were, as has been said, among the first to
+appreciate the qualities of Script, and used it in many of their engraved
+title-pages, especially during the reigns of Louis xv. and xvi. Figure 199
+shows a set of French Script capitals of the time of Louis XV., highly
+flourished but more formal than those shown in 201.
+
+A form of Script very nearly allied to the Italic was frequently used for
+the lettering on headstones and wall tombs in the churches and churchyards
+of England. Figure 203, in which the lettering is taken from a tomb in
+Westminster Abbey, illustrates this style of Script.
+
+A set of Script small letters with some unusual characteristics, adapted by
+Hrachowina from the German Renaissance form shown in outline in 192, is
+exhibited as a solid letter in figure 200.
+
+[Illustration: 199. FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 200. GERMAN SCRIPT AFTER HRACHOWINA. 18th CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 201. SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. EARLY 18th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 202. SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. LATE 17th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 203. ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. FROM INSCRIPTIONS. F. C. B.]
+
+[194]
+
+[Illustration: 204. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 205. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 206. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. AFTER FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 207. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B.]
+
+Among modern American designers, Mr. Bruce Rogers has admirably succeeded
+in catching the French and Georgian spirit in his treatment of the Script
+characters; yet, nevertheless, his lettering in this style is still modern
+in feeling. In the title from a book cover, 204, Mr. Rogers has allowed
+himself just the proper amount of interlacement and flourishing--both of
+which require the restraint of a subtle taste or the result may prove to be
+over-elaborate. The page of lettering by the same designer, shown in 205,
+is a successful solution of a difficult problem, and, together with the
+book cover, will serve to exhibit the possibilities of this style of
+Script.
+
+Mr. George Wharton Edwards is another modern designer who has a penchant
+for the Script form. He uses one distinctive and personal style of it in
+which the larger letters are formed by two black lines separated by a
+narrow white space, as exhibited in 198.
+
+The lines from an advertisement, 197, by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, in
+which Script, Italic and Roman letters are combined, are of especial
+interest from the easy manner in which the three different styles have been
+adapted to each other and made to harmonize in one small panel, [198] while
+still preserving an appropriate Georgian aspect. The interlacement and
+flourishing, too, are handled with commendable restraint.
+
+Few modern artists have so successfully treated Italic capitals with Script
+freedom as Mr. Will Bradley. Sometimes employing forms of Italic capitals
+and small letters little removed from type, he will again give us an
+example of his handiwork in which Italic is used with examplary freedom, as
+is shown in the specimen from a book catalogue, 109. The modern trick of
+wide spacing often lends itself aptly to the swing and freedom of the
+swashed and flourished lines of Script, as may be seen in figure 207.
+
+An excellent modern Script letter, adapted from a design by Mr. Frank
+Hazenplug, is shown in 206. Its heavy face and originality of form make it
+a useful and pleasing variant.
+
+[Illustration: 208. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 209. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+The magazine heading, by an anonymous designer, 208, and the line from the
+pen of Mr. Edward Penfield, 209, suggest still other useful varieties of
+the Script form.
+
+[199]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TO THE BEGINNER
+
+The beginner in any art or craft is likely to have an undue respect for the
+mere instruments of his trade. He will eventually learn that tools play a
+much less important part in his work than he at first thinks; but, as it is
+unlikely that any sudden change in human nature will occur, it seems as
+well to devote here some consideration to the tools which the student will
+always believe to be an important part of his equipment. He will ultimately
+ascertain for himself what is best adapted to his own individual needs.
+
+Though every draughtsman will recommend a pen that he has discovered to be
+especially suitable for his own use, few will be found to agree. Perhaps it
+is safe to say, however, that the best all-round pen for lettering is the
+Gillot No. 303. It is not too sharp, and when broken in is flexible and
+easy. The crowquill pen will be found of little use. It is an advantage to
+have at hand a large coarse pen of little flexibility and smooth point for
+drawing heavy lines of even width. In using water-color in place of ink
+such a pen will be found more satisfactory than the Gillot 303, as the
+thinness of the fluid causes the line to spread whenever pressure is
+applied to a limber and finely pointed pen, with the result that the line
+is not only broadened, but when dry shows darker than was intended, as more
+color is deposited than in a narrow line. When a [200] narrow line of even
+width and sharpness is desired it is best to use a new pen; an older pen
+will, on the other hand, allow of more ease in swelling and broadening the
+line under pressure. A thin dry line may be obtained by turning the pen
+over and drawing with the back of the nib, although if the pen so used be
+worn it is apt to have a "burr" over the point that may prevent its working
+satisfactorily in this way. A new hard pen is likely to be the cause of a
+"niggling" line; a too limber one of a careless or undesirably broad line.
+On rare occasions, and for obtaining certain effects, a stub pen may be
+found of value, but it cannot be recommended to the beginner, as it is very
+difficult to find one that has sufficient flexibility of nib. Quill pens
+are undoubtedly useful in drawing a few types of letters (see some of the
+designs by Mr. Walter Crane shown in previous pages, for examples) but, not
+to allude to the difficulty of properly pointing a quill, which seems to be
+a well-nigh lost art nowadays, the instrument possesses so many annoying
+peculiarities that it is as well to avoid its use until a satisfactory
+command over the more dependable steel pens has been obtained.
+
+A pencil is, of course, a necessity in laying out the first scheme for
+lettering. The softer the pencil the more felicitous will the composition
+seem; but the beginner should guard against being too easily pleased with
+the effect thus obtained, as it is often due to the deceptive
+indefiniteness of line and pleasant gray tone. When inked-in, in
+uncompromising black against the white paper, the draughtsman is apt to
+find that his sketch has developed many an imperfection, both in
+composition and in individual letter shapes, that the vague pencil lines
+did not reveal. [201]
+
+As to paper, Bristol-board has the best smooth surface for lettering. The
+English board is in some ways better than the American, but has the
+disadvantage of being made in smaller sheets. The difficulty with any
+smooth board is that erasures, even of pencil lines, are likely to spoil
+its surface. The rough "Strathmore" American board has a very grateful
+surface upon which the pen may be used with almost as much freedom as the
+pencil. All rough surfaces, however, while tending to promote interesting
+lines, are not suited for careful lettering, and the classic and Italian
+forms especially require to be drawn upon the smoothest possible surface.
+The American "Strathmore" board may also be obtained in smooth finish; and,
+indeed, is less injured by erasures than most Bristol-boards.
+
+The prepared India or carbon inks such as "Higgin's" or "Carter's" are best
+for the beginner; although all prepared inks have a tendency to get muddy
+if allowed to stand open, and the so-called "waterproof" inks are easily
+smudged.
+
+In devising a panel of lettering, such as a title-page for example, the
+draughtsman's first step would naturally be to sketch out the whole design
+at a very small size, say an inch and a half high, in pencil. This small
+sketch should determine, first, the general balance of the page; second,
+the inter-relations and spacings of the various lines and words and their
+relative importance and sizes. From this thumb-nail sketch the design
+should be drawn out at full size in pencil, and much more carefully. In
+this redrawing the separate letter shapes and their harmonious relations to
+each other should be determined, and such deviations made from the smaller
+sketch as seem to benefit the effect. [202] Some draughtsmen sketch out
+each line of lettering separately on thin paper, and then, after blackening
+the back of this sheet, lay each line over the place where it is needed in
+the design, tracing the outlines of the letters with a hard point, and thus
+transferring them to the design beneath. In this way a page of lettering
+may be studied out line by line, and accurately placed or centered; but the
+process is tedious, and there is always danger of losing sight of the
+effect as a whole.
+
+In outlining letters which are ultimately intended to be solidly
+blacked-in, the beginner should guard against making his outlines too wide,
+especially as regards the thin lines, for the eye in judging an outline
+sketch follows the insides of the bounding lines rather than the outsides
+which will really be the _out_lines of the blacked-in letter, so that when
+finished the letter is likely to look heavier and more clumsy than in the
+sketch.
+
+When the entire pencil scheme seems satisfactory in every detail, and each
+line has been exactly determined, the whole should be carefully inked-in.
+In inking-in letters the swing of the arm should be as free and
+unobstructed as possible. For the best result it is absolutely necessary to
+work at a wide board on a solid table of convenient height and angle. It is
+impossible to letter well in a cramped or unsteady position. One thing
+cannot be too strongly urged upon the beginner. Never use a T-square,
+triangle or ruling pen in inking-in lettering. It will be found ultimately
+much easier to train hand and eye to make a straight and true line
+free-hand than to attempt to satisfactorily combine a ruled and free-hand
+line. The free-hand method is, be it acknowledged, both more lengthy and
+[203] difficult at first, but when the draughtsman does finally gain a
+mastery over his line he has achieved something which he will find of the
+greatest value.
+
+In a drawing to be reproduced by mechanical processes, the proportions of
+the design are, of course, unalterably determined by the required panel or
+page; but the _size_ of the _drawing_ may be such as best suits the
+inclination and convenience of the draughtsman. If the drawing is to be
+reduced in size (and that is the usual method, because, in general, it is
+easier to draw large rather than small), the draughtsman must first decide
+on the amount of reduction to which his style of rendering and the subject
+itself are best adapted, remembering, however, that a drawing is sure to
+suffer from excessive reduction, not only in general effect but in
+interest, for the quality of the line is sure in a measure to disappear. A
+reduction of height or width by one-third is the usual amount; but many of
+our modern designers obtain their best effects by making their drawings but
+a trifle larger than the required reproduction. Some even make their
+drawings of the same size; others only from a twelfth to a sixth larger. As
+a rule, the less the reduction the less the departure from the effect of
+the original, and the more certainly satisfactory the result, although more
+careful drawing and greater exactness of line are necessary.
+
+[Illustration: 210. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL]
+
+To keep the outlines of a panel in the same proportion while enlarging its
+area for the purpose of making a drawing for reproduction, lay out the
+required _finished_ size of the panel near the upper left hand corner of
+the paper, and draw a diagonal line through the upper left hand and lower
+right hand corner of this panel, extending it beyond the panel [204]
+boundaries. From any given point along this diagonal, lines drawn parallel
+to the side and top lines of the original panel, and extended till they
+intersect the extended left side line and top line of the original panel,
+will give an outline of the same proportions as the required panel. By
+taking various points on the diagonal, panels of any height or width but
+still of the proper proportions may be obtained (see diagram 210). Diagram
+211 illustrates a variation of the previous method of enlarging the
+proportions of a panel, in which, by the use of two diagonals, both
+perpendicular and horizontal center lines are retained.
+
+When it is necessary to lay out a border of a predetermined width within
+the required panel, the foregoing method can only be used to determine the
+_outside_ lines of such a border, and it becomes necessary to make the
+drawing some numerical proportion, say, one-half as large again, or twice
+as large as the finished panel. The width of the border will then be of the
+same proportionate width.
+
+The beginner will find it always wise to base his lettering on penciled top
+and bottom guide lines, and occasionally to add "waist" guide lines, as in
+193. Indeed, it is rare that even accomplished letterers dispense with
+these simple aids. These guide lines should invariably be laid-in with the
+[205] T-square and triangle. After drawing the horizontal guides, it is
+often advisable to run a few perpendicular lines up and down the paper,
+which will serve to guard against the very common likelihood of the letters
+acquiring a tilt. In drawing Italic, Script, and all sloping letters
+numerous sloping guide lines are especially necessary; see 193.
+Perpendicular guide lines will be found of marked assistance, also in
+drawing Gothic small letters, which, as they do not come against the top
+and bottom guide lines squarely, but at an angle, are often deceptive.
+
+[Illustration: 211. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL]
+
+If it is desirable to make two lines of lettering of the same length,
+although they contain an unequal number of letters, this may be
+effected--provided, of course, that the number of letters does not vary too
+greatly--by broadening or narrowing the letters that occur in one line but
+not in the other, and by varying the spacings about the I's and the open
+letters. Note, for example, the spacing of the upper lines in the poster by
+Mr. Crane, 87. It is by no means essential to draw the same letter always
+exactly alike even in the same line; in fact, variation is generally
+demanded by the different surroundings and neighboring letters. So long as
+the general character of the letter remains unchanged in its distinctive
+features, such as weight, [206] treatment of serifs, angles, height of
+waist and cross lines, etc., its width and outlines may be varied and
+arranged to help out the spacing without interfering, to any noticeable
+extent, with the uniform appearance of the line.
+
+In Roman lettering emphasis may be obtained for any special word by spacing
+its letters farther apart. This has something of the same emphasizing
+effect as the use of Italic, without so greatly breaking the harmony of the
+line. Much of the lettering of the Italian Renaissance shows a very subtle
+appreciation of this use, and in some of the most beautiful inscriptions
+the important words are often so differentiated, while others are
+emphasized by slightly larger characters.
+
+As a general rule, and within certain limits, the wider a letter the more
+legible it is likely to be. Blackness and boldness of stem alone will not
+make a letter readable. Width, boldness of hair lines and serifs, and a
+proper amount of surrounding white space are more essential. The Roman
+letter is more legible than the Blackletter mainly because it is black
+against a roomy white ground; while Blackletter, on the contrary, is really
+defined by small interrupted areas of whites upon a black ground.
+
+A common limitation of many draughtsmen is that they become accomplished in
+the rendering of but one style of letter, and find themselves obliged to
+use it on all occasions, whether it be suited to the work in hand or not,
+because they can command no other. In the case of certain designers, of
+course, the individuality of their work is strong enough to bind both
+lettering and design so closely together that they can never seem at
+dissonance; but, speaking generally, the adherance to the use of but [207]
+one type of letter can be but narrowing. The beginner is urged, therefore,
+to practice the use of many styles, even at the expense of gaining an
+immediate mastery over no one form. He will find himself amply repaid in
+the end by the increase in freedom and variety.
+
+While the student should possess enough knowledge of the historic styles
+and examples of lettering to prevent him from using incongruous or
+anachronous forms in the same design, historic accuracy need not prevent
+him from engrafting the characteristics of dissimilar styles upon one
+another, provided that the results prove harmonious and appropriate.
+
+Finally, the draughtsman's first aim should be to make his lettering
+readable: after this has been accomplished he should strive to give it
+beauty. Art in lettering is only to be attained by solving the problem of
+legibility in the way most pleasing to the eye. Good lettering should
+appeal both to the eye and to the mind. Only when it combines legibility
+with beauty can it be excellent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  A., 6, 9.
+  Abbey, Edwin A., 97, 132, 140.
+  Accenting, of Blackletters, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 2;
+    of Minuscules, 56;
+    of Round Gothic, 132;
+    of Italic and Script, 182.
+  American Lettering, Modern Roman, 53, 64, 75, 82, 97;
+    Classic Roman, 3, 14;
+    Gothic, 132, 136, 140, 142;
+    Italic, 194, 198;
+    Script, 194, 198.
+  Anglo-Saxon Letters, 46, 47;
+    modern use of, 46.
+  Ascenders, height above body, 57;
+    in "Cheltenham Old Style" type, 71;
+    in Gothic, 131;
+    in Blackletters, 135.
+  Ashbee, C. R., 74.
+  Auriol, George, 88.
+
+  B., 6.
+  Badia, Florence, lettering from, 45.
+  Bell, Robert Anning, 96.
+  Blacked-in letters, 202.
+  Blackletters, 127, 131, 132, 140, 141, 142;
+    accents of, 132;
+    ascenders and descenders of, 135;
+    capitals for use with, 134, 136, 139;
+    a condensed form of Gothic, 128;
+    construction of, 132, 141;
+    definition of, 128, 131;
+    effect of page of, 132;
+    with Roman letters, 72;
+    even color of, 134;
+    flourishes, 135;
+    individual letter forms, 132, 136;
+    illegibility of, 135, 136, 206;
+    a part-Roman form, 84;
+    a narrow form, 132;
+    old examples of, 136;
+    in panel forms, 136;
+    used solidly, 134, 135;
+    spacing of, 134, 136;
+    variety of, 82, 132, 135, 136.
+  Bonnard, Pierre, 91, 92.
+  Border, to lay out a, 204.
+  Boston Public Library, 14.
+  Bragdon, Claude Fayette, 64, 111, 194.
+  Brasses, Blackletters from, 138, 140.
+  Bridwell, H. L., 8, 112.
+  Bristol-board, 201.
+  Byzantine influence on Italian lettering, 45.
+
+  C., 8.
+  Capitals, used with Roman minuscules, 57;
+    with Round Gothic, 132;
+    with Blackletters, 136, 139;
+    (see also under Blackletter, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Modern Roman
+        Capitals, Script, Round Gothic, Uncial).
+  "Caroline" Text, 52.
+  Caslon, William, 64;
+    his type, 69.
+  Centering lines of lettering, 202.
+  Charlemagne, 52.
+  "Cheltenham Old Style" type, 71.
+  Cheltenham Press, The, 71.
+  Chisel-cut guide lines, 3.
+  Classic Capitals, see Roman Capitals.
+  Classic forms of letters, to draw, 3, 6, 201;
+    composition of, 6;
+    Italian Renaissance, 15, 27, 30.
+  "Colonial" lettering, 117.
+  Constantine, Arch of, lettering from, 11.
+  Construction, of Blackletters, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 3, 6;
+    of Roman Minuscules, 53, 56.
+  Craig, Gordon, 95, 96.
+  Crane, Walter, 47, 92, 200, 205.
+  Cross-bar in Roman Capitals, 6.
+  "Cursive" Letters, 91, 122.
+  Cursive tendency in Script lettering, 182.
+
+  D., 8.
+  'Dance of Death,' Holbein's, 117.
+  Day, Lewis F., 93.
+  Descenders, (see Ascenders).
+  De Vinne, Theo. L., 69.
+  Dove's Press, The, 69.
+  Drawing of letters, 201, 202, 205;
+    for reproduction, 203, 204.
+  Dürer, Albrecht, 31, 132, 138, 141.
+
+  E., 6, 104.
+  Early Gothic, (see Round Gothic).
+  Early Printing, 52, 64, 71.
+  Edwards, Edward B., 116.
+  Edwards, George Wharton, 194.
+  Emphasis in lettering, placing of, 206
+    (see also Accenting).
+  English Brasses derived from Flanders, 141.
+  English Gothic, 140, 141.
+  English lettering, modern, 75, 82, 92.
+  English, Letters, 47;
+    Script, 188,
+    (see also Anglo-Saxon).
+  Engraved Title-pages, French, 188.
+  Enlarging Drawings, 203, 204.
+
+  F., 6, 104.
+  f., 56.
+  Fell, H. Granville, 96.
+  Flanders, Brasses from, 141.
+  Flourishing, of Blackletters, 135;
+    of Script, 194, 198.
+  Free-hand lines, 202.
+  French, modern lettering, 74, 82, 86;
+    Script, 188, 194.
+  Freedom, in lettering, 53, 74, 82, 92, 102, 118, 122, 201;
+    in Blackletters, 136;
+    in Gothic, 127;
+    in Italic, 198;
+    in kerns, serifs and swash-lines, etc., 53;
+    in Roman letters, 82;
+    in Script, 183.
+
+  G., 8.
+  g., 57.
+  Georgian English lettering, 117, 183, 194, 198.
+  German lettering, modern, 74, 82, 84, 92;
+    early, 110, 117;
+    Script, 52, 188;
+    types, 52.
+  Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, 71, 102, 136, 142.
+  Gothic Capitals, for use with Blackletters, 139;
+    pen drawn, 140;
+    not to be used to form words, 132.
+  Gothic, English, (see English Gothic).
+  Gothic lettering, 127, 131, 134, 205;
+    cut in stone, 140;
+    (see also Blackletters and Uncial).
+  Granite, letters cut in, 11, 14,
+    (see also Stone-cut, V-sunk and Incised).
+  Grasset, Eugène, 86.
+  Greek type, 73.
+  Grolier Club, 69.
+  Guide-lines, 3, 204.
+
+  H., 6.
+  "Half-Uncial," 52.
+  Harvard Architectural Building, lettering on, 14.
+  Hazenplug, Frank, 116, 198.
+  Historic styles of lettering, knowledge of, 207.
+  Holbein's 'Dance of Death' initials, 117.
+  Horne, Herbert P., 72.
+  Hrachowina, C., 188.
+  Hupp, Otto, 142.
+
+  I., 8, 9;
+    space around, 205.
+  Illegibility of Blackletters, 135, 136.
+  Image, Selwyn, 73, 93.
+  Incised letters in stone, Gothic, 139, 140;
+    Classic Roman, 9, 14, 45;
+    (see also Granite, Inlaid, Marble, Sandstone, V-sunk and Stone-cut).
+  Ink, 201.
+  Inking-in lettering, 200, 202.
+  Inlaid lettering, Gothic, 141.
+  Interlacement of Script letters, 194.
+  Inter-relation of letters, 6, 135, 201.
+  Iorio, Adrian J., 107.
+  Irish letters, (see Anglo-Saxon).
+  Italian, Blackletters, 139, 141;
+    modern lettering, 92;
+    Renaissance (see Renaissance);
+    Roman small letters, 64;
+    types, 52;
+    writing-books, 64, 183;
+    letters, drawing of, 201.
+  Italic, 52, 182, 188, 194, 198;
+    capitals, 182, 198;
+    drawing of, 205;
+    emphasis of, 206.
+
+  J., 8.
+  j., 56.
+  Jenson, Nicholas, 64.
+  Jones, A. Garth, 96.
+
+  K., 6.
+  k., 56.
+  Kerns, 53, 56.
+  Kimball, H. Ingalls, 71.
+
+  L., 104.
+  Late Gothic, (see Blackletter).
+  Laying out, lettering, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205;
+    a border, 204.
+  Le Boutillier, Addison B., 110.
+  Legibility of lettering, 206, 207;
+    of Round Gothic, 132.
+  Letters, outlines of, 202, 206;
+    widths of, 206;
+    to lay out, 205;
+    execution of in various materials, 14;
+    (see also Brasses, Inlaid, Marble, Granite, Pen and Printed forms,
+        Sandstone, Type).
+  Lines, heavy, 199;
+    narrow, 199;
+    thin, 200;
+    in water-color, 200;
+    freehand, 202, 203;
+    ruled, 202.
+  Linking, of Blackletters, 136;
+    of Round Gothic, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 45;
+    of Script, 182.
+  Lowell, Orson, 117.
+
+  M., 2, 28.
+  m., 56.
+  Marble, letters cut in, 17, 27,
+    (see also Incised, Inlaid).
+  Marsuppini tomb, Florence, 28.
+  Magonigle, H. Van Buren, 102.
+  McKim, Mead & White, architects, 14.
+  Medals, lettering on, 30.
+  Merrymount Press, The, 71, 72.
+  "Merrymount" type, 71.
+  Minuscule, 1;
+    modern Roman, 52, 53, 56, 57, 64;
+    monumental uses, 57;
+    composition of, 64;
+    growing use of, 76, 122;
+    spacing of, 57;
+    (see also, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Script).
+  Modern lettering, (see under countries, American, English, French,
+      German, Italian).
+  Modern Roman Capitals, 6;
+    (see Chapter II).
+  Modern type, (see Type).
+  "Montaigne" type, 69.
+  "Mont' Allegro" type, 73.
+  Moore, Guernsey, 116.
+  Morris, William, 72;
+    types of, 69.
+  Mucha, Alphons M., 91.
+
+  N., 2.
+  Netherlands, brasses from, 141.
+  New, Edmund H., 96.
+  Nicholson, William, 95.
+
+  O., 8, 182.
+  o., 182
+  Optical Illusions in Roman Capitals, 8.
+  Outline letters, 202.
+
+  P., 6.
+  Pantheon, Rome, Raphael's tomb, 27.
+  Papers, drawing, 201.
+  Parchment, 128.
+  Parrish, Maxfield, 110, 122.
+  Parsons, Alfred, 96.
+  Pens, 199, 201;
+    crowquill, 199;
+    reed, 2;
+    ruling, 202;
+    stub, 200;
+    quill, 200.
+  Pen drawn forms of letters, 9, 27, 30, 31, 45, 56, 64, 74, 76, 122, 140,
+      182, 199, 202.
+  Pencils, 200, 201.
+  Penfield, Edward, 100, 116, 118, 198.
+  Petrarch, 52;
+    handwriting of, 182.
+  Pisano, Vittore, 30.
+  "Post Old Style" type, 116.
+  Presses, (see Merrymount, Vale, Riverside, Cheltenham, Dove's, and De
+      Vinne).
+  Printed forms of Roman letters, 9, 30, 52, 53, 56, 64, 69, 122.
+  Printers, German, 52;
+    Italian, 52, 64;
+    American, 69;
+    English, 64, 69, 72, 73;
+    Venetian, 53, 64.
+  Proportions of a design, 203.
+  Puttner, Walter, 142.
+  Pyle, Howard, 117.
+
+  Q., 2, 8, 92.
+  "Quadrigesimale," 69.
+  Quill pens, 200;
+    method of holding, 2, 131.
+
+  R., 2, 6, 8.
+  Railton, Herbert, 96.
+  Raphael's tomb, lettering from, 27.
+  Reduction of drawings, 203, 204.
+  Renaissance, letters, 15, 27, 30;
+    artists of the, 53;
+    lettering of the Italian, 206;
+    medals, 30;
+    purity of letter shapes, 69.
+  Renner, 69.
+  Renner type, 69.
+  Reproduction of drawings, 203.
+  Ricketts, Charles, 93.
+  Riverside Press, The, 69.
+  Rogers, Bruce, 69, 194.
+  Roman Capitals, 1, 27;
+    (see also Modern Roman);
+    thick and thin lines of, 1, 6;
+    model for, 3;
+    rules for, 2;
+    squareness of, 1, 6, 131;
+    peculiarities of, 6, 8.
+  Roman letters, 127, 136;
+    with Italic, 182;
+    combined with Script and Italic, 194;
+    cross bars of, 6;
+    definition of, 1;
+    legibility of, 206;
+    waist lines of, 6;
+    width proportions of, 6.
+  Roman minuscules, (see Minuscule).
+  Roman forms, Gothic Spirit in, 84;
+    Uncial, 128.
+  Romanesque influence on Italian lettering, 45.
+  Ross, Albert R., 3, 11, 32, 56.
+  Roty, O., 30.
+  Round Gothic, analysis of, 131;
+    definition of, 131;
+    capitals to use with, 132, 139.
+  Round letters, capitals, 2, 3;
+    Minuscules, 56, 71;
+    stone-cut, 3, 9.
+  Rubbings, from inscriptions, 11, 16.
+  Ruling pen, 202.
+
+  S., 8.
+  Sandstone, letters cut in, 14.
+  Santa Croce, Florence, lettering from, 28, 141.
+  Script, 182, 183, 188, 194, 198;
+    capitals, 188;
+    cursive tendency in, 182;
+    developed from writing hands, 182;
+    drawing of, 205;
+    French, 188;
+    German, 188;
+    on English headstones and wall tombs, 188;
+    Spanish, 188;
+    used in engravings, 188;
+    used with upright Roman, 182, 183.
+  Serifs, 8, 16;
+    definition of, 3;
+    in Minuscule letters, 53, 69, 71;
+    in Italic letters, 182;
+    treatment of, 206.
+  Serlio, Sebastian, 3, 11, 32.
+  Shadows in V-sunk letters, 10, 11, 14.
+  Shaw, Byam, 96.
+  Simpson, Joseph W., 93.
+  Small letters, (see Minuscule, also Modern Roman, Gothic, Script and
+      Italic).
+  Spacing, of Classic Roman letters, 6, 8;
+    of Blackletters, 128, 134, 136;
+    of Minuscules, 53, 56, 57;
+    of type, 56;
+    of "Montaigne" type, 69;
+    of "Cheltenham" type, 71;
+    of letters and words, 201, 205;
+    emphasis obtained by, 206.
+  Spanish, Script, 188;
+    Roman letters, 64;
+    writing-books, 64, 183.
+  Stone-cut letters, Roman, 3, 9, 14;
+    (see also Incised, V-sunk, Granite, Marble, Sandstone).
+  Sullivan, James F., 96.
+  Swash lines, 2, 53, 136.
+
+  T., 8, 28.
+  Tagliente, G. A., 31.
+  Thompson, Hugh, 96.
+  Tory, Geoffrey, 31.
+  Townsend, Harry Everett, 117.
+  Transferring of lettering, 202.
+  Type, 9, 52, 64, 74.
+  Type-founders, 9, 56, 64.
+  Type models for pen lettering, use of, 74, 76, 122.
+
+  Uncial letters, 45, 76, 84, 92, 128;
+    Gothic, 139;
+    meta forms of, 140;
+    pen forms of, 140;
+    stone-cut, 140;
+    stone and marble, 139.
+  Updike, D. Berkeley, 71.
+
+  V., 9.
+  Vale Press, The, 93.
+  Van Rysselberghe, Theo., 91.
+  Venetian printers, 53, 64.
+  Verneuil, M. P., 86.
+  Vinci, Leonardo da, 31.
+  V-sunk Roman lettering, 9, 10, 14;
+    (see also Incised).
+
+  W., 9.
+  w., 56.
+  Waist lines, 6, 204;
+    of Roman letters, 6, 204, 206.
+  Westminster Abbey, England, 188.
+  Width proportions, of Roman Capital letters, 6.
+  Writing-books, 64, 183.
+  Writing hand, 188;
+    of Petrarch, 182;
+    Script developed from, 182.
+
+  X., 6.
+
+  Y., 6.
+  y., 56.
+
+  Z., 2.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS
+
+PEN DRAWING
+
+By CHARLES D. MAGINNIS
+
+An illustrated treatise, with many examples of the work of all the more
+eminent modern pen draughtsmen. A practical text-book, which aims to put
+the student in the most direct way of attaining successful proficiency in
+the art of drawing.
+
+"The book is very useful; all the features are good."--JOHN P. KUHL,
+Carlstadt, N. J.
+
+"I have learned a great deal in a short time from Mr. Maginnis's
+treatise."--H. E. HUNT, Ambridge, Pa.
+
+"I have found it a great help in pen drawing, and consider it a most
+instructive book."--WM. E. MEVINS, Buffalo, N. Y.
+
+"Would recommend it to any one wishing to do pen drawing or to a student
+wishing to take up the work as I did."--E. E. CHRISTOPHER, St. Louis, Mo.
+
+"I find it a most delightful little book, valuable for the student, as also
+for those desirous of gaining some insight into this art."--CHAS. J.
+FELLGER, Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+"The illustrations are excellent, and the instructions clear and to the
+point. It is a guide to the beginner and material help to the experienced.
+I am very pleased with it."--A. E. BUCKLER, Niagara Falls, N. Y.
+
+"'Pen Drawing' has benefited me a great deal, as it would anybody who made
+a proper use of it. Its many illustrations, together with their descriptive
+text, make the book what I think it was intended for, a good teacher."--H.
+W. BONNAH, Port Huron, Mich.
+
+"I think it a most excellent little book, well worth careful reading by any
+artist or draughtsman. Everything seems to me clearly stated and all points
+aptly illustrated with good examples. I do not see how it could be much
+better for the price."--S. GIFFORD SLOCUM, Architect, New York City
+
+PRICE, POSTAGE PREPAID, $1.50
+
+144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS
+
+DETAILS OF
+
+Building Construction
+
+By CLARENCE A. MARTIN
+
+A collection or 33 plates, 10 × 12½ inches, giving over 300 separate
+details covering all the ordinary methods of building, and in many cases
+showing alternative methods. The plates are models of detail drawing, and
+the text is in the form of notes lettered on the drawings.
+
+"I think it a valuable book to have near one in the draughting-room."--C.
+A. MCGREEN, Columbus, O.
+
+"I have studied all the details and I have found them very profitable to
+me."--ERNEST H. DOWNING, New York City
+
+"This book and 'Kidder's' are two that I could hardly get along
+without."--LOREN O. KIRK, Minneapolis, Minn.
+
+"The best book of its kind on the market. It is concise, practical, saves
+time and gives new ideas."--S. R. QUICK, Fort Collins, Col.
+
+"It saves me considerable time, is twice worth the price I paid for it, and
+also gives me endless number of new ideas."--JOHN SCHIER, Milwaukee, Wis.
+
+"Has saved me time, labor and trouble. A good book for ready reference in
+the draughting-room."--A. C. STORCH, Pittsburg, Pa.
+
+"The work has proven to be very useful to me, and I do not hesitate to
+recommend it highly, especially to students."--W. R. TROWBRIDGE, Altoona,
+Pa.
+
+"During the last few years I have purchased from you at least 25 or 30
+copies. My customers are well pleased with it."--THOMAS HENRY, Book Dealer,
+Toronto, Ont.
+
+"The most practical work on the subject there is, or at least that I have
+seen. I have never regretted the money I paid for it, and the book is
+always near at hand."--H. A. GOODSPEED, Providence, R. I.
+
+PRICE, POSTAGE PREPAID, $2.50
+
+144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS
+
+ARCHITECTURAL
+
+SHADES & SHADOWS
+
+By HENRY McGOODWIN
+
+The purpose and usefulness of this book is twofold: it is intended, first,
+as a practical reference hand-book for the architect's office--a
+"dictionary," as it were, of all the shades and shadows of those
+architectural forms and details which are used in rendering drawings; and
+second, as a clear and accurate course of study in the methods of
+determining shadows, for use in schools, offices, and ateliers.
+
+As a text-book for draughtsmen it is the clearest and most thorough work
+that has ever been written on the subject. The study is approached from the
+standpoint and in the language of the architect rather than of the
+geometrician; and great pains have been taken to demonstrate every problem
+in the simplest terms and by the simplest methods.
+
+The book measures 9½ × 12½ inches, and is substantially bound in cloth.
+
+PRICE, EXPRESS PAID, $4.00
+
+144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Letters and Lettering, by Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTERS AND LETTERING ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20590-8.txt or 20590-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/5/9/20590/
+
+Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/20590-8.zip b/20590-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0de4e1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-8.zip
diff --git a/20590-h.zip b/20590-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d91b874
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h.zip
diff --git a/20590-h/20590-h.htm b/20590-h/20590-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..80ab53c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/20590-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,5192 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" >
+    <title>
+      Letters and Lettering.
+    </title>
+
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         }
+    hr              {text-align: center; width: 50%;}
+    hr.full         {width: 100%;}
+    hr.short        {text-align: center; width: 20%;}
+    hr.tb           {text-align: left; border-top: 1px dotted #000; color: #fff; background-color: #fff; width: 40%;}
+    body { margin-left: 10%;
+           margin-right: 10%;
+         text-align: justify;
+        }
+
+    table.allbnomar { border : thin solid black; border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.allb { border : thin solid black; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 4em  }
+    table.tpbtb { border-top : thin solid black; border-bottom : thin solid black; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 4em  }
+    table.allbctr { border : thin solid black; border-collapse: collapse;
+	margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.nob  { margin-left: 4em }
+    table.nobctr  { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+
+    table.math    { margin-left:10%;vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.math0   { vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.math15  { margin-left:15%;vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.maths   { font-size:smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+
+    td.allb { border : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.spac { padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; }
+    td.tpbtb { border-top : thin solid black; border-bottom : thin solid black; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; }
+    td.spacsingle { padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; }
+    td.nspac { padding-left: 0em; padding-right: 0em; }
+    td.vertb { border-left : thin solid black; border-right : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.vertbotb { border-left : thin solid black; border-right : thin solid black; border-bottom : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.verttopb { border-left : thin solid black; border-right : thin solid black; border-top : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    .single p	     {margin: 0;}
+    .spacsingle p    {margin: 0;}
+
+    .contents
+    {margin-left:30%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;}
+    .contents .stanza        {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .contents p              {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+
+    .poem
+    {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;}
+    .poem .stanza        {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem p              {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+          p.hg3          {margin-left: -0.3em;}
+          p.hg1          {margin-left: -0.1em;}
+          p.i2           {margin-left: 1em;}
+          p.i4           {margin-left: 2em;}
+          p.i4hg3        {margin-left: 1.7em;}
+          p.i6           {margin-left: 3em;}
+          p.i8hg3        {margin-left: 3.7em;}
+          p.i8           {margin-left: 4em;}
+          p.z8           {margin-left: 4em; font-style: italic;}
+          p.i10          {margin-left: 5em;}
+          p.z10          {margin-left: 5em; font-style: italic;}
+          p.i12          {margin-left: 6em;}
+          p.i12hg3       {margin-left: 5.7em;}
+          p.i16          {margin-left: 8em;}
+          p.i16hg3       {margin-left: 7.7em;}
+          p.i20          {margin-left: 10em;}
+          p.i20hg3       {margin-left: 9.7em;}
+          p.i30          {margin-left: 15em;}
+          p.i30hg3       {margin-left: 14.7em;}
+          p.i40          {margin-left: 20em;}
+
+    a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+    a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+    a:hover {color:red}
+    link {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+
+    .noflo
+    {margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;}
+    .noflo .stanza        {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .noflo p              {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .noflo p.i2           {margin-left: 1em;}
+    .noflo p.i16          {margin-left: 8em;}
+
+    .author   {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em;}
+    .center   {text-align: center; }
+    .cenhead  {text-align: center;  margin-top: 1em;}
+    .right    {text-align: right; }
+    .t        {vertical-align: top; }
+    .tr       {vertical-align: top;}
+    .tc       {vertical-align: top;}
+    .tr p     {text-align: right;}
+    .tc p     {text-align: center;}
+    .m        {vertical-align: middle; }
+    .mr       {vertical-align: middle;}
+    .mc       {vertical-align: middle;}
+    .mr p     {text-align: right;}
+    .mc p     {text-align: center;}
+    .b        {vertical-align: bottom; }
+    .vol      {/*font-weight: bold;*/ font-size: small;}
+    .grk      {font-style: normal;
+		font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;}
+
+    sup       {font-style: normal; font-size: small;}
+    pre       {font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace; margin-left: 1em; }
+    .sc       {font-variant: small-caps; }
+    .scac     {font-size: small;}
+    .linenum  {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 60%;} /* poetry number */
+    blockquote {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; }
+    blockquote.b1 {font-size: small; }
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */
+    .sidenote {width: 20%; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; padding-left: 1em;
+	font-size: smaller; float: right; clear: right; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;}
+    .note     {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em;
+               } /* footnote - removed font-size: small;  */
+    span.correction {border-bottom: thin dotted red;}
+    span.special {text-decoration: none;}
+    span.intlim  {font-size:small; position:relative; top:-2ex; left:-0.4em;}
+    span.lower   {position:relative; top:0.5ex;}
+    span.over    {text-decoration: overline;}
+    span.under   {text-decoration: underline;}
+    span.pbar    {position:relative; top:0.7ex; left:0.4em;}
+    .nobo	 {border: thin;}
+    .red 	 {color: red;}
+    .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft
+              {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;}
+    .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img
+              {border: none;}
+    .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p
+              {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;}
+    .figure p.in, .figcenter p.in, .figright p.in, .figleft p.in
+              {margin: 0; text-indent: 8em;}
+    .figcenter p.poem
+              {margin-left: 1em; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;}
+    .figcenter {margin: auto;}
+    .figright {float: right;}
+    .figleft  {float: left;}
+    img.middle { border: none; vertical-align: middle }
+
+    // -->
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Letters and Lettering, by Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Letters and Lettering
+       A Treatise With 200 Examples
+
+Author: Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+Release Date: February 16, 2007 [EBook #20590]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTERS AND LETTERING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h1>LETTERS &amp;<br />
+LETTERING</h1>
+
+<h2>A TREATISE WITH 200 EXAMPLES</h2>
+
+<h2>FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN</h2>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/mark.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/mark.png"
+      alt="Publishers Mark." title="Publishers Mark." /></a>
+  </div>
+<h3>BOSTON</h3>
+
+<h3>BATES &amp; GUILD COMPANY</h3>
+
+<h3>MCMXXI</h3>
+
+<hr class="short" >
+
+<p class="cenhead"><i>Copyright, 1921, by</i><br />
+BATES &amp; GUILD COMPANY</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">Printed by<br />
+PERRY &amp; ELLIOTT CO<br />
+LYNN BOSTON</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">Printed in the U. S. A.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>NOTE</h3>
+
+  <p>This book is intended for those who have felt the need of a varied
+  collection of alphabets of standard forms, arranged for convenient
+  use.</p>
+
+  <p>The alphabets illustrated, while primarily intended to exhibit the
+  letter shapes, have in most cases been so arranged as to show also how
+  the letters compose into words, except in those instances where they are
+  intended to be used only as initials. The application of classic and
+  medieval letters to modern usages has been, as far as possible, suggested
+  by showing modern designs in which similar forms are employed.</p>
+
+  <p>In view of the practical aim of this treatise it has been deemed
+  advisable to include a larger number of illustrative examples rather than
+  to devote space to the historical evolution of the letter forms.</p>
+
+  <p>To the artists, American and European, who have so kindly furnished
+  him with drawings of their characteristic letters&mdash;and without whose
+  cordial assistance this book would hardly have been possible&mdash;to the
+  master-printers who have allowed him to show types specially designed for
+  them, and to the publishers who have given him permission to borrow from
+  their books and magazines, the author wishes to express his sincere
+  obligations.</p>
+
+  <p class="author">F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+  <p><span class="sc"><a href="#Fig1">1</a> and <a href="#Fig2">2</a>
+  Alphabet after Sebastian Serlio</span> (1473-1554). Reconstructed by
+  Albert R. Ross.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig3">3</a> <span class="sc">Width Proportions of Modern
+  Roman Capitals.</span> F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig4">4</a> <span class="sc">Drawing for Incised Roman
+  Capitals</span>. For cutting in granite. Letter forms based upon those
+  shown in figures 1 and 2. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig5">5</a> <span class="sc">Photograph of Incised Roman
+  Capitals.</span> Cut in granite from drawing shown in figure 4</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig6">6</a> <span class="sc">Incised Roman Capitals.</span>
+  From the Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 A.D. From a photograph</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig7">7</a> <span class="sc">Model for Incised Roman
+  Capitals.</span> Used for inscriptions cut in granite on Boston Public
+  Library. McKim, Mead &amp; White, Architects. Photographed from a
+  cast</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig8">8</a> <span class="sc">Roman Incised Capitals.</span>
+  From fragments in marble. National Museum, Naples. Rubbing</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig9">9</a> <span class="sc">Roman Incised
+  Inscription</span>. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig10">10</a> <span class="sc">Roman Incised
+  Inscription</span>. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig11">11</a> <span class="sc">Detail from a Roman Incised
+  Inscription</span>. Showing composition. Redrawn from a rubbing.
+  F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig12">12</a> <span class="sc">"Rustic" Roman
+  Capitals</span>. Of pen forms, but cut in stone. Redrawn from a rubbing.
+  From fragment in the National Museum, Naples. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig13">13</a> <span class="sc">Roman Capitals from Fragments
+  of Inscriptions</span>. Showing various characteristic letter forms.
+  Redrawn from rubbings. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig14">14</a> <span class="sc">Modern Roman Incised
+  Capitals</span>. Executed in sandstone. From the Harvard Architectural
+  Building, Cambridge, Mass. McKim, Mead &amp; White, Architects</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig15">15</a> <span class="sc">Letters Shown in Alphabet 1
+  and 2, in Composition</span>. By Albert R. Ross</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig16">16</a> and <a href="#Fig17">17</a> <span
+  class="sc">Classic Roman Capitals</span>. Cut in marble. Redrawn from
+  rubbings made in the Forum, Rome. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.-21</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig18">18</a> and 19 <span class="sc">Classic Roman
+  Capitals</span>. Late period. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings.
+  F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig20">20</a> <span class="sc">Portion of Roman
+  Inscription</span>. With supplied letters. Redrawn from a rubbing.
+  F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig21">21</a> <span class="sc">Classic Roman
+  Inscription</span>. Incised in marble. Redrawn from a rubbing.
+  F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig22">22</a> <span class="sc">Classic Roman
+  Inscription</span>. In stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig23">23</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance
+  Inscription</span>. Square-sunk in marble. From a photograph of a
+  mortuary slab</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig24">24</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance
+  Medal</span>. By Vittore Pisano. 15th Century. From a photograph</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig25">25</a> <span class="sc">Modern French Medal</span>.
+  By Oscar Roty. From a photograph of the original in the Luxembourg,
+  Paris</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig26">26</a> <span class="sc">Capitals Adapted from
+  Renaissance Medals</span>. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig27">27</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Renaissance
+  Alphabet</span>. By Juan de Yciar. From "Arte por la qual se ese<span
+  class="over">n</span>a a escrevir perfectamente." (Saragossa, 1550)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig28">28</a> <span class="sc">Renaissance Inlaid
+  Medallion</span>. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Redrawn
+  from a rubbing. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig29">29</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance
+  Capitals</span>. From an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence.
+  (Compare figure 28.) Redrawn from a rubbing. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig30">30</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance
+  Panel</span>. From Raphael's tomb, Pantheon, Rome. From a photograph</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig31">31</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance Incised
+  Inscription</span>. From the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence,
+  1455. Rubbing</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig32">32</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance Incised
+  Inscription</span>. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Early
+  15th Century. Rubbing</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig33">33</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance
+  Capitals</span>. Redrawn from inscription on the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa
+  Croce, Florence, 1455. (Compare figure 31.) F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig34">34</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance
+  Capitals</span>. Redrawn from rubbings of inscriptions in Santa Croce,
+  Florence. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig35">35</a> and <a href="#Fig36">36</a> <span
+  class="sc">Italian Renaissance Capitals</span>. By G. A. Tagliente. From
+  'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig37">37</a> and <a href="#Fig38">38</a> <span
+  class="sc">German Renaissance Capitals</span>. By Albrecht Dürer. Adapted
+  from 'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, &#x169;n richtscheyt,
+  in Linien, etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig39">39</a> and <a href="#Fig40">40</a> <span
+  class="sc">Italian Renaissance Capitals</span>. By Sebastian Serlio.
+  (1473-1554.) Compare figures 1 and 2</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig41">41</a> <span class="sc">German Renaissance
+  Capitals</span>. By Urbain Wÿss. From 'Libellus valde doctus ...
+  scribendarum literarum genera complectens.' (Zurich, 1549)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig42">42</a> <span class="sc">Italian Renaissance
+  Panel</span>. Above the door of the Badia, Florence. Redrawn by Claude
+  Fayette Bragdon. From 'Minor Italian Palaces.' (Cutler Manufacturing
+  Company, Rochester, N.Y., 1898)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig43">43</a> <span class="sc">Modern Title in Anglo-Saxon
+  Capitals</span>. By Bertram G. Goodhue. (Compare figure 46.) From 'The
+  Quest of Merlin.' (Small, Maynard &amp; Co., Boston, 1891)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig44">44</a> <span class="sc">Modern Title with
+  Characteristics of 16th Century</span> <span class="sc">English
+  Capitals</span>. By Walter Crane. (Compare figure 49.) From 'The Story of
+  Don Quixote.' (John Lane, New York, 1900)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig45">45</a> <span class="sc">Title in Early English
+  Capitals</span>. By W. Eden Nesfield. From 'Specimens of Medieval
+  Architecture.' (Day &amp; Sons, London, 1862)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig46">46</a> <span class="sc">Anglo-Saxon Capitals. 6th
+  Century</span>. From 'The Rule of St. Benedict.' Bodleian Library,
+  Oxford</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig47">47</a> <span class="sc">Anglo-Saxon Capitals. 7th
+  Century</span>. From 'The Gospels of St. Cuthbert'</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig48">48</a> <span class="sc">Anglo-Saxon Capitals. Early
+  10th Century.</span> From an Anglo-Saxon Bible</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig49">49</a> <span class="sc">Early English
+  Capitals</span>. 16th Century. From tomb of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey,
+  London</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig50">50</a> and <a href="#Fig51">51</a> <span
+  class="sc">Scheme for the Construction of Roman Small</span> <span
+  class="sc">Letters</span>. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig52">52</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Roman Pen Drawn
+  Letters</span>. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr&#x113;virde.'
+  (Madrid, 1577)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig53">53</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Roman Pen Drawn
+  Letters</span>. Showing use of above. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+  Escr&#x113;virde.' (Madrid, 1577)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig54">54</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Italic Pen Drawn
+  Letters.</span> By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr&#x113;virde.'
+  (Madrid, 1577)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig55">55</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Italic Pen Drawn
+  Letters.</span> Showing use of above. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+  Escr&#x113;virde.' (Madrid, 1577)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig56">56</a> <span class="sc">Italian Small Letters</span>.
+  By J. F. Cresci. From 'Perfetto Scrittore.' (Rome, 1560)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig57">57</a> <span class="sc">English 17th Century
+  Letters</span>. Incised in slate. From tombstones</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig58">58</a> <span class="sc">Modern Small Letters</span>.
+  After C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener
+  Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig59">59</a> <span class="sc">Modern Small Letters</span>.
+  By Claude Fayette Bragdon. Based on Venetian types cut by Nicholas
+  Jenson, 1471-81</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig60">60</a> <span class="sc">Inscription from English 17th
+  Century Tombstone.</span> From slate tombstone at Chippenham, England.
+  1691. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig61">61</a> <span class="sc">Roman and Italic Type</span>.
+  Designed by William Caslon. From his Specimen Book. (London, 1734)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig62">62</a> <span class="sc">Modern Roman Type,
+  "Montaigne."</span> Designed by Bruce Rogers for The Riverside Press,
+  Cambridge, Mass.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig63">63</a> <span class="sc">Modern Roman Type,
+  "Renner."</span> Designed by Theo. L. De Vinne for The De Vinne Press,
+  New York</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig64">64</a> <span class="sc">Modern Roman Type,
+  "Merrymount."</span> Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The Merrymount
+  Press, Boston, Mass.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig65">65</a> <span class="sc">Modern Roman Type,
+  "Cheltenham Old Style."</span> Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The
+  Cheltenham Press, New York. (Owned by American Type Founders Company and
+  Linotype Company)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig66">66</a> <span class="sc">Modern Greek Type.</span>
+  Designed by Selwyn Image for The Macmillan Company, London</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig67">67</a> <span class="sc">Modern Roman Type.</span>
+  Designed by C. R. Ashbee for a Prayerbook for the King of England</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig68">68</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals.</span> After lettering by J. M. Olbrich</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig69">69</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals.</span> By Gustave Lemmen. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+  Schrift.' (A. Schroll &amp; Co., Vienna)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig70">70</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals</span>. After lettering by Alois Ludwig</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig71">71</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals</span>. After lettering by Otto Eckmann</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig72">72</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals</span>. By Otto Hupp. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.'
+  (A. Schroll &amp; Co., Vienna)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig73">73</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals</span>. By Joseph Plécnik. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+  Schrift.' (A. Schroll &amp; Co., Vienna)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig74">74</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals</span>. After lettering by Franz Stuck</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig75">75</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals</span>. Arranged from originals. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig76">76</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Capitals</span>. After lettering by Bernhard Pankok</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig77">77</a> <span class="sc">Modern French Poster</span>.
+  'La Libre Esthétique.' By Theo. van Rysselberghe</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig78">78</a> <span class="sc">Modern French
+  Book-cover</span>. By M. P. Verneuil. From 'L'Animal dans la décoration.'
+  (E. Lévy, Paris)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig79">79</a> <span class="sc">Modern French Letters</span>.
+  After lettering by M. P. Verneuil</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig80">80</a> <span class="sc">Modern French Poster</span>.
+  'La Revue Blanche.' By P. Bonnard</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig81">81</a> <span class="sc">Modern French Magazine Cover
+  Design</span>. By George Auriol. From 'L'Image.' (Floury, Paris,
+  1897)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig82">82</a> <span class="sc">Modern French
+  Capitals</span>. By Alphons M. Mucha. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer
+  Schrift.' (A. Schroll &amp; Co., Vienna)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig83">83</a> <span class="sc">Modern French Lettered Page
+  in "Cursive."</span> By George Auriol. From 'Le Premier Livre des
+  Cachets, etc.' (Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1901)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig84">84</a> <span class="sc">Modern French Letters,
+  "Cursive."</span> By George Auriol</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig85">85</a> <span class="sc">Modern French Cover
+  Design.</span> By Eugène Grasset. From 'Art et Décoration.' (Paris)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig86">86</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Capitals.</span> By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer
+  Schrift.' (A. Schroll &amp; Co., Vienna)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig87">87</a> <span class="sc">Modern English Theatrical
+  Poster.</span> By Walter Crane</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig88">88</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Capitals.</span> By Walter Crane. From 'Alphabets Old and New.' (B. T.
+  Batsford, London, 1899)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig89">89</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Letters.</span> By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunsterischer Schrift.'
+  (A. Schroll &amp; Co., Vienna)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig90">90</a> <span class="sc">Modern English Title.</span>
+  By Joseph W. Simpson. From 'The Book of Book-plates.' (Williams &amp;
+  Norgate, Edinburgh)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig91">91</a> <span class="sc">Modern English Poster.</span>
+  By Joseph W. Simpson</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig92">92</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Book-cover.</span> By William Nicholson. From 'London Types.' (R. H.
+  Russell, New York, 1898)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig93">93</a> <span class="sc">Modern English Magazine
+  Cover.</span> By Lewis F. Day. From 'The Art Journal.' (H. Virtue &amp;
+  Co., London)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig94">94</a> <span class="sc">Modern English Title.</span>
+  By Gordon Craig. From 'The Page' (The Sign of the Rose, Hackbridge,
+  Surrey)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig95">95</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Capitals.</span> By Lewis F. Day. From 'Alphabets Old and New.' (B. T.
+  Batsford, London, 1899)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig96">96</a> <span class="sc">Modern English Title
+  Page.</span> By Robert Anning Bell. From 'Poems by John Keats.' (George
+  Bell &amp; Sons, London, 1897)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig97">97</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Book-cover.</span> By Edmund H. New. From 'The Natural History of
+  Selborne.' (John Lane, London, 1900)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig98">98</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Book-cover.</span> By Selwyn Image. From 'Representative Painters of the
+  19th Century.' (Sampson, Low, Marston &amp; Co., London, 1899)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig99">99</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Capitals.</span> Anonymous. From an advertisement</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig100">100</a> <span class="sc">Modern English
+  Title.</span> By Charles Ricketts. From 'Nimphidia and the Muses
+  Elizium.' (The Vale Press, London)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig101">101</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Selections from the Poetry of
+  Robert Herrick.' (Harper &amp; Brothers, New York, 1899)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig102">102</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig103">103</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Magazine
+  Cover.</span> By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig104">104</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> By Edward Penfield</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig105">105</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Small
+  Letters.</span> By Edward Penfield</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig106">106</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Cover
+  Design.</span> By H. Van Buren Magonigle</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig107">107</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> By H. Van Buren Magonigle</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig108">108</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Masters in Art.' (Boston,
+  1900)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig109">109</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Will Bradley. From 'The Book List of Dodd, Mead &amp;
+  Co.' (New York, 1899)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig110">110</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Capitals
+  and Small Letters.</span> By Will Bradley. From 'Bradley, His Book.' (The
+  Wayside Press, Springfield, Mass., 1896)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig111">111</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Magazine
+  Cover.</span> By Will Bradley. From 'The International Studio.' (New
+  York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig112">112</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Ticket.</span> By A. J. Iorio</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig113">113</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> After lettering by Will Bradley</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig114">114</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> By Maxfield Parrish</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig115">115</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Maxfield Parrish. From 'Knickerbocker's History of New
+  York.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1900)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig116">116</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Addison B. Le Boutillier</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig117">117</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> By Addison B. Le Boutillier</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig118">118</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Small
+  Letters.</span> By Addison B. Le Boutillier</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig119">119</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Poster.</span> By Addison B. Le Boutillier</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig120">120</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Book-Plate.</span> By Claude Fayette Bragdon</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig121">121</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Literature.' (New
+  York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig122">122</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Letter-heading.</span> By Claude Fayette Bragdon</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig123">123</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Advertisement.</span> By H. L. Bridwell. (Strowbridge Lithographic Co.,
+  Cincinnati)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig124">124</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> By H. L. Bridwell</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig125">125</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> By Frank Hazenplug</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig126">126</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Capitals,
+  "Heavy Face."</span> By Frank Hazenplug</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig127">127</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Book-cover.</span> By Frank Hazenplug. From ''Ickery Ann and other Girls
+  and Boys.' (Herbert S. Stone &amp; Co., Chicago, 1899)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig128">128</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Edward Edwards. From 'Harper's Pictorial History of the
+  War with Spain.' (Harper &amp; Brothers, New York, 1899)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig129">129</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Catalogue
+  Cover.</span> By Frank Hazenplug. From the Catalogue of the Chicago Arts
+  and Crafts Society. (Chicago)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig130">130</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Guernsey Moore. From 'The Saturday Evening Post.'
+  (Philadelphia)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig131">131</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Harry Everett Townsend. From 'The Blue Sky.' (Langworthy
+  &amp; Stevens, Chicago, 1901)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig132">132</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Heading.</span> By Howard Pyle. From 'Harper's Magazine.' (New York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig133">133</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Letters.</span> Compiled from various sources. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig134">134</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Capitals.</span> After lettering by Orson Lowell</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig135">135</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Small
+  Letters.</span> F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig136">136</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Titles.</span> By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig137">137</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Title.</span> By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig138">138</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Letters.</span> For rapid use. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig139">139</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Italic.</span> For use in lettering architects' plans, etc. By Claude
+  Fayette Bragdon</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig140">140</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Letters,
+  "Cursive."</span> For rapid use. By Maxfield Parrish</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig141">141</a> <span class="sc">Italian Round Gothic Small
+  Letters.</span> After Lucantonii Giunta. Redrawn from 'Graduale Sanctae
+  Romanae Ecclesiae.' (Venice, 1500)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig142">142</a> <span class="sc">Italian Round Gothic Small
+  Letters.</span> 16th Century. Redrawn from Italian originals</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig143">143</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Round Gothic
+  Letters.</span> By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr&#x113;virde.'
+  (Madrid, 1577)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig144">144</a> <span class="sc">German Blackletter
+  Construction.</span> By Albrecht Dürer. From 'Underweyssung der messung,
+  mit dem zirckel, &#x16B;n richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.' (Nuremberg,
+  1525)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig145">145</a> <span class="sc">German Blackletters.</span>
+  Redrawn from manuscripts</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig146">146</a> <span class="sc">German Blackletters.</span>
+  With rounded angles. Redrawn from manuscripts</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig147">147</a> <span class="sc">Italian Blackletter
+  Title-page.</span> By Jacopus Philippus Foresti (Bergomensis). From 'De
+  Claris Mulieribus, etc.' (Ferrara, 1497)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig148">148</a> <span class="sc">German Blackletter
+  Page.</span> By Albrecht Dürer. From the Prayerbook designed by him for
+  the Emperor Maximilian. (Nuremberg, 1515)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig149">149</a> <span class="sc">German Memorial Brass with
+  Blackletter Inscription.</span> Ascribed to Albrecht Dürer. Cathedral of
+  Meissen, 1510. From 'Fac-similes of Monumental Brasses on the Continent
+  of Europe.' (W. F. Creeney, Norwich, 1884)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig150">150</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Calendar
+  Cover in Blackletter.</span> By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Every Day's
+  Date Calendar.' (Fleming, Schiller &amp; Carnrick, New York, 1897)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig151">151</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Blackletters.</span> By Walter Puttner. From 'Jugend.' (Munich)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig152">152</a> <span class="sc">Modern German Title in
+  Blackletter.</span> By Otto Hupp. From 'Münchener Kalendar.' (Munich,
+  1900)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig153">153</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Page in
+  English Blackletter.</span> By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Scribner's
+  Magazine.' (New York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig154">154</a> <span class="sc">Uncial Gothic
+  Initials.</span> Redrawn from 12th Century examples. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig155">155</a> <span class="sc">Uncial Gothic
+  Initials.</span> Redrawn from 13th Century examples. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig156">156</a> <span class="sc">Uncial Gothic
+  Capitals.</span> Redrawn from 14th Century examples. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig157">157</a> <span class="sc">Uncial Gothic
+  Capitals</span>. 14th Century. After J. Weale. Redrawn from 'Portfolio of
+  Ancient Capital Letters.' (London, 1838-9)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig158">158</a> <span class="sc">Italian Uncial Gothic
+  Capitals, in the "Papal"</span> <span class="sc">Hand</span>. From a
+  Florentine manuscript of 1315. British Museum, London. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig159">159</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Uncial Gothic
+  Capitals</span>. By Juan de Yciar. Adapted from 'Arte por la qual se
+  ese<span class="over">n</span>a escrevir perfectamente.' (Saragossa,
+  1550)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig160">160</a> <span class="sc">Venetian Wall Panel</span>,
+  of Marble, Inscribed with Uncial Gothic Letters. 15th Century. From the
+  Church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. Rubbing</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig161">161</a> <span class="sc">Venetian Gothic
+  Capitals.</span> 15th Century. Redrawn from the rubbing shown in figure
+  160. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig162">162</a> <span class="sc">German Uncial Capitals.
+  1341.</span> Redrawn from a memorial brass in the Cathedral of Lübeck</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig163">163</a> <span class="sc">French and Spanish Gothic
+  Capitals.</span> 14th Century. After W. S. Weatherley</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig164">164</a> and <a href="#Fig165">165</a> <span
+  class="sc">Italian Gothic Initials.</span> After G. A. Tagliente, in 'La
+  vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig166">166</a> <span class="sc">Italian Gothic
+  Initials.</span> By Giovanni Battista Palatino. From 'Libro nel qual
+  s'insegna a scrivere.' (Rome, 1548)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig167">167</a>, <a href="#Fig168">168</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig169">169</a> <span class="sc">German Gothic Initials.</span> By
+  P. Frank. Nuremberg, 1601. From Petzendorfer's 'Schriften-Atlas.'
+  (Stuttgart, 1889)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig170">170</a> <span class="sc">Italian Gothic
+  Capitals.</span> 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig171">171</a> <span class="sc">Gothic Capitals of English
+  Form.</span> 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig172">172</a> <span class="sc">Italian Gothic
+  Capitals.</span> 17th Century. Redrawn from various examples</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig173">173</a> <span class="sc">German Gothic
+  Capitals.</span> 17th Century. Redrawn from various manuscripts</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig174">174</a> <span class="sc">German Gothic
+  Capitals.</span> From manuscripts</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig175">175</a> <span class="sc">German Gothic
+  Capitals.</span> From manuscripts</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig176">176</a> <span class="sc">German Gothic Capitals,
+  Heavy Faced</span></p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig177">177</a> <span class="sc">English Gothic "Text,"
+  Initials and Blackletters.</span> 15th Century. From manuscripts</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig178">178</a> <span class="sc">English Gothic Uncials and
+  Blackletters.</span> 15th Century. From Queen Eleanor's tomb.
+  F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig179">179</a> <span class="sc">English Gothic Capitals and
+  Blackletters.</span> 15th Century. From tomb of Richard II, Westminster
+  Abbey, London. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig180">180</a> <span class="sc">German Blackletters.</span>
+  From a brass. Redrawn from a rubbing. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig181">181</a> <span class="sc">German Blackletters</span>.
+  With Albrecht Dürer's initials. 16th Century. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig182">182</a> <span class="sc">Italian
+  Blackletters.</span> By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello
+  eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig183">183</a> <span class="sc">German Blackletters.</span>
+  After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig184">184</a> <span class="sc">German Blackletters.</span>
+  After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig185">185</a> <span class="sc">German Gothic
+  Capitals</span>. By Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig186">186</a> <span class="sc">English Gothic
+  Blackletters.</span> Late 15th Century. Redrawn from a brass.
+  F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig187">187</a> <span class="sc">Italian Inlaid
+  Blackletters.</span> From a marble slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Redrawn
+  from a rubbing. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig188">188</a> and <a href="#Fig189">189</a> <span
+  class="sc">Modern American Blackletters With Gothic</span> <span
+  class="sc">Capitals.</span> By Bertram G. Goodhue</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig190">190</a> <span class="sc">Modern German
+  Blackletters.</span> After lettering by Julius Diez</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig191">191</a> <span class="sc">Modern German Blackletters,
+  flourished.</span> F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig192">192</a> <span class="sc">German Italic</span>. By
+  Gottlieb Münch. From 'Ordnung der Schrift.' (Munich, 1744)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig193">193</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Script.</span> By
+  Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid, 1802)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig194">194</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Scripts.</span> By
+  Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid, 1802)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig195">195</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Script.</span> By
+  Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr&#x113;virde.' (Madrid, 1577)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig196">196</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Cursive.</span> By
+  Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr&#x113;virde.' (Madrid, 1577)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig197">197</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Script
+  Title.</span> By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From an advertisement</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig198">198</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Script
+  Title.</span> By George Wharton Edwards. From 'Collier's Weekly.' (New
+  York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig199">199</a> <span class="sc">French Script
+  Capitals.</span> 18th Century. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig200">200</a> <span class="sc">German Script.</span> 18th
+  Century forms. Adapted from C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen, Alphabete und
+  Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig201">201</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Script
+  Capitals.</span> Early 18th Century. Adapted from a Spanish Writing-book.
+  F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig202">202</a> <span class="sc">Spanish Script
+  Alphabets.</span> Late 17th Century. Adapted from Spanish Writing-books.
+  F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig203">203</a> <span class="sc">English Incised
+  Script.</span> Redrawn from inscriptions in slate and stone in
+  Westminster Abbey, London. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig204">204</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Script Book
+  Title.</span> By Bruce Rogers. From cover design of 'The House of the
+  Seven Gables.' (Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., Boston, 1899)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig205">205</a> <span class="sc">Modern American
+  Script.</span> By Bruce Rogers</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig206">206</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Script
+  Capitals.</span> After lettering by Frank Hazenplug</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig207">207</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Italic
+  Capitals.</span> F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig208">208</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Script
+  Title.</span> Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig209">209</a> <span class="sc">Modern American Script
+  Title.</span> By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig210">210</a> <span class="sc">Diagram to Show Method of
+  Enlarging a Panel,</span> from upper left corner</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#Fig211">211</a> <span class="sc">Diagram to Show Method of
+  Enlarging a Panel,</span> from perpendicular center line</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#endpaper"><span class="sc">End Papers</span></a>. From an
+  embroidered Altar-cloth. 17th Century. Church of St. Mary, Soest,
+  Westphalia, Germany.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+  <div class="contents">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>I. ROMAN CAPITALS                          <a href="#page1">1</a></p>
+      <p>II. MODERN ROMAN LETTERS                   <a href="#page52">52</a></p>
+      <p>III. GOTHIC LETTERS                        <a href="#page127">127</a></p>
+      <p>IV. ITALIC AND SCRIPT                      <a href="#page182">182</a></p>
+      <p>V. TO THE BEGINNER                         <a href="#page199">199</a></p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>[1]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<h2>ROMAN CAPITALS</h2>
+
+  <p>In speaking of the "Roman" letter throughout this chapter its capital
+  form&mdash;the form in monumental use among the Romans&mdash;will always
+  be implied. The small or "minuscule" letters, which present nomenclature
+  includes under the general title of "Roman" letters, and which will be
+  considered in the following chapter, were of later formation than the
+  capitals; and indeed only attained their definitive and modern form after
+  the invention of printing from movable types.</p>
+
+  <p>The first point to be observed in regard to the general form of the
+  Roman capital is its characteristic squareness. Although the letter as
+  used to-day varies somewhat in proportions from its classic prototype,
+  its skeleton is still based on the square.</p>
+
+  <p>Next to this typical squareness of outline, the observer should note
+  that the Roman letter is composed of thick and thin lines. At first sight
+  it may seem that no systematic rules determine which of these lines
+  should be thick and which thin; but closer investigation will discover
+  that the alternate widths of line were evolved quite methodically, and
+  that they exactly fulfil the functions of making the letters both more
+  legible and more decorative. Arbitrary rearrangements of these thick and
+  thin lines, differing from the arrangement of them in the classic
+  examples, have, <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page2"></a>[2]</span> indeed, been often attempted; but such
+  rearrangements have never resulted in improvement, and, except in
+  eccentric lettering, have fallen into complete disuse.</p>
+
+  <p>The original thickening and thinning of the lines of the classic Roman
+  capitals was partly due to the imitation in stone inscriptions of the
+  letter forms as they were written on parchment with the pen. The early
+  Latin scribes held their stiff-nibbed reed pens almost directly upright
+  and at right angles to the writing surface, so that a down stroke from
+  left to right and slanted at an angle of about forty-five degrees would
+  bring the nib across the surface broadwise, resulting in the widest line
+  possible to the pen. On the other hand, a stroke drawn at right angles to
+  this, the pen being still held upright, would be made with the thin edge
+  of the nib, and would result in the narrowest possible line. From this
+  method of handling the pen the variations of line width in the standard
+  Roman forms arose; and we may therefore deduce three logical rules, based
+  upon pen use, which will determine the proper distribution of the thick
+  and thin lines:</p>
+
+  <p><span class="scac">I</span>, Never accent horizontal lines. <span
+  class="scac">II</span>, Always accent the sloping down strokes which run
+  from left to right, including the so-called "swash" lines, or flying
+  tails, of <span class="scac">Q</span> and <span class="scac">R</span>;
+  but never weight those which, contrariwise, slope up from left to right,
+  with a single exception in the case of the letter <span
+  class="scac">Z</span>, in which, if rule <span class="scac">I</span> be
+  followed, the sloping line (in this case made with a down stroke) will be
+  the only one possible to accent. <span class="scac">III</span>, Always
+  accent the directly perpendicular lines, except in the <span
+  class="scac">N</span>, where these lines seem originally to have been
+  made with an up stroke of the pen; and the first line of the <span
+  class="scac">M</span>, where the perpendiculars originally sloped in
+  towards the top of the letter (see 2). On the round letters <!-- Page 3
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>[3]</span> the accents
+  should occur at the sides of the circle, as virtually provided in rule
+  <span class="scac">III</span>, or on the upper right and lower left
+  quarters (see <a href="#Fig1">1</a>-<a href="#Fig2">2</a>), where in
+  pen-drawn letters the accent of the down sloping stroke would naturally
+  occur, as virtually determined in rule <span class="scac">II</span>.</p>
+
+  <p>The "serif"&mdash;a cross-stroke or tick&mdash;finishes the free ends
+  of all lines used in making a Roman capital. The value of the serif in
+  stone-cut letters seems obvious. To define the end of a free line a sharp
+  cut was made across it with the chisel, and as the chisel was usually
+  wider than the thin line this cut extended beyond it. Serifs were added
+  to the ends of the thick lines either for the sake of uniformity, or may
+  have been suggested by the chisel-marked guide lines themselves. Indeed
+  in late stone-cut Roman work the scratched guide lines along the top and
+  bottom of each line of the inscription are distinctly marked and merge
+  into the serifs, which extend farther than in earlier examples. The serif
+  was adopted in pen letters probably from the same reasons that caused it
+  to be added to the stone-cut letters, namely, that it definitely finished
+  the free lines and enhanced the general squareness and finish of the
+  letter's aspect.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig3"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/big003.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig003.png"
+      alt="3. WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F.C.B." title="3. WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F.C.B." /></a>
+    3.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig2"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big002.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig002.png"
+      alt="2. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS" title="2. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS" /></a>
+    2.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig1"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big001.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig001.png"
+      alt="1. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS" title="1. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS" /></a>
+    1.
+  </div>
+  <p>An excellent model for constructing the Roman capitals in a standard
+  form will be found in the beautiful adaptation by Mr. A. R. Ross, <a
+  href="#Fig1">1</a> and <a href="#Fig2">2</a>, from an alphabet of
+  capitals drawn by Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect, engraver and
+  painter of the sixteenth century, who devised some of the most refined
+  variants of the classic Roman letter. Serlio's original forms, which are
+  shown in <a href="#Fig39">39</a> and <a href="#Fig40">40</a>, were
+  intended for pen or printed use; but in altering Serlio's scheme of
+  proportions it will be observed that Mr. Ross <!-- Page 6 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>[6]</span> has partially adapted the
+  letter for use in stone, and has further varied it in details, notably in
+  serif treatment. In most modern stone-cut letters, however, the thin
+  strokes would be made even wider than in this example, as in <a
+  href="#Fig14">14</a>. Mr. Ross's adaptation shows excellently how far the
+  classic letters do or do not fill out the theoretical square.</p>
+
+  <p>Width proportions, which may be found useful in laying out lettering
+  for lines of a given length, are shown in 3 in a more modern style of the
+  Roman capital. In the classic Roman letter the cross-bar is usually in
+  the exact center of the letter height, but in <a href="#Fig3">3</a> the
+  center line has been used as the bottom of the cross-bar in <span
+  class="scac">B, E, H, P,</span> and <span class="scac">R</span>, and as
+  the top of the cross-bar in <span class="scac">A</span>; and in letters
+  like <span class="scac">K, Y</span> and <span class="scac">X</span> the
+  "waist lines," as the meeting points of the sloping lines are sometimes
+  called, have been slightly raised to obtain a more pleasant effect.</p>
+
+  <p>The Roman alphabet, although the one most in use, is unfortunately the
+  most difficult to compose into words artistically, as the spacing between
+  the letters plays a great share in the result. The effect of even color
+  over a whole panel is obtained by keeping as nearly as possible the same
+  area of white between each letter and its neighbor; but the shape of this
+  area will be determined in every case by the letters which happen to be
+  juxtaposed. Individual letters may, however, be widened or condensed to
+  help fill an awkward "hole" in a line of lettering;&mdash;the lower lobe
+  of the <span class="scac">B</span> may be extended, the center bar of the
+  <span class="scac">E</span> pulled out (in which case the <span
+  class="scac">F</span> should be made to correspond), the lower slant
+  stroke of the <span class="scac">K</span> may be used as a swash tail,
+  and the <span class="scac">R</span> may have its tail extended or drawn
+  closely back against the upright line, and so on. Indeed, each and <!--
+  Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>[8]</span> every
+  letter of the alphabet is susceptible to such similar modifications in
+  shape as may make it best suit the space left for it by its neighbors.
+  Observe, for example, the spacing of the word <span
+  class="scac">MERITAE</span> in <a href="#Fig34">34</a>, and notice how
+  the tail of the <span class="scac">R</span> is lengthened to hold off the
+  <span class="scac">I</span> because the <span class="scac">T</span> on
+  the other side is perforce held away by its top. In the page of capitals,
+  <a href="#Fig124">124</a>, by Mr. Bridwell, see also how the different
+  spacing of the word <span class="scac">FRENCH</span> in the first and
+  second lines is managed. In the advertisement, <a href="#Fig123">123</a>,
+  also by Mr. Bridwell, note how the letters are spaced close or wide in
+  order to produce a definite effect. The whole problem of spacing is,
+  however, one of such subtle interrelation and composition, that it can
+  only be satisfactorily solved by the artistic sense of the designer. Any
+  rules which might be here formulated would prove more often a drawback
+  than a help.</p>
+
+  <p>Certain optical illusions of some of the Roman letter forms should be
+  briefly mentioned. These illusions are caused by the failure of certain
+  letters to impinge squarely with determining serifs against the demarking
+  top and bottom guide lines. The round letters <span class="scac">C, G,
+  O</span> and <span class="scac">Q</span> often seem to be shorter and
+  smaller than the other characters in a word unless the outsides of their
+  curves run both above and below the guide lines. For the same reason
+  <span class="scac">S</span> should be sometimes slightly increased in
+  height, though in this case the narrowness of the letter makes less
+  increase necessary; and <span class="scac">J</span>, on account of its
+  kern, is governed by the same conditions as <span class="scac">S</span>,
+  save when letters with distinct serifs come closely against it at the
+  bottom. Theoretically the right side of <span class="scac">D</span> would
+  require similar treatment, but actually this is seldom found necessary.
+  The pointed ends of <!-- Page 9 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page9"></a>[9]</span> the letters <span class="scac">V</span> and
+  <span class="scac">W</span> should, for similar optical reasons, be
+  extended slightly below the bottom guide lines, the amount of this
+  extension being determined by the letters on each side of them. In the
+  <span class="scac">A</span>, the Roman letterer at first got over the
+  optical difficulty caused by its pointed top by running this letter also
+  higher than its neighbors; but he later solved the problem by shaping its
+  apex as shown in <span class="scac">I</span>, thus apparently getting the
+  letter into line with its companions while still obtaining a sufficient
+  width of top to satisfy the eye. Because of its narrowness, <span
+  class="scac">I</span> should generally be allowed more proportionate
+  white space on either side of it than the wider letters.</p>
+
+  <p>Some idea of the proportionate variations required to counteract the
+  optical illusions of the letters above named may be obtained from the
+  practice of type-founders. In making the designs for a fount of type, it
+  has been customary to first draw each letter at a very large size. Taking
+  an arbitrary height of twelve inches as a standard, the points of <span
+  class="scac">A</span> and <span class="scac">V</span> were made to extend
+  about three-quarters of an inch above or below the guides, the letter
+  <span class="scac">O</span> was run over about half an inch at both top
+  and bottom, and the points of the w were made to project about the same
+  distance. In pen lettering, however, it is possible and preferable to
+  adapt each letter more perfectly to its individual surroundings by
+  judgment of the eye than to rely upon any hard and fast rules.</p>
+
+  <p>Certain variations between the stone-cut forms of the Roman letters
+  and their forms as drawn or printed should be understood before an
+  intelligent adaptation of stone forms to drawn forms, or the opposite, is
+  possible. When drawn or printed a character is seen in black against a
+  <!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>[10]</span>
+  white ground with no illusory alterations of its line widths caused by
+  varying shadows. In stone-cut letters, on the other hand, where the
+  shadows rather than the outlines themselves reveal the forms, different
+  limitations govern the problem. The thin lines of a letter to be <span
+  class="scac">V</span>-sunk should generally be made slightly thicker in
+  proportion to the wide lines than is the case with the pen-drawn letter,
+  especially as the section is likely to be less deeply and sharply cut
+  nowadays than in the ancient examples, for the workmanship of to-day
+  seems to be less perfect and the materials used more friable. A slight
+  direct sinkage before beginning to cut the <span
+  class="scac">V</span>-sunk section is a useful method of <!-- Page 11
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>[11]</span> partially
+  atoning for modern shallow cutting, as shadows more directly defining the
+  outlines are thus obtained. The student should, however, be warned at the
+  outset that all reproductions or tracings from rubbings of ancient
+  stone-cut letters are apt to be more or less deceptive, as all the
+  accidental variations of the outlines are exaggerated, and where the
+  stone of the original has been chipped or worn away it appears in the
+  reproduction as though the letter had been actually so cut.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig4"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big004.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig004.png"
+      alt="4. DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN GRANITE.  F.C.B" title="4. DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN GRANITE.  F.C.B" /></a>
+    4.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig5"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big005.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig005.jpg"
+      alt="5. PHOTOGRAPH FROM INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS SHOWN IN 4" title="5. PHOTOGRAPH FROM INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS SHOWN IN 4" /></a>
+    5.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig6"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big006.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig006.jpg"
+      alt="6. INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME" title="6. INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME" /></a>
+    6.
+  </div>
+  <p>The photograph of a panel of lettering from the upper part of the Arch
+  of Constantine, Rome, shown in <a href="#Fig6">6</a>, well indicates the
+  effect of shadows in defining the classic Roman letters; and the effect
+  of shadows on an incised letter may be clearly observed by comparing <a
+  href="#Fig4">4</a> and <a href="#Fig5">5</a>, the former showing a
+  drawing for an inscription in which the Serlio-Ross <!-- Page 14 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>[14]</span> alphabet was used as a
+  basis for the letter forms, and the latter being a photograph of the same
+  inscription, as cut in granite. It will be noted how much narrower the
+  thin lines appear when defined only by shadow than in the drawing. The
+  model used for the lettering on the frieze of the Boston Public Library,
+  <a href="#Fig7">7</a>, which shows some interesting modern forms intended
+  for cutting in granite, should be studied for the effect of the cast
+  shadows; while <a href="#Fig14">14</a>, a redrawing of inscriptions on
+  the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass., exhibits an
+  excellent type of letter with widened thin lines for v-cutting in
+  sandstone.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig7"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/big007.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig007.jpg"
+      alt="7. MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. McKIM, MEAD & WHITE" title="7. MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. McKIM, MEAD & WHITE" /></a>
+    7.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig8"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/big008.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig008.jpg"
+      alt="8. ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. FROM A RUBBING" title="8. ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. FROM A RUBBING" /></a>
+    8.
+  </div>
+  <p>The special requirements of the stone-cut forms for either incised or
+  raised inscriptions are, however, quite apart from the subject of this
+  book, and are too various to be taken up in greater detail here. It is
+  important, nevertheless, that the designer should be reminded always to
+  make allowance for the material in which a letter was originally
+  executed. Otherwise, if exactly copied in other materials, he may find
+  the result annoyingly unsatisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page15"></a>[15]</span></p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig9"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/fig009.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig009.jpg"
+      alt="9. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA" title="9. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA" /></a>
+    9.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig10"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/fig010.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig010.jpg"
+      alt="10. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA" title="10. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA" /></a>
+    10.
+  </div>
+  <p>The examples of letters taken from Roman and Renaissance Italian
+  monuments, shown in the pages of this chapter, will illustrate the
+  variety of individual letter forms used by the Classic and Renaissance
+  designers. The shape of the same letter will often be found to vary in
+  the same inscription and even in apparently analogous cases. The
+  designers evidently had in mind more than the directly adjacent words,
+  and sometimes even considered <!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page16"></a>[16]</span> the relation of their lettering to objects
+  outside the panel altogether. This is especially true in the work of the
+  Italian Renaissance, which is almost invariably admirable in both
+  composition and arrangement.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig11"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/big011.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig011.png"
+      alt="11. DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. F.C.B." title="11. DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. F.C.B." /></a>
+    11.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig12"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/big012.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig012.png"
+      alt="12. ROMAN CAPITALS OF PEN FORMS CUT IN STONE. F.C.B." title="12. ROMAN CAPITALS OF PEN FORMS CUT IN STONE. F.C.B." /></a>
+    12.
+  </div>
+  <p>Figures <a href="#Fig8">8</a> to <a href="#Fig22">22</a> show
+  examples, drawn from various sources, which exhibit different treatments
+  of the classic Roman letter forms. The differentiation will be found to
+  lie largely in the widths of the letters themselves, and in the treatment
+  of the serifs, angles, and varying widths of line. Figures <a
+  href="#Fig11">11</a> to <a href="#Fig13">13</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig16">16</a> to <a href="#Fig22">22</a> are redrawn from rubbings
+  <!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>[17]</span> of
+  Roman incised inscriptions. Figures <a href="#Fig16">16</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig17">17</a> show beautifully proportioned letters cut in marble
+  with unusual care and refinement, considering the large size of the
+  originals. A later Roman form of less refinement but of greater strength
+  and carrying power, and for that reason better adapted to many modern
+  uses, is shown in <a href="#Fig18">18</a> and <a href="#Fig19">19</a>. In
+  this case the original letters were cut about seven and <!-- Page 27
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>[27]</span> one-half inches
+  high. The letters in <a href="#Fig20">20</a> are curiously modern in
+  character. Part of the panel of Roman lettering shown in <a
+  href="#Fig21">21</a> exhibits the use of a form very like that shown in
+  <a href="#Fig18">18</a> and <a href="#Fig19">19</a>. Figure <a
+  href="#Fig11">11</a> shows a detail composed in a quite representative
+  fashion; while on the other hand figure <a href="#Fig12">12</a> depicts a
+  Roman letter of quite unusual character, and of a form evidently adapted
+  from pen work, in which the shapes are narrow and crowded, while the
+  lines are thickened as though they were of the classical square outline.
+  The bits of old Roman inscriptions shown in <a href="#Fig8">8</a> to <a
+  href="#Fig10">10</a> and in <a href="#Fig13">13</a> are included to
+  exhibit various different forms and treatments of classic capitals.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig13"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/big013.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig013.png"
+      alt="13. ROMAN CAPITALS FROM INSCRIPTIONS. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B." title="13. ROMAN CAPITALS FROM INSCRIPTIONS. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B." /></a>
+    13.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig14"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:34%;">
+      <a href="images/big014.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig014.png"
+      alt="14. MODERN INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN SANDSTONE. ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING, CAMBRIDGE, MASS." title="14. MODERN INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN SANDSTONE. ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING, CAMBRIDGE, MASS." /></a>
+    14.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig15"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:37%;">
+      <a href="images/big015.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig015.png"
+      alt="15. LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1-2, IN COMPOSITION. ALBERT R. ROSS" title="15. LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1-2, IN COMPOSITION. ALBERT R. ROSS" /></a>
+    15.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig16"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big016.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig016.png"
+      alt="16. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B." title="16. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B." /></a>
+    16.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig17"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big017.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig017.png"
+      alt="17. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B." title="17. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B." /></a>
+    17.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig18"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big018.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig018.png"
+      alt="18. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B." title="18. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B." /></a>
+    18.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig19"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big019.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig019.png"
+      alt="19. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B." title="19. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B." /></a>
+    19.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig20"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/big020.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig020.png"
+      alt="20. PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION WITH SUPPLIED LETTERS. F.C.B." title="20. PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION WITH SUPPLIED LETTERS. F.C.B." /></a>
+    20.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig21"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/big021.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig021.png"
+      alt="21. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE  FROM A RUBBING. F.C.B." title="21. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE  FROM A RUBBING. F.C.B." /></a>
+    21.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig22"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/big022.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig022.png"
+      alt="22. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN STONE FROM A RUBBING. F.C.B." title="22. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN STONE FROM A RUBBING. F.C.B." /></a>
+    22.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>After the fall of Rome and during the Dark Ages the practice of
+  lettering, at least in so far as the Roman form was concerned, was
+  distinctly retrograde. With the advent of the Renaissance, however, the
+  purest classic forms were revived; and indeed the Italian Renaissance
+  seems to have been the golden age of lettering. With the old Roman
+  fragments of the best period constantly before their eyes the Renaissance
+  artists of Italy seem to have grasped the true spirit of classicism; and
+  their work somehow acquired a refinement and delicacy lacking in even the
+  best of the Roman examples. As much of the Italian Renaissance lettering
+  was intended for use on tombs or monuments where it might be seen at
+  close range, and was cut in fine marble, the increased refinement may be
+  due, at least in part, to different conditions.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig23"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:46%;">
+      <a href="images/fig023.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig023.jpg"
+      alt="23. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE." title="23. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE." /></a>
+    23.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig24"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/fig024.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig024.jpg"
+      alt="24. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. PISANO." title="24. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. PISANO." /></a>
+    24.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig25"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/fig025.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig025.jpg"
+      alt="25. MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. O ROTY." title="25. MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. O ROTY." /></a>
+    25.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>The panel from Raphael's tomb in the Pantheon, Rome, <a
+  href="#Fig30">30</a>, shows a beautiful and pure form of typical
+  Renaissance letter; and the composition of the panel is as well worthy
+  <!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>[28]</span> of
+  careful study as are the letter forms. Figure <a href="#Fig34">34</a>,
+  devised from a tomb in Santa Croce, portrays a letter not only beautiful
+  in itself, but one which, with two minor changes (for the top bar of the
+  T might advantageously be shortened to allow its neighbors to set closer,
+  and the M might be finished at the top with a serif, after the usual
+  fashion), is exactly applicable to the purposes of the modern
+  draughtsman. This type of letter appears to best advantage when used in
+  such panel forms as those shown in the rubbing from the Marsuppini tomb,
+  <a href="#Fig31">31</a>, and in the floor slab from the same church, <a
+  href="#Fig32">32</a>. Two very refined examples, <a href="#Fig28">28</a>
+  and <a href="#Fig29">29</a>, also from slabs in Santa Croce, Florence,
+  date from about the same period. The latter exhibits the alphabet itself,
+  and the former shows a similar letter form as actually used. The letters
+  in <a href="#Fig33">33</a>, redrawn from rubbings from the Marsuppini
+  tomb, are shown for comparison with the rubbing itself, which is
+  reproduced in smaller size in <a href="#Fig31">31</a>. Taken together,
+  plates <a href="#Fig30">30</a>, <a href="#Fig31">31</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig32">32</a> will fairly represent not only the usual fashion of
+  composing Renaissance panels, but capital forms which illustrate some of
+  the most excellent work of this period.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>[30]</span></p>
+
+  <p>A very different and interesting type of letter was used on many of
+  the best medals of the Italian Renaissance (see <a href="#Fig24">24</a>),
+  which has been recently adapted and employed by modern medal designers in
+  France, as exhibited in figure <a href="#Fig25">25</a>. Although
+  absolutely plain, it is, when properly composed, much more effective in
+  the service for which it was intended than a more elaborate and fussy
+  form; and although sometimes adapted with good results to other uses, it
+  is particularly appropriate for casting in metal. Similar forms rendered
+  in pen and ink are shown in <a href="#Fig26">26</a>.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig26"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/big026.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig026.png"
+      alt="26. CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="26. CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    26.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig27"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big027.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig027.png"
+      alt="27. SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. JUAN De YCIAR, 1550" title="27. SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. JUAN De YCIAR, 1550" /></a>
+    27.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig28"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/big028.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig028.png"
+      alt="28. RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. FROM A RUBBING. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="28. RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. FROM A RUBBING. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    28.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig29"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big029.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig029.png"
+      alt="29. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SANTA CROCE. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="29. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SANTA CROCE. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    29.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>Figures <a href="#Fig27">27</a>, and <a href="#Fig35">35</a> to <a
+  href="#Fig41">41</a> show various pen or printed forms of capital letters
+  redrawn from the handiwork of Renaissance masters. The capital letters
+  shown in <a href="#Fig27">27</a> are unusually beautiful, and their
+  purity of form is well <!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page31"></a>[31]</span> displayed in the outline treatment. Perhaps
+  the best known standard example of a Renaissance pen-drawn letter is that
+  by Tagliente, reproduced in <a href="#Fig35">35</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig36">36</a>. In spite of their familiarity it has seemed
+  impossible to omit the set of capitals, with variants, by Albrecht Dürer,
+  <a href="#Fig37">37</a> and <a href="#Fig38">38</a>; for Dürer's letters
+  were taken as a basis by nearly all such Renaissance designers of
+  lettering as Geoffrey Tory, Leonardo da Vinci, etc. It should be observed
+  in the Dürer <!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page32"></a>[32]</span> alphabet that among the variant forms of
+  individual letters shown, one is usually intended for monumental use,
+  while another exhibits pen treatment in the characteristic swelling of
+  the round letters, etc.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig30"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/big030.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig030.jpg"
+      alt="30. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL FROM RAPHAEL'S TOMB. PANTHEON ROME." title="30. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL FROM RAPHAEL'S TOMB. PANTHEON ROME." /></a>
+    30.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig31"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:43%;">
+      <a href="images/big031.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig031.jpg"
+      alt="31. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. MARSUPPINI TOMB, FLORENCE." title="31. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. MARSUPPINI TOMB, FLORENCE." /></a>
+    31.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig32"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:28%;">
+      <a href="images/big032.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig032.jpg"
+      alt="32. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION FLOOR SLAB IN SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE." title="32. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION FLOOR SLAB IN SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE." /></a>
+    32.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>Serlio's alphabet, <a href="#Fig39">39</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig40">40</a>, should be compared with Mr. Ross's modification of
+  it, reproduced in <a href="#Fig1">1</a> and <a href="#Fig2">2</a>. The
+  alphabet shown in <a href="#Fig41">41</a> is a somewhat expanded form of
+  classic capital, contrasting markedly in various respects with more
+  typical forms.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig33"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big033.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig033.png"
+      alt="33. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. MARSUPPINI TOMB. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="33. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. MARSUPPINI TOMB. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    33.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig34"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big034.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig034.png"
+      alt="34. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS FROM RUBBINGS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="34. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS FROM RUBBINGS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    34.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig35"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big035.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig035.png"
+      alt="35. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524" title="35. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524" /></a>
+    35.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig36"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big036.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig036.png"
+      alt="36. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524" title="36. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524" /></a>
+    36.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig37"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big037.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig037.png"
+      alt="37. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525" title="37. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525" /></a>
+    37.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig38"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big038.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig038.png"
+      alt="38. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525" title="38. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525" /></a>
+    38.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig39"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big039.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig039.png"
+      alt="39. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY." title="39. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY." /></a>
+    39.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig40"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big040.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig040.png"
+      alt="40. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY." title="40. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY." /></a>
+    40.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig41"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:14%;">
+      <a href="images/big041.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig041.png"
+      alt="41. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. URBAIN W&#x178;SS, 16th CENTURY." title="41. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. URBAIN W&#x178;SS, 16th CENTURY." /></a>
+    41.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>[45]</span></p>
+
+  <p>A practically unlimited number of other examples might have been
+  included to show various capital forms of Renaissance letters; but the
+  specimens chosen will adequately illustrate all the more distinctive and
+  refined types of the individual letters.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig42"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <a href="images/big042.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig042.png"
+      alt="42. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL, FLORENCE. C. F. BRAGDON" title="42. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL, FLORENCE. C. F. BRAGDON" /></a>
+    42.
+  </div>
+  <p>Before, during and after the Renaissance movement many local and
+  extraneous influences temporarily modified the forms of the Roman
+  letters. There are, for instance, numerous examples of lettering in which
+  Byzantine and Romanesque traits are strongly apparent, such as the free
+  manipulation of the letter forms in order to make them fit into given
+  lines and spaces. The drawing of the panel over the doorway of the Badia,
+  Florence, <a href="#Fig42">42</a>, notable for the characteristic placing
+  and composition of the letters, will serve as a case in point. This
+  example is further interesting because it shows how the Uncial form of
+  the letter was beginning to react and find a use in stone&mdash;a state
+  of affairs which at first glance might seem anomalous, for the Uncial
+  letter was distinctly a pen-drawn form; but it was discovered that its
+  rounder forms made it particularly useful for inscribing stones which
+  were likely to chip or sliver, in carving which it was consequently
+  desirable to avoid too acute angles. The Roman letter underwent various
+  salient modifications <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page46"></a>[46]</span> at the hands of the scribes of
+  extra-Italian nations. We find very crude variants of the Roman letter,
+  dating hundreds of years after the Roman form had reached its highest
+  development; and, on the other hand, some very beautiful and individual
+  national variants were produced. The continual interchange of manuscripts
+  among the nations on the continent of Europe probably explains the more
+  conventional character and strong general resemblance of most of the
+  early Continental work; but the scribes of insular England, less
+  influenced by contemporary progress and examples, produced forms of
+  greater individuality (see <a href="#Fig46">46</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig47">47</a>, <a href="#Fig48">48</a>). In Ireland, letter forms
+  originally derived from early Roman models were developed through many
+  decades with no ulterior influences, and resulted in some wonderfully
+  distinctive and beautiful variations of the Roman letters, <!-- Page 47
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page47"></a>[47]</span> though the
+  beauty of these Irish examples can only be faintly suggested by
+  reproductions limited to black and white, and without the decorations of
+  the originals.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig45"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/fig045.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig045.png"
+      alt="45. TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. W. E. NESFIELD" title="45. TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. W. E. NESFIELD" /></a>
+    45.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig43"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:50%;">
+      <a href="images/fig043.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig043.png"
+      alt="43. MODERN TITLE (compare 46). B. G. GOODHUE" title="43. MODERN TITLE (compare 46). B. G. GOODHUE" /></a>
+    43.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig44"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:50%;">
+      <a href="images/fig044.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig044.png"
+      alt="44. MODERN TITLE (compare 49). WALTER CRANE" title="44. MODERN TITLE (compare 49). WALTER CRANE" /></a>
+    44.
+  </div>
+  <p>Figures <a href="#Fig43">43</a> and <a href="#Fig44">44</a>
+  illustrate, respectively, modern employments of such strongly
+  characteristic letters as those shown in <a href="#Fig46">46</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig49">49</a>. From these ancient examples the designers have
+  evolved letters suitable to the character of their work. In <a
+  href="#Fig44">44</a> Mr. Crane has engrafted upon a form quite personal
+  to himself a characteristic detail of treatment borrowed from the letter
+  shown in <a href="#Fig49">49</a>. Figure <a href="#Fig45">45</a> shows a
+  similar and modernized employment of a standard form of Uncial
+  capital.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig46"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big046.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig046.png"
+      alt="46. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 6th CENTURY" title="46. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 6th CENTURY" /></a>
+    46.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig47"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big047.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig047.png"
+      alt="47. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 7th CENTURY" title="47. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 7th CENTURY" /></a>
+    47.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig48"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big048.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig048.png"
+      alt="48. ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10th CENTURY" title="48. ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10th CENTURY" /></a>
+    48.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig49"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big049.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig049.png"
+      alt="49. EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th CENTURY" title="49. EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th CENTURY" /></a>
+    49.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>[52]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<h2>MODERN ROMAN LETTERS</h2>
+
+  <p>The small or "minuscule" letter that we now use in all printed books
+  attained its modern and definitive form only after the invention of
+  printing. The first printed books were made to imitate, as closely as
+  possible, the handwritten work of the scribes of the early fifteenth
+  century, and as printing was first done in Germany, the earliest book
+  types were those modeled upon German scripts, somewhat similar to that
+  shown in <a href="#Fig141">141</a>, and their condensed or blackletter
+  variants. The Italian printers, of a more classical taste, found the
+  German types somewhat black and clumsy; for though Gothic characters were
+  also used in Italy, they had become lighter and more refined there. The
+  Italians, therefore, evolved a new form of type letter, based upon the
+  <i>Italian</i> pen letters then in use, which though fundamentally Gothic
+  in form had been refined by amalgamation with an earlier letter known as
+  the "Caroline", from its origin under the direction of Charlemagne. The
+  "Caroline" was in its turn an imitation of the Roman "Half-uncial." The
+  close relationship of the first small type letter forms in Italy with the
+  current writing hand of the best Italian scribes is well indicated by the
+  legend that the "Italic," or sloped small letter, was taken directly from
+  the handwriting of Petrarch. The new Italian types, in which classic
+  capitals were combined with the newly evolved minuscule <!-- Page 53
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>[53]</span> letters, were
+  called "Roman" from the city of their origin, and sprang into almost
+  immediate popularity, spreading from Italy into England, France and
+  Spain. In Germany, on the other hand, the national blackletter form
+  persisted, and is still in use to-day.</p>
+
+  <p>The minuscule "Roman" letters thus evolved were developed to their
+  most perfect individual forms by the master-printers of Venice; and it is
+  to the models which they produced that we must revert to-day when we
+  attempt to devise or reproduce an elegant small letter of any
+  conservative form. The modern pen draughtsman should bear in mind,
+  however, that, perfect as such forms of letters may be for the uses of
+  the printer, the limitations of type have necessarily curtailed the
+  freedom and variety of their serif and swash lines, and that therefore,
+  though accepting their basic forms, he need not be cramped by their
+  restrictions, nor imitate the unalterable and sometimes awkwardly
+  inartistic relations of letter to letter for which he finds precedents in
+  the printed page. Indeed, the same general rules for spacing and the same
+  freedom in the treatment of the serifs, kerns and swash lines are quite
+  as applicable to pen-drawn small letters as to the capital forms. The
+  only true path of progress lies in this freedom of treatment; and if the
+  same fertile artists of the Renaissance who have bequeathed to us such
+  beautiful examples of their unfettered use of the capital had used the
+  minuscule also, we should undoubtedly possess small letters of far more
+  graceful and adaptable forms than those which we now have.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig50"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/big050.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig050.png"
+      alt="50. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="50. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    50.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig51"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/big051.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig051.png"
+      alt="51. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="51. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    51.
+  </div>
+  <p>In <a href="#Fig50">50</a> and <a href="#Fig51">51</a> may be found an
+  attempt to formulate a scheme to assist in the reconstruction of an
+  alphabet of Roman small letters, after somewhat the same fashion as <!--
+  Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"></a>[56]</span> that
+  devised for the Roman capitals by Mr. Ross, in <a href="#Fig1">1</a> and
+  <a href="#Fig2">2</a>. A small-letter diagram must, for obvious reasons,
+  be less exact and detailed than one for the more defined capital form;
+  but the diagram given will serve to determine sufficiently the main
+  outlines and proportions. In their shapes the letters shown in <a
+  href="#Fig50">50</a> and <a href="#Fig51">51</a> adhere fairly closely to
+  the best type forms of the small letter; and the drawing will serve,
+  further, to show the space generally allowed by modern founders between
+  one lower-case letter and another when set into type words. This spacing
+  is based on the m of the fount employed. The open space between all but
+  k, w and y (in which the outlines of the letters themselves hold them
+  further away from their neighbors) and the round letters being the space
+  between the upright strokes of the m; an interval represented in the
+  diagram by a square and a half. The round letters, as has already been
+  said in speaking of the capital forms, should be spaced nearer together;
+  and it will be observed that they are only separated by one square in the
+  diagram. Although suggestive, the rules which govern the spacing of types
+  are not to be blindly followed by the pen letterer. In type, for
+  instance, it would be impossible, for mechanical reasons, to allow the
+  kerns of the f, j and y to project far over the body of the next letter,
+  and in these letters the kerns consequently have either to be restrained
+  or the letters spaced farther apart. In pen lettering, however, the
+  designer is not restrained by such limitations, and his spacing of
+  letters should be governed solely by the effect.</p>
+
+  <p>The disposition of the accented lines in the small letters follow the
+  same general rules that govern those of the capitals (see page <a
+  href="#page2">2</a>); the only deviation being in the case of <!-- Page
+  57 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>[57]</span> the g, in
+  which the shading of the bottom seems to have been determined largely by
+  the effect upon the eye.</p>
+
+  <p>It will be noticed in the diagram that the "ascenders" of the smaller
+  letters rise about three squares to their extreme top points above the
+  body of the letter; that the body of each letter is inclosed in a square
+  that is three units high, and that the "descenders" fall but two squares
+  below the letter body. These proportions are not by any means invariable,
+  however, and indeed there is no fixed rule by which the proportions of
+  ascenders and descenders to the body of the Roman minuscule may be
+  determined. In some forms of the letter both are of the same length, and
+  sometimes that length is the same as the body height of the letter. In
+  general a better result is obtained by making both ascenders and
+  descenders of less than the length of the body, and keeping the
+  descenders shorter than the ascenders in about the proportion of
+  two-fifths to three-fifths.</p>
+
+  <p>Parallel lines of small letters cannot be spaced closer to each other
+  than the ascenders and descenders will allow; the projections above and
+  below the line are awkward, and interrupt the definite lines of
+  demarkation at the top and bottom of the letter-bodies; the capitals
+  necessarily used in connection with the small letters add to the
+  irregularity of the line&mdash;all of which reasons combine to limit the
+  employment of minuscule for formal or monumental uses. On the other hand,
+  the small letter form is excellently adapted for the printed page, where
+  the occasional capitals but tend to break the monotony, while the
+  ascenders and descenders strongly characterize and increase the
+  legibility of the letter forms.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig52"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big052.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig052.png"
+      alt="52. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" title="52. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" /></a>
+    52.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig53"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big053.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig053.png"
+      alt="53. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" title="53. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" /></a>
+    53.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig54"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big054.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig054.png"
+      alt="54. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" title="54. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" /></a>
+    54.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig55"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big055.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig055.png"
+      alt="55. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" title="55. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" /></a>
+    55.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig56"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big056.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig056.png"
+      alt="56. ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. J. F. CRESCI, 1560" title="56. ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. J. F. CRESCI, 1560" /></a>
+    56.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig57"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big057.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig057.png"
+      alt="57. ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY INCISED LETTERS. FROM TOMBSTONES" title="57. ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY INCISED LETTERS. FROM TOMBSTONES" /></a>
+    57.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig58"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big058.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig058.png"
+      alt="58. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. AFTER HRACHOWINA" title="58. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. AFTER HRACHOWINA" /></a>
+    58.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig59"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big059.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig059.png"
+      alt="59. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON" title="59. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON" /></a>
+    59.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>[64]</span></p>
+
+  <p>Figures <a href="#Fig52">52</a> to <a href="#Fig59">59</a> show
+  several forms of small letter alphabets; those shown in <a
+  href="#Fig52">52</a> to <a href="#Fig56">56</a> being taken from "Writing
+  books" by Spanish and Italian writing masters. These writing masters
+  often chose to show their skill by imitating type forms of letters with
+  the pen, but though similar in the individual forms of the letters the
+  written examples exhibit a freedom and harmony in composition impossible
+  for type to equal, and therefore are immeasurably more interesting to the
+  modern penman. Figure <a href="#Fig61">61</a> illustrates a type form of
+  minuscule which may be commended for study. Other examples of small
+  letters by modern designers will be found in <a href="#Fig105">105</a>,
+  <a href="#Fig110">110</a>, <a href="#Fig118">118</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig131">131</a>, where they are used in connection with their
+  capital forms.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig60"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:54%;">
+      <a href="images/fig060.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig060.png"
+      alt="60. INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH SLATE TOMBSTONES, 1691. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="60. INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH SLATE TOMBSTONES, 1691. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    60.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig61"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:38%;">
+      <a href="images/big061.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig061.png"
+      alt="61. ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. FROM THE SPECIMEN BOOK OF WILLIAM CASLON, 1734" title="61. ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. FROM THE SPECIMEN BOOK OF WILLIAM CASLON, 1734" /></a>
+    61.
+  </div>
+  <p>The minuscule alphabet by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, <a
+  href="#Fig59">59</a>, is a carefully worked-out form which in its lines
+  closely follows a type face devised by Jenson, the celebrated Venetian
+  printer who flourished toward the end of the sixteenth century. This
+  example together with those shown in <a href="#Fig50">50</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig51">51</a> and <a href="#Fig56">56</a> exhibits some
+  conservative variations of the standard models for minuscule letters; and
+  the same may be said of the modern type faces shown in <a
+  href="#Fig62">62</a>, <a href="#Fig63">63</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig64">64</a>. The various other examples of the small-letter
+  forms illustrated evidence how original and interesting modifications of
+  conservative shapes may be evolved without appreciable loss of
+  legibility.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig62"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big062.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig062.png"
+      alt="62. MODERN ROMAN TYPE ''MONTAIGNE''. BRUCE ROGERS" title="62. MODERN ROMAN TYPE ''MONTAIGNE''. BRUCE ROGERS" /></a>
+    62.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig63"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big063.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig063.png"
+      alt="63. MODERN ROMAN TYPE ''RENNER''. THEO. L. DE VINNE" title="63. MODERN ROMAN TYPE ''RENNER''. THEO. L. DE VINNE" /></a>
+    63.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig64"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big064.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig064.png"
+      alt="64. MODERN ROMAN TYPE ''MERRYMOUNT'' BY B. G. GOODHUE" title="64. MODERN ROMAN TYPE ''MERRYMOUNT'' BY B. G. GOODHUE" /></a>
+    64.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig65"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/big065.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig065.png"
+      alt="65. MODERN ROMAN TYPE ''CHELTENHAM'' BY B. G. GOODHUE" title="65. MODERN ROMAN TYPE ''CHELTENHAM'' BY B. G. GOODHUE" /></a>
+    65.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>Figure <a href="#Fig61">61</a> shows the capital, small letter and
+  italic forms of a type based on old Venetian models, cut by William
+  Caslon in the early part of the eighteenth century, and ever <!-- Page 69
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page69"></a>[69]</span> since known by
+  his name. This face has comparatively recently been revived by modern
+  type-founders; and though this revival has provided us with a text letter
+  far superior to the forms previously in use, the modern imitation falls
+  short of the beauty of Caslon's original, as may be seen by comparing the
+  letters shown in <a href="#Fig61">61</a>, which are reproduced from
+  Caslon's specimen-book, issued by him about the middle of the eighteenth
+  century, with the type used in printing this volume, which is a good
+  modern "Caslon."</p>
+
+  <p>Figures <a href="#Fig62">62</a> to <a href="#Fig67">67</a> show some
+  newly devised type faces, all designed by artists of reputation. Figure
+  <a href="#Fig62">62</a> illustrates a fount called the "Montaigne" which
+  has been recently completed by Mr. Bruce Rogers for the Riverside Press,
+  Cambridge, Mass., and cut under his immediate direction, with especial
+  insistance upon an unmechanical treatment of serifs, etc. As a result the
+  "Montaigne" is, for type, remarkable in its artistic freedom, and its
+  forms are well worthy the study of the designer. Both its capitals and
+  small letters suggest the purity of the Italian Renaissance shapes. The
+  letters space rather farther apart than in most types, and the result
+  makes for legibility. Although several other modern faces of type have
+  been designed on much the same lines, notably one for The Dove's Press in
+  England, the "Montaigne" seems the best of them all, because of its
+  freedom, and its absolute divorce from the overdone, exaggerated,
+  heavy-faced effects of the Morris styles of type.</p>
+
+  <p>Mr. De Vinne of the De Vinne Press, New York City, has introduced a
+  new type called the "Renner", <a href="#Fig63">63</a>, which was
+  originally cut for some of the Grolier Club's publications. The letters
+  were first photographed from a selected page of Renner's
+  "Quadrigesimale," then <!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page71"></a>[71]</span> carefully studied and redrawn before the
+  punches were cut. Mr. De Vinne has added small capitals and italics to
+  the fount, as well as dotted letters to serve as substitutes for the
+  italic for those who prefer them. The "Renner" type would have been more
+  effective on a larger body; but for commercial usefulness it is generally
+  deemed expedient to employ as small a body as the face of a type will
+  allow. Mr. De Vinne notes, in this connection, that all the important
+  types of the early printers were large, and that a fount designed to-day
+  with regard only to its artistic effectiveness would be cast upon a large
+  body and be of good size.</p>
+
+  <p>Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue has designed two founts of Roman type, and is
+  now at work on a Blackletter face. His first fount, cut for Mr. D. B.
+  Updike, of the Merrymount Press, Boston, and known as the "Merrymount,"
+  is shown in <a href="#Fig64">64</a>. Intended for large pages and rough
+  paper it necessarily shows to disadvantage in the example given, where
+  the blackness and weight of the letters makes them seem clumsy, despite
+  the refinement of their forms.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig67"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/fig067.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig067.png"
+      alt="67. MODERN ROMAN TYPE. C. R. ASHBEE" title="67. MODERN ROMAN TYPE. C. R. ASHBEE" /></a>
+    67.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig66"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/big066.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig066.png"
+      alt="66. MODERN GREEK TYPE. SELWYN IMAGE" title="66. MODERN GREEK TYPE. SELWYN IMAGE" /></a>
+    66.
+  </div>
+  <p>The "Cheltenham Old Style," <a href="#Fig65">65</a>, is the other
+  Roman face recently designed by the same artist. It was cut for the
+  Cheltenham Press of New York City; and embodies in its present form many
+  ideas suggested by Mr. Ingalls Kimball of that press. Observe especially
+  the excess in length of the ascenders over the descenders, and that the
+  serifs have been reduced to the minimum. Contrary to the usual custom in
+  type cutting, the round letters do not run above or below the guide
+  lines. The capitals compose excellently; but the small letters are too
+  closely spaced and seem too square for the best effect, and weight has
+  been obtained by so thickening the lines that much delicacy and variety
+  has been lost. <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page72"></a>[72]</span> The "Cheltenham Old Style" is, however,
+  very legible when composed into words, and is effective on the page.</p>
+
+  <p>Any attempt to get the effect of Blackletter with the Roman form is
+  likely to result clumsily. The celebrated Roman faces designed by William
+  Morris (too familiar to require reproduction here) are, despite their
+  real beauty, over-black on the page, and awkward when examined in detail.
+  While the stimulus Morris's work gave to typography was much needed at
+  that time, the present reaction toward more refined faces is most
+  gratifying. By precept and example Mr. Morris produced a salutary revolt
+  against the too thin and light and mechanical type faces before in use,
+  but he went too far in the opposite direction, and we are now certainly
+  falling back upon a more desirable mean.</p>
+
+  <p>Mr. Herbert P. Horne is at present designing a new fount of type for
+  the Merrymount Press, Boston, to be <!-- Page 73 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>[73]</span> known as the "Mont'
+  Allegro," which seems, from the designs so far as at present completed,
+  likely to prove in some respects the most scholarly and severe of modern
+  faces.</p>
+
+  <p>The Greek type designed for the Macmillan Company of England, by Mr.
+  Selwyn Image, <a href="#Fig66">66</a>, is of sufficient interest to be
+  shown here, despite the fact that it is not strictly germane to our
+  subject. In this face Mr. Image has <!-- Page 74 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page74"></a>[74]</span> returned to the more
+  classic Greek form, although the result may at first glance seem
+  illegible to the reader familiar with the more common cursive
+  letters.</p>
+
+  <p>The type shown in <a href="#Fig67">67</a> is a new English face
+  designed by Mr. C.&nbsp;R. Ashbee for a prayerbook for the King. Interesting
+  as it is, it seems in many ways too extreme and eccentric to be wholly
+  satisfactory: the very metal of type would seem to postulate a less
+  "tricky" treatment.</p>
+
+  <p>It is interesting to attempt a discrimination between the various
+  national styles of pen letters which the recently revived interest in the
+  art of lettering is producing; and it is especially worth while to note
+  that the activity seems, even in Germany, to be devoted almost
+  exclusively to the development and variation of the Roman forms. It is
+  noteworthy, too, after so long a period of the dull copying of bad forms,
+  and particularly of bad type forms, that the modern trend is distinctly
+  in the direction of freedom; though this freedom is more marked in French
+  and German <!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page75"></a>[75]</span> than in English or American work. Hand in
+  hand with this increased freedom of treatment has naturally come a
+  clearer disclosure of the mediums employed; and indeed in much of the
+  best modern work the designer has so far lent himself to his tools that
+  the tools themselves have, in great measure, become responsible for the
+  resulting letter forms. <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page76"></a>[76]</span> Moreover modern designers are showing a
+  welcome attention to minuscule letters, and it even seems possible that
+  before long some small letter forms that shall be distinctively of the
+  pen may be developed, and that the use of type models for minuscule pen
+  letters will no longer be found necessary or commendable.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig68"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big068.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig068.png"
+      alt="68. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER J. M. OLBRICH" title="68. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER J. M. OLBRICH" /></a>
+    68.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig69"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;">
+      <a href="images/big069.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig069.png"
+      alt="69. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. GUSTAVE LEMMEN" title="69. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. GUSTAVE LEMMEN" /></a>
+    69.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig70"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big070.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig070.png"
+      alt="70. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER ALOIS LUDWIG" title="70. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER ALOIS LUDWIG" /></a>
+    70.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig71"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big071.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig071.png"
+      alt="71. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER OTTO ECKMANN" title="71. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER OTTO ECKMANN" /></a>
+    71.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>Another noticeable tendency in modern lettering seems to be the
+  gradual promotion of small letter forms to the dignity of capitals, (see
+  <a href="#Fig79">79</a> and <a href="#Fig98">98</a> for examples) in much
+  the same way as the Uncial letter and its immediate derivatives produced
+  the present small letter. It is surely to be hoped that this movement may
+  not lose vitality before it has had time to enrich us with some new and
+  excellent forms.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig72"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;">
+      <a href="images/big072.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig072.png"
+      alt="72. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. OTTO HUPP" title="72. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. OTTO HUPP" /></a>
+    72.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig73"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big073.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig073.png"
+      alt="73. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. JOSEPH PLÉCNIK" title="73. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. JOSEPH PLÉCNIK" /></a>
+    73.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig74"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/big074.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig074.png"
+      alt="74. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER FRANZ STUCK" title="74. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER FRANZ STUCK" /></a>
+    74.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>[82]</span></p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig75"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big075.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig075.png"
+      alt="75. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="75. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    75.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig76"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big076.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig076.png"
+      alt="76. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER BERNHARD PANKOK" title="76. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER BERNHARD PANKOK" /></a>
+    76.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig77"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big077.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig077.jpg"
+      alt="77. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. THEO. VAN RYSSELBERGHE" title="77. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. THEO. VAN RYSSELBERGHE" /></a>
+    77.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig78"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big078.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig078.jpg"
+      alt="78. MODERN FRENCH COVER. M. P. VERNEUIL" title="78. MODERN FRENCH COVER. M. P. VERNEUIL" /></a>
+    78.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>The influence of nationality is strongly shown in the modern lettering
+  of all countries; and it is generally as easy to recognize a specimen as
+  the work of a German, French, English, or American artist, respectively,
+  no matter how individual he may be, as it is to tell the difference
+  between the work of two different designers.</p>
+
+  <p>The modern German seems to have an undeniable freshness of outlook on
+  the Roman alphabet. He treats it with a freedom and variety and a certain
+  disregard of precedent&mdash;induced, perhaps, by his schooling in
+  Blackletter&mdash;that often produces delightful, though sometimes, be it
+  added, direful results. But if the extreme and bizarre forms be thrown
+  aside the designer may obtain suggestions of great benefit and value from
+  the more restrained examples of German work. Many eminent German
+  draughtsmen, whose work is all too little known in this country, are <!--
+  Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>[84]</span> using
+  letters with the same distinction that has of late years marked their
+  purely decorative work, as the specimens shown in <a href="#Fig68">68</a>
+  to <a href="#Fig76">76</a> will evidence. Figures <a href="#Fig68">68</a>
+  and <a href="#Fig75">75</a> show forms which are perhaps especially
+  representative of the general modern tendency in German work and many
+  German artists are using letters of very similar general forms to these
+  although, of course, with individual variations. Figures <a
+  href="#Fig70">70</a> and <a href="#Fig73">73</a> show two very original
+  and pleasing styles, also markedly German. In spite of the national drift
+  toward the Roman, much modern German lettering still takes the Gothic and
+  Blackletter forms; and the specimen reproduced in <a href="#Fig71">71</a>
+  shows a curious combination of the Gothic, Uncial and Roman forms
+  pervaded by the German spirit. The beautiful lettering in <a
+  href="#Fig72">72</a> seems to have been inspired from a stone-cut Uncial.
+  Figure <a href="#Fig74">74</a> shows an almost strictly Roman letter, and
+  yet is as unmistakably German in handling as any of the other examples
+  shown.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig79"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big079.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig079.png"
+      alt="79. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. AFTER M. P. VERNEUIL" title="79. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. AFTER M. P. VERNEUIL" /></a>
+    79.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig80"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/big080.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig080.jpg"
+      alt="80. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. P. BONNARD" title="80. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. P. BONNARD" /></a>
+    80.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig81"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big081.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig081.png"
+      alt="81. MODERN FRENCH COVER. GEORGE AURIOL" title="81. MODERN FRENCH COVER. GEORGE AURIOL" /></a>
+    81.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig82"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:34%;">
+      <a href="images/big082.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig082.png"
+      alt="82. MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. ALPHONS M. MUCHA" title="82. MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. ALPHONS M. MUCHA" /></a>
+    82.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>[86]</span></p>
+
+  <p>Among the examples of modern French lettering, those shown in <a
+  href="#Fig78">78</a> and <a href="#Fig79">79</a> are perhaps the most
+  typical of the modern school. This style of letter was given its most
+  consistent form by the joint efforts of M.&nbsp;P. Verneuil and some of the
+  pupils of Eugène Grasset, after whose letter it was originally modeled.
+  Grasset freely varies his use of this form in his different designs, as
+  in <a href="#Fig85">85</a>, but founds many of his best specimens upon
+  the earlier French models.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig83"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/big083.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig083.png"
+      alt="83. MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE. GEORGE AURIOL" title="83. MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE. GEORGE AURIOL" /></a>
+    83.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig84"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/big084.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig084.png"
+      alt="84. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS ''CURSIVE''. GEORGE AURIOL" title="84. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS ''CURSIVE''. GEORGE AURIOL" /></a>
+    84.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig85"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big085.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig085.jpg"
+      alt="85. MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. EUGÈNE GRASSET" title="85. MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. EUGÈNE GRASSET" /></a>
+    85.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig86"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/big086.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig086.png"
+      alt="86. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE" title="86. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE" /></a>
+    86.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>[88]</span></p>
+
+  <p>M. George Auriol has extended the modern use of drawn letters by
+  publishing a number of small books which he has handwritten throughout,
+  although the form of letter he generally uses for this purpose is purely
+  modern and not at all like the texts of the medieval scribes. M. Auriol's
+  letter is beautifully clear, readable and original; "brushy" in its
+  technique, yet suitable for rapid writing. He calls <!-- Page 91 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page91"></a>[91]</span> it a "Cursive" letter,
+  and has recently made designs for its use in type. The page shown in <a
+  href="#Fig83">83</a> is from the preface to a book of his well-known
+  designs for monograms, and the entire text is written in this cursive
+  form. The individual letters of this "Cursive" may be more easily studied
+  in <a href="#Fig84">84</a>. The cover for "L'Image", <a
+  href="#Fig81">81</a>, shows the same designer's use of a more
+  conventional Roman form.</p>
+
+  <p>The poster by M. Theo. van Rysselberghe shown in <a
+  href="#Fig77">77</a> exhibits two interesting forms of French small
+  letters that are worthy of study and suggestive for development.</p>
+
+  <p>M. Alphons Mucha employs a distinctive letter, especially fitted to
+  his technique, which he uses almost invariably, <a
+  href="#Fig82">82</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>Much recent French lettering inclines toward a certain formlessness,
+  that, although sometimes admirable when regarded merely from the point of
+  view of harmony with the design, has little value otherwise. A typical
+  specimen of such formless lettering is that shown in the very charming
+  <!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>[92]</span>
+  "Revue Blanche" poster, <a href="#Fig80">80</a>. Excellent when
+  considered with the design, the lettering alone makes but an indifferent
+  showing.</p>
+
+  <p>The Italian designers of letters have not yet evolved any very
+  distinctive national forms. In many ways Italian work resembles the
+  German. It has less originality, but greater subtlety and refinement.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig87"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/big087.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig087.jpg"
+      alt="87. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. WALTER CRANE" title="87. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. WALTER CRANE" /></a>
+    87.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig88"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big088.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig088.png"
+      alt="88. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE" title="88. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE" /></a>
+    88.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig89"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/big089.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig089.png"
+      alt="89. MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. WALTER CRANE" title="89. MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. WALTER CRANE" /></a>
+    89.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig90"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big090.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig090.png"
+      alt="90. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON" title="90. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON" /></a>
+    90.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>The strongest personality among modern British letterers is Mr. Walter
+  Crane. Characteristic examples of his work are shown in <a
+  href="#Fig86">86</a>, <a href="#Fig87">87</a>, <a href="#Fig88">88</a>
+  and <a href="#Fig89">89</a>. Although sometimes apparently careless and
+  too often rough, his lettering has the merit and charm of invariably
+  disclosing the instrument and the material employed. Mr. Crane is
+  especially fond of an Uncial pen form, which he varies with masterful
+  freedom. It may be mentioned in passing that he is perhaps the only
+  designer who has been able to make the wrongly accented <span
+  class="scac">Q</span> seem consistent (compare <a href="#Fig86">86</a>),
+  or who has conquered its swash tail when the letter is accented in this
+  unusual way.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>[93]</span></p>
+
+  <p>Mr. Lewis F. Day has become a recognized authority on lettering, both
+  through his writings and his handiwork. His great versatility makes it
+  difficult to select a specimen which may be taken as characteristic of
+  his work; but perhaps the lettering shown in <a href="#Fig95">95</a> is
+  as representative as any that could be chosen. Among his designs the
+  magazine cover, <a href="#Fig93">93</a>, is an unusually free and
+  effective composition, and its letter forms possess the variety required
+  to satisfy the eye when so much of the whole effect of the design depends
+  upon them.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig91"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big091.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig091.jpg"
+      alt="91. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON" title="91. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON" /></a>
+    91.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig92"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big092.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig092.png"
+      alt="92. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. WILLIAM NICHOLSON" title="92. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. WILLIAM NICHOLSON" /></a>
+    92.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig93"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/big093.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig093.jpg"
+      alt="93. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. LEWIS F. DAY" title="93. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. LEWIS F. DAY" /></a>
+    93.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig94"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;">
+      <a href="images/big094.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig094.png"
+      alt="94. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. GORDON CRAIG" title="94. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. GORDON CRAIG" /></a>
+    94.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>The style of lettering ordinarily employed by Mr. Selwyn Image&mdash;a
+  style of marked originality and distinction&mdash;is well exhibited in
+  the design for a book cover, <a href="#Fig98">98</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>The name of Mr. Charles Ricketts is intimately associated with the
+  Vale Press. The detail of the title-page reproduced in <a
+  href="#Fig100">100</a> shows a characteristic bit of his work.</p>
+
+  <p>Mr. J. W. Simpson, one of the younger British draughtsmen, uses a
+  graceful and interestingly linked Roman form shown in the panel from a
+  title-page, <a href="#Fig90">90</a>. The bizarre <!-- Page 95 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>[95]</span> letter by the same
+  artist, <a href="#Fig91">91</a>, is fairly representative of a style
+  recently come into vogue among the younger British draughtsmen, which is
+  related to a form of letter brought into fashion by the new English
+  school of designers on wood, among whom may be mentioned Mr. William
+  Nicholson and Mr. Gordon Craig, both of whom have done lettering
+  distinguished by its indication of the medium employed. Figure <a
+  href="#Fig92">92</a> shows Mr. Nicholson's favorite type of letter <!--
+  Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>[96]</span> fairly,
+  and the style of Mr. Craig's work is suggested by the title for a book
+  cover in <a href="#Fig94">94</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>The book cover, <a href="#Fig97">97</a>, by Mr. Edmund H. New, shows
+  variants of the Roman capital and minuscule forms, which closely adhere
+  to classic models.</p>
+
+  <p>Mr. Robert Anning Bell has done much distinctive lettering in intimate
+  association with design. Figure <a href="#Fig96">96</a> is fairly
+  representative of his style of work.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig95"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big095.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig095.png"
+      alt="95. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. LEWIS F. DAY" title="95. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. LEWIS F. DAY" /></a>
+    95.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig96"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big096.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig096.png"
+      alt="96. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. ROBERT ANNING BELL" title="96. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. ROBERT ANNING BELL" /></a>
+    96.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig97"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big097.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig097.jpg"
+      alt="97. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. EDMUND H. NEW" title="97. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. EDMUND H. NEW" /></a>
+    97.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig98"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big098.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig098.png"
+      alt="98. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. SELWYN IMAGE" title="98. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. SELWYN IMAGE" /></a>
+    98.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>Such other British artists as Messrs. Alfred Parsons, James F.
+  Sullivan, Hugh Thompson, Herbert Railton, Byam Shaw, H. Granville Fell
+  and A. Garth Jones, although much better known for their designs than for
+  their letters, <!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page97"></a>[97]</span> occasionally give us bits of lettering
+  which are both unusual and excellent; but these bits are commonly so
+  subordinated to the designs in which they are used and so involved with
+  them as to be beyond the scope of the present book.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig99"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:52%;">
+      <a href="images/big099.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig099.png"
+      alt="99. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. ANONYMOUS" title="99. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. ANONYMOUS" /></a>
+    99.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig100"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;">
+      <a href="images/big100.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig100.png"
+      alt="100. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. CHARLES RICKETTS" title="100. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. CHARLES RICKETTS" /></a>
+    100.
+  </div>
+  <p>In illustrating the lettering of American artists it has been
+  unfortunately found necessary to omit the work of many well-known
+  designers, either because their usual style of lettering is too similar
+  in fundamental forms to the work of some other draughtsman, or because
+  the letters they commonly employ are not distinctive or individual.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig101"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big101.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig101.png"
+      alt="101. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWIN A. ABBEY" title="101. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWIN A. ABBEY" /></a>
+    101.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig102"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:59%;">
+      <a href="images/big102.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig102.png"
+      alt="102. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS" title="102. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS" /></a>
+    102.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig103"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:14%;">
+      <a href="images/big103.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig103.jpg"
+      alt="103. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. EDWARD PENFIELD" title="103. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. EDWARD PENFIELD" /></a>
+    103.
+  </div>
+  <p>Mr. Edwin A. Abbey is a notable example of an artist who has not
+  disdained to expend both time and practice on such a minor art as
+  lettering <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page100"></a>[100]</span> that he might be able to letter his own
+  designs, as the beautiful page, shown in <a href="#Fig153">153</a> in the
+  succeeding chapter, will sufficiently prove. The lettering of the
+  title-page for Herrick's poems, <a href="#Fig101">101</a>, by the same
+  draughtsman, is likewise excellent, being both original and appropriate.
+  The letters in both these examples are modeled after old work, and both
+  display an unusually keen grasp of the limitations and possibilities of
+  the forms employed, especially in the former, <a href="#Fig153">153</a>,
+  where the use of capitals to form words is particularly noteworthy, while
+  in general composition and spacing the spirit of the letter used (compare
+  <a href="#Fig179">179</a>) has been perfectly preserved.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig104"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big104.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig104.png"
+      alt="104. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. EDWARD PENFIELD" title="104. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. EDWARD PENFIELD" /></a>
+    104.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig105"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big105.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig105.png"
+      alt="105. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. EDWARD PENFIELD" title="105. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. EDWARD PENFIELD" /></a>
+    105.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig106"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big106.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig106.png"
+      alt="106. MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE" title="106. MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE" /></a>
+    106.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig107"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big107.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig107.png"
+      alt="107. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE" title="107. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE" /></a>
+    107.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>Mr. Edward Penfield's work first attracted attention through the
+  series of posters which he designed for 'Harper's Magazine' with
+  unfailing fertility of invention for several years. During this time he
+  evolved a style of letter which exactly fitted the character of his work.
+  The cover design shown in <a href="#Fig103">103</a> displays his
+  characteristic letter in actual use; while the two interesting pages of
+  large and small letter alphabets by him, <a href="#Fig104">104</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig105">105</a>, show the latest and best development of these
+  letter forms. The heading <!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page102"></a>[102]</span> shown in <a href="#Fig102">102</a>
+  exhibits a slightly different letter, evidently based upon that used by
+  Mr. Penfield.</p>
+
+  <p>The capitals by Mr. H. Van B. Magonigle, shown in <a
+  href="#Fig107">107</a>, are derived from classic Roman forms but treated
+  with a modern freedom that makes them unusually attractive. They appear,
+  however, to better advantage in actual use in conjunction with a design,
+  <a href="#Fig106">106</a>, than when shown in the necessarily restricted
+  form of an alphabetical page panel.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig108"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/fig108.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig108.png"
+      alt="108. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. B. G. GOODHUE" title="108. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. B. G. GOODHUE" /></a>
+    108.
+  </div>
+  <p>Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue, whose designs for type have already been
+  mentioned, is a <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page104"></a>[104]</span> most facile and careful letterer.
+  Although his name is more intimately associated with Blackletter
+  (examples of his work in that style are shown in the following chapter),
+  he has devised some very interesting variations of the Roman forms, such
+  as that used in <a href="#Fig108">108</a>, as an example.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig109"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <a href="images/fig109.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig109.png"
+      alt="109. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. WILL BRADLEY" title="109. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. WILL BRADLEY" /></a>
+    109.
+  </div>
+  <p>Mr. Will Bradley uses a very individual style of the Roman capital,
+  often marked by a peculiar exaggeration in the width of the round
+  letters, contrasted with narrow tall forms in such letters as <span
+  class="scac">E</span>, <span class="scac">F</span> and <span
+  class="scac">L</span>. Mr. Bradley has become more free and
+  unconventional in his later work, but his specimens have always been
+  noteworthy for beauty of line and spacing; see <a href="#Fig111">111</a>.
+  Figure <a href="#Fig109">109</a> shows his employment of a brush-made
+  variant of the Roman form; <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page107"></a>[107]</span> and <a href="#Fig110">110</a> shows both
+  capitals and small letters drawn in his earlier and less distinctive
+  style.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig112"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/big112.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig112.jpg"
+      alt="112. MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. A. J. IORIO" title="112. MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. A. J. IORIO" /></a>
+    112.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig111"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/big111.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig111.jpg"
+      alt="111. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. WILL BRADLEY" title="111. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. WILL BRADLEY" /></a>
+    111.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig110"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:53%;">
+      <a href="images/fig110.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig110.png"
+      alt="110. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. WILL BRADLEY (1896)" title="110. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. WILL BRADLEY (1896)" /></a>
+    110.
+  </div>
+  <p>The ticket, <a href="#Fig112">112</a>, designed by Mr. A. J. Iorio,
+  suggests what our theatre tickets might be made. In spacing and general
+  arrangement of the letters and the freedom of treatment, Mr. Iorio's work
+  may be compared with much of the <!-- Page 110 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>[110]</span> work of Mr. Bradley.
+  Figure <a href="#Fig113">113</a> shows a modern Roman capital form
+  modeled upon the work of Mr. Bradley.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig113"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/fig113.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig113.png"
+      alt="113. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER WILL BRADLEY" title="113. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER WILL BRADLEY" /></a>
+    113.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig114"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/fig114.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig114.png"
+      alt="114. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. MAXFIELD PARRISH" title="114. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. MAXFIELD PARRISH" /></a>
+    114.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig115"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;">
+      <a href="images/big115.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig115.png"
+      alt="115. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. MAXFIELD PARRISH" title="115. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. MAXFIELD PARRISH" /></a>
+    115.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig116"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big116.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig116.png"
+      alt="116. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER" title="116. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER" /></a>
+    116.
+  </div>
+  <p>Mr. Maxfield Parrish commonly employs a widely spaced letter,
+  fashioned closely after the old German models, beautiful in its forms,
+  and displaying the individuality of the artist in its composition. The
+  form and use of Mr. Parrish's usual letter is well shown in <a
+  href="#Fig114">114</a>; and the title from a book cover design, <a
+  href="#Fig115">115</a>, shows yet another example of the letter in
+  service.</p>
+
+  <p>The lettering of Mr. A. B. Le Boutillier is always notable for spacing
+  and composition. Figures <a href="#Fig117">117</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig118">118</a> exhibit excellent capital and small-letter forms
+  (which, by the way, were drawn at the same size as the reproductions);
+  and <!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page111"></a>[111]</span> the two other specimens of Mr. Le
+  Boutillier's work, <a href="#Fig116">116</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig119">119</a>, which are reproduced to show his letters in use,
+  will be found exemplars for spacing, composition, balance of weight and
+  color, and, in the latter drawing, for harmony between the lettering and
+  the treatment of the design.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig117"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big117.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig117.png"
+      alt="117. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER" title="117. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER" /></a>
+    117.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig118"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big118.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig118.png"
+      alt="118. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER" title="118. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER" /></a>
+    118.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig119"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big119.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig119.png"
+      alt="119. MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. A. B. LE BOUTTILLIER" title="119. MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. A. B. LE BOUTTILLIER" /></a>
+    119.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig120"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/fig120.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig120.png"
+      alt="120. AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON" title="120. AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON" /></a>
+    120.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>The form of letter preferred by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon is
+  represented by the page of small letters, <a href="#Fig59">59</a>, which,
+  as we have already said, are closely modeled on the type alphabet
+  designed by Jenson. In Mr. Bragdon's version they represent an
+  excellently useful and conservative style of small letter. They are shown
+  in use, with harmonious capitals and italics, in the 'Literature' cover
+  design, <a href="#Fig121">121</a>. In the small book-plate, reproduced in
+  <a href="#Fig120">120</a>, Mr. <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page112"></a>[112]</span> Bragdon has used a very graceful variant,
+  especially noteworthy for its freedom of serif treatment; and in the
+  letter-heading, <a href="#Fig122">122</a>, he has employed an attractive
+  capital of still different character.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig121"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:36%;">
+      <a href="images/fig121.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig121.png"
+      alt="121. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. C. F. BRAGDON" title="121. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. C. F. BRAGDON" /></a>
+    121.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig122"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:56%;">
+      <a href="images/fig122.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig122.png"
+      alt="122. MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEAD. C. F. BRAGDON" title="122. MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEAD. C. F. BRAGDON" /></a>
+    122.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>Mr. H. L. Bridwell has originated the singularly excellent letter
+  shown in <a href="#Fig124">124</a>, which is founded upon some of the
+  modern French architectural forms. He uses it with great freedom and
+  variety in spacing according to the effect that he desires to produce. In
+  one instance he will jam the letters together in an oddly crowded line,
+  while in another we find them spread far apart, but always with excellent
+  results as regards the design as a whole. Something of this variation of
+  spacing is shown in <a href="#Fig123">123</a>. In the numerous theatrical
+  posters which Mr. Bridwell has designed&mdash;and which too seldom bear
+  his signature&mdash;he employs a great variety of lettering. Sometimes,
+  of course, the freedom of his work is restricted by the conservatism of
+  clients; but often the letter forms here illustrated add to the style and
+  distinction of his designs.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig123"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big123.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig123.jpg"
+      alt="123. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. H. L. BRIDWELL" title="123. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. H. L. BRIDWELL" /></a>
+    123.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig124"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big124.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig124.png"
+      alt="124. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. L. BRIDWELL" title="124. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. L. BRIDWELL" /></a>
+    124.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig125"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big125.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig125.png"
+      alt="125. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG" title="125. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG" /></a>
+    125.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig126"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big126.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig126.png"
+      alt="126. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG" title="126. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG" /></a>
+    126.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"></a>[116]</span></p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig127"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/big127.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig127.jpg"
+      alt="127. MODERN  AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG" title="127. MODERN  AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG" /></a>
+    127.
+  </div>
+  <p>Mr. Frank Hazenplug, the author of much clever decorative lettering,
+  has evolved a very black and striking style of capital that still retains
+  grace. Figures <a href="#Fig125">125</a> and <a href="#Fig126">126</a>
+  show two sets of Mr. Hazenplug's capitals. A book cover on which he has
+  used small letters in an original way is reproduced in <a
+  href="#Fig127">127</a>. Figure <a href="#Fig129">129</a> shows the
+  employment of a heavy-faced letter similar to that exhibited in alphabet
+  <a href="#Fig126">126</a>, but suggestive in its serif treatment of Mr.
+  Penfield's letter.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig128"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+      <a href="images/fig128.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig128.png"
+      alt="128. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD EDWARDS" title="128. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD EDWARDS" /></a>
+    128.
+  </div>
+  <p>Mr. Edward Edwards employs a letter, <a href="#Fig128">128</a>, which,
+  though rather conventional in its lines, is noteworthy for its treatment
+  of serifs and its spacing.</p>
+
+  <p>Mr. Guernsey Moore's letters shown in <a href="#Fig130">130</a> are
+  naturally better both in intrinsic form, spacing and composition than the
+  widely used "Post Old Style" types which were based upon them. The large
+  and small letters displayed in <a href="#Fig133">133</a> show a form
+  that, at the present writing, seems to be in considerable favor. It is,
+  however, too extreme, and its peculiarities are too exaggerated to allow
+  it to become a permanent style. But like the extravagant German forms
+  <!-- Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>[117]</span>
+  already referred to, it has also apparent advantages; and a few of its
+  characteristics are not unlikely to survive in some more conservative
+  adaptation.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig129"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:14%;">
+      <a href="images/fig129.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig129.png"
+      alt="129. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG" title="129. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG" /></a>
+    129.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig130"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;">
+      <a href="images/fig130.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig130.png"
+      alt="130. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GUERNSEY MOORE" title="130. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GUERNSEY MOORE" /></a>
+    130.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig131"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;">
+      <a href="images/fig131.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig131.png"
+      alt="131. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. HARRY E. TOWNSEND" title="131. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. HARRY E. TOWNSEND" /></a>
+    131.
+  </div>
+  <p>The letter by Mr. Harry Everett Townsend shown in <a
+  href="#Fig131">131</a> is most distinctive in effect&mdash;a more refined
+  form of the rapidly drawn character shown in <a
+  href="#Fig138">138</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>Mr. Howard Pyle often gives us charming bits of lettering in
+  connection with his illustrations. The heading, <a
+  href="#Fig132">132</a>, shows a characteristic line. Most of Mr. Pyle's
+  lettering is "Colonial" or Georgian in style, though the initials he uses
+  with it are generally rendered in the fashions of the early German
+  woodcuts, somewhat similar to Holbein's initials for the "Dance of
+  Death."</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig132"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:50%;">
+      <a href="images/fig132.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig132.png"
+      alt="132. MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. HOWARD PYLE" title="132. MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. HOWARD PYLE" /></a>
+    132.
+  </div>
+  <p>One of the most original of American letterers is Mr. Orson Lowell.
+  Usually closely conjoined with design, his lettering does not show to its
+  full value when reproduced apart from its surroundings, for much of its
+  charm depends <!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page118"></a>[118]</span> upon its harmony in line and color with
+  the accompanying drawing Mr. Lowell has taken the same basic forms as
+  those used by Mr. Penfield, and has played with them until he has
+  developed a series of most ingenious and fanciful letters. The examples
+  reproduced in <a href="#Fig136">136</a> and <a href="#Fig137">137</a> but
+  inadequately show a few of the many forms that Mr. Lowell employs with
+  remarkable fertility of invention and delightfully decorative effect of
+  line. The small letters, <a href="#Fig135">135</a>, shown opposite his
+  capitals, <a href="#Fig134">134</a>, are not by Mr. Lowell, nor are they
+  in any way equal to his own small letters, of which regrettably few
+  appear in his published work; but they may serve to exhibit a similar
+  method of treating a much more conventional form of minuscule than Mr.
+  <!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>[122]</span>
+  Lowell would himself use for the same purpose. Despite its
+  unconventionally, however, an examination of Mr. Lowell's work will show
+  that each letter has been developed to fit the space between its
+  neighbors and to balance and relieve their forms; and that, fanciful as
+  some of the shapes may appear, they have invariably been knowingly worked
+  out, and always appear harmonious and fit.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig133"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big133.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig133.png"
+      alt="133. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="133. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    133.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig134"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/big134.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig134.png"
+      alt="134. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER ORSON LOWELL" title="134. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER ORSON LOWELL" /></a>
+    134.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig135"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/big135.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig135.png"
+      alt="135. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="135. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    135.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig136"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:28%;">
+      <a href="images/big136.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig136.png"
+      alt="136. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. ORSON LOWELL" title="136. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. ORSON LOWELL" /></a>
+    136.
+  </div>
+  <p>The pages of letters shown in <a href="#Fig138">138</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig139">139</a> and <a href="#Fig140">140</a> are intended to
+  suggest forms which, while suitable for rapid use, yet possess some
+  individuality and character. The so-called "Cursive" letter by Mr.
+  Maxfield Parrish, <a href="#Fig140">140</a>, is particularly effective
+  for such informal use&mdash;in fact, its very charm lies in its
+  informality&mdash;and is quite as distinctively "pen-ny" as any of Mr.
+  Crane's work of the same kind.</p>
+
+  <p>A glance over the field of modern examples will disclose, first, a
+  general tendency to break away from the older type models in pen-drawn
+  forms; second, a growing partiality for the small letter, and third, a
+  sporadic disposition to use capital and minuscule forms interchangeably.
+  The first <!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page123"></a>[123]</span> trend may be noticed by comparing the
+  letter shown in <a href="#Fig132">132</a>, which is closely modeled after
+  type, with that shown in <a href="#Fig136">136</a>, in which an opposite
+  method is followed, and the letters are so treated in handling form and
+  color as to best harmonize with the design itself. The possibilities
+  latent in the small letter are indicated by such interesting uses as
+  those shown in figures <a href="#Fig77">77</a>, <a href="#Fig89">89</a>,
+  <a href="#Fig98">98</a>, <a href="#Fig101">101</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig111">111</a>, <a href="#Fig112">112</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig121">121</a>, <a href="#Fig127">127</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig130">130</a> and <a href="#Fig131">131</a>. American designers
+  seem to be especially interested in the development of the small letter.
+  Of the intermingling of the capital and small letter shapes examples may
+  be found in figures <a href="#Fig71">71</a>, <a href="#Fig75">75</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig77">77</a>, <a href="#Fig78">78</a>, <a href="#Fig79">79</a>,
+  <a href="#Fig82">82</a>, <a href="#Fig83">83</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig84">84</a>, <a href="#Fig98">98</a>, <a href="#Fig127">127</a>
+  and <a href="#Fig134">134</a>. In these examples it will be noted that
+  the minuscules seem to be more easily transformed into capitals than do
+  the capitals into minuscules; only a few of the latter appearing to lend
+  themselves harmoniously to the small letter guise.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig137"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big137.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig137.png"
+      alt="137. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ORSON LOWELL" title="137. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ORSON LOWELL" /></a>
+    137.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig138"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big138.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig138.png"
+      alt="138. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, FOR RAPID USE. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="138. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, FOR RAPID USE. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    138.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig139"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big139.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig139.png"
+      alt="139. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC, FOR PLANS, ETC. C. F. BRAGDON" title="139. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC, FOR PLANS, ETC. C. F. BRAGDON" /></a>
+    139.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig140"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big140.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig140.png"
+      alt="140. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. MAXFIELD PARRISH" title="140. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. MAXFIELD PARRISH" /></a>
+    140.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>Such tendencies as these, if allowed to develop slowly and naturally,
+  are certain to evolve new forms&mdash;a process of modification which it
+  should be fully as instructive and entertaining to observe as any of the
+  historical changes that have already become incorporated into our present
+  letter shapes.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 127 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>[127]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<h2>GOTHIC LETTERS</h2>
+
+  <p>The name "Gothic" applies rather to the spirit than to the exact
+  letter forms of the style. The same spirit of freedom and restlessness
+  characterises the architecture of the period wherein this style of letter
+  was developed; and Gothic letters are in many ways akin to the
+  fundamental forms of Gothic architecture. Their effect is often tiring
+  and confusing to the eye because of the constant recurrence of very
+  similar forms with different letter meanings; yet this very similarity is
+  the main cause of the pleasing aspect of a page of Gothic lettering.</p>
+
+  <p>Unlike the Roman letters, which attained a complete and final
+  development, Gothic letters never reached authoritative and definitive
+  forms, any more than did Gothic architecture. Every individual Gothic
+  letter has several quasi-authoritative shapes, and all of these variants
+  may be accepted, as long as they display an intelligent conception of the
+  spirit of the style as a whole. Because of this lack of finality,
+  however, it is impossible to analyze each of the letter forms as we were
+  able to do with the Roman alphabet in Chapter I; yet this very
+  variability and variety constitute at once the peculiar beauty of Gothic
+  and the great difficulty of so drawing it as to preserve its distinctive
+  character.</p>
+
+  <p>Any letter of Gothic form is usually called either "Gothic" or
+  "Blackletter" indiscriminately, but this use is inexact <!-- Page 128
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>[128]</span> and
+  confusing. The term "Blackletter" should, strictly, be applied only to
+  letters in which the amount of black in the line overbalances the white;
+  and the proper application of the title should be determined rather by
+  this balance or weight of the letter than by its form.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig141"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/fig141.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig141.png"
+      alt="141. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 1500" title="141. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 1500" /></a>
+    141.
+  </div>
+  <p>The original Gothic letter was a gradual outgrowth from the round
+  Roman Uncial. Its early forms retained all the roundness of its Uncial
+  parent; but as the advantages of a condensed form of letter for the
+  saving of space became manifest, (parchment was expensive and bulky) and
+  the <!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page131"></a>[131]</span> beauty of the resulting blacker page was
+  noticed, the round Gothic forms were written closer and narrower, the
+  ascenders and descenders were shortened, with marked loss of legibilty,
+  that the lines of lettering might be brought closer together, until a
+  form was evolved in which the black overbalanced the white&mdash;the
+  Blackletter which still survives in the common German text of to-day.
+  Thus, though a Gothic letter may not be a Blackletter, a Blackletter is
+  <i>always</i> Gothic, because it is constructed upon Gothic lines. On the
+  other hand, a Roman Blackletter would be an obvious impossibility. The
+  very essential and fundamental quality of a Roman letter lies in the
+  squareness or circularity of its skeleton form.</p>
+
+  <p>For clearness and convenience, then, the following discrimination
+  between the terms Gothic and Blackletter will be adopted in this
+  treatise: When a letter is Gothic but not a Blackletter it will be called
+  "Round Gothic"; when it is primarily a Blackletter it will be termed
+  "Blackletter," the latter name being restricted to such compressed,
+  narrow or angular forms as the small letters shown in <a
+  href="#Fig144">144</a>, <a href="#Fig147">147</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig148">148</a>. The name "Round Gothic" will be applied only to
+  the earlier forms, such as those shown in <a href="#Fig141">141</a> and
+  <a href="#Fig142">142</a>. Such a distinction has not, I believe,
+  hitherto been attempted; but the confusion which otherwise results makes
+  the discrimination seem advisable.</p>
+
+  <p>The three pages of examples, figures <a href="#Fig141">141</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig142">142</a> and <a href="#Fig143">143</a>, exhibit the
+  characteristic forms and standard variations of the Round Gothic. In lieu
+  of any detailed analysis of these letter shapes, it may perhaps be
+  sufficient to say that they were wholly and exactly determined by the
+  position of the quill, which was held rigidly upright, after the fashion
+  <!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>[132]</span>
+  already described in speaking of Roman lettering; and that the letters
+  were always formed with a round swinging motion of hand and arm, as their
+  forms and accented lines clearly evidence; for the medieval scribes used
+  the Round Gothic as an easy and legible handwritten form, and linked many
+  of the letters.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig144"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/big144.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig144.png"
+      alt="144. GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. ALBRECHT DÜRER" title="144. GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. ALBRECHT DÜRER" /></a>
+    144.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig143"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big143.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig143.png"
+      alt="143. SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" title="143. SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" /></a>
+    143.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig142"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big142.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig142.png"
+      alt="142. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th CENTURY" title="142. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th CENTURY" /></a>
+    142.
+  </div>
+  <p>Figures <a href="#Fig158">158</a>, <a href="#Fig170">170</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig172">172</a> and <a href="#Fig173">173</a> show some capitals
+  adapted for use with these Round Gothic letters; but the beginner should
+  be extremely wary of attempting to use any Gothic capitals alone to form
+  words, as their outlines are not suited for inter-juxtaposition.
+  Occasionally they may thus be used, and used effectively, as is shown,
+  for instance, in the beautiful page of lettering by Mr. Edwin A. Abbey,
+  <a href="#Fig153">153</a>; but so successful a solution is rare, and
+  implies an intimate knowledge of the historic examples and use of Gothic
+  lettering.</p>
+
+  <p>The late Gothic or Blackletter is condensed and narrowed in the
+  extreme. No circles are employed in the construction of the small
+  letters, which have angular and generally acute corners. As in all
+  pen-drawn letters, the broad lines are made on the down right-sloping
+  strokes, and the narrow lines are at right angles to these. Blackletter
+  shapes, like those of the Round Gothic, cannot, as has been said, be
+  defined by any set of general rules; the intrinsic quality of all Gothic
+  letters almost demands a certain freedom of treatment that would
+  transgress any laws that could be formulated. Indeed the individual forms
+  should always be subservient to the effect of the line or page. Observe
+  in almost every example shown how the form of the same letter constantly
+  varies in some minor detail. The drawing by Albrecht Dürer, reproduced in
+  <a href="#Fig144">144</a>, will, <!-- Page 134 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>[134]</span> however, serve to show
+  the construction of an excellent Blackletter, which may fairly be
+  considered as typical.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig146"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big146.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig146.png"
+      alt=",146. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS WITH ROUNDED ANGLES" title=",146. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS WITH ROUNDED ANGLES" /></a>
+    146.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig145"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big145.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig145.png"
+      alt="145. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" title="145. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" /></a>
+    145.
+  </div>
+  <p>The first essential of a good Blackletter line or page is that it
+  shall be of a uniform color. Unlike the Roman, the Blackletter form does
+  not permit that one word be wider spaced than others in the same panel.
+  The amount of white left between the several letters should be as nearly
+  as possible the same throughout, approximately the same as the space
+  between the perpendicular strokes of the minuscule letters themselves.
+  Usually, the less the white space the better will be the general effect
+  of the page, for its beauty depends much upon a general blackness of
+  aspect;&mdash;and let it be noted in passing that, for this reason, it is
+  doubly difficult to judge of the final effect of a Blackletter page from
+  any outlined pencil sketch. Even in the cases of those capital letters
+  that extend both above and below the guide lines it will be found
+  possible to so adjust the spaces <!-- Page 135 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>[135]</span> and blacks as not to
+  interrupt the general uniformity of color, and it is sometimes advisable
+  to fill awkward blanks by flourishes; although flourishing, even in
+  Blackletter, is an amusement that should be indulged in cautiously. As a
+  general rule the more solidly black a panel of Blackletter is the better
+  (a principle too often disregarded in the modern use of the form); though
+  on the other hand, the less legible the individual letters will become.
+  The designer should therefore endeavor to steer a middle course, making
+  his panel as black as he can without rendering the individual letters
+  illegible.</p>
+
+  <p>No style permits more of liberty in the treatment of its separate
+  letter forms than the Blackletter. The same letter may require a
+  different outline at the beginning of a word than in the middle or at the
+  end. The ascenders and descenders may be drawn so short as hardly to
+  transcend the guide lines of the minuscules, or may grow into <!-- Page
+  136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>[136]</span>
+  flourishes up and down, to the right or to the left, to fill awkward
+  blanks. Indeed so variable are these forms that in ancient examples it is
+  often difficult to recognize an individual letter apart from its
+  context.</p>
+
+  <p>The two pages drawn by Mr. Goodhue, <a href="#Fig188">188</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig189">189</a>, deserve careful study as examples of modern use
+  of the Blackletter. It will be observed that almost as many variants of
+  each letter are employed as the number used would permit, thus giving the
+  panel variety and preventing any appearance of monotony or rigidity.
+  Notice the freedom and variety of the swash lines in the capitals, and
+  yet that each version is quite as graceful, logical and original as any
+  of its variants.</p>
+
+  <p>The examples of old lettering reproduced in figures <a
+  href="#Fig147">147</a>, <a href="#Fig148">148</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig149">149</a>, together with the drawings by Mr. Goodhue, will
+  indicate the proper spacing of Blackletter; but in most of the pages here
+  devoted to illustrating the individual forms the letters have been spaced
+  too wide for their proper effect that each separate shape might be shown
+  distinctly. The style appears at its best in compositions which fill a
+  panel of more or less geometrical form, as, for example, the beautiful
+  title-page reproduced in <a href="#Fig147">147</a>. Could anything be
+  more delightful to the eye than its rich blackness, energetic lines, and
+  refreshing virility? In this design surely we have a specimen that, from
+  the proportion and balance of its blacks, is more effective than anything
+  which could have been accomplished by the use of the more rigid Roman
+  letter; but despite its many beauties it suffers from the inherent
+  weakness of the individual letter forms,&mdash;it is more effective than
+  readable!</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig147"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/big147.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig147.png"
+      alt="147. ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. JACOPUS FORESTI, 1497" title="147. ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. JACOPUS FORESTI, 1497" /></a>
+    147.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig148"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;">
+      <a href="images/big148.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig148.png"
+      alt="148. GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1515" title="148. GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1515" /></a>
+    148.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig149"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/big149.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig149.jpg"
+      alt="149. GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS. MEISSEN, 1510" title="149. GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS. MEISSEN, 1510" /></a>
+    149.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig150"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/big150.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig150.png"
+      alt="150. MODERN AMERICAN COVER IN BLACKLETTER. B. G. GOODHUE" title="150. MODERN AMERICAN COVER IN BLACKLETTER. B. G. GOODHUE" /></a>
+    150.
+  </div>
+  <p>Another excellent example of the old use of Blackletter is the page
+  from the prayerbook of the Emperor Maximilian, <!-- Page 138 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>[138]</span> shown in <a
+  href="#Fig148">148</a>, in which observe again the variety of the
+  individual letter forms. Figure <a href="#Fig149">149</a> shows the use
+  of a Blackletter on an admirable monumental brass, which is reputed to
+  have been designed by Albrecht Dürer. A similar Blackletter form, also
+  from a brass, is shown at larger scale in <a href="#Fig186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>[139]</span></p>
+
+  <p>Any of the minuscule forms of Blackletter which have been illustrated
+  may be used with the Gothic capitals of figures <a
+  href="#Fig164">164</a>-5, <a href="#Fig166">166</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig177">177</a>, <a href="#Fig179">179</a>, <a
+  href="#Fig185">185</a>, <a href="#Fig188">188</a>-9; or with such Uncial
+  capitals as are illustrated in <a href="#Fig155">155</a> to <a
+  href="#Fig162">162</a>; care being taken, of course, that these capitals
+  are made to agree in style and weight with the small letters chosen.
+  Although Uncial capitals are historically more closely allied with the
+  Round Gothic, we have abundant precedent for their use with the minuscule
+  Blackletter in many of the best medieval specimens.</p>
+
+  <p>When the Gothic Uncial capitals were cut in stone and marble there was
+  naturally a corresponding change in character, as is shown in the Italian
+  examples illustrated in <a href="#Fig160">160</a> <!-- Page 140 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page140"></a>[140]</span> and <a
+  href="#Fig161">161</a>. These examples, which are reproduced from
+  rubbings, exhibit the characteristic stone cut forms very clearly. A
+  Gothic Uncial alphabet redrawn from a German brass is illustrated in <a
+  href="#Fig162">162</a>. The group of specimens from <a
+  href="#Fig154">154</a> to <a href="#Fig159">159</a> exhibit the
+  chronological growth of the Uncial capitals, which were used, as has been
+  said, with the various small Blackletter forms, though they were also
+  used alone to form words, as is shown in <a href="#Fig160">160</a>. The
+  historical progression in these Uncial examples is most interesting; and,
+  allowing for the variations of national temperament, traces itself
+  connectedly enough. Figures <a href="#Fig154">154</a> to <a
+  href="#Fig159">159</a> are pen forms, while <a href="#Fig160">160</a> to
+  <a href="#Fig163">163</a> are from stone or metal-cut letters.</p>
+
+  <p>Figures <a href="#Fig164">164</a> to <a href="#Fig166">166</a> show
+  alphabets of Gothic pen-drawn capitals that will serve as a basis for
+  such adaptations as are shown in the modern examples <a
+  href="#Fig152">152</a> and <a href="#Fig153">153</a>. Figures <a
+  href="#Fig167">167</a> to <a href="#Fig169">169</a> show a more elaborate
+  but an excellent and typical variety of this form of capital, which is
+  one of the most beautiful and distinctive of Gothic letters. Shorn of its
+  fussy small lines the main skeleton is eminently virile; and, though
+  extremely difficult to draw, it cannot be surpassed for certain limited
+  uses. Figures <a href="#Fig170">170</a> to <a href="#Fig173">173</a>
+  exhibit a group of Gothic capitals more or less allied in character and
+  all pen letters. Figures <a href="#Fig174">174</a> to <a
+  href="#Fig176">176</a> show forms similar to those of the previous group,
+  but adapted for use in various materials.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig153"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big153.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig153.png"
+      alt="153. MODERN BLACKLETTER. EDWIN A. ABBEY" title="153. MODERN BLACKLETTER. EDWIN A. ABBEY" /></a>
+    153.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig152"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/big152.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig152.png"
+      alt="152. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. OTTO HUPP" title="152. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. OTTO HUPP" /></a>
+    152.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig151"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:35%;">
+      <a href="images/big151.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig151.jpg"
+      alt="151. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. WALTER PUTTNER" title="151. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. WALTER PUTTNER" /></a>
+    151.
+  </div>
+  <p>Figures <a href="#Fig177">177</a> to <a href="#Fig179">179</a> show
+  some English Gothic letters, the last being that employed so effectively
+  in the pen-drawn page by Mr. Abbey, <a href="#Fig153">153</a>. Figures <a
+  href="#Fig180">180</a> to <a href="#Fig184">184</a> illustrate various
+  forms of Blackletter: <a href="#Fig180">180</a> is from a German brass,
+  <a href="#Fig182">182</a> illustrates an Italian pen form, and <a
+  href="#Fig183">183</a> and <a href="#Fig184">184</a> show <!-- Page 141
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>[141]</span> Blackletters
+  drawn by Albrecht Dürer, the latter being the simplest and strongest
+  variant in this style. It is the same letter that is employed to show
+  Blackletter construction in diagram <a href="#Fig144">144</a>. Figure <a
+  href="#Fig185">185</a> shows the well-known and unusually beautiful
+  initials designed by Dürer. Figure <a href="#Fig186">186</a> is a
+  Blackletter from an English brass, although the letter forms in this
+  example, as well as those of many other English brasses, may perhaps have
+  been derived from Flanders, as many of the finest early Continental
+  brasses were imported from the Netherlands.</p>
+
+  <p>The Italian forms of Gothic Blackletters are generally too fussy and
+  finikin to be of practical value for modern use, though they often
+  possess suggestive value. The letters shown in <a href="#Fig182">182</a>
+  are fairly typical of the characteristic Blackletter minuscules of Italy.
+  Figure <a href="#Fig187">187</a> exhibits an example of beautiful
+  lettering in the Italian style, redrawn from a rubbing of an inlaid
+  floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. The omission of capitals in long,
+  confined lines is typical of many Blackletter inscriptions, as may be
+  seen in <a href="#Fig149">149</a>, as well as in the plate just
+  mentioned.</p>
+
+  <p>In view of the number of fine specimens of Blackletter which have been
+  handed down to us, it has been deemed <!-- Page 142 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>[142]</span> unnecessary to
+  reproduce many examples of its employment by modern draughtsmen. The
+  pages by Mr. Goodhue, <a href="#Fig188">188</a>-9, have already been
+  referred to; and figure <a href="#Fig150">150</a> shows a very consistent
+  and representative use of similar letter forms by the same designer.
+  Figures <a href="#Fig190">190</a> and <a href="#Fig191">191</a>
+  illustrate two modern varieties of Blackletter, one very simple and the
+  other very ornate. The small cuts, <a href="#Fig151">151</a> and <a
+  href="#Fig152">152</a>, show excellent modern Blackletters; the first, of
+  unusually narrow form, being by Herr Walter Puttner, and the second, with
+  its flourished initials, by Herr Otto Hupp.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig154"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/fig154.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig154.png"
+      alt="154. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 12TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="154. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 12TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    154.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig155"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/fig155.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig155.png"
+      alt="155. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 13TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="155. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 13TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    155.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig156"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/fig156.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig156.png"
+      alt="156. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="156. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    156.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig157"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/fig157.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig157.png"
+      alt="157. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="157. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    157.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig158"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/fig158.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig158.png"
+      alt="158. ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="158. ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    158.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig159"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/fig159.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig159.png"
+      alt="159. SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. JUAN DE YCIAR, 1550" title="159. SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. JUAN DE YCIAR, 1550" /></a>
+    159.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig160"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:52%;">
+      <a href="images/big160.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig160.jpg"
+      alt="160. VENETIAN WALL PANEL, 15TH CENTURY. FROM RUBBING" title="160. VENETIAN WALL PANEL, 15TH CENTURY. FROM RUBBING" /></a>
+    160.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig161"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/big161.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig161.png"
+      alt="161. VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15TH CENTURY. F.C.B." title="161. VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15TH CENTURY. F.C.B." /></a>
+    161.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig162"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/big162.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig162.png"
+      alt="162. GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS, FROM A BRASS. 14TH CENTURY" title="162. GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS, FROM A BRASS. 14TH CENTURY" /></a>
+    162.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig163"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/big163.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig163.png"
+      alt="163. FRENCH AND SPANISH UNCIAL CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY" title="163. FRENCH AND SPANISH UNCIAL CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY" /></a>
+    163.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig164"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big164.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig164.jpg"
+      alt="164. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY" title="164. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY" /></a>
+    164.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig165"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/big165.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig165.jpg"
+      alt="165. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY" title="165. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY" /></a>
+    165.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig166"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/big166.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig166.jpg"
+      alt="166. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. GIOV. PALATINO, 16TH CENTURY" title="166. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. GIOV. PALATINO, 16TH CENTURY" /></a>
+    166.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig167"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/big167.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig167.jpg"
+      alt="167. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601" title="167. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601" /></a>
+    167.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig168"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/big168.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig168.jpg"
+      alt="168. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601" title="168. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601" /></a>
+    168.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig169"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/big169.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig169.jpg"
+      alt="169. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601" title="169. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601" /></a>
+    169.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig170"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big170.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig170.png"
+      alt="170. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY" title="170. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY" /></a>
+    170.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig171"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big171.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig171.png"
+      alt="171. ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY" title="171. ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY" /></a>
+    171.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig172"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big172.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig172.png"
+      alt="172. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY" title="172. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY" /></a>
+    172.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig173"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big173.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig173.png"
+      alt="173. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY" title="173. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY" /></a>
+    173.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig174"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big174.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig174.png"
+      alt="174. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" title="174. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" /></a>
+    174.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig175"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big175.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig175.png"
+      alt="175. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" title="175. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" /></a>
+    175.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig176"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big176.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig176.png"
+      alt="176. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" title="176. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" /></a>
+    176.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig177"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big177.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig177.png"
+      alt="177. ENGLISH GOTHIC TEXT LETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" title="177. ENGLISH GOTHIC TEXT LETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS" /></a>
+    177.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig178"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big177.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig177.png"
+      alt="178. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="178. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    178.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig179"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big179.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig179.png"
+      alt="179. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="179. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    179.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig180"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big180.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig180.png"
+      alt="180. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS FROM A BRASS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="180. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS FROM A BRASS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    180.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig181"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/big181.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig181.png"
+      alt="181. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. 16th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="181. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. 16th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    181.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig182"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big182.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig182.png"
+      alt="182. ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16th CENTURY" title="182. ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16th CENTURY" /></a>
+    182.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig183"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big183.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig183.png"
+      alt="183. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY" title="183. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY" /></a>
+    183.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig184"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big184.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig184.png"
+      alt="184. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY" title="184. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY" /></a>
+    184.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig185"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big185.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig185.png"
+      alt="185. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY" title="185. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 16th CENTURY" /></a>
+    185.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig186"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big186.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig186.png"
+      alt="186. ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="186. ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    186.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p><a name="Fig187"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big187.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig187.png"
+      alt="187. ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. FROM A RUBBING. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="187. ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. FROM A RUBBING. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    187.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig188"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big188.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig188.png"
+      alt="188. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE" title="188. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE" /></a>
+    188.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig189"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big189.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig189.png"
+      alt="189. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE" title="189. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE" /></a>
+    189.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig190"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big190.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig190.png"
+      alt="190. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. AFTER JULIUS DIEZ" title="190. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. AFTER JULIUS DIEZ" /></a>
+    190.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig191"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big191.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig191.png"
+      alt="191. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="191. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    191.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page182"></a>[182]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+<h2>ITALIC AND SCRIPT</h2>
+
+  <p>The regrettable modern neglect of those free and very interesting
+  forms of the Roman letter, Italic and Script, seem to authorize
+  consideration of them in a separate chapter, even at the risk of
+  appearing to give them undue importance.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig192"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/big192.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig192.png"
+      alt="192. GERMAN ITALIC. GOTTLIEB MUNCH, 1744" title="192. GERMAN ITALIC. GOTTLIEB MUNCH, 1744" /></a>
+    192.
+  </div>
+  <p>The first Italic type letter was derived, it is said, from the
+  handwriting of Petrarch, and several admirable examples of the style,
+  variously treated, have come down to us. As far as construction goes
+  Italic is, theoretically, only the exact Roman form sloped, and with such
+  changes as are necessitated by the sloping of the letters. Practically,
+  however, it will be found that certain alterations in the outlines of the
+  Roman letters must be made after giving them a slope in order to adapt
+  them to their new requirements of inter-juxtaposition; and, by a reflex
+  action, when words in Italic capitals are used in the same panel with
+  upright Roman letters, certain variations must be made in the latter,
+  such as accenting the Roman O in the same fashion as the Italic <i>O</i>
+  is accented, an altered treatment of serifs, and other changes in
+  detail.</p>
+
+  <p>The Script form of letter was developed out of the running or writing
+  hand, and still retains a cursive tendency in the linking together of its
+  letters; although in some forms it so closely approximates to Italic as
+  to be almost <!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page183"></a>[183]</span> indistinguishable from it. Script
+  lettering came into its greatest vogue during the Georgian period in
+  England and at the same time in France; and was extensively employed,
+  usually in conjunction with the upright Roman, in carved panels of stone
+  or wood, and in engraving. The Script forms are well worthy of the
+  attention of modern designers since they offer unusual opportunities for
+  freedom and individuality of treatment; and because of this vitality and
+  adaptility to modern uses the present chapter will be devoted largely to
+  the illustration of Script examples.</p>
+
+  <p>The old Spanish and Italian writing-books (referred to in a previous
+  chapter), which in a measure took the place filled so much less
+  artistically to-day by our modern school copybooks, contain many
+  specimens of beautiful Script, both capitals and small letters. Figures
+  <a href="#Fig193">193</a> to <a href="#Fig196">196</a> show pages from
+  such books published in Spain.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig193"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big193.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig193.png"
+      alt="193. SPANISH SCRIPT. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802" title="193. SPANISH SCRIPT. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802" /></a>
+    193.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig194"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big194.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig194.png"
+      alt="194. SPANISH SCRIPTS. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802" title="194. SPANISH SCRIPTS. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802" /></a>
+    194.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig195"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big195.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig195.png"
+      alt="195. SPANISH SCRIPT. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" title="195. SPANISH SCRIPT. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" /></a>
+    195.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig196"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/big196.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig196.png"
+      alt="196. SPANISH CURSIVE. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" title="196. SPANISH CURSIVE. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577" /></a>
+    196.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page188"></a>[188]</span></p>
+
+  <p>A simple type of Spanish capital Script letter is shown in <a
+  href="#Fig201">201</a>, while a corresponding small letter, redrawn from
+  a Spanish source, is illustrated in <a href="#Fig202">202</a>. It should
+  be noted in the latter figure that the three lower lines are further
+  removed from the ordinary writing hand and are more interesting than the
+  letters in the three upper lines.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig198"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/fig198.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig198.png"
+      alt="198. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GEORGE WHARTON EDWARDS" title="198. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GEORGE WHARTON EDWARDS" /></a>
+    198.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig197"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/fig197.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig197.png"
+      alt="197. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON" title="197. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON" /></a>
+    197.
+  </div>
+  <p>The French artists and engravers were, as has been said, among the
+  first to appreciate the qualities of Script, and used it in many of their
+  engraved title-pages, especially during the reigns of Louis xv. and xvi.
+  Figure <a href="#Fig199">199</a> shows a set of French Script capitals of
+  the time of Louis <span class="scac">XV.</span>, highly flourished but
+  more formal than those shown in <a href="#Fig201">201</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>A form of Script very nearly allied to the Italic was frequently used
+  for the lettering on headstones and wall tombs in the churches and
+  churchyards of England. Figure <a href="#Fig203">203</a>, in which the
+  lettering is taken from a tomb in Westminster Abbey, illustrates this
+  style of Script.</p>
+
+  <p>A set of Script small letters with some unusual characteristics,
+  adapted by Hrachowina from the German Renaissance form shown in outline
+  in <a href="#Fig192">192</a>, is exhibited as a solid letter in figure <a
+  href="#Fig200">200</a>.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig199"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big199.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig199.png"
+      alt="199. FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="199. FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    199.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig200"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big200.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig200.png"
+      alt="200. GERMAN SCRIPT AFTER HRACHOWINA. 18th CENTURY." title="200. GERMAN SCRIPT AFTER HRACHOWINA. 18th CENTURY." /></a>
+    200.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig201"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big201.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig201.png"
+      alt="201. SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. EARLY 18th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="201. SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. EARLY 18th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    201.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig202"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big202.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig202.png"
+      alt="202. SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. LATE 17th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="202. SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. LATE 17th CENTURY. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    202.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig203"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/big203.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig203.png"
+      alt="203. ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. FROM INSCRIPTIONS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="203. ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. FROM INSCRIPTIONS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    203.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+<p><!-- Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page194"></a>[194]</span></p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig204"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/fig204.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig204.png"
+      alt="204. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. BRUCE ROGERS" title="204. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. BRUCE ROGERS" /></a>
+    204.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig205"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big205.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig205.png"
+      alt="205. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. BRUCE ROGERS" title="205. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. BRUCE ROGERS" /></a>
+    205.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig206"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big206.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig206.png"
+      alt="206. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. AFTER FRANK HAZENPLUG" title="206. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. AFTER FRANK HAZENPLUG" /></a>
+    206.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig207"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/big207.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig207.png"
+      alt="207. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." title="207. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;B." /></a>
+    207.
+  </div>
+  <p>Among modern American designers, Mr. Bruce Rogers has admirably
+  succeeded in catching the French and Georgian spirit in his treatment of
+  the Script characters; yet, nevertheless, his lettering in this style is
+  still modern in feeling. In the title from a book cover, <a
+  href="#Fig204">204</a>, Mr. Rogers has allowed himself just the proper
+  amount of interlacement and flourishing&mdash;both of which require the
+  restraint of a subtle taste or the result may prove to be over-elaborate.
+  The page of lettering by the same designer, shown in <a
+  href="#Fig205">205</a>, is a successful solution of a difficult problem,
+  and, together with the book cover, will serve to exhibit the
+  possibilities of this style of Script.</p>
+
+  <p>Mr. George Wharton Edwards is another modern designer who has a
+  penchant for the Script form. He uses one distinctive and personal style
+  of it in which the larger letters are formed by two black lines separated
+  by a narrow white space, as exhibited in <a href="#Fig198">198</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>The lines from an advertisement, <a href="#Fig197">197</a>, by Mr.
+  Claude Fayette Bragdon, in which Script, Italic and Roman letters are
+  combined, are of especial interest from the easy manner in which the
+  three different styles have been adapted to each other and made to
+  harmonize in one small panel, <!-- Page 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page198"></a>[198]</span> while still preserving an appropriate
+  Georgian aspect. The interlacement and flourishing, too, are handled with
+  commendable restraint.</p>
+
+  <p>Few modern artists have so successfully treated Italic capitals with
+  Script freedom as Mr. Will Bradley. Sometimes employing forms of Italic
+  capitals and small letters little removed from type, he will again give
+  us an example of his handiwork in which Italic is used with examplary
+  freedom, as is shown in the specimen from a book catalogue, <a
+  href="#Fig109">109</a>. The modern trick of wide spacing often lends
+  itself aptly to the swing and freedom of the swashed and flourished lines
+  of Script, as may be seen in figure <a href="#Fig207">207</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>An excellent modern Script letter, adapted from a design by Mr. Frank
+  Hazenplug, is shown in <a href="#Fig206">206</a>. Its heavy face and
+  originality of form make it a useful and pleasing variant.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig208"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:46%;">
+      <a href="images/big208.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig208.png"
+      alt="208. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS" title="208. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS" /></a>
+    208.
+  </div>
+  <p><a name="Fig209"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:46%;">
+      <a href="images/big209.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig209.png"
+      alt="209. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD PENFIELD" title="209. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD PENFIELD" /></a>
+    209.
+  </div>
+  <p><br style="clear : both" /></p>
+  <p>The magazine heading, by an anonymous designer, <a
+  href="#Fig208">208</a>, and the line from the pen of Mr. Edward Penfield,
+  <a href="#Fig209">209</a>, suggest still other useful varieties of the
+  Script form.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 199 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page199"></a>[199]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>CHAPTER V</h3>
+
+<h2>TO THE BEGINNER</h2>
+
+  <p>The beginner in any art or craft is likely to have an undue respect
+  for the mere instruments of his trade. He will eventually learn that
+  tools play a much less important part in his work than he at first
+  thinks; but, as it is unlikely that any sudden change in human nature
+  will occur, it seems as well to devote here some consideration to the
+  tools which the student will always believe to be an important part of
+  his equipment. He will ultimately ascertain for himself what is best
+  adapted to his own individual needs.</p>
+
+  <p>Though every draughtsman will recommend a pen that he has discovered
+  to be especially suitable for his own use, few will be found to agree.
+  Perhaps it is safe to say, however, that the best all-round pen for
+  lettering is the Gillot No. 303. It is not too sharp, and when broken in
+  is flexible and easy. The crowquill pen will be found of little use. It
+  is an advantage to have at hand a large coarse pen of little flexibility
+  and smooth point for drawing heavy lines of even width. In using
+  water-color in place of ink such a pen will be found more satisfactory
+  than the Gillot 303, as the thinness of the fluid causes the line to
+  spread whenever pressure is applied to a limber and finely pointed pen,
+  with the result that the line is not only broadened, but when dry shows
+  darker than was intended, as more color is deposited than in a narrow
+  line. When a <!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page200"></a>[200]</span> narrow line of even width and sharpness
+  is desired it is best to use a new pen; an older pen will, on the other
+  hand, allow of more ease in swelling and broadening the line under
+  pressure. A thin dry line may be obtained by turning the pen over and
+  drawing with the back of the nib, although if the pen so used be worn it
+  is apt to have a "burr" over the point that may prevent its working
+  satisfactorily in this way. A new hard pen is likely to be the cause of a
+  "niggling" line; a too limber one of a careless or undesirably broad
+  line. On rare occasions, and for obtaining certain effects, a stub pen
+  may be found of value, but it cannot be recommended to the beginner, as
+  it is very difficult to find one that has sufficient flexibility of nib.
+  Quill pens are undoubtedly useful in drawing a few types of letters (see
+  some of the designs by Mr. Walter Crane shown in previous pages, for
+  examples) but, not to allude to the difficulty of properly pointing a
+  quill, which seems to be a well-nigh lost art nowadays, the instrument
+  possesses so many annoying peculiarities that it is as well to avoid its
+  use until a satisfactory command over the more dependable steel pens has
+  been obtained.</p>
+
+  <p>A pencil is, of course, a necessity in laying out the first scheme for
+  lettering. The softer the pencil the more felicitous will the composition
+  seem; but the beginner should guard against being too easily pleased with
+  the effect thus obtained, as it is often due to the deceptive
+  indefiniteness of line and pleasant gray tone. When inked-in, in
+  uncompromising black against the white paper, the draughtsman is apt to
+  find that his sketch has developed many an imperfection, both in
+  composition and in individual letter shapes, that the vague pencil lines
+  did not reveal. <!-- Page 201 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page201"></a>[201]</span></p>
+
+  <p>As to paper, Bristol-board has the best smooth surface for lettering.
+  The English board is in some ways better than the American, but has the
+  disadvantage of being made in smaller sheets. The difficulty with any
+  smooth board is that erasures, even of pencil lines, are likely to spoil
+  its surface. The rough "Strathmore" American board has a very grateful
+  surface upon which the pen may be used with almost as much freedom as the
+  pencil. All rough surfaces, however, while tending to promote interesting
+  lines, are not suited for careful lettering, and the classic and Italian
+  forms especially require to be drawn upon the smoothest possible surface.
+  The American "Strathmore" board may also be obtained in smooth finish;
+  and, indeed, is less injured by erasures than most Bristol-boards.</p>
+
+  <p>The prepared India or carbon inks such as "Higgin's" or "Carter's" are
+  best for the beginner; although all prepared inks have a tendency to get
+  muddy if allowed to stand open, and the so-called "waterproof" inks are
+  easily smudged.</p>
+
+  <p>In devising a panel of lettering, such as a title-page for example,
+  the draughtsman's first step would naturally be to sketch out the whole
+  design at a very small size, say an inch and a half high, in pencil. This
+  small sketch should determine, first, the general balance of the page;
+  second, the inter-relations and spacings of the various lines and words
+  and their relative importance and sizes. From this thumb-nail sketch the
+  design should be drawn out at full size in pencil, and much more
+  carefully. In this redrawing the separate letter shapes and their
+  harmonious relations to each other should be determined, and such
+  deviations made from the smaller sketch as seem to benefit the effect.
+  <!-- Page 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page202"></a>[202]</span>
+  Some draughtsmen sketch out each line of lettering separately on thin
+  paper, and then, after blackening the back of this sheet, lay each line
+  over the place where it is needed in the design, tracing the outlines of
+  the letters with a hard point, and thus transferring them to the design
+  beneath. In this way a page of lettering may be studied out line by line,
+  and accurately placed or centered; but the process is tedious, and there
+  is always danger of losing sight of the effect as a whole.</p>
+
+  <p>In outlining letters which are ultimately intended to be solidly
+  blacked-in, the beginner should guard against making his outlines too
+  wide, especially as regards the thin lines, for the eye in judging an
+  outline sketch follows the insides of the bounding lines rather than the
+  outsides which will really be the <i>out</i>lines of the blacked-in
+  letter, so that when finished the letter is likely to look heavier and
+  more clumsy than in the sketch.</p>
+
+  <p>When the entire pencil scheme seems satisfactory in every detail, and
+  each line has been exactly determined, the whole should be carefully
+  inked-in. In inking-in letters the swing of the arm should be as free and
+  unobstructed as possible. For the best result it is absolutely necessary
+  to work at a wide board on a solid table of convenient height and angle.
+  It is impossible to letter well in a cramped or unsteady position. One
+  thing cannot be too strongly urged upon the beginner. Never use a
+  T-square, triangle or ruling pen in inking-in lettering. It will be found
+  ultimately much easier to train hand and eye to make a straight and true
+  line free-hand than to attempt to satisfactorily combine a ruled and
+  free-hand line. The free-hand method is, be it acknowledged, both more
+  lengthy and <!-- Page 203 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page203"></a>[203]</span> difficult at first, but when the
+  draughtsman does finally gain a mastery over his line he has achieved
+  something which he will find of the greatest value.</p>
+
+  <p>In a drawing to be reproduced by mechanical processes, the proportions
+  of the design are, of course, unalterably determined by the required
+  panel or page; but the <i>size</i> of the <i>drawing</i> may be such as
+  best suits the inclination and convenience of the draughtsman. If the
+  drawing is to be reduced in size (and that is the usual method, because,
+  in general, it is easier to draw large rather than small), the
+  draughtsman must first decide on the amount of reduction to which his
+  style of rendering and the subject itself are best adapted, remembering,
+  however, that a drawing is sure to suffer from excessive reduction, not
+  only in general effect but in interest, for the quality of the line is
+  sure in a measure to disappear. A reduction of height or width by
+  one-third is the usual amount; but many of our modern designers obtain
+  their best effects by making their drawings but a trifle larger than the
+  required reproduction. Some even make their drawings of the same size;
+  others only from a twelfth to a sixth larger. As a rule, the less the
+  reduction the less the departure from the effect of the original, and the
+  more certainly satisfactory the result, although more careful drawing and
+  greater exactness of line are necessary.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig210"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/fig210.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig210.png"
+      alt="210. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL" title="210. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL" /></a>
+    210.
+  </div>
+  <p>To keep the outlines of a panel in the same proportion while enlarging
+  its area for the purpose of making a drawing for reproduction, lay out
+  the required <i>finished</i> size of the panel near the upper left hand
+  corner of the paper, and draw a diagonal line through the upper left hand
+  and lower right hand corner of this panel, extending it beyond the panel
+  <!-- Page 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page204"></a>[204]</span>
+  boundaries. From any given point along this diagonal, lines drawn
+  parallel to the side and top lines of the original panel, and extended
+  till they intersect the extended left side line and top line of the
+  original panel, will give an outline of the same proportions as the
+  required panel. By taking various points on the diagonal, panels of any
+  height or width but still of the proper proportions may be obtained (see
+  diagram <a href="#Fig210">210</a>). Diagram <a href="#Fig211">211</a>
+  illustrates a variation of the previous method of enlarging the
+  proportions of a panel, in which, by the use of two diagonals, both
+  perpendicular and horizontal center lines are retained.</p>
+
+  <p>When it is necessary to lay out a border of a predetermined width
+  within the required panel, the foregoing method can only be used to
+  determine the <i>outside</i> lines of such a border, and it becomes
+  necessary to make the drawing some numerical proportion, say, one-half as
+  large again, or twice as large as the finished panel. The width of the
+  border will then be of the same proportionate width.</p>
+
+  <p>The beginner will find it always wise to base his lettering on
+  penciled top and bottom guide lines, and occasionally to add "waist"
+  guide lines, as in <a href="#Fig193">193</a>. Indeed, it is rare that
+  even accomplished letterers dispense with these simple aids. These guide
+  lines should invariably be laid-in with the <!-- Page 205 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page205"></a>[205]</span> T-square and triangle.
+  After drawing the horizontal guides, it is often advisable to run a few
+  perpendicular lines up and down the paper, which will serve to guard
+  against the very common likelihood of the letters acquiring a tilt. In
+  drawing Italic, Script, and all sloping letters numerous sloping guide
+  lines are especially necessary; see <a href="#Fig193">193</a>.
+  Perpendicular guide lines will be found of marked assistance, also in
+  drawing Gothic small letters, which, as they do not come against the top
+  and bottom guide lines squarely, but at an angle, are often
+  deceptive.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Fig211"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/fig211.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/fig211.png"
+      alt="211. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL" title="211. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL" /></a>
+    211.
+  </div>
+  <p>If it is desirable to make two lines of lettering of the same length,
+  although they contain an unequal number of letters, this may be
+  effected&mdash;provided, of course, that the number of letters does not
+  vary too greatly&mdash;by broadening or narrowing the letters that occur
+  in one line but not in the other, and by varying the spacings about the
+  <span class="scac">I</span>'s and the open letters. Note, for example,
+  the spacing of the upper lines in the poster by Mr. Crane, <a
+  href="#Fig87">87</a>. It is by no means essential to draw the same letter
+  always exactly alike even in the same line; in fact, variation is
+  generally demanded by the different surroundings and neighboring letters.
+  So long as the general character of the letter remains unchanged in its
+  distinctive features, such as weight, <!-- Page 206 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page206"></a>[206]</span> treatment of serifs,
+  angles, height of waist and cross lines, etc., its width and outlines may
+  be varied and arranged to help out the spacing without interfering, to
+  any noticeable extent, with the uniform appearance of the line.</p>
+
+  <p>In Roman lettering emphasis may be obtained for any special word by
+  spacing its letters farther apart. This has something of the same
+  emphasizing effect as the use of Italic, without so greatly breaking the
+  harmony of the line. Much of the lettering of the Italian Renaissance
+  shows a very subtle appreciation of this use, and in some of the most
+  beautiful inscriptions the important words are often so differentiated,
+  while others are emphasized by slightly larger characters.</p>
+
+  <p>As a general rule, and within certain limits, the wider a letter the
+  more legible it is likely to be. Blackness and boldness of stem alone
+  will not make a letter readable. Width, boldness of hair lines and
+  serifs, and a proper amount of surrounding white space are more
+  essential. The Roman letter is more legible than the Blackletter mainly
+  because it is black against a roomy white ground; while Blackletter, on
+  the contrary, is really defined by small interrupted areas of whites upon
+  a black ground.</p>
+
+  <p>A common limitation of many draughtsmen is that they become
+  accomplished in the rendering of but one style of letter, and find
+  themselves obliged to use it on all occasions, whether it be suited to
+  the work in hand or not, because they can command no other. In the case
+  of certain designers, of course, the individuality of their work is
+  strong enough to bind both lettering and design so closely together that
+  they can never seem at dissonance; but, speaking generally, the adherance
+  to the use of but <!-- Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page207"></a>[207]</span> one type of letter can be but narrowing.
+  The beginner is urged, therefore, to practice the use of many styles,
+  even at the expense of gaining an immediate mastery over no one form. He
+  will find himself amply repaid in the end by the increase in freedom and
+  variety.</p>
+
+  <p>While the student should possess enough knowledge of the historic
+  styles and examples of lettering to prevent him from using incongruous or
+  anachronous forms in the same design, historic accuracy need not prevent
+  him from engrafting the characteristics of dissimilar styles upon one
+  another, provided that the results prove harmonious and appropriate.</p>
+
+  <p>Finally, the draughtsman's first aim should be to make his lettering
+  readable: after this has been accomplished he should strive to give it
+  beauty. Art in lettering is only to be attained by solving the problem of
+  legibility in the way most pleasing to the eye. Good lettering should
+  appeal both to the eye and to the mind. Only when it combines legibility
+  with beauty can it be excellent.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<h3>INDEX</h3>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>A., <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p>
+      <p>Abbey, Edwin A., <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</p>
+      <p>Accenting, of Blackletters, <a href="#page132">132</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Roman Capitals, <a href="#page2">2</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Minuscules, <a href="#page56">56</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Round Gothic, <a href="#page132">132</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Italic and Script, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</p>
+      <p>American Lettering, Modern Roman, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page75">75</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Classic Roman, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Gothic, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Italic, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Script, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</p>
+      <p>Anglo-Saxon Letters, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page47">47</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">modern use of, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+      <p>Ascenders, height above body, <a href="#page57">57</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in "Cheltenham Old Style" type, <a href="#page71">71</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Gothic, <a href="#page131">131</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Blackletters, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</p>
+      <p>Ashbee, C. R., <a href="#page74">74</a>.</p>
+      <p>Auriol, George, <a href="#page88">88</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>B., <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+      <p>Badia, Florence, lettering from, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+      <p>Bell, Robert Anning, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Blacked-in letters, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+      <p>Blackletters, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">accents of, <a href="#page132">132</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">ascenders and descenders of, <a href="#page135">135</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">capitals for use with, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">a condensed form of Gothic, <a href="#page128">128</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">construction of, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">definition of, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">effect of page of, <a href="#page132">132</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">with Roman letters, <a href="#page72">72</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">even color of, <a href="#page134">134</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">flourishes, <a href="#page135">135</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">individual letter forms, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">illegibility of, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">a part-Roman form, <a href="#page84">84</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">a narrow form, <a href="#page132">132</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">old examples of, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in panel forms, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">used solidly, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">spacing of, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">variety of, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</p>
+      <p>Bonnard, Pierre, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p>
+      <p>Border, to lay out a, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p>
+      <p>Boston Public Library, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</p>
+      <p>Bragdon, Claude Fayette, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</p>
+      <p>Brasses, Blackletters from, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</p>
+      <p>Bridwell, H. L., <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</p>
+      <p>Bristol-board, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</p>
+      <p>Byzantine influence on Italian lettering, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>C., <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+      <p>Capitals, used with Roman minuscules, <a href="#page57">57</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">with Round Gothic, <a href="#page132">132</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">with Blackletters, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also under Blackletter, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Modern Roman Capitals, Script, Round Gothic, Uncial).</p>
+      <p>"Caroline" Text, <a href="#page52">52</a>.</p>
+      <p>Caslon, William, <a href="#page64">64</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">his type, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Centering lines of lettering, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+      <p>Charlemagne, <a href="#page52">52</a>.</p>
+      <p>"Cheltenham Old Style" type, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</p>
+      <p>Cheltenham Press, The, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</p>
+      <p>Chisel-cut guide lines, <a href="#page3">3</a>.</p>
+      <p>Classic Capitals, see Roman Capitals.</p>
+      <p>Classic forms of letters, to draw, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">composition of, <a href="#page6">6</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page30">30</a>.</p>
+      <p>"Colonial" lettering, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</p>
+      <p>Constantine, Arch of, lettering from, <a href="#page11">11</a>.</p>
+      <p>Construction, of Blackletters, <a href="#page132">132</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Roman Capitals, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page6">6</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Roman Minuscules, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+      <p>Craig, Gordon, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Crane, Walter, <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>.</p>
+      <p>Cross-bar in Roman Capitals, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+      <p>"Cursive" Letters, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</p>
+      <p>Cursive tendency in Script lettering, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>D., <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+      <p>'Dance of Death,' Holbein's, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</p>
+      <p>Day, Lewis F., <a href="#page93">93</a>.</p>
+      <p>Descenders, (see Ascenders).</p>
+      <p>De Vinne, Theo. L., <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Dove's Press, The, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Drawing of letters, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page202">202</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">for reproduction, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p>
+      <p>Dürer, Albrecht, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>E., <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>.</p>
+      <p>Early Gothic, (see Round Gothic).</p>
+      <p>Early Printing, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</p>
+      <p>Edwards, Edward B., <a href="#page116">116</a>.</p>
+      <p>Edwards, George Wharton, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</p>
+      <p>Emphasis in lettering, placing of, <a href="#page206">206</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Accenting).</p>
+      <p>English Brasses derived from Flanders, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+      <p>English Gothic, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+      <p>English lettering, modern, <a href="#page75">75</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p>
+      <p>English, Letters, <a href="#page47">47</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Script, <a href="#page188">188</a>,</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Anglo-Saxon).</p>
+      <p>Engraved Title-pages, French, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</p>
+      <p>Enlarging Drawings, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>F., <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>.</p>
+      <p>f., <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+      <p>Fell, H. Granville, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Flanders, Brasses from, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+      <p>Flourishing, of Blackletters, <a href="#page135">135</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Script, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</p>
+      <p>Free-hand lines, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+      <p>French, modern lettering, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page86">86</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Script, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</p>
+      <p>Freedom, in lettering, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Blackletters, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Gothic, <a href="#page127">127</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Italic, <a href="#page198">198</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in kerns, serifs and swash-lines, etc., <a href="#page53">53</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Roman letters, <a href="#page82">82</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Script, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>G., <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+      <p>g., <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+      <p>Georgian English lettering, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</p>
+      <p>German lettering, modern, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">early, <a href="#page110">110</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Script, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">types, <a href="#page52">52</a>.</p>
+      <p>Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>.</p>
+      <p>Gothic Capitals, for use with Blackletters, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">pen drawn, <a href="#page140">140</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">not to be used to form words, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</p>
+      <p>Gothic, English, (see English Gothic).</p>
+      <p>Gothic lettering, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">cut in stone, <a href="#page140">140</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Blackletters and Uncial).</p>
+      <p>Granite, letters cut in, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a>,</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Stone-cut, V-sunk and Incised).</p>
+      <p>Grasset, Eugène, <a href="#page86">86</a>.</p>
+      <p>Greek type, <a href="#page73">73</a>.</p>
+      <p>Grolier Club, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Guide-lines, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>H., <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+      <p>"Half-Uncial," <a href="#page52">52</a>.</p>
+      <p>Harvard Architectural Building, lettering on, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</p>
+      <p>Hazenplug, Frank, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</p>
+      <p>Historic styles of lettering, knowledge of, <a href="#page207">207</a>.</p>
+      <p>Holbein's 'Dance of Death' initials, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</p>
+      <p>Horne, Herbert P., <a href="#page72">72</a>.</p>
+      <p>Hrachowina, C., <a href="#page188">188</a>.</p>
+      <p>Hupp, Otto, <a href="#page142">142</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>I., <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">space around, <a href="#page205">205</a>.</p>
+      <p>Illegibility of Blackletters, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</p>
+      <p>Image, Selwyn, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</p>
+      <p>Incised letters in stone, Gothic, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Classic Roman, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Granite, Inlaid, Marble, Sandstone, V-sunk and Stone-cut).</p>
+      <p>Ink, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</p>
+      <p>Inking-in lettering, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+      <p>Inlaid lettering, Gothic, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+      <p>Interlacement of Script letters, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</p>
+      <p>Inter-relation of letters, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</p>
+      <p>Iorio, Adrian J., <a href="#page107">107</a>.</p>
+      <p>Irish letters, (see Anglo-Saxon).</p>
+      <p>Italian, Blackletters, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">modern lettering, <a href="#page92">92</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Renaissance (see Renaissance);</p>
+      <p class="i2">Roman small letters, <a href="#page64">64</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">types, <a href="#page52">52</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">writing-books, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">letters, drawing of, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</p>
+      <p>Italic, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">capitals, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">drawing of, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">emphasis of, <a href="#page206">206</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>J., <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+      <p>j., <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+      <p>Jenson, Nicholas, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</p>
+      <p>Jones, A. Garth, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>K., <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+      <p>k., <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+      <p>Kerns, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+      <p>Kimball, H. Ingalls, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>L., <a href="#page104">104</a>.</p>
+      <p>Late Gothic, (see Blackletter).</p>
+      <p>Laying out, lettering, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">a border, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p>
+      <p>Le Boutillier, Addison B., <a href="#page110">110</a>.</p>
+      <p>Legibility of lettering, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page207">207</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Round Gothic, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</p>
+      <p>Letters, outlines of, <a href="#page202">202</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">widths of, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">to lay out, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">execution of in various materials, <a href="#page14">14</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Brasses, Inlaid, Marble, Granite, Pen and Printed forms, Sandstone, Type).</p>
+      <p>Lines, heavy, <a href="#page199">199</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">narrow, <a href="#page199">199</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">thin, <a href="#page200">200</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in water-color, <a href="#page200">200</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">freehand, <a href="#page202">202</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">ruled, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+      <p>Linking, of Blackletters, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Round Gothic, <a href="#page132">132</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Roman Capitals, <a href="#page45">45</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Script, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</p>
+      <p>Lowell, Orson, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>M., <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</p>
+      <p>m., <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+      <p>Marble, letters cut in, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>,</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Incised, Inlaid).</p>
+      <p>Marsuppini tomb, Florence, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</p>
+      <p>Magonigle, H. Van Buren, <a href="#page102">102</a>.</p>
+      <p>McKim, Mead &amp; White, architects, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</p>
+      <p>Medals, lettering on, <a href="#page30">30</a>.</p>
+      <p>Merrymount Press, The, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a>.</p>
+      <p>"Merrymount" type, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</p>
+      <p>Minuscule, <a href="#page1">1</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">modern Roman, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">monumental uses, <a href="#page57">57</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">composition of, <a href="#page64">64</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">growing use of, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">spacing of, <a href="#page57">57</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Script).</p>
+      <p>Modern lettering, (see under countries, American, English, French, German, Italian).</p>
+      <p>Modern Roman Capitals, <a href="#page6">6</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see Chapter II).</p>
+      <p>Modern type, (see Type).</p>
+      <p>"Montaigne" type, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>"Mont' Allegro" type, <a href="#page73">73</a>.</p>
+      <p>Moore, Guernsey, <a href="#page116">116</a>.</p>
+      <p>Morris, William, <a href="#page72">72</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">types of, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Mucha, Alphons M., <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>N., <a href="#page2">2</a>.</p>
+      <p>Netherlands, brasses from, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+      <p>New, Edmund H., <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Nicholson, William, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>O., <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</p>
+      <p>o., <a href="#page182">182</a></p>
+      <p>Optical Illusions in Roman Capitals, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+      <p>Outline letters, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>P., <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+      <p>Pantheon, Rome, Raphael's tomb, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p>
+      <p>Papers, drawing, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</p>
+      <p>Parchment, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</p>
+      <p>Parrish, Maxfield, <a href="#page110">110</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</p>
+      <p>Parsons, Alfred, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Pens, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">crowquill, <a href="#page199">199</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">reed, <a href="#page2">2</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">ruling, <a href="#page202">202</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">stub, <a href="#page200">200</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">quill, <a href="#page200">200</a>.</p>
+      <p>Pen drawn forms of letters, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+      <p>Pencils, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</p>
+      <p>Penfield, Edward, <a href="#page100">100</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</p>
+      <p>Petrarch, <a href="#page52">52</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">handwriting of, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</p>
+      <p>Pisano, Vittore, <a href="#page30">30</a>.</p>
+      <p>"Post Old Style" type, <a href="#page116">116</a>.</p>
+      <p>Presses, (see Merrymount, Vale, Riverside, Cheltenham, Dove's, and De Vinne).</p>
+      <p>Printed forms of Roman letters, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</p>
+      <p>Printers, German, <a href="#page52">52</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Italian, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">American, <a href="#page69">69</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">English, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Venetian, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</p>
+      <p>Proportions of a design, <a href="#page203">203</a>.</p>
+      <p>Puttner, Walter, <a href="#page142">142</a>.</p>
+      <p>Pyle, Howard, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Q., <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p>
+      <p>"Quadrigesimale," <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Quill pens, <a href="#page200">200</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">method of holding, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>R., <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+      <p>Railton, Herbert, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Raphael's tomb, lettering from, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p>
+      <p>Reduction of drawings, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p>
+      <p>Renaissance, letters, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page30">30</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">artists of the, <a href="#page53">53</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">lettering of the Italian, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">medals, <a href="#page30">30</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">purity of letter shapes, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Renner, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Renner type, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Reproduction of drawings, <a href="#page203">203</a>.</p>
+      <p>Ricketts, Charles, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</p>
+      <p>Riverside Press, The, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p>
+      <p>Rogers, Bruce, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</p>
+      <p>Roman Capitals, <a href="#page1">1</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Modern Roman);</p>
+      <p class="i2">thick and thin lines of, <a href="#page1">1</a>, <a href="#page6">6</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">model for, <a href="#page3">3</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">rules for, <a href="#page2">2</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">squareness of, <a href="#page1">1</a>, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">peculiarities of, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+      <p>Roman letters, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">with Italic, <a href="#page182">182</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">combined with Script and Italic, <a href="#page194">194</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">cross bars of, <a href="#page6">6</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">definition of, <a href="#page1">1</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">legibility of, <a href="#page206">206</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">waist lines of, <a href="#page6">6</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">width proportions of, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+      <p>Roman minuscules, (see Minuscule).</p>
+      <p>Roman forms, Gothic Spirit in, <a href="#page84">84</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Uncial, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</p>
+      <p>Romanesque influence on Italian lettering, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+      <p>Ross, Albert R., <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+      <p>Roty, O., <a href="#page30">30</a>.</p>
+      <p>Round Gothic, analysis of, <a href="#page131">131</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">definition of, <a href="#page131">131</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">capitals to use with, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</p>
+      <p>Round letters, capitals, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page3">3</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Minuscules, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">stone-cut, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p>
+      <p>Rubbings, from inscriptions, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page16">16</a>.</p>
+      <p>Ruling pen, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>S., <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p>
+      <p>Sandstone, letters cut in, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</p>
+      <p>Santa Croce, Florence, lettering from, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+      <p>Script, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">capitals, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">cursive tendency in, <a href="#page182">182</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">developed from writing hands, <a href="#page182">182</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">drawing of, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">French, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">German, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">on English headstones and wall tombs, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Spanish, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">used in engravings, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">used with upright Roman, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</p>
+      <p>Serifs, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page16">16</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">definition of, <a href="#page3">3</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Minuscule letters, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">in Italic letters, <a href="#page182">182</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">treatment of, <a href="#page206">206</a>.</p>
+      <p>Serlio, Sebastian, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</p>
+      <p>Shadows in V-sunk letters, <a href="#page10">10</a>, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</p>
+      <p>Shaw, Byam, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Simpson, Joseph W., <a href="#page93">93</a>.</p>
+      <p>Small letters, (see Minuscule, also Modern Roman, Gothic, Script and Italic).</p>
+      <p>Spacing, of Classic Roman letters, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Blackletters, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Minuscules, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of type, <a href="#page56">56</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of "Montaigne" type, <a href="#page69">69</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of "Cheltenham" type, <a href="#page71">71</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of letters and words, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">emphasis obtained by, <a href="#page206">206</a>.</p>
+      <p>Spanish, Script, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Roman letters, <a href="#page64">64</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">writing-books, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</p>
+      <p>Stone-cut letters, Roman, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Incised, V-sunk, Granite, Marble, Sandstone).</p>
+      <p>Sullivan, James F., <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Swash lines, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>T., <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</p>
+      <p>Tagliente, G. A., <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p>
+      <p>Thompson, Hugh, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</p>
+      <p>Tory, Geoffrey, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p>
+      <p>Townsend, Harry Everett, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</p>
+      <p>Transferring of lettering, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p>
+      <p>Type, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>.</p>
+      <p>Type-founders, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</p>
+      <p>Type models for pen lettering, use of, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Uncial letters, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Gothic, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">meta forms of, <a href="#page140">140</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">pen forms of, <a href="#page140">140</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">stone-cut, <a href="#page140">140</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">stone and marble, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</p>
+      <p>Updike, D. Berkeley, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>V., <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p>
+      <p>Vale Press, The, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</p>
+      <p>Van Rysselberghe, Theo., <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p>
+      <p>Venetian printers, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</p>
+      <p>Verneuil, M. P., <a href="#page86">86</a>.</p>
+      <p>Vinci, Leonardo da, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p>
+      <p>V-sunk Roman lettering, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page10">10</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">(see also Incised).</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>W., <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p>
+      <p>w., <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+      <p>Waist lines, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Roman letters, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>.</p>
+      <p>Westminster Abbey, England, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</p>
+      <p>Width proportions, of Roman Capital letters, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+      <p>Writing-books, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</p>
+      <p>Writing hand, <a href="#page188">188</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">of Petrarch, <a href="#page182">182</a>;</p>
+      <p class="i2">Script developed from, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>X., <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Y., <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p>
+      <p>y., <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Z., <a href="#page2">2</a>.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<p class="cenhead">BATES &amp; GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS</p>
+
+<h3>PEN DRAWING</h3>
+
+<p class="cenhead">By CHARLES D. MAGINNIS</p>
+
+  <p>An illustrated treatise, with many examples of the work of all the
+  more eminent modern pen draughtsmen. A practical text-book, which aims to
+  put the student in the most direct way of attaining successful
+  proficiency in the art of drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>"The book is very useful; all the features are good."&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">John P. Kuhl</span>, Carlstadt, N. J.</p>
+
+  <p>"I have learned a great deal in a short time from Mr. Maginnis's
+  treatise."&mdash;<span class="sc">H. E. Hunt</span>, Ambridge, Pa.</p>
+
+  <p>"I have found it a great help in pen drawing, and consider it a most
+  instructive book."&mdash;<span class="sc">Wm. E. Mevins</span>, Buffalo,
+  N. Y.</p>
+
+  <p>"Would recommend it to any one wishing to do pen drawing or to a
+  student wishing to take up the work as I did."&mdash;<span class="sc">E.
+  E. Christopher</span>, St. Louis, Mo.</p>
+
+  <p>"I find it a most delightful little book, valuable for the student, as
+  also for those desirous of gaining some insight into this
+  art."&mdash;<span class="sc">Chas. J. Fellger</span>, Philadelphia,
+  Pa.</p>
+
+  <p>"The illustrations are excellent, and the instructions clear and to
+  the point. It is a guide to the beginner and material help to the
+  experienced. I am very pleased with it."&mdash;<span class="sc">A. E.
+  Buckler</span>, Niagara Falls, N. Y.</p>
+
+  <p>"'Pen Drawing' has benefited me a great deal, as it would anybody who
+  made a proper use of it. Its many illustrations, together with their
+  descriptive text, make the book what I think it was intended for, a good
+  teacher."&mdash;<span class="sc">H. W. Bonnah</span>, Port Huron,
+  Mich.</p>
+
+  <p>"I think it a most excellent little book, well worth careful reading
+  by any artist or draughtsman. Everything seems to me clearly stated and
+  all points aptly illustrated with good examples. I do not see how it
+  could be much better for the price."&mdash;<span class="sc">S. Gifford
+  Slocum</span>, Architect, New York City</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">PRICE, POSTAGE PREPAID, $1.50</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<p class="cenhead">BATES &amp; GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">DETAILS OF</p>
+
+<h3>Building Construction</h3>
+
+<p class="cenhead">By CLARENCE A. MARTIN</p>
+
+  <p>A collection or 33 plates, 10 × 12½ inches, giving over 300 separate
+  details covering all the ordinary methods of building, and in many cases
+  showing alternative methods. The plates are models of detail drawing, and
+  the text is in the form of notes lettered on the drawings.</p>
+
+  <p>"I think it a valuable book to have near one in the
+  draughting-room."&mdash;<span class="sc">C. A. McGreen</span>, Columbus,
+  O.</p>
+
+  <p>"I have studied all the details and I have found them very profitable
+  to me."&mdash;<span class="sc">Ernest H. Downing</span>, New York
+  City</p>
+
+  <p>"This book and 'Kidder's' are two that I could hardly get along
+  without."&mdash;<span class="sc">Loren O. Kirk</span>, Minneapolis,
+  Minn.</p>
+
+  <p>"The best book of its kind on the market. It is concise, practical,
+  saves time and gives new ideas."&mdash;<span class="sc">S. R.
+  Quick</span>, Fort Collins, Col.</p>
+
+  <p>"It saves me considerable time, is twice worth the price I paid for
+  it, and also gives me endless number of new ideas."&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">John Schier</span>, Milwaukee, Wis.</p>
+
+  <p>"Has saved me time, labor and trouble. A good book for ready reference
+  in the draughting-room."&mdash;<span class="sc">A. C. Storch</span>,
+  Pittsburg, Pa.</p>
+
+  <p>"The work has proven to be very useful to me, and I do not hesitate to
+  recommend it highly, especially to students."&mdash;<span class="sc">W.
+  R. Trowbridge</span>, Altoona, Pa.</p>
+
+  <p>"During the last few years I have purchased from you at least 25 or 30
+  copies. My customers are well pleased with it."&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Thomas Henry</span>, Book Dealer, Toronto, Ont.</p>
+
+  <p>"The most practical work on the subject there is, or at least that I
+  have seen. I have never regretted the money I paid for it, and the book
+  is always near at hand."&mdash;<span class="sc">H. A. Goodspeed</span>,
+  Providence, R. I.</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">PRICE, POSTAGE PREPAID, $2.50</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+<p class="cenhead">BATES &amp; GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">ARCHITECTURAL</p>
+
+<h3>SHADES &amp; SHADOWS</h3>
+
+<p class="cenhead">By HENRY McGOODWIN</p>
+
+  <p>The purpose and usefulness of this book is twofold: it is intended,
+  first, as a practical reference hand-book for the architect's
+  office&mdash;a "dictionary," as it were, of all the shades and shadows of
+  those architectural forms and details which are used in rendering
+  drawings; and second, as a clear and accurate course of study in the
+  methods of determining shadows, for use in schools, offices, and
+  ateliers.</p>
+
+  <p>As a text-book for draughtsmen it is the clearest and most thorough
+  work that has ever been written on the subject. The study is approached
+  from the standpoint and in the language of the architect rather than of
+  the geometrician; and great pains have been taken to demonstrate every
+  problem in the simplest terms and by the simplest methods.</p>
+
+  <p>The book measures 9½ × 12½ inches, and is substantially bound in
+  cloth.</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">PRICE, EXPRESS PAID, $4.00</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" >
+
+  <p><a name="endpaper"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;">
+      <a href="images/bigendpaper.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/figendpaper.png"
+      alt="End Papers." title="End Papers." /></a>
+  </div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Letters and Lettering, by Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTERS AND LETTERING ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20590-h.htm or 20590-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/5/9/20590/
+
+Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big001.png b/20590-h/images/big001.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..251bc86
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big001.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big002.png b/20590-h/images/big002.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b8d684d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big002.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big003.png b/20590-h/images/big003.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a71cbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big003.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big004.png b/20590-h/images/big004.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d28a58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big004.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big005.jpg b/20590-h/images/big005.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7338429
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big005.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big006.jpg b/20590-h/images/big006.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2bf2527
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big006.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big007.jpg b/20590-h/images/big007.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95ad5e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big007.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big008.jpg b/20590-h/images/big008.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37c670f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big008.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big009.jpg b/20590-h/images/big009.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2df86bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big009.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big010.jpg b/20590-h/images/big010.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..375ef53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big010.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big011.png b/20590-h/images/big011.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..acad3e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big011.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big012.png b/20590-h/images/big012.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e4a93c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big012.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big013.png b/20590-h/images/big013.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5213613
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big013.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big014.png b/20590-h/images/big014.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b2b2fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big014.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big015.png b/20590-h/images/big015.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0a2486
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big015.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big016.png b/20590-h/images/big016.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..930f1e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big016.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big017.png b/20590-h/images/big017.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9618757
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big017.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big018.png b/20590-h/images/big018.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..79ec486
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big018.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big019.png b/20590-h/images/big019.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8998e01
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big019.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big020.png b/20590-h/images/big020.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9bc2cdb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big020.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big021.png b/20590-h/images/big021.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..46d5404
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big021.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big022.png b/20590-h/images/big022.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcd3bf1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big022.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big023.jpg b/20590-h/images/big023.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01701af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big023.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big024.jpg b/20590-h/images/big024.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c28b3a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big024.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big025.jpg b/20590-h/images/big025.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cf41da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big025.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big026.png b/20590-h/images/big026.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a4ad19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big026.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big027.png b/20590-h/images/big027.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f62bad4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big027.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big028.png b/20590-h/images/big028.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..782abec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big028.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big029.png b/20590-h/images/big029.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3d26fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big029.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big030.jpg b/20590-h/images/big030.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1b610d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big030.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big031.jpg b/20590-h/images/big031.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1eb8ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big031.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big032.jpg b/20590-h/images/big032.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1546db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big032.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big033.png b/20590-h/images/big033.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8555c81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big033.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big034.png b/20590-h/images/big034.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b8b4c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big034.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big035.png b/20590-h/images/big035.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8b3664
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big035.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big036.png b/20590-h/images/big036.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..205d590
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big036.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big037.png b/20590-h/images/big037.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12ee070
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big037.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big038.png b/20590-h/images/big038.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..464c7d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big038.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big039.png b/20590-h/images/big039.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56c6235
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big039.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big040.png b/20590-h/images/big040.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37fdc33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big040.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big041.png b/20590-h/images/big041.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e1860f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big041.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big042.png b/20590-h/images/big042.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b71cb8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big042.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big046.png b/20590-h/images/big046.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f1adbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big046.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big047.png b/20590-h/images/big047.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33e0ed1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big047.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big048.png b/20590-h/images/big048.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10b6416
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big048.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big049.png b/20590-h/images/big049.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d692ffe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big049.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big050.jpg b/20590-h/images/big050.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3335532
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big050.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big051.jpg b/20590-h/images/big051.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e357627
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big051.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big052.png b/20590-h/images/big052.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5ee9f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big052.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big053.png b/20590-h/images/big053.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38fe860
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big053.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big054.png b/20590-h/images/big054.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c88536
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big054.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big055.png b/20590-h/images/big055.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cd6458
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big055.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big056.png b/20590-h/images/big056.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c12ec9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big056.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big057.png b/20590-h/images/big057.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..505e275
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big057.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big058.png b/20590-h/images/big058.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e080270
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big058.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big059.png b/20590-h/images/big059.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6837a65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big059.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big061.png b/20590-h/images/big061.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db5e945
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big061.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big062.png b/20590-h/images/big062.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0123ea1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big062.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big063.png b/20590-h/images/big063.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c4af54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big063.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big064.png b/20590-h/images/big064.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d185708
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big064.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big065.png b/20590-h/images/big065.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2bfe921
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big065.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big066.png b/20590-h/images/big066.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab779fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big066.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big067.png b/20590-h/images/big067.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..685399e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big067.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big068.png b/20590-h/images/big068.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ebbdcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big068.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big069.png b/20590-h/images/big069.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88af63c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big069.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big070.png b/20590-h/images/big070.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a84853
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big070.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big071.png b/20590-h/images/big071.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..98272b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big071.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big072.png b/20590-h/images/big072.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2845da3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big072.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big073.png b/20590-h/images/big073.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a9d43a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big073.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big074.png b/20590-h/images/big074.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6963525
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big074.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big075.png b/20590-h/images/big075.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..488d86c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big075.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big076.png b/20590-h/images/big076.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b27e2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big076.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big077.jpg b/20590-h/images/big077.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c30ef5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big077.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big078.jpg b/20590-h/images/big078.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe9da2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big078.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big079.png b/20590-h/images/big079.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e583e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big079.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big080.jpg b/20590-h/images/big080.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05dd7ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big080.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big081.jpg b/20590-h/images/big081.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9bd699f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big081.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big082.png b/20590-h/images/big082.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..579b30a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big082.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big083.png b/20590-h/images/big083.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75c4651
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big083.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big084.png b/20590-h/images/big084.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93b7031
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big084.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big085.jpg b/20590-h/images/big085.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c9eac5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big085.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big086.png b/20590-h/images/big086.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f83eb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big086.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big087.jpg b/20590-h/images/big087.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6ad00d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big087.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big088.png b/20590-h/images/big088.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c834044
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big088.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big089.png b/20590-h/images/big089.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fe6978
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big089.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big090.png b/20590-h/images/big090.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c948437
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big090.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big091.jpg b/20590-h/images/big091.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e099b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big091.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big092.jpg b/20590-h/images/big092.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..66bbea2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big092.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big093.jpg b/20590-h/images/big093.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..029efe0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big093.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big094.jpg b/20590-h/images/big094.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a07616
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big094.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big095.png b/20590-h/images/big095.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..704b0e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big095.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big096.jpg b/20590-h/images/big096.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..17deee3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big096.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big097.jpg b/20590-h/images/big097.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c5639f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big097.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big098.jpg b/20590-h/images/big098.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bab8562
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big098.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big099.png b/20590-h/images/big099.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e18d1a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big099.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big100.jpg b/20590-h/images/big100.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5dce89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big100.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big101.jpg b/20590-h/images/big101.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a050ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big101.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big102.jpg b/20590-h/images/big102.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..255f6d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big102.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big103.jpg b/20590-h/images/big103.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6dd1d8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big103.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big104.png b/20590-h/images/big104.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e781d8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big104.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big105.png b/20590-h/images/big105.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06b7c75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big105.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big106.png b/20590-h/images/big106.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..acc82fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big106.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big107.png b/20590-h/images/big107.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..644063f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big107.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big110.png b/20590-h/images/big110.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e2e94c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big110.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big111.jpg b/20590-h/images/big111.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b2cb346
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big111.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big112.jpg b/20590-h/images/big112.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa2c3e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big112.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big113.png b/20590-h/images/big113.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ff9610
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big113.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big114.png b/20590-h/images/big114.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ce29e4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big114.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big115.png b/20590-h/images/big115.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cd3ed5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big115.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big116.png b/20590-h/images/big116.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..807aa6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big116.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big117.png b/20590-h/images/big117.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78f4feb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big117.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big118.png b/20590-h/images/big118.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f75bf7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big118.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big119.png b/20590-h/images/big119.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df8c2b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big119.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big123.jpg b/20590-h/images/big123.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14e7e30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big123.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big124.png b/20590-h/images/big124.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f6aa152
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big124.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big125.png b/20590-h/images/big125.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69db609
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big125.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big126.png b/20590-h/images/big126.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31e0a45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big126.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big127.jpg b/20590-h/images/big127.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8c445c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big127.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big133.png b/20590-h/images/big133.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..710d662
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big133.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big134.png b/20590-h/images/big134.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2250494
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big134.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big135.png b/20590-h/images/big135.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77a6bfc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big135.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big136.png b/20590-h/images/big136.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5759a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big136.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big137.png b/20590-h/images/big137.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41d5517
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big137.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big138.png b/20590-h/images/big138.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f6eac8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big138.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big139.png b/20590-h/images/big139.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..001f690
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big139.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big140.png b/20590-h/images/big140.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf6002a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big140.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big142.png b/20590-h/images/big142.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95a4836
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big142.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big143.png b/20590-h/images/big143.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01d5d65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big143.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big144.png b/20590-h/images/big144.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c69add7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big144.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big145.png b/20590-h/images/big145.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9410173
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big145.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big146.png b/20590-h/images/big146.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6569846
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big146.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big147.png b/20590-h/images/big147.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b67bc54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big147.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big148.jpg b/20590-h/images/big148.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4635904
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big148.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big149.jpg b/20590-h/images/big149.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aff9360
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big149.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big150.jpg b/20590-h/images/big150.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a07697d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big150.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big151.jpg b/20590-h/images/big151.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc535e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big151.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big152.jpg b/20590-h/images/big152.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0289e18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big152.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big153.jpg b/20590-h/images/big153.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e76e40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big153.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big154.png b/20590-h/images/big154.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fb6f77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big154.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big155.png b/20590-h/images/big155.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ac9954
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big155.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big156.png b/20590-h/images/big156.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb3b63a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big156.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big157.png b/20590-h/images/big157.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..86b7d11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big157.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big158.png b/20590-h/images/big158.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9eb6dd9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big158.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big159.png b/20590-h/images/big159.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14a4f2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big159.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big160.jpg b/20590-h/images/big160.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d950d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big160.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big161.png b/20590-h/images/big161.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0d06ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big161.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big162.png b/20590-h/images/big162.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5b9aba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big162.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big163.png b/20590-h/images/big163.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c41b75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big163.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big164.jpg b/20590-h/images/big164.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..160f798
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big164.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big165.jpg b/20590-h/images/big165.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bdce109
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big165.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big166.jpg b/20590-h/images/big166.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a69a157
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big166.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big167.jpg b/20590-h/images/big167.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..428793e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big167.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big168.jpg b/20590-h/images/big168.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fcc0c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big168.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big169.jpg b/20590-h/images/big169.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22f9054
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big169.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big170.png b/20590-h/images/big170.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15ca59c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big170.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big171.png b/20590-h/images/big171.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38430e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big171.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big172.png b/20590-h/images/big172.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4981b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big172.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big173.png b/20590-h/images/big173.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1dc97c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big173.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big174.png b/20590-h/images/big174.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5c6f304
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big174.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big175.png b/20590-h/images/big175.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..89df96c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big175.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big176.png b/20590-h/images/big176.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e769780
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big176.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big177.png b/20590-h/images/big177.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87353a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big177.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big178.png b/20590-h/images/big178.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22026c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big178.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big179.jpg b/20590-h/images/big179.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33c7439
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big179.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big180.png b/20590-h/images/big180.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5956ab5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big180.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big181.png b/20590-h/images/big181.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52d301b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big181.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big182.jpg b/20590-h/images/big182.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca689a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big182.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big183.png b/20590-h/images/big183.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2592c12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big183.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big184.png b/20590-h/images/big184.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2082cbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big184.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big185.png b/20590-h/images/big185.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..23c7703
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big185.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big186.png b/20590-h/images/big186.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3da8608
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big186.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big187.png b/20590-h/images/big187.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9833589
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big187.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big188.jpg b/20590-h/images/big188.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b2c4662
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big188.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big189.jpg b/20590-h/images/big189.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6441be7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big189.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big190.png b/20590-h/images/big190.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f33ef8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big190.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big191.png b/20590-h/images/big191.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..741bfbd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big191.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big192.jpg b/20590-h/images/big192.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..931e859
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big192.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big193.jpg b/20590-h/images/big193.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6890a25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big193.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big194.jpg b/20590-h/images/big194.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07bce43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big194.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big195.jpg b/20590-h/images/big195.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7597a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big195.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big196.jpg b/20590-h/images/big196.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c884715
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big196.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big199.png b/20590-h/images/big199.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d891d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big199.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big200.png b/20590-h/images/big200.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..164fc68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big200.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big201.png b/20590-h/images/big201.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad1ef72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big201.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big202.png b/20590-h/images/big202.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f71386
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big202.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big203.png b/20590-h/images/big203.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c720318
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big203.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big205.png b/20590-h/images/big205.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..251bb56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big205.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big206.png b/20590-h/images/big206.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..382d5f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big206.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big207.png b/20590-h/images/big207.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b018d51
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big207.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big208.jpg b/20590-h/images/big208.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..590e984
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big208.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/big209.jpg b/20590-h/images/big209.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4d939b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/big209.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/bigendpaper.jpg b/20590-h/images/bigendpaper.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..770cd27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/bigendpaper.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig001.png b/20590-h/images/fig001.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3327bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig001.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig002.png b/20590-h/images/fig002.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..204eead
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig002.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig003.png b/20590-h/images/fig003.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..021b298
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig003.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig004.png b/20590-h/images/fig004.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d22410
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig004.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig005.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig005.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3bae07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig005.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig006.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig006.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb26d10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig006.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig007.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig007.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ddf9eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig007.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig008.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig008.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..243334a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig008.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig009.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig009.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ea2aa6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig009.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig010.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig010.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b77f45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig010.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig011.png b/20590-h/images/fig011.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..909f5db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig011.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig012.png b/20590-h/images/fig012.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8020a59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig012.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig013.png b/20590-h/images/fig013.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58b8347
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig013.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig014.png b/20590-h/images/fig014.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..704547f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig014.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig015.png b/20590-h/images/fig015.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d39691e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig015.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig016.png b/20590-h/images/fig016.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47bd6d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig016.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig017.png b/20590-h/images/fig017.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93d2922
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig017.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig018.png b/20590-h/images/fig018.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70c1d5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig018.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig019.png b/20590-h/images/fig019.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..344ba9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig019.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig020.png b/20590-h/images/fig020.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5fedd0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig020.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig021.png b/20590-h/images/fig021.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1dcf623
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig021.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig022.png b/20590-h/images/fig022.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84ccf91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig022.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig023.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig023.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01701af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig023.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig024.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig024.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8168edb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig024.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig025.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig025.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f48a1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig025.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig026.png b/20590-h/images/fig026.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..beb86b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig026.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig027.png b/20590-h/images/fig027.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4860cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig027.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig028.png b/20590-h/images/fig028.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a806cc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig028.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig029.png b/20590-h/images/fig029.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f5cd19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig029.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig030.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig030.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..960bd8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig030.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig031.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig031.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97f7a21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig031.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig032.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig032.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d1ab09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig032.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig033.png b/20590-h/images/fig033.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..66961c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig033.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig034.png b/20590-h/images/fig034.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f4d79d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig034.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig035.png b/20590-h/images/fig035.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..603cab5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig035.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig036.png b/20590-h/images/fig036.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..65b109a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig036.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig037.png b/20590-h/images/fig037.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..edcec5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig037.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig038.png b/20590-h/images/fig038.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ce4d360
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig038.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig039.png b/20590-h/images/fig039.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11c783e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig039.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig040.png b/20590-h/images/fig040.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..096560d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig040.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig041.png b/20590-h/images/fig041.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2caee07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig041.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig042.png b/20590-h/images/fig042.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e307fb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig042.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig043.png b/20590-h/images/fig043.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2f0885
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig043.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig044.png b/20590-h/images/fig044.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b9ff28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig044.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig045.png b/20590-h/images/fig045.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cc4d10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig045.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig046.png b/20590-h/images/fig046.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd46ac3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig046.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig047.png b/20590-h/images/fig047.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3be7741
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig047.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig048.png b/20590-h/images/fig048.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc0d2c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig048.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig049.png b/20590-h/images/fig049.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4101973
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig049.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig050.png b/20590-h/images/fig050.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..390e97a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig050.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig051.png b/20590-h/images/fig051.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88708ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig051.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig052.png b/20590-h/images/fig052.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac3cb68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig052.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig053.png b/20590-h/images/fig053.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11f3cc6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig053.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig054.png b/20590-h/images/fig054.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..265b435
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig054.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig055.png b/20590-h/images/fig055.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aaa3203
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig055.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig056.png b/20590-h/images/fig056.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ade3568
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig056.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig057.png b/20590-h/images/fig057.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..847c1b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig057.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig058.png b/20590-h/images/fig058.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..558a1ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig058.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig059.png b/20590-h/images/fig059.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bce2d5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig059.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig060.png b/20590-h/images/fig060.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..164ad7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig060.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig061.png b/20590-h/images/fig061.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5760498
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig061.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig062.png b/20590-h/images/fig062.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6fbbb07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig062.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig063.png b/20590-h/images/fig063.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3dfabd2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig063.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig064.png b/20590-h/images/fig064.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56ae6e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig064.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig065.png b/20590-h/images/fig065.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b453954
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig065.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig066.png b/20590-h/images/fig066.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e57d58c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig066.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig067.png b/20590-h/images/fig067.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ecbb192
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig067.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig068.png b/20590-h/images/fig068.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9fb4a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig068.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig069.png b/20590-h/images/fig069.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82bccc6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig069.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig070.png b/20590-h/images/fig070.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca1b90e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig070.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig071.png b/20590-h/images/fig071.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36339b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig071.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig072.png b/20590-h/images/fig072.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18b8244
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig072.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig073.png b/20590-h/images/fig073.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..492ef1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig073.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig074.png b/20590-h/images/fig074.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d16f1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig074.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig075.png b/20590-h/images/fig075.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d4656fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig075.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig076.png b/20590-h/images/fig076.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd6d11a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig076.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig077.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig077.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..19fb54f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig077.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig078.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig078.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff617b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig078.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig079.png b/20590-h/images/fig079.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfdba3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig079.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig080.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig080.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76d69d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig080.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig081.png b/20590-h/images/fig081.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a406ea8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig081.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig082.png b/20590-h/images/fig082.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82f82e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig082.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig083.png b/20590-h/images/fig083.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27dd602
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig083.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig084.png b/20590-h/images/fig084.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e32ea23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig084.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig085.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig085.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..583d9eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig085.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig086.png b/20590-h/images/fig086.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fca574c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig086.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig087.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig087.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..246b35b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig087.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig088.png b/20590-h/images/fig088.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e9f80c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig088.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig089.png b/20590-h/images/fig089.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..48b2d8e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig089.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig090.png b/20590-h/images/fig090.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bccc67e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig090.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig091.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig091.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b371d59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig091.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig092.png b/20590-h/images/fig092.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ecf32ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig092.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig093.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig093.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8436575
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig093.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig094.png b/20590-h/images/fig094.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a656d02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig094.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig095.png b/20590-h/images/fig095.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd3a67b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig095.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig096.png b/20590-h/images/fig096.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c63890f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig096.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig097.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig097.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..359f471
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig097.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig098.png b/20590-h/images/fig098.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..492ea14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig098.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig099.png b/20590-h/images/fig099.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5f4fe9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig099.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig100.png b/20590-h/images/fig100.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..684d1c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig100.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig101.png b/20590-h/images/fig101.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a74a5b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig101.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig102.png b/20590-h/images/fig102.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f804103
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig102.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig103.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig103.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81b2f35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig103.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig104.png b/20590-h/images/fig104.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..934b6a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig104.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig105.png b/20590-h/images/fig105.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..479c96f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig105.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig106.png b/20590-h/images/fig106.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..caa4774
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig106.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig107.png b/20590-h/images/fig107.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0486372
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig107.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig108.png b/20590-h/images/fig108.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc36b11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig108.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig109.png b/20590-h/images/fig109.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3bb4527
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig109.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig110.png b/20590-h/images/fig110.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..98b229c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig110.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig111.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig111.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4384a74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig111.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig112.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig112.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e4c25e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig112.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig113.png b/20590-h/images/fig113.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..305cd75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig113.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig114.png b/20590-h/images/fig114.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5359976
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig114.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig115.png b/20590-h/images/fig115.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a43c561
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig115.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig116.png b/20590-h/images/fig116.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c3dd83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig116.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig117.png b/20590-h/images/fig117.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5e8641
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig117.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig118.png b/20590-h/images/fig118.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cec369
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig118.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig119.png b/20590-h/images/fig119.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7d0e5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig119.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig120.png b/20590-h/images/fig120.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3cb4777
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig120.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig121.png b/20590-h/images/fig121.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..50da34a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig121.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig122.png b/20590-h/images/fig122.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f3e497
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig122.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig123.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig123.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5307718
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig123.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig124.png b/20590-h/images/fig124.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0df08bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig124.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig125.png b/20590-h/images/fig125.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e4fa585
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig125.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig126.png b/20590-h/images/fig126.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fffbb8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig126.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig127.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig127.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95cc8bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig127.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig128.png b/20590-h/images/fig128.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0eee69e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig128.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig129.png b/20590-h/images/fig129.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc426ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig129.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig130.png b/20590-h/images/fig130.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8aa03d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig130.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig131.png b/20590-h/images/fig131.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53b1e62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig131.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig132.png b/20590-h/images/fig132.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f699015
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig132.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig133.png b/20590-h/images/fig133.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..162b5b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig133.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig134.png b/20590-h/images/fig134.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62fb4f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig134.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig135.png b/20590-h/images/fig135.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56687a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig135.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig136.png b/20590-h/images/fig136.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..49ab46f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig136.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig137.png b/20590-h/images/fig137.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7dce009
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig137.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig138.png b/20590-h/images/fig138.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8f19e59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig138.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig139.png b/20590-h/images/fig139.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..509f706
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig139.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig140.png b/20590-h/images/fig140.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d15d64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig140.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig141.png b/20590-h/images/fig141.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ec5ad4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig141.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig142.png b/20590-h/images/fig142.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0312c4e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig142.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig143.png b/20590-h/images/fig143.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f5d67d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig143.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig144.png b/20590-h/images/fig144.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..628c898
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig144.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig145.png b/20590-h/images/fig145.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..569e676
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig145.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig146.png b/20590-h/images/fig146.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..74e6465
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig146.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig147.png b/20590-h/images/fig147.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45e5531
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig147.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig148.png b/20590-h/images/fig148.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a45b18b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig148.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig149.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig149.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6b9d7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig149.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig150.png b/20590-h/images/fig150.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0765804
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig150.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig151.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig151.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2a4784
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig151.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig152.png b/20590-h/images/fig152.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f987f5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig152.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig153.png b/20590-h/images/fig153.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..060f667
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig153.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig154.png b/20590-h/images/fig154.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..862e486
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig154.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig155.png b/20590-h/images/fig155.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f069dfd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig155.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig156.png b/20590-h/images/fig156.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18b3133
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig156.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig157.png b/20590-h/images/fig157.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2d51a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig157.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig158.png b/20590-h/images/fig158.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40ff641
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig158.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig159.png b/20590-h/images/fig159.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..669bd23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig159.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig160.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig160.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03d8ecb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig160.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig161.png b/20590-h/images/fig161.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ce85fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig161.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig162.png b/20590-h/images/fig162.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..018eb53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig162.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig163.png b/20590-h/images/fig163.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c3bc54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig163.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig164.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig164.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fce44e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig164.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig165.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig165.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..57e4dc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig165.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig166.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig166.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e024dd4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig166.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig167.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig167.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b4865f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig167.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig168.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig168.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53d4216
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig168.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig169.jpg b/20590-h/images/fig169.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5c2097d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig169.jpg
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig170.png b/20590-h/images/fig170.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e2b4a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig170.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig171.png b/20590-h/images/fig171.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6fa6a9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig171.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig172.png b/20590-h/images/fig172.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2b999c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig172.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig173.png b/20590-h/images/fig173.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..847c98d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig173.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig174.png b/20590-h/images/fig174.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dde9848
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig174.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig175.png b/20590-h/images/fig175.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..858fdda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig175.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig176.png b/20590-h/images/fig176.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d08035
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig176.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig177.png b/20590-h/images/fig177.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70685d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig177.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig178.png b/20590-h/images/fig178.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1e38bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig178.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig179.png b/20590-h/images/fig179.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4432583
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig179.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig180.png b/20590-h/images/fig180.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a92021c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig180.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig181.png b/20590-h/images/fig181.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef2c729
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig181.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig182.png b/20590-h/images/fig182.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0bd6d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig182.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig183.png b/20590-h/images/fig183.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..499ea5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig183.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig184.png b/20590-h/images/fig184.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a20328a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig184.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig185.png b/20590-h/images/fig185.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5241798
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig185.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig186.png b/20590-h/images/fig186.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..30b037c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig186.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig187.png b/20590-h/images/fig187.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5594b28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig187.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig188.png b/20590-h/images/fig188.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a7e933
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig188.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig189.png b/20590-h/images/fig189.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05ef331
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig189.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig190.png b/20590-h/images/fig190.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a083de0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig190.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig191.png b/20590-h/images/fig191.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6f9ce6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig191.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig192.png b/20590-h/images/fig192.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08fc859
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig192.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig193.png b/20590-h/images/fig193.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28b9e84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig193.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig194.png b/20590-h/images/fig194.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d4b437
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig194.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig195.png b/20590-h/images/fig195.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..097a5c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig195.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig196.png b/20590-h/images/fig196.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d4d043
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig196.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig197.png b/20590-h/images/fig197.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95589ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig197.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig198.png b/20590-h/images/fig198.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7220e99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig198.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig199.png b/20590-h/images/fig199.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c668dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig199.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig200.png b/20590-h/images/fig200.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..074b791
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig200.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig201.png b/20590-h/images/fig201.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7632b19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig201.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig202.png b/20590-h/images/fig202.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9419800
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig202.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig203.png b/20590-h/images/fig203.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f626d06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig203.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig204.png b/20590-h/images/fig204.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ec4848
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig204.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig205.png b/20590-h/images/fig205.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..66ee1e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig205.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig206.png b/20590-h/images/fig206.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..135d5ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig206.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig207.png b/20590-h/images/fig207.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab4a766
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig207.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig208.png b/20590-h/images/fig208.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..043d724
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig208.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig209.png b/20590-h/images/fig209.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a249df6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig209.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig210.png b/20590-h/images/fig210.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a3ef9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig210.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/fig211.png b/20590-h/images/fig211.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d302e18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/fig211.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/figendpaper.png b/20590-h/images/figendpaper.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b2f50ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/figendpaper.png
diff --git a/20590-h/images/mark.png b/20590-h/images/mark.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..57e1fb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590-h/images/mark.png
diff --git a/20590.txt b/20590.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8fff7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3470 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Letters and Lettering, by Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Letters and Lettering
+       A Treatise With 200 Examples
+
+Author: Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+Release Date: February 16, 2007 [EBook #20590]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTERS AND LETTERING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+LETTERS &
+LETTERING
+
+A TREATISE WITH 200 EXAMPLES
+
+FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BOSTON
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY
+
+MCMXXI
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Copyright, 1921, by_
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY
+
+Printed by
+PERRY & ELLIOTT CO
+LYNN BOSTON
+
+Printed in the U. S. A.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTE
+
+This book is intended for those who have felt the need of a varied
+collection of alphabets of standard forms, arranged for convenient use.
+
+The alphabets illustrated, while primarily intended to exhibit the letter
+shapes, have in most cases been so arranged as to show also how the letters
+compose into words, except in those instances where they are intended to be
+used only as initials. The application of classic and medieval letters to
+modern usages has been, as far as possible, suggested by showing modern
+designs in which similar forms are employed.
+
+In view of the practical aim of this treatise it has been deemed advisable
+to include a larger number of illustrative examples rather than to devote
+space to the historical evolution of the letter forms.
+
+To the artists, American and European, who have so kindly furnished him
+with drawings of their characteristic letters--and without whose cordial
+assistance this book would hardly have been possible--to the
+master-printers who have allowed him to show types specially designed for
+them, and to the publishers who have given him permission to borrow from
+their books and magazines, the author wishes to express his sincere
+obligations.
+
+F. C. B.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+1 AND 2 ALPHABET AFTER SEBASTIAN SERLIO (1473-1554). Reconstructed by
+Albert R. Ross.
+
+3 WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B.
+
+4 DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. For cutting in granite. Letter forms
+based upon those shown in figures 1 and 2. F. C. B.
+
+5 PHOTOGRAPH OF INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in granite from drawing shown
+in figure 4
+
+6 INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. From the Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 A.D. From
+a photograph
+
+7 MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Used for inscriptions cut in granite on
+Boston Public Library. McKim, Mead & White, Architects. Photographed from a
+cast
+
+8 ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. From fragments in marble. National Museum,
+Naples. Rubbing
+
+9 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph
+
+10 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph
+
+11 DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Showing composition. Redrawn
+from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+12 "RUSTIC" ROMAN CAPITALS. Of pen forms, but cut in stone. Redrawn from a
+rubbing. From fragment in the National Museum, Naples. F. C. B.
+
+13 ROMAN CAPITALS FROM FRAGMENTS OF INSCRIPTIONS. Showing various
+characteristic letter forms. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B.
+
+14 MODERN ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. Executed in sandstone. From the Harvard
+Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass. McKim, Mead & White, Architects
+
+15 LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1 AND 2, IN COMPOSITION. By Albert R. Ross
+
+16 and 17 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings made
+in the Forum, Rome. F. C. B.-21
+
+18 and 19 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Late period. Cut in marble. Redrawn from
+rubbings. F. C. B.
+
+20 PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION. With supplied letters. Redrawn from a
+rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+21 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. Incised in marble. Redrawn from a rubbing.
+F. C. B.
+
+22 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. In stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+23 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. Square-sunk in marble. From a
+photograph of a mortuary slab
+
+24 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. By Vittore Pisano. 15th Century. From a
+photograph
+
+25 MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. By Oscar Roty. From a photograph of the original in
+the Luxembourg, Paris
+
+26 CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B.
+
+27 SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. By Juan de Yciar. From "Arte por la qual
+se ese[=n]a a escrevir perfectamente." (Saragossa, 1550)
+
+28 RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+29 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. From an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. (Compare figure 28.) Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+30 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. From Raphael's tomb, Pantheon, Rome. From a
+photograph
+
+31 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa
+Croce, Florence, 1455. Rubbing
+
+32 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From a floor-slab in Santa
+Croce, Florence. Early 15th Century. Rubbing
+
+33 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from inscription on the Marsuppini
+Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. (Compare figure 31.) F. C. B.
+
+34 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from rubbings of inscriptions in
+Santa Croce, Florence. F. C. B.
+
+35 and 36 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera
+arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+37 and 38 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Albrecht Duerer. Adapted from
+'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, [u]n richtscheyt, in Linien,
+etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525)
+
+39 and 40 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Sebastian Serlio. (1473-1554.)
+Compare figures 1 and 2
+
+41 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Urbain Wyss. From 'Libellus valde doctus
+... scribendarum literarum genera complectens.' (Zurich, 1549)
+
+42 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. Above the door of the Badia, Florence.
+Redrawn by Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Minor Italian Palaces.' (Cutler
+Manufacturing Company, Rochester, N.Y., 1898)
+
+43 MODERN TITLE IN ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. (Compare
+figure 46.) From 'The Quest of Merlin.' (Small, Maynard & Co., Boston,
+1891)
+
+44 MODERN TITLE WITH CHARACTERISTICS OF 16TH CENTURY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By
+Walter Crane. (Compare figure 49.) From 'The Story of Don Quixote.' (John
+Lane, New York, 1900)
+
+45 TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By W. Eden Nesfield. From 'Specimens of
+Medieval Architecture.' (Day & Sons, London, 1862)
+
+46 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 6TH CENTURY. From 'The Rule of St. Benedict.'
+Bodleian Library, Oxford
+
+47 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 7TH CENTURY. From 'The Gospels of St. Cuthbert'
+
+48 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10TH CENTURY. From an Anglo-Saxon Bible
+
+49 EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th Century. From tomb of Henry VII,
+Westminster Abbey, London
+
+50 and 51 SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.
+
+52 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+53 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco
+Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+54 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+55 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco
+Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+56 ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. By J. F. Cresci. From 'Perfetto Scrittore.'
+(Rome, 1560)
+
+57 ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY LETTERS. Incised in slate. From tombstones
+
+58 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. After C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen Alphabete und
+Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883)
+
+59 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. Based on Venetian types
+cut by Nicholas Jenson, 1471-81
+
+60 INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY TOMBSTONE. From slate tombstone at
+Chippenham, England. 1691. F. C. B.
+
+61 ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. Designed by William Caslon. From his Specimen
+Book. (London, 1734)
+
+62 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MONTAIGNE." Designed by Bruce Rogers for The
+Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass.
+
+63 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "RENNER." Designed by Theo. L. De Vinne for The De
+Vinne Press, New York
+
+64 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MERRYMOUNT." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The
+Merrymount Press, Boston, Mass.
+
+65 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE." Designed by Bertram G.
+Goodhue for The Cheltenham Press, New York. (Owned by American Type
+Founders Company and Linotype Company)
+
+66 MODERN GREEK TYPE. Designed by Selwyn Image for The Macmillan Company,
+London
+
+67 MODERN ROMAN TYPE. Designed by C. R. Ashbee for a Prayerbook for the
+King of England
+
+68 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by J. M. Olbrich
+
+69 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Gustave Lemmen. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+70 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Alois Ludwig
+
+71 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Otto Eckmann
+
+72 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Otto Hupp. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+73 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Joseph Plecnik. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+74 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Franz Stuck
+
+75 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. Arranged from originals. F. C. B.
+
+76 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Bernhard Pankok
+
+77 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Libre Esthetique.' By Theo. van Rysselberghe
+
+78 MODERN FRENCH BOOK-COVER. By M. P. Verneuil. From 'L'Animal dans la
+decoration.' (E. Levy, Paris)
+
+79 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. After lettering by M. P. Verneuil
+
+80 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Revue Blanche.' By P. Bonnard
+
+81 MODERN FRENCH MAGAZINE COVER DESIGN. By George Auriol. From 'L'Image.'
+(Floury, Paris, 1897)
+
+82 MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. By Alphons M. Mucha. From 'Beispiele
+Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+83 MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE IN "CURSIVE." By George Auriol. From 'Le
+Premier Livre des Cachets, etc.' (Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris,
+1901)
+
+84 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS, "CURSIVE." By George Auriol
+
+85 MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. By Eugene Grasset. From 'Art et Decoration.'
+(Paris)
+
+86 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+87 MODERN ENGLISH THEATRICAL POSTER. By Walter Crane
+
+88 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Alphabets Old and New.'
+(B. T. Batsford, London, 1899)
+
+89 MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunsterischer
+Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)
+
+90 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Joseph W. Simpson. From 'The Book of
+Book-plates.' (Williams & Norgate, Edinburgh)
+
+91 MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. By Joseph W. Simpson
+
+92 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By William Nicholson. From 'London Types.'
+(R. H. Russell, New York, 1898)
+
+93 MODERN ENGLISH MAGAZINE COVER. By Lewis F. Day. From 'The Art Journal.'
+(H. Virtue & Co., London)
+
+94 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Gordon Craig. From 'The Page' (The Sign of the
+Rose, Hackbridge, Surrey)
+
+95 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Lewis F. Day. From 'Alphabets Old and New.'
+(B. T. Batsford, London, 1899)
+
+96 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE PAGE. By Robert Anning Bell. From 'Poems by John
+Keats.' (George Bell & Sons, London, 1897)
+
+97 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Edmund H. New. From 'The Natural History
+of Selborne.' (John Lane, London, 1900)
+
+98 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Selwyn Image. From 'Representative
+Painters of the 19th Century.' (Sampson, Low, Marston & Co., London, 1899)
+
+99 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. Anonymous. From an advertisement
+
+100 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Charles Ricketts. From 'Nimphidia and the
+Muses Elizium.' (The Vale Press, London)
+
+101 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Selections from the
+Poetry of Robert Herrick.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899)
+
+102 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)
+
+103 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's
+Weekly.' (New York)
+
+104 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Edward Penfield
+
+105 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Edward Penfield
+
+106 MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. By H. Van Buren Magonigle
+
+107 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. Van Buren Magonigle
+
+108 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Masters in Art.'
+(Boston, 1900)
+
+109 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Will Bradley. From 'The Book List of Dodd,
+Mead & Co.' (New York, 1899)
+
+110 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. By Will Bradley. From
+'Bradley, His Book.' (The Wayside Press, Springfield, Mass., 1896)
+
+111 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Will Bradley. From 'The
+International Studio.' (New York)
+
+112 MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. By A. J. Iorio
+
+113 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Will Bradley
+
+114 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Maxfield Parrish
+
+115 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Maxfield Parrish. From 'Knickerbocker's
+History of New York.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1900)
+
+116 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+117 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+118 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+119 MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. By Addison B. Le Boutillier
+
+120 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+121 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Literature.'
+(New York)
+
+122 MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEADING. By Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+123 MODERN AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT. By H. L. Bridwell. (Strowbridge
+Lithographic Co., Cincinnati)
+
+124 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. L. Bridwell
+
+125 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Frank Hazenplug
+
+126 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS, "HEAVY FACE." By Frank Hazenplug
+
+127 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From ''Ickery Ann and
+other Girls and Boys.' (Herbert S. Stone & Co., Chicago, 1899)
+
+128 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edward Edwards. From 'Harper's Pictorial
+History of the War with Spain.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899)
+
+129 MODERN AMERICAN CATALOGUE COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From the Catalogue
+of the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society. (Chicago)
+
+130 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Guernsey Moore. From 'The Saturday Evening
+Post.' (Philadelphia)
+
+131 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Harry Everett Townsend. From 'The Blue Sky.'
+(Langworthy & Stevens, Chicago, 1901)
+
+132 MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. By Howard Pyle. From 'Harper's Magazine.' (New
+York)
+
+133 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. Compiled from various sources. F. C. B.
+
+134 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Orson Lowell
+
+135 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.
+
+136 MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)
+
+137 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)
+
+138 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. For rapid use. F. C. B.
+
+139 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC. For use in lettering architects' plans, etc. By
+Claude Fayette Bragdon
+
+140 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, "CURSIVE." For rapid use. By Maxfield Parrish
+
+141 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. After Lucantonii Giunta. Redrawn
+from 'Graduale Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae.' (Venice, 1500)
+
+142 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th Century. Redrawn from Italian
+originals
+
+143 SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de
+Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577)
+
+144 GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. By Albrecht Duerer. From 'Underweyssung
+der messung, mit dem zirckel, [=u]n richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.'
+(Nuremberg, 1525)
+
+145 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. Redrawn from manuscripts
+
+146 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With rounded angles. Redrawn from manuscripts
+
+147 ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. By Jacopus Philippus Foresti
+(Bergomensis). From 'De Claris Mulieribus, etc.' (Ferrara, 1497)
+
+148 GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. By Albrecht Duerer. From the Prayerbook
+designed by him for the Emperor Maximilian. (Nuremberg, 1515)
+
+149 GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS WITH BLACKLETTER INSCRIPTION. Ascribed to
+Albrecht Duerer. Cathedral of Meissen, 1510. From 'Fac-similes of Monumental
+Brasses on the Continent of Europe.' (W. F. Creeney, Norwich, 1884)
+
+150 MODERN AMERICAN CALENDAR COVER IN BLACKLETTER. By Bertram G. Goodhue.
+From 'Every Day's Date Calendar.' (Fleming, Schiller & Carnrick, New York,
+1897)
+
+151 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. By Walter Puttner. From 'Jugend.' (Munich)
+
+152 MODERN GERMAN TITLE IN BLACKLETTER. By Otto Hupp. From 'Muenchener
+Kalendar.' (Munich, 1900)
+
+153 MODERN AMERICAN PAGE IN ENGLISH BLACKLETTER. By Edwin A. Abbey. From
+'Scribner's Magazine.' (New York)
+
+154 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 12th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+155 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 13th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+156 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. Redrawn from 14th Century examples. F. C. B.
+
+157 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After J. Weale. Redrawn from
+'Portfolio of Ancient Capital Letters.' (London, 1838-9)
+
+158 ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS, IN THE "PAPAL" HAND. From a Florentine
+manuscript of 1315. British Museum, London. F. C. B.
+
+159 SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Juan de Yciar. Adapted from 'Arte
+por la qual se ese[=n]a escrevir perfectamente.' (Saragossa, 1550)
+
+160 VENETIAN WALL PANEL, of Marble, Inscribed with Uncial Gothic Letters.
+15th Century. From the Church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. Rubbing
+
+161 VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15th Century. Redrawn from the rubbing shown
+in figure 160. F. C. B.
+
+162 GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS. 1341. Redrawn from a memorial brass in the
+Cathedral of Luebeck
+
+163 FRENCH AND SPANISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After W. S.
+Weatherley
+
+164 and 165 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. After G. A. Tagliente, in 'La vera
+arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+166 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By Giovanni Battista Palatino. From 'Libro nel
+qual s'insegna a scrivere.' (Rome, 1548)
+
+167, 168 and 169 GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By P. Frank. Nuremberg, 1601. From
+Petzendorfer's 'Schriften-Atlas.' (Stuttgart, 1889)
+
+170 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples
+
+171 GOTHIC CAPITALS OF ENGLISH FORM. 16th Century. Redrawn from old
+examples
+
+172 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various examples
+
+173 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various manuscripts
+
+174 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts
+
+175 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts
+
+176 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS, HEAVY FACED
+
+177 ENGLISH GOTHIC "TEXT," INITIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From
+manuscripts
+
+178 ENGLISH GOTHIC UNCIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From Queen
+Eleanor's tomb. F. C. B.
+
+179 ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From tomb of
+Richard II, Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B.
+
+180 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. From a brass. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+181 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With Albrecht Duerer's initials. 16th Century.
+F. C. B.
+
+182 ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello
+eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)
+
+183 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Duerer. 16th Century
+
+184 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Duerer. 16th Century
+
+185 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Albrecht Duerer. 16th Century
+
+186 ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. Late 15th Century. Redrawn from a brass.
+F. C. B.
+
+187 ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. From a marble slab in Santa Croce,
+Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.
+
+188 and 189 MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS WITH GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Bertram
+G. Goodhue
+
+190 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Julius Diez
+
+191 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B.
+
+192 GERMAN ITALIC. By Gottlieb Muench. From 'Ordnung der Schrift.' (Munich,
+1744)
+
+193 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid,
+1802)
+
+194 SPANISH SCRIPTS. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid,
+1802)
+
+195 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.'
+(Madrid, 1577)
+
+196 SPANISH CURSIVE. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.'
+(Madrid, 1577)
+
+197 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From an
+advertisement
+
+198 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By George Wharton Edwards. From
+'Collier's Weekly.' (New York)
+
+199 FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th Century. F. C. B.
+
+200 GERMAN SCRIPT. 18th Century forms. Adapted from C. Hrachowina's
+'Initialen, Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna,
+1883)
+
+201 SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. Early 18th Century. Adapted from a Spanish
+Writing-book. F. C. B.
+
+202 SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. Late 17th Century. Adapted from Spanish
+Writing-books. F. C. B.
+
+203 ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. Redrawn from inscriptions in slate and stone in
+Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B.
+
+204 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT BOOK TITLE. By Bruce Rogers. From cover design
+of 'The House of the Seven Gables.' (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1899)
+
+205 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. By Bruce Rogers
+
+206 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT CAPITALS. After lettering by Frank Hazenplug
+
+207 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B.
+
+208 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New
+York)
+
+209 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's
+Weekly.' (New York)
+
+210 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from upper left corner
+
+211 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from perpendicular center
+line
+
+END PAPERS. From an embroidered Altar-cloth. 17th Century. Church of St.
+Mary, Soest, Westphalia, Germany.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  I. ROMAN CAPITALS                          1
+  II. MODERN ROMAN LETTERS                   52
+  III. GOTHIC LETTERS                        127
+  IV. ITALIC AND SCRIPT                      182
+  V. TO THE BEGINNER                         199
+
+[1]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ROMAN CAPITALS
+
+In speaking of the "Roman" letter throughout this chapter its capital
+form--the form in monumental use among the Romans--will always be implied.
+The small or "minuscule" letters, which present nomenclature includes under
+the general title of "Roman" letters, and which will be considered in the
+following chapter, were of later formation than the capitals; and indeed
+only attained their definitive and modern form after the invention of
+printing from movable types.
+
+The first point to be observed in regard to the general form of the Roman
+capital is its characteristic squareness. Although the letter as used
+to-day varies somewhat in proportions from its classic prototype, its
+skeleton is still based on the square.
+
+Next to this typical squareness of outline, the observer should note that
+the Roman letter is composed of thick and thin lines. At first sight it may
+seem that no systematic rules determine which of these lines should be
+thick and which thin; but closer investigation will discover that the
+alternate widths of line were evolved quite methodically, and that they
+exactly fulfil the functions of making the letters both more legible and
+more decorative. Arbitrary rearrangements of these thick and thin lines,
+differing from the arrangement of them in the classic examples, have, [2]
+indeed, been often attempted; but such rearrangements have never resulted
+in improvement, and, except in eccentric lettering, have fallen into
+complete disuse.
+
+The original thickening and thinning of the lines of the classic Roman
+capitals was partly due to the imitation in stone inscriptions of the
+letter forms as they were written on parchment with the pen. The early
+Latin scribes held their stiff-nibbed reed pens almost directly upright and
+at right angles to the writing surface, so that a down stroke from left to
+right and slanted at an angle of about forty-five degrees would bring the
+nib across the surface broadwise, resulting in the widest line possible to
+the pen. On the other hand, a stroke drawn at right angles to this, the pen
+being still held upright, would be made with the thin edge of the nib, and
+would result in the narrowest possible line. From this method of handling
+the pen the variations of line width in the standard Roman forms arose; and
+we may therefore deduce three logical rules, based upon pen use, which will
+determine the proper distribution of the thick and thin lines:
+
+I, Never accent horizontal lines. II, Always accent the sloping down
+strokes which run from left to right, including the so-called "swash"
+lines, or flying tails, of Q and R; but never weight those which,
+contrariwise, slope up from left to right, with a single exception in the
+case of the letter Z, in which, if rule I be followed, the sloping line (in
+this case made with a down stroke) will be the only one possible to accent.
+III, Always accent the directly perpendicular lines, except in the N, where
+these lines seem originally to have been made with an up stroke of the pen;
+and the first line of the M, where the perpendiculars originally sloped in
+towards the top of the letter (see 2). On the round letters [3] the accents
+should occur at the sides of the circle, as virtually provided in rule III,
+or on the upper right and lower left quarters (see 1-2), where in pen-drawn
+letters the accent of the down sloping stroke would naturally occur, as
+virtually determined in rule II.
+
+The "serif"--a cross-stroke or tick--finishes the free ends of all lines
+used in making a Roman capital. The value of the serif in stone-cut letters
+seems obvious. To define the end of a free line a sharp cut was made across
+it with the chisel, and as the chisel was usually wider than the thin line
+this cut extended beyond it. Serifs were added to the ends of the thick
+lines either for the sake of uniformity, or may have been suggested by the
+chisel-marked guide lines themselves. Indeed in late stone-cut Roman work
+the scratched guide lines along the top and bottom of each line of the
+inscription are distinctly marked and merge into the serifs, which extend
+farther than in earlier examples. The serif was adopted in pen letters
+probably from the same reasons that caused it to be added to the stone-cut
+letters, namely, that it definitely finished the free lines and enhanced
+the general squareness and finish of the letter's aspect.
+
+[Illustration: 1. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 2. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 3. WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F.C.B.]
+
+An excellent model for constructing the Roman capitals in a standard form
+will be found in the beautiful adaptation by Mr. A. R. Ross, 1 and 2, from
+an alphabet of capitals drawn by Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect,
+engraver and painter of the sixteenth century, who devised some of the most
+refined variants of the classic Roman letter. Serlio's original forms,
+which are shown in 39 and 40, were intended for pen or printed use; but in
+altering Serlio's scheme of proportions it will be observed that Mr. Ross
+[6] has partially adapted the letter for use in stone, and has further
+varied it in details, notably in serif treatment. In most modern stone-cut
+letters, however, the thin strokes would be made even wider than in this
+example, as in 14. Mr. Ross's adaptation shows excellently how far the
+classic letters do or do not fill out the theoretical square.
+
+Width proportions, which may be found useful in laying out lettering for
+lines of a given length, are shown in 3 in a more modern style of the Roman
+capital. In the classic Roman letter the cross-bar is usually in the exact
+center of the letter height, but in 3 the center line has been used as the
+bottom of the cross-bar in B, E, H, P, and R, and as the top of the
+cross-bar in A; and in letters like K, Y and X the "waist lines," as the
+meeting points of the sloping lines are sometimes called, have been
+slightly raised to obtain a more pleasant effect.
+
+The Roman alphabet, although the one most in use, is unfortunately the most
+difficult to compose into words artistically, as the spacing between the
+letters plays a great share in the result. The effect of even color over a
+whole panel is obtained by keeping as nearly as possible the same area of
+white between each letter and its neighbor; but the shape of this area will
+be determined in every case by the letters which happen to be juxtaposed.
+Individual letters may, however, be widened or condensed to help fill an
+awkward "hole" in a line of lettering;--the lower lobe of the B may be
+extended, the center bar of the E pulled out (in which case the F should be
+made to correspond), the lower slant stroke of the K may be used as a swash
+tail, and the R may have its tail extended or drawn closely back against
+the upright line, and so on. Indeed, each and [8] every letter of the
+alphabet is susceptible to such similar modifications in shape as may make
+it best suit the space left for it by its neighbors. Observe, for example,
+the spacing of the word MERITAE in 34, and notice how the tail of the R is
+lengthened to hold off the I because the T on the other side is perforce
+held away by its top. In the page of capitals, 124, by Mr. Bridwell, see
+also how the different spacing of the word FRENCH in the first and second
+lines is managed. In the advertisement, 123, also by Mr. Bridwell, note how
+the letters are spaced close or wide in order to produce a definite effect.
+The whole problem of spacing is, however, one of such subtle interrelation
+and composition, that it can only be satisfactorily solved by the artistic
+sense of the designer. Any rules which might be here formulated would prove
+more often a drawback than a help.
+
+Certain optical illusions of some of the Roman letter forms should be
+briefly mentioned. These illusions are caused by the failure of certain
+letters to impinge squarely with determining serifs against the demarking
+top and bottom guide lines. The round letters C, G, O and Q often seem to
+be shorter and smaller than the other characters in a word unless the
+outsides of their curves run both above and below the guide lines. For the
+same reason S should be sometimes slightly increased in height, though in
+this case the narrowness of the letter makes less increase necessary; and
+J, on account of its kern, is governed by the same conditions as S, save
+when letters with distinct serifs come closely against it at the bottom.
+Theoretically the right side of D would require similar treatment, but
+actually this is seldom found necessary. The pointed ends of [9] the
+letters V and W should, for similar optical reasons, be extended slightly
+below the bottom guide lines, the amount of this extension being determined
+by the letters on each side of them. In the A, the Roman letterer at first
+got over the optical difficulty caused by its pointed top by running this
+letter also higher than its neighbors; but he later solved the problem by
+shaping its apex as shown in I, thus apparently getting the letter into
+line with its companions while still obtaining a sufficient width of top to
+satisfy the eye. Because of its narrowness, I should generally be allowed
+more proportionate white space on either side of it than the wider letters.
+
+Some idea of the proportionate variations required to counteract the
+optical illusions of the letters above named may be obtained from the
+practice of type-founders. In making the designs for a fount of type, it
+has been customary to first draw each letter at a very large size. Taking
+an arbitrary height of twelve inches as a standard, the points of A and V
+were made to extend about three-quarters of an inch above or below the
+guides, the letter O was run over about half an inch at both top and
+bottom, and the points of the w were made to project about the same
+distance. In pen lettering, however, it is possible and preferable to adapt
+each letter more perfectly to its individual surroundings by judgment of
+the eye than to rely upon any hard and fast rules.
+
+Certain variations between the stone-cut forms of the Roman letters and
+their forms as drawn or printed should be understood before an intelligent
+adaptation of stone forms to drawn forms, or the opposite, is possible.
+When drawn or printed a character is seen in black against a [10] white
+ground with no illusory alterations of its line widths caused by varying
+shadows. In stone-cut letters, on the other hand, where the shadows rather
+than the outlines themselves reveal the forms, different limitations govern
+the problem. The thin lines of a letter to be V-sunk should generally be
+made slightly thicker in proportion to the wide lines than is the case with
+the pen-drawn letter, especially as the section is likely to be less deeply
+and sharply cut nowadays than in the ancient examples, for the workmanship
+of to-day seems to be less perfect and the materials used more friable. A
+slight direct sinkage before beginning to cut the V-sunk section is a
+useful method of [11] partially atoning for modern shallow cutting, as
+shadows more directly defining the outlines are thus obtained. The student
+should, however, be warned at the outset that all reproductions or tracings
+from rubbings of ancient stone-cut letters are apt to be more or less
+deceptive, as all the accidental variations of the outlines are
+exaggerated, and where the stone of the original has been chipped or worn
+away it appears in the reproduction as though the letter had been actually
+so cut.
+
+[Illustration: 4. DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN GRANITE. F.C.B]
+
+[Illustration: 5. PHOTOGRAPH FROM INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS SHOWN IN 4]
+
+[Illustration: 6. INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME]
+
+The photograph of a panel of lettering from the upper part of the Arch of
+Constantine, Rome, shown in 6, well indicates the effect of shadows in
+defining the classic Roman letters; and the effect of shadows on an incised
+letter may be clearly observed by comparing 4 and 5, the former showing a
+drawing for an inscription in which the Serlio-Ross [14] alphabet was used
+as a basis for the letter forms, and the latter being a photograph of the
+same inscription, as cut in granite. It will be noted how much narrower the
+thin lines appear when defined only by shadow than in the drawing. The
+model used for the lettering on the frieze of the Boston Public Library, 7,
+which shows some interesting modern forms intended for cutting in granite,
+should be studied for the effect of the cast shadows; while 14, a redrawing
+of inscriptions on the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass.,
+exhibits an excellent type of letter with widened thin lines for v-cutting
+in sandstone.
+
+[Illustration: 7. MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. McKIM, MEAD & WHITE]
+
+[Illustration: 8. ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. FROM A RUBBING]
+
+The special requirements of the stone-cut forms for either incised or
+raised inscriptions are, however, quite apart from the subject of this
+book, and are too various to be taken up in greater detail here. It is
+important, nevertheless, that the designer should be reminded always to
+make allowance for the material in which a letter was originally executed.
+Otherwise, if exactly copied in other materials, he may find the result
+annoyingly unsatisfactory.
+
+[15]
+
+[Illustration: 9. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA]
+
+[Illustration: 10. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA]
+
+The examples of letters taken from Roman and Renaissance Italian monuments,
+shown in the pages of this chapter, will illustrate the variety of
+individual letter forms used by the Classic and Renaissance designers. The
+shape of the same letter will often be found to vary in the same
+inscription and even in apparently analogous cases. The designers evidently
+had in mind more than the directly adjacent words, and sometimes even
+considered [16] the relation of their lettering to objects outside the
+panel altogether. This is especially true in the work of the Italian
+Renaissance, which is almost invariably admirable in both composition and
+arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: 11. DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 12. ROMAN CAPITALS OF PEN FORMS CUT IN STONE. F.C.B.]
+
+Figures 8 to 22 show examples, drawn from various sources, which exhibit
+different treatments of the classic Roman letter forms. The differentiation
+will be found to lie largely in the widths of the letters themselves, and
+in the treatment of the serifs, angles, and varying widths of line. Figures
+11 to 13 and 16 to 22 are redrawn from rubbings [17] of Roman incised
+inscriptions. Figures 16 and 17 show beautifully proportioned letters cut
+in marble with unusual care and refinement, considering the large size of
+the originals. A later Roman form of less refinement but of greater
+strength and carrying power, and for that reason better adapted to many
+modern uses, is shown in 18 and 19. In this case the original letters were
+cut about seven and [27] one-half inches high. The letters in 20 are
+curiously modern in character. Part of the panel of Roman lettering shown
+in 21 exhibits the use of a form very like that shown in 18 and 19. Figure
+11 shows a detail composed in a quite representative fashion; while on the
+other hand figure 12 depicts a Roman letter of quite unusual character, and
+of a form evidently adapted from pen work, in which the shapes are narrow
+and crowded, while the lines are thickened as though they were of the
+classical square outline. The bits of old Roman inscriptions shown in 8 to
+10 and in 13 are included to exhibit various different forms and treatments
+of classic capitals.
+
+[Illustration: 13. ROMAN CAPITALS FROM INSCRIPTIONS. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 14. MODERN INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN SANDSTONE.
+ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1-2, IN COMPOSITION. ALBERT R.
+ROSS]
+
+[Illustration: 16. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 18. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 19. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 20. PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION WITH SUPPLIED LETTERS.
+F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 21. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE FROM A RUBBING.
+F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 22. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN STONE FROM A RUBBING.
+F.C.B.]
+
+After the fall of Rome and during the Dark Ages the practice of lettering,
+at least in so far as the Roman form was concerned, was distinctly
+retrograde. With the advent of the Renaissance, however, the purest classic
+forms were revived; and indeed the Italian Renaissance seems to have been
+the golden age of lettering. With the old Roman fragments of the best
+period constantly before their eyes the Renaissance artists of Italy seem
+to have grasped the true spirit of classicism; and their work somehow
+acquired a refinement and delicacy lacking in even the best of the Roman
+examples. As much of the Italian Renaissance lettering was intended for use
+on tombs or monuments where it might be seen at close range, and was cut in
+fine marble, the increased refinement may be due, at least in part, to
+different conditions.
+
+[Illustration: 23. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE.]
+
+[Illustration: 24. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. PISANO.]
+
+[Illustration: 25. MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. O ROTY.]
+
+The panel from Raphael's tomb in the Pantheon, Rome, 30, shows a beautiful
+and pure form of typical Renaissance letter; and the composition of the
+panel is as well worthy [28] of careful study as are the letter forms.
+Figure 34, devised from a tomb in Santa Croce, portrays a letter not only
+beautiful in itself, but one which, with two minor changes (for the top bar
+of the T might advantageously be shortened to allow its neighbors to set
+closer, and the M might be finished at the top with a serif, after the
+usual fashion), is exactly applicable to the purposes of the modern
+draughtsman. This type of letter appears to best advantage when used in
+such panel forms as those shown in the rubbing from the Marsuppini tomb,
+31, and in the floor slab from the same church, 32. Two very refined
+examples, 28 and 29, also from slabs in Santa Croce, Florence, date from
+about the same period. The latter exhibits the alphabet itself, and the
+former shows a similar letter form as actually used. The letters in 33,
+redrawn from rubbings from the Marsuppini tomb, are shown for comparison
+with the rubbing itself, which is reproduced in smaller size in 31. Taken
+together, plates 30, 31 and 32 will fairly represent not only the usual
+fashion of composing Renaissance panels, but capital forms which illustrate
+some of the most excellent work of this period.
+
+[30]
+
+A very different and interesting type of letter was used on many of the
+best medals of the Italian Renaissance (see 24), which has been recently
+adapted and employed by modern medal designers in France, as exhibited in
+figure 25. Although absolutely plain, it is, when properly composed, much
+more effective in the service for which it was intended than a more
+elaborate and fussy form; and although sometimes adapted with good results
+to other uses, it is particularly appropriate for casting in metal. Similar
+forms rendered in pen and ink are shown in 26.
+
+[Illustration: 26. CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 27. SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. JUAN De YCIAR, 1550]
+
+[Illustration: 28. RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 29. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SANTA CROCE. F. C. B.]
+
+Figures 27, and 35 to 41 show various pen or printed forms of capital
+letters redrawn from the handiwork of Renaissance masters. The capital
+letters shown in 27 are unusually beautiful, and their purity of form is
+well [31] displayed in the outline treatment. Perhaps the best known
+standard example of a Renaissance pen-drawn letter is that by Tagliente,
+reproduced in 35 and 36. In spite of their familiarity it has seemed
+impossible to omit the set of capitals, with variants, by Albrecht Duerer,
+37 and 38; for Duerer's letters were taken as a basis by nearly all such
+Renaissance designers of lettering as Geoffrey Tory, Leonardo da Vinci,
+etc. It should be observed in the Duerer [32] alphabet that among the
+variant forms of individual letters shown, one is usually intended for
+monumental use, while another exhibits pen treatment in the characteristic
+swelling of the round letters, etc.
+
+[Illustration: 30. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL FROM RAPHAEL'S TOMB. PANTHEON
+ROME.]
+
+[Illustration: 31. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. MARSUPPINI TOMB,
+FLORENCE.]
+
+[Illustration: 32. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION FLOOR SLAB IN SANTA
+CROCE, FLORENCE.]
+
+Serlio's alphabet, 39 and 40, should be compared with Mr. Ross's
+modification of it, reproduced in 1 and 2. The alphabet shown in 41 is a
+somewhat expanded form of classic capital, contrasting markedly in various
+respects with more typical forms.
+
+[Illustration: 33. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. MARSUPPINI TOMB. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 34. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS FROM RUBBINGS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 35. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524]
+
+[Illustration: 36. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524]
+
+[Illustration: 37. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 1525]
+
+[Illustration: 38. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 1525]
+
+[Illustration: 39. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 40. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 41. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. URBAIN WYSS, 16th CENTURY.]
+
+[45]
+
+A practically unlimited number of other examples might have been included
+to show various capital forms of Renaissance letters; but the specimens
+chosen will adequately illustrate all the more distinctive and refined
+types of the individual letters.
+
+[Illustration: 42. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL, FLORENCE. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+Before, during and after the Renaissance movement many local and extraneous
+influences temporarily modified the forms of the Roman letters. There are,
+for instance, numerous examples of lettering in which Byzantine and
+Romanesque traits are strongly apparent, such as the free manipulation of
+the letter forms in order to make them fit into given lines and spaces. The
+drawing of the panel over the doorway of the Badia, Florence, 42, notable
+for the characteristic placing and composition of the letters, will serve
+as a case in point. This example is further interesting because it shows
+how the Uncial form of the letter was beginning to react and find a use in
+stone--a state of affairs which at first glance might seem anomalous, for
+the Uncial letter was distinctly a pen-drawn form; but it was discovered
+that its rounder forms made it particularly useful for inscribing stones
+which were likely to chip or sliver, in carving which it was consequently
+desirable to avoid too acute angles. The Roman letter underwent various
+salient modifications [46] at the hands of the scribes of extra-Italian
+nations. We find very crude variants of the Roman letter, dating hundreds
+of years after the Roman form had reached its highest development; and, on
+the other hand, some very beautiful and individual national variants were
+produced. The continual interchange of manuscripts among the nations on the
+continent of Europe probably explains the more conventional character and
+strong general resemblance of most of the early Continental work; but the
+scribes of insular England, less influenced by contemporary progress and
+examples, produced forms of greater individuality (see 46, 47, 48). In
+Ireland, letter forms originally derived from early Roman models were
+developed through many decades with no ulterior influences, and resulted in
+some wonderfully distinctive and beautiful variations of the Roman letters,
+[47] though the beauty of these Irish examples can only be faintly
+suggested by reproductions limited to black and white, and without the
+decorations of the originals.
+
+[Illustration: 43. MODERN TITLE (compare 46). B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 44. MODERN TITLE (compare 49). WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 45. TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. W. E. NESFIELD]
+
+Figures 43 and 44 illustrate, respectively, modern employments of such
+strongly characteristic letters as those shown in 46 and 49. From these
+ancient examples the designers have evolved letters suitable to the
+character of their work. In 44 Mr. Crane has engrafted upon a form quite
+personal to himself a characteristic detail of treatment borrowed from the
+letter shown in 49. Figure 45 shows a similar and modernized employment of
+a standard form of Uncial capital.
+
+[Illustration: 46. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 6th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 47. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 7th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 48. ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 49. EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th CENTURY]
+
+[52]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+MODERN ROMAN LETTERS
+
+The small or "minuscule" letter that we now use in all printed books
+attained its modern and definitive form only after the invention of
+printing. The first printed books were made to imitate, as closely as
+possible, the handwritten work of the scribes of the early fifteenth
+century, and as printing was first done in Germany, the earliest book types
+were those modeled upon German scripts, somewhat similar to that shown in
+141, and their condensed or blackletter variants. The Italian printers, of
+a more classical taste, found the German types somewhat black and clumsy;
+for though Gothic characters were also used in Italy, they had become
+lighter and more refined there. The Italians, therefore, evolved a new form
+of type letter, based upon the _Italian_ pen letters then in use, which
+though fundamentally Gothic in form had been refined by amalgamation with
+an earlier letter known as the "Caroline", from its origin under the
+direction of Charlemagne. The "Caroline" was in its turn an imitation of
+the Roman "Half-uncial." The close relationship of the first small type
+letter forms in Italy with the current writing hand of the best Italian
+scribes is well indicated by the legend that the "Italic," or sloped small
+letter, was taken directly from the handwriting of Petrarch. The new
+Italian types, in which classic capitals were combined with the newly
+evolved minuscule [53] letters, were called "Roman" from the city of their
+origin, and sprang into almost immediate popularity, spreading from Italy
+into England, France and Spain. In Germany, on the other hand, the national
+blackletter form persisted, and is still in use to-day.
+
+The minuscule "Roman" letters thus evolved were developed to their most
+perfect individual forms by the master-printers of Venice; and it is to the
+models which they produced that we must revert to-day when we attempt to
+devise or reproduce an elegant small letter of any conservative form. The
+modern pen draughtsman should bear in mind, however, that, perfect as such
+forms of letters may be for the uses of the printer, the limitations of
+type have necessarily curtailed the freedom and variety of their serif and
+swash lines, and that therefore, though accepting their basic forms, he
+need not be cramped by their restrictions, nor imitate the unalterable and
+sometimes awkwardly inartistic relations of letter to letter for which he
+finds precedents in the printed page. Indeed, the same general rules for
+spacing and the same freedom in the treatment of the serifs, kerns and
+swash lines are quite as applicable to pen-drawn small letters as to the
+capital forms. The only true path of progress lies in this freedom of
+treatment; and if the same fertile artists of the Renaissance who have
+bequeathed to us such beautiful examples of their unfettered use of the
+capital had used the minuscule also, we should undoubtedly possess small
+letters of far more graceful and adaptable forms than those which we now
+have.
+
+[Illustration: 50. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS.
+F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 51. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS.
+F. C. B.]
+
+In 50 and 51 may be found an attempt to formulate a scheme to assist in the
+reconstruction of an alphabet of Roman small letters, after somewhat the
+same fashion as [56] that devised for the Roman capitals by Mr. Ross, in 1
+and 2. A small-letter diagram must, for obvious reasons, be less exact and
+detailed than one for the more defined capital form; but the diagram given
+will serve to determine sufficiently the main outlines and proportions. In
+their shapes the letters shown in 50 and 51 adhere fairly closely to the
+best type forms of the small letter; and the drawing will serve, further,
+to show the space generally allowed by modern founders between one
+lower-case letter and another when set into type words. This spacing is
+based on the m of the fount employed. The open space between all but k, w
+and y (in which the outlines of the letters themselves hold them further
+away from their neighbors) and the round letters being the space between
+the upright strokes of the m; an interval represented in the diagram by a
+square and a half. The round letters, as has already been said in speaking
+of the capital forms, should be spaced nearer together; and it will be
+observed that they are only separated by one square in the diagram.
+Although suggestive, the rules which govern the spacing of types are not to
+be blindly followed by the pen letterer. In type, for instance, it would be
+impossible, for mechanical reasons, to allow the kerns of the f, j and y to
+project far over the body of the next letter, and in these letters the
+kerns consequently have either to be restrained or the letters spaced
+farther apart. In pen lettering, however, the designer is not restrained by
+such limitations, and his spacing of letters should be governed solely by
+the effect.
+
+The disposition of the accented lines in the small letters follow the same
+general rules that govern those of the capitals (see page 2); the only
+deviation being in the case of [57] the g, in which the shading of the
+bottom seems to have been determined largely by the effect upon the eye.
+
+It will be noticed in the diagram that the "ascenders" of the smaller
+letters rise about three squares to their extreme top points above the body
+of the letter; that the body of each letter is inclosed in a square that is
+three units high, and that the "descenders" fall but two squares below the
+letter body. These proportions are not by any means invariable, however,
+and indeed there is no fixed rule by which the proportions of ascenders and
+descenders to the body of the Roman minuscule may be determined. In some
+forms of the letter both are of the same length, and sometimes that length
+is the same as the body height of the letter. In general a better result is
+obtained by making both ascenders and descenders of less than the length of
+the body, and keeping the descenders shorter than the ascenders in about
+the proportion of two-fifths to three-fifths.
+
+Parallel lines of small letters cannot be spaced closer to each other than
+the ascenders and descenders will allow; the projections above and below
+the line are awkward, and interrupt the definite lines of demarkation at
+the top and bottom of the letter-bodies; the capitals necessarily used in
+connection with the small letters add to the irregularity of the line--all
+of which reasons combine to limit the employment of minuscule for formal or
+monumental uses. On the other hand, the small letter form is excellently
+adapted for the printed page, where the occasional capitals but tend to
+break the monotony, while the ascenders and descenders strongly
+characterize and increase the legibility of the letter forms.
+
+[Illustration: 52. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 53. SPANISH ROMAN LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 54. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS,
+1577]
+
+[Illustration: 55. SPANISH ITALIC LETTERS. PEN DRAWN. FRANCISCO LUCAS,
+1577]
+
+[Illustration: 56. ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. J. F. CRESCI, 1560]
+
+[Illustration: 57. ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY INCISED LETTERS. FROM TOMBSTONES]
+
+[Illustration: 58. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. AFTER HRACHOWINA]
+
+[Illustration: 59. MODERN SMALL LETTERS. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+[64]
+
+Figures 52 to 59 show several forms of small letter alphabets; those shown
+in 52 to 56 being taken from "Writing books" by Spanish and Italian writing
+masters. These writing masters often chose to show their skill by imitating
+type forms of letters with the pen, but though similar in the individual
+forms of the letters the written examples exhibit a freedom and harmony in
+composition impossible for type to equal, and therefore are immeasurably
+more interesting to the modern penman. Figure 61 illustrates a type form of
+minuscule which may be commended for study. Other examples of small letters
+by modern designers will be found in 105, 110, 118 and 131, where they are
+used in connection with their capital forms.
+
+[Illustration: 60. INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH SLATE TOMBSTONES, 1691.
+F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 61. ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. FROM THE SPECIMEN BOOK OF WILLIAM
+CASLON, 1734]
+
+The minuscule alphabet by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, 59, is a carefully
+worked-out form which in its lines closely follows a type face devised by
+Jenson, the celebrated Venetian printer who flourished toward the end of
+the sixteenth century. This example together with those shown in 50, 51 and
+56 exhibits some conservative variations of the standard models for
+minuscule letters; and the same may be said of the modern type faces shown
+in 62, 63 and 64. The various other examples of the small-letter forms
+illustrated evidence how original and interesting modifications of
+conservative shapes may be evolved without appreciable loss of legibility.
+
+[Illustration: 62. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "MONTAIGNE". BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 63. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "RENNER". THEO. L. DE VINNE]
+
+[Illustration: 64. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "MERRYMOUNT" BY B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 65. MODERN ROMAN TYPE "CHELTENHAM" BY B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Figure 61 shows the capital, small letter and italic forms of a type based
+on old Venetian models, cut by William Caslon in the early part of the
+eighteenth century, and ever [69] since known by his name. This face has
+comparatively recently been revived by modern type-founders; and though
+this revival has provided us with a text letter far superior to the forms
+previously in use, the modern imitation falls short of the beauty of
+Caslon's original, as may be seen by comparing the letters shown in 61,
+which are reproduced from Caslon's specimen-book, issued by him about the
+middle of the eighteenth century, with the type used in printing this
+volume, which is a good modern "Caslon."
+
+Figures 62 to 67 show some newly devised type faces, all designed by
+artists of reputation. Figure 62 illustrates a fount called the "Montaigne"
+which has been recently completed by Mr. Bruce Rogers for the Riverside
+Press, Cambridge, Mass., and cut under his immediate direction, with
+especial insistance upon an unmechanical treatment of serifs, etc. As a
+result the "Montaigne" is, for type, remarkable in its artistic freedom,
+and its forms are well worthy the study of the designer. Both its capitals
+and small letters suggest the purity of the Italian Renaissance shapes. The
+letters space rather farther apart than in most types, and the result makes
+for legibility. Although several other modern faces of type have been
+designed on much the same lines, notably one for The Dove's Press in
+England, the "Montaigne" seems the best of them all, because of its
+freedom, and its absolute divorce from the overdone, exaggerated,
+heavy-faced effects of the Morris styles of type.
+
+Mr. De Vinne of the De Vinne Press, New York City, has introduced a new
+type called the "Renner", 63, which was originally cut for some of the
+Grolier Club's publications. The letters were first photographed from a
+selected page of Renner's "Quadrigesimale," then [71] carefully studied and
+redrawn before the punches were cut. Mr. De Vinne has added small capitals
+and italics to the fount, as well as dotted letters to serve as substitutes
+for the italic for those who prefer them. The "Renner" type would have been
+more effective on a larger body; but for commercial usefulness it is
+generally deemed expedient to employ as small a body as the face of a type
+will allow. Mr. De Vinne notes, in this connection, that all the important
+types of the early printers were large, and that a fount designed to-day
+with regard only to its artistic effectiveness would be cast upon a large
+body and be of good size.
+
+Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue has designed two founts of Roman type, and is now at
+work on a Blackletter face. His first fount, cut for Mr. D. B. Updike, of
+the Merrymount Press, Boston, and known as the "Merrymount," is shown in
+64. Intended for large pages and rough paper it necessarily shows to
+disadvantage in the example given, where the blackness and weight of the
+letters makes them seem clumsy, despite the refinement of their forms.
+
+[Illustration: 66. MODERN GREEK TYPE. SELWYN IMAGE]
+
+[Illustration: 67. MODERN ROMAN TYPE. C. R. ASHBEE]
+
+The "Cheltenham Old Style," 65, is the other Roman face recently designed
+by the same artist. It was cut for the Cheltenham Press of New York City;
+and embodies in its present form many ideas suggested by Mr. Ingalls
+Kimball of that press. Observe especially the excess in length of the
+ascenders over the descenders, and that the serifs have been reduced to the
+minimum. Contrary to the usual custom in type cutting, the round letters do
+not run above or below the guide lines. The capitals compose excellently;
+but the small letters are too closely spaced and seem too square for the
+best effect, and weight has been obtained by so thickening the lines that
+much delicacy and variety has been lost. [72] The "Cheltenham Old Style"
+is, however, very legible when composed into words, and is effective on the
+page.
+
+Any attempt to get the effect of Blackletter with the Roman form is likely
+to result clumsily. The celebrated Roman faces designed by William Morris
+(too familiar to require reproduction here) are, despite their real beauty,
+over-black on the page, and awkward when examined in detail. While the
+stimulus Morris's work gave to typography was much needed at that time, the
+present reaction toward more refined faces is most gratifying. By precept
+and example Mr. Morris produced a salutary revolt against the too thin and
+light and mechanical type faces before in use, but he went too far in the
+opposite direction, and we are now certainly falling back upon a more
+desirable mean.
+
+Mr. Herbert P. Horne is at present designing a new fount of type for the
+Merrymount Press, Boston, to be [73] known as the "Mont' Allegro," which
+seems, from the designs so far as at present completed, likely to prove in
+some respects the most scholarly and severe of modern faces.
+
+The Greek type designed for the Macmillan Company of England, by Mr. Selwyn
+Image, 66, is of sufficient interest to be shown here, despite the fact
+that it is not strictly germane to our subject. In this face Mr. Image has
+[74] returned to the more classic Greek form, although the result may at
+first glance seem illegible to the reader familiar with the more common
+cursive letters.
+
+The type shown in 67 is a new English face designed by Mr. C. R. Ashbee for
+a prayerbook for the King. Interesting as it is, it seems in many ways too
+extreme and eccentric to be wholly satisfactory: the very metal of type
+would seem to postulate a less "tricky" treatment.
+
+It is interesting to attempt a discrimination between the various national
+styles of pen letters which the recently revived interest in the art of
+lettering is producing; and it is especially worth while to note that the
+activity seems, even in Germany, to be devoted almost exclusively to the
+development and variation of the Roman forms. It is noteworthy, too, after
+so long a period of the dull copying of bad forms, and particularly of bad
+type forms, that the modern trend is distinctly in the direction of
+freedom; though this freedom is more marked in French and German [75] than
+in English or American work. Hand in hand with this increased freedom of
+treatment has naturally come a clearer disclosure of the mediums employed;
+and indeed in much of the best modern work the designer has so far lent
+himself to his tools that the tools themselves have, in great measure,
+become responsible for the resulting letter forms. [76] Moreover modern
+designers are showing a welcome attention to minuscule letters, and it even
+seems possible that before long some small letter forms that shall be
+distinctively of the pen may be developed, and that the use of type models
+for minuscule pen letters will no longer be found necessary or commendable.
+
+[Illustration: 68. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER J. M. OLBRICH]
+
+[Illustration: 69. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. GUSTAVE LEMMEN]
+
+[Illustration: 70. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER ALOIS LUDWIG]
+
+[Illustration: 71. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER OTTO ECKMANN]
+
+Another noticeable tendency in modern lettering seems to be the gradual
+promotion of small letter forms to the dignity of capitals, (see 79 and 98
+for examples) in much the same way as the Uncial letter and its immediate
+derivatives produced the present small letter. It is surely to be hoped
+that this movement may not lose vitality before it has had time to enrich
+us with some new and excellent forms.
+
+[Illustration: 72. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. OTTO HUPP]
+
+[Illustration: 73. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. JOSEPH PLECNIK]
+
+[Illustration: 74. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER FRANZ STUCK]
+
+[82]
+
+[Illustration: 75. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 76. MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. AFTER BERNHARD PANKOK]
+
+[Illustration: 77. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. THEO. VAN RYSSELBERGHE]
+
+[Illustration: 78. MODERN FRENCH COVER. M. P. VERNEUIL]
+
+The influence of nationality is strongly shown in the modern lettering of
+all countries; and it is generally as easy to recognize a specimen as the
+work of a German, French, English, or American artist, respectively, no
+matter how individual he may be, as it is to tell the difference between
+the work of two different designers.
+
+The modern German seems to have an undeniable freshness of outlook on the
+Roman alphabet. He treats it with a freedom and variety and a certain
+disregard of precedent--induced, perhaps, by his schooling in
+Blackletter--that often produces delightful, though sometimes, be it added,
+direful results. But if the extreme and bizarre forms be thrown aside the
+designer may obtain suggestions of great benefit and value from the more
+restrained examples of German work. Many eminent German draughtsmen, whose
+work is all too little known in this country, are [84] using letters with
+the same distinction that has of late years marked their purely decorative
+work, as the specimens shown in 68 to 76 will evidence. Figures 68 and 75
+show forms which are perhaps especially representative of the general
+modern tendency in German work and many German artists are using letters of
+very similar general forms to these although, of course, with individual
+variations. Figures 70 and 73 show two very original and pleasing styles,
+also markedly German. In spite of the national drift toward the Roman, much
+modern German lettering still takes the Gothic and Blackletter forms; and
+the specimen reproduced in 71 shows a curious combination of the Gothic,
+Uncial and Roman forms pervaded by the German spirit. The beautiful
+lettering in 72 seems to have been inspired from a stone-cut Uncial. Figure
+74 shows an almost strictly Roman letter, and yet is as unmistakably German
+in handling as any of the other examples shown.
+
+[Illustration: 79. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. AFTER M. P. VERNEUIL]
+
+[Illustration: 80. MODERN FRENCH POSTER. P. BONNARD]
+
+[Illustration: 81. MODERN FRENCH COVER. GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 82. MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. ALPHONS M. MUCHA]
+
+[86]
+
+Among the examples of modern French lettering, those shown in 78 and 79 are
+perhaps the most typical of the modern school. This style of letter was
+given its most consistent form by the joint efforts of M. P. Verneuil and
+some of the pupils of Eugene Grasset, after whose letter it was originally
+modeled. Grasset freely varies his use of this form in his different
+designs, as in 85, but founds many of his best specimens upon the earlier
+French models.
+
+[Illustration: 83. MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE. GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 84. MODERN FRENCH LETTERS "CURSIVE". GEORGE AURIOL]
+
+[Illustration: 85. MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. EUGENE GRASSET]
+
+[Illustration: 86. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[88]
+
+M. George Auriol has extended the modern use of drawn letters by publishing
+a number of small books which he has handwritten throughout, although the
+form of letter he generally uses for this purpose is purely modern and not
+at all like the texts of the medieval scribes. M. Auriol's letter is
+beautifully clear, readable and original; "brushy" in its technique, yet
+suitable for rapid writing. He calls [91] it a "Cursive" letter, and has
+recently made designs for its use in type. The page shown in 83 is from the
+preface to a book of his well-known designs for monograms, and the entire
+text is written in this cursive form. The individual letters of this
+"Cursive" may be more easily studied in 84. The cover for "L'Image", 81,
+shows the same designer's use of a more conventional Roman form.
+
+The poster by M. Theo. van Rysselberghe shown in 77 exhibits two
+interesting forms of French small letters that are worthy of study and
+suggestive for development.
+
+M. Alphons Mucha employs a distinctive letter, especially fitted to his
+technique, which he uses almost invariably, 82.
+
+Much recent French lettering inclines toward a certain formlessness, that,
+although sometimes admirable when regarded merely from the point of view of
+harmony with the design, has little value otherwise. A typical specimen of
+such formless lettering is that shown in the very charming [92] "Revue
+Blanche" poster, 80. Excellent when considered with the design, the
+lettering alone makes but an indifferent showing.
+
+The Italian designers of letters have not yet evolved any very distinctive
+national forms. In many ways Italian work resembles the German. It has less
+originality, but greater subtlety and refinement.
+
+[Illustration: 87. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 88. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 89. MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. WALTER CRANE]
+
+[Illustration: 90. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON]
+
+The strongest personality among modern British letterers is Mr. Walter
+Crane. Characteristic examples of his work are shown in 86, 87, 88 and 89.
+Although sometimes apparently careless and too often rough, his lettering
+has the merit and charm of invariably disclosing the instrument and the
+material employed. Mr. Crane is especially fond of an Uncial pen form,
+which he varies with masterful freedom. It may be mentioned in passing that
+he is perhaps the only designer who has been able to make the wrongly
+accented Q seem consistent (compare 86), or who has conquered its swash
+tail when the letter is accented in this unusual way.
+
+[93]
+
+Mr. Lewis F. Day has become a recognized authority on lettering, both
+through his writings and his handiwork. His great versatility makes it
+difficult to select a specimen which may be taken as characteristic of his
+work; but perhaps the lettering shown in 95 is as representative as any
+that could be chosen. Among his designs the magazine cover, 93, is an
+unusually free and effective composition, and its letter forms possess the
+variety required to satisfy the eye when so much of the whole effect of the
+design depends upon them.
+
+[Illustration: 91. MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. JOSEPH W. SIMPSON]
+
+[Illustration: 92. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. WILLIAM NICHOLSON]
+
+[Illustration: 93. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. LEWIS F. DAY]
+
+[Illustration: 94. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. GORDON CRAIG]
+
+The style of lettering ordinarily employed by Mr. Selwyn Image--a style of
+marked originality and distinction--is well exhibited in the design for a
+book cover, 98.
+
+The name of Mr. Charles Ricketts is intimately associated with the Vale
+Press. The detail of the title-page reproduced in 100 shows a
+characteristic bit of his work.
+
+Mr. J. W. Simpson, one of the younger British draughtsmen, uses a graceful
+and interestingly linked Roman form shown in the panel from a title-page,
+90. The bizarre [95] letter by the same artist, 91, is fairly
+representative of a style recently come into vogue among the younger
+British draughtsmen, which is related to a form of letter brought into
+fashion by the new English school of designers on wood, among whom may be
+mentioned Mr. William Nicholson and Mr. Gordon Craig, both of whom have
+done lettering distinguished by its indication of the medium employed.
+Figure 92 shows Mr. Nicholson's favorite type of letter [96] fairly, and
+the style of Mr. Craig's work is suggested by the title for a book cover in
+94.
+
+The book cover, 97, by Mr. Edmund H. New, shows variants of the Roman
+capital and minuscule forms, which closely adhere to classic models.
+
+Mr. Robert Anning Bell has done much distinctive lettering in intimate
+association with design. Figure 96 is fairly representative of his style of
+work.
+
+[Illustration: 95. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. LEWIS F. DAY]
+
+[Illustration: 96. MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. ROBERT ANNING BELL]
+
+[Illustration: 97. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. EDMUND H. NEW]
+
+[Illustration: 98. MODERN ENGLISH COVER. SELWYN IMAGE]
+
+Such other British artists as Messrs. Alfred Parsons, James F. Sullivan,
+Hugh Thompson, Herbert Railton, Byam Shaw, H. Granville Fell and A. Garth
+Jones, although much better known for their designs than for their letters,
+[97] occasionally give us bits of lettering which are both unusual and
+excellent; but these bits are commonly so subordinated to the designs in
+which they are used and so involved with them as to be beyond the scope of
+the present book.
+
+[Illustration: 99. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 100. MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. CHARLES RICKETTS]
+
+In illustrating the lettering of American artists it has been unfortunately
+found necessary to omit the work of many well-known designers, either
+because their usual style of lettering is too similar in fundamental forms
+to the work of some other draughtsman, or because the letters they commonly
+employ are not distinctive or individual.
+
+[Illustration: 101. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWIN A. ABBEY]
+
+[Illustration: 102. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 103. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+Mr. Edwin A. Abbey is a notable example of an artist who has not disdained
+to expend both time and practice on such a minor art as lettering [100]
+that he might be able to letter his own designs, as the beautiful page,
+shown in 153 in the succeeding chapter, will sufficiently prove. The
+lettering of the title-page for Herrick's poems, 101, by the same
+draughtsman, is likewise excellent, being both original and appropriate.
+The letters in both these examples are modeled after old work, and both
+display an unusually keen grasp of the limitations and possibilities of the
+forms employed, especially in the former, 153, where the use of capitals to
+form words is particularly noteworthy, while in general composition and
+spacing the spirit of the letter used (compare 179) has been perfectly
+preserved.
+
+[Illustration: 104. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+[Illustration: 105. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+[Illustration: 106. MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE]
+
+[Illustration: 107. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. VAN B. MAGONIGLE]
+
+Mr. Edward Penfield's work first attracted attention through the series of
+posters which he designed for 'Harper's Magazine' with unfailing fertility
+of invention for several years. During this time he evolved a style of
+letter which exactly fitted the character of his work. The cover design
+shown in 103 displays his characteristic letter in actual use; while the
+two interesting pages of large and small letter alphabets by him, 104 and
+105, show the latest and best development of these letter forms. The
+heading [102] shown in 102 exhibits a slightly different letter, evidently
+based upon that used by Mr. Penfield.
+
+The capitals by Mr. H. Van B. Magonigle, shown in 107, are derived from
+classic Roman forms but treated with a modern freedom that makes them
+unusually attractive. They appear, however, to better advantage in actual
+use in conjunction with a design, 106, than when shown in the necessarily
+restricted form of an alphabetical page panel.
+
+[Illustration: 108. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue, whose designs for type have already been mentioned,
+is a [104] most facile and careful letterer. Although his name is more
+intimately associated with Blackletter (examples of his work in that style
+are shown in the following chapter), he has devised some very interesting
+variations of the Roman forms, such as that used in 108, as an example.
+
+[Illustration: 109. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. WILL BRADLEY]
+
+Mr. Will Bradley uses a very individual style of the Roman capital, often
+marked by a peculiar exaggeration in the width of the round letters,
+contrasted with narrow tall forms in such letters as E, F and L. Mr.
+Bradley has become more free and unconventional in his later work, but his
+specimens have always been noteworthy for beauty of line and spacing; see
+111. Figure 109 shows his employment of a brush-made variant of the Roman
+form; [107] and 110 shows both capitals and small letters drawn in his
+earlier and less distinctive style.
+
+[Illustration: 110. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. WILL
+BRADLEY (1896)]
+
+[Illustration: 111. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. WILL BRADLEY]
+
+[Illustration: 112. MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. A. J. IORIO]
+
+The ticket, 112, designed by Mr. A. J. Iorio, suggests what our theatre
+tickets might be made. In spacing and general arrangement of the letters
+and the freedom of treatment, Mr. Iorio's work may be compared with much of
+the [110] work of Mr. Bradley. Figure 113 shows a modern Roman capital form
+modeled upon the work of Mr. Bradley.
+
+[Illustration: 113. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER WILL BRADLEY]
+
+[Illustration: 114. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+[Illustration: 115. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+[Illustration: 116. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+Mr. Maxfield Parrish commonly employs a widely spaced letter, fashioned
+closely after the old German models, beautiful in its forms, and displaying
+the individuality of the artist in its composition. The form and use of Mr.
+Parrish's usual letter is well shown in 114; and the title from a book
+cover design, 115, shows yet another example of the letter in service.
+
+The lettering of Mr. A. B. Le Boutillier is always notable for spacing and
+composition. Figures 117 and 118 exhibit excellent capital and small-letter
+forms (which, by the way, were drawn at the same size as the
+reproductions); and [111] the two other specimens of Mr. Le Boutillier's
+work, 116 and 119, which are reproduced to show his letters in use, will be
+found exemplars for spacing, composition, balance of weight and color, and,
+in the latter drawing, for harmony between the lettering and the treatment
+of the design.
+
+[Illustration: 117. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 118. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. A. B. Le BOUTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 119. MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. A. B. LE BOUTTILLIER]
+
+[Illustration: 120. AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+The form of letter preferred by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon is represented
+by the page of small letters, 59, which, as we have already said, are
+closely modeled on the type alphabet designed by Jenson. In Mr. Bragdon's
+version they represent an excellently useful and conservative style of
+small letter. They are shown in use, with harmonious capitals and italics,
+in the 'Literature' cover design, 121. In the small book-plate, reproduced
+in 120, Mr. [112] Bragdon has used a very graceful variant, especially
+noteworthy for its freedom of serif treatment; and in the letter-heading,
+122, he has employed an attractive capital of still different character.
+
+[Illustration: 121. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 122. MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEAD. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+Mr. H. L. Bridwell has originated the singularly excellent letter shown in
+124, which is founded upon some of the modern French architectural forms.
+He uses it with great freedom and variety in spacing according to the
+effect that he desires to produce. In one instance he will jam the letters
+together in an oddly crowded line, while in another we find them spread far
+apart, but always with excellent results as regards the design as a whole.
+Something of this variation of spacing is shown in 123. In the numerous
+theatrical posters which Mr. Bridwell has designed--and which too seldom
+bear his signature--he employs a great variety of lettering. Sometimes, of
+course, the freedom of his work is restricted by the conservatism of
+clients; but often the letter forms here illustrated add to the style and
+distinction of his designs.
+
+[Illustration: 123. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. H. L. BRIDWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 124. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. H. L. BRIDWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 125. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 126. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[116]
+
+[Illustration: 127. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+Mr. Frank Hazenplug, the author of much clever decorative lettering, has
+evolved a very black and striking style of capital that still retains
+grace. Figures 125 and 126 show two sets of Mr. Hazenplug's capitals. A
+book cover on which he has used small letters in an original way is
+reproduced in 127. Figure 129 shows the employment of a heavy-faced letter
+similar to that exhibited in alphabet 126, but suggestive in its serif
+treatment of Mr. Penfield's letter.
+
+[Illustration: 128. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD EDWARDS]
+
+Mr. Edward Edwards employs a letter, 128, which, though rather conventional
+in its lines, is noteworthy for its treatment of serifs and its spacing.
+
+Mr. Guernsey Moore's letters shown in 130 are naturally better both in
+intrinsic form, spacing and composition than the widely used "Post Old
+Style" types which were based upon them. The large and small letters
+displayed in 133 show a form that, at the present writing, seems to be in
+considerable favor. It is, however, too extreme, and its peculiarities are
+too exaggerated to allow it to become a permanent style. But like the
+extravagant German forms [117] already referred to, it has also apparent
+advantages; and a few of its characteristics are not unlikely to survive in
+some more conservative adaptation.
+
+[Illustration: 129. MODERN AMERICAN COVER. FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 130. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GUERNSEY MOORE]
+
+[Illustration: 131. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. HARRY E. TOWNSEND]
+
+The letter by Mr. Harry Everett Townsend shown in 131 is most distinctive
+in effect--a more refined form of the rapidly drawn character shown in 138.
+
+Mr. Howard Pyle often gives us charming bits of lettering in connection
+with his illustrations. The heading, 132, shows a characteristic line. Most
+of Mr. Pyle's lettering is "Colonial" or Georgian in style, though the
+initials he uses with it are generally rendered in the fashions of the
+early German woodcuts, somewhat similar to Holbein's initials for the
+"Dance of Death."
+
+[Illustration: 132. MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. HOWARD PYLE]
+
+One of the most original of American letterers is Mr. Orson Lowell. Usually
+closely conjoined with design, his lettering does not show to its full
+value when reproduced apart from its surroundings, for much of its charm
+depends [118] upon its harmony in line and color with the accompanying
+drawing Mr. Lowell has taken the same basic forms as those used by Mr.
+Penfield, and has played with them until he has developed a series of most
+ingenious and fanciful letters. The examples reproduced in 136 and 137 but
+inadequately show a few of the many forms that Mr. Lowell employs with
+remarkable fertility of invention and delightfully decorative effect of
+line. The small letters, 135, shown opposite his capitals, 134, are not by
+Mr. Lowell, nor are they in any way equal to his own small letters, of
+which regrettably few appear in his published work; but they may serve to
+exhibit a similar method of treating a much more conventional form of
+minuscule than Mr. [122] Lowell would himself use for the same purpose.
+Despite its unconventionally, however, an examination of Mr. Lowell's work
+will show that each letter has been developed to fit the space between its
+neighbors and to balance and relieve their forms; and that, fanciful as
+some of the shapes may appear, they have invariably been knowingly worked
+out, and always appear harmonious and fit.
+
+[Illustration: 133. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 134. MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. AFTER ORSON LOWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 135. MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 136. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. ORSON LOWELL]
+
+The pages of letters shown in 138, 139 and 140 are intended to suggest
+forms which, while suitable for rapid use, yet possess some individuality
+and character. The so-called "Cursive" letter by Mr. Maxfield Parrish, 140,
+is particularly effective for such informal use--in fact, its very charm
+lies in its informality--and is quite as distinctively "pen-ny" as any of
+Mr. Crane's work of the same kind.
+
+A glance over the field of modern examples will disclose, first, a general
+tendency to break away from the older type models in pen-drawn forms;
+second, a growing partiality for the small letter, and third, a sporadic
+disposition to use capital and minuscule forms interchangeably. The first
+[123] trend may be noticed by comparing the letter shown in 132, which is
+closely modeled after type, with that shown in 136, in which an opposite
+method is followed, and the letters are so treated in handling form and
+color as to best harmonize with the design itself. The possibilities latent
+in the small letter are indicated by such interesting uses as those shown
+in figures 77, 89, 98, 101, 111, 112, 121, 127, 130 and 131. American
+designers seem to be especially interested in the development of the small
+letter. Of the intermingling of the capital and small letter shapes
+examples may be found in figures 71, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 98, 127
+and 134. In these examples it will be noted that the minuscules seem to be
+more easily transformed into capitals than do the capitals into minuscules;
+only a few of the latter appearing to lend themselves harmoniously to the
+small letter guise.
+
+[Illustration: 137. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ORSON LOWELL]
+
+[Illustration: 138. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, FOR RAPID USE. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 139. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC, FOR PLANS, ETC. C. F. BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 140. MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. MAXFIELD PARRISH]
+
+Such tendencies as these, if allowed to develop slowly and naturally, are
+certain to evolve new forms--a process of modification which it should be
+fully as instructive and entertaining to observe as any of the historical
+changes that have already become incorporated into our present letter
+shapes.
+
+[127]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GOTHIC LETTERS
+
+The name "Gothic" applies rather to the spirit than to the exact letter
+forms of the style. The same spirit of freedom and restlessness
+characterises the architecture of the period wherein this style of letter
+was developed; and Gothic letters are in many ways akin to the fundamental
+forms of Gothic architecture. Their effect is often tiring and confusing to
+the eye because of the constant recurrence of very similar forms with
+different letter meanings; yet this very similarity is the main cause of
+the pleasing aspect of a page of Gothic lettering.
+
+Unlike the Roman letters, which attained a complete and final development,
+Gothic letters never reached authoritative and definitive forms, any more
+than did Gothic architecture. Every individual Gothic letter has several
+quasi-authoritative shapes, and all of these variants may be accepted, as
+long as they display an intelligent conception of the spirit of the style
+as a whole. Because of this lack of finality, however, it is impossible to
+analyze each of the letter forms as we were able to do with the Roman
+alphabet in Chapter I; yet this very variability and variety constitute at
+once the peculiar beauty of Gothic and the great difficulty of so drawing
+it as to preserve its distinctive character.
+
+Any letter of Gothic form is usually called either "Gothic" or
+"Blackletter" indiscriminately, but this use is inexact [128] and
+confusing. The term "Blackletter" should, strictly, be applied only to
+letters in which the amount of black in the line overbalances the white;
+and the proper application of the title should be determined rather by this
+balance or weight of the letter than by its form.
+
+[Illustration: 141. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 1500]
+
+The original Gothic letter was a gradual outgrowth from the round Roman
+Uncial. Its early forms retained all the roundness of its Uncial parent;
+but as the advantages of a condensed form of letter for the saving of space
+became manifest, (parchment was expensive and bulky) and the [131] beauty
+of the resulting blacker page was noticed, the round Gothic forms were
+written closer and narrower, the ascenders and descenders were shortened,
+with marked loss of legibilty, that the lines of lettering might be brought
+closer together, until a form was evolved in which the black overbalanced
+the white--the Blackletter which still survives in the common German text
+of to-day. Thus, though a Gothic letter may not be a Blackletter, a
+Blackletter is _always_ Gothic, because it is constructed upon Gothic
+lines. On the other hand, a Roman Blackletter would be an obvious
+impossibility. The very essential and fundamental quality of a Roman letter
+lies in the squareness or circularity of its skeleton form.
+
+For clearness and convenience, then, the following discrimination between
+the terms Gothic and Blackletter will be adopted in this treatise: When a
+letter is Gothic but not a Blackletter it will be called "Round Gothic";
+when it is primarily a Blackletter it will be termed "Blackletter," the
+latter name being restricted to such compressed, narrow or angular forms as
+the small letters shown in 144, 147 and 148. The name "Round Gothic" will
+be applied only to the earlier forms, such as those shown in 141 and 142.
+Such a distinction has not, I believe, hitherto been attempted; but the
+confusion which otherwise results makes the discrimination seem advisable.
+
+The three pages of examples, figures 141, 142 and 143, exhibit the
+characteristic forms and standard variations of the Round Gothic. In lieu
+of any detailed analysis of these letter shapes, it may perhaps be
+sufficient to say that they were wholly and exactly determined by the
+position of the quill, which was held rigidly upright, after the fashion
+[132] already described in speaking of Roman lettering; and that the
+letters were always formed with a round swinging motion of hand and arm, as
+their forms and accented lines clearly evidence; for the medieval scribes
+used the Round Gothic as an easy and legible handwritten form, and linked
+many of the letters.
+
+[Illustration: 142. ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 143. SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 144. GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. ALBRECHT DUeRER]
+
+Figures 158, 170, 172 and 173 show some capitals adapted for use with these
+Round Gothic letters; but the beginner should be extremely wary of
+attempting to use any Gothic capitals alone to form words, as their
+outlines are not suited for inter-juxtaposition. Occasionally they may thus
+be used, and used effectively, as is shown, for instance, in the beautiful
+page of lettering by Mr. Edwin A. Abbey, 153; but so successful a solution
+is rare, and implies an intimate knowledge of the historic examples and use
+of Gothic lettering.
+
+The late Gothic or Blackletter is condensed and narrowed in the extreme. No
+circles are employed in the construction of the small letters, which have
+angular and generally acute corners. As in all pen-drawn letters, the broad
+lines are made on the down right-sloping strokes, and the narrow lines are
+at right angles to these. Blackletter shapes, like those of the Round
+Gothic, cannot, as has been said, be defined by any set of general rules;
+the intrinsic quality of all Gothic letters almost demands a certain
+freedom of treatment that would transgress any laws that could be
+formulated. Indeed the individual forms should always be subservient to the
+effect of the line or page. Observe in almost every example shown how the
+form of the same letter constantly varies in some minor detail. The drawing
+by Albrecht Duerer, reproduced in 144, will, [134] however, serve to show
+the construction of an excellent Blackletter, which may fairly be
+considered as typical.
+
+[Illustration: 145. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 146. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS WITH ROUNDED ANGLES]
+
+The first essential of a good Blackletter line or page is that it shall be
+of a uniform color. Unlike the Roman, the Blackletter form does not permit
+that one word be wider spaced than others in the same panel. The amount of
+white left between the several letters should be as nearly as possible the
+same throughout, approximately the same as the space between the
+perpendicular strokes of the minuscule letters themselves. Usually, the
+less the white space the better will be the general effect of the page, for
+its beauty depends much upon a general blackness of aspect;--and let it be
+noted in passing that, for this reason, it is doubly difficult to judge of
+the final effect of a Blackletter page from any outlined pencil sketch.
+Even in the cases of those capital letters that extend both above and below
+the guide lines it will be found possible to so adjust the spaces [135] and
+blacks as not to interrupt the general uniformity of color, and it is
+sometimes advisable to fill awkward blanks by flourishes; although
+flourishing, even in Blackletter, is an amusement that should be indulged
+in cautiously. As a general rule the more solidly black a panel of
+Blackletter is the better (a principle too often disregarded in the modern
+use of the form); though on the other hand, the less legible the individual
+letters will become. The designer should therefore endeavor to steer a
+middle course, making his panel as black as he can without rendering the
+individual letters illegible.
+
+No style permits more of liberty in the treatment of its separate letter
+forms than the Blackletter. The same letter may require a different outline
+at the beginning of a word than in the middle or at the end. The ascenders
+and descenders may be drawn so short as hardly to transcend the guide lines
+of the minuscules, or may grow into [136] flourishes up and down, to the
+right or to the left, to fill awkward blanks. Indeed so variable are these
+forms that in ancient examples it is often difficult to recognize an
+individual letter apart from its context.
+
+The two pages drawn by Mr. Goodhue, 188 and 189, deserve careful study as
+examples of modern use of the Blackletter. It will be observed that almost
+as many variants of each letter are employed as the number used would
+permit, thus giving the panel variety and preventing any appearance of
+monotony or rigidity. Notice the freedom and variety of the swash lines in
+the capitals, and yet that each version is quite as graceful, logical and
+original as any of its variants.
+
+The examples of old lettering reproduced in figures 147, 148 and 149,
+together with the drawings by Mr. Goodhue, will indicate the proper spacing
+of Blackletter; but in most of the pages here devoted to illustrating the
+individual forms the letters have been spaced too wide for their proper
+effect that each separate shape might be shown distinctly. The style
+appears at its best in compositions which fill a panel of more or less
+geometrical form, as, for example, the beautiful title-page reproduced in
+147. Could anything be more delightful to the eye than its rich blackness,
+energetic lines, and refreshing virility? In this design surely we have a
+specimen that, from the proportion and balance of its blacks, is more
+effective than anything which could have been accomplished by the use of
+the more rigid Roman letter; but despite its many beauties it suffers from
+the inherent weakness of the individual letter forms,--it is more effective
+than readable!
+
+[Illustration: 147. ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. JACOPUS FORESTI, 1497]
+
+[Illustration: 148. GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 1515]
+
+[Illustration: 149. GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS. MEISSEN, 1510]
+
+[Illustration: 150. MODERN AMERICAN COVER IN BLACKLETTER. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+Another excellent example of the old use of Blackletter is the page from
+the prayerbook of the Emperor Maximilian, [138] shown in 148, in which
+observe again the variety of the individual letter forms. Figure 149 shows
+the use of a Blackletter on an admirable monumental brass, which is reputed
+to have been designed by Albrecht Duerer. A similar Blackletter form, also
+from a brass, is shown at larger scale in 186.
+
+[139]
+
+Any of the minuscule forms of Blackletter which have been illustrated may
+be used with the Gothic capitals of figures 164-5, 166, 177, 179, 185,
+188-9; or with such Uncial capitals as are illustrated in 155 to 162; care
+being taken, of course, that these capitals are made to agree in style and
+weight with the small letters chosen. Although Uncial capitals are
+historically more closely allied with the Round Gothic, we have abundant
+precedent for their use with the minuscule Blackletter in many of the best
+medieval specimens.
+
+When the Gothic Uncial capitals were cut in stone and marble there was
+naturally a corresponding change in character, as is shown in the Italian
+examples illustrated in 160 [140] and 161. These examples, which are
+reproduced from rubbings, exhibit the characteristic stone cut forms very
+clearly. A Gothic Uncial alphabet redrawn from a German brass is
+illustrated in 162. The group of specimens from 154 to 159 exhibit the
+chronological growth of the Uncial capitals, which were used, as has been
+said, with the various small Blackletter forms, though they were also used
+alone to form words, as is shown in 160. The historical progression in
+these Uncial examples is most interesting; and, allowing for the variations
+of national temperament, traces itself connectedly enough. Figures 154 to
+159 are pen forms, while 160 to 163 are from stone or metal-cut letters.
+
+Figures 164 to 166 show alphabets of Gothic pen-drawn capitals that will
+serve as a basis for such adaptations as are shown in the modern examples
+152 and 153. Figures 167 to 169 show a more elaborate but an excellent and
+typical variety of this form of capital, which is one of the most beautiful
+and distinctive of Gothic letters. Shorn of its fussy small lines the main
+skeleton is eminently virile; and, though extremely difficult to draw, it
+cannot be surpassed for certain limited uses. Figures 170 to 173 exhibit a
+group of Gothic capitals more or less allied in character and all pen
+letters. Figures 174 to 176 show forms similar to those of the previous
+group, but adapted for use in various materials.
+
+[Illustration: 151. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. WALTER PUTTNER]
+
+[Illustration: 152. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTER. OTTO HUPP]
+
+[Illustration: 153. MODERN BLACKLETTER. EDWIN A. ABBEY]
+
+Figures 177 to 179 show some English Gothic letters, the last being that
+employed so effectively in the pen-drawn page by Mr. Abbey, 153. Figures
+180 to 184 illustrate various forms of Blackletter: 180 is from a German
+brass, 182 illustrates an Italian pen form, and 183 and 184 show [141]
+Blackletters drawn by Albrecht Duerer, the latter being the simplest and
+strongest variant in this style. It is the same letter that is employed to
+show Blackletter construction in diagram 144. Figure 185 shows the
+well-known and unusually beautiful initials designed by Duerer. Figure 186
+is a Blackletter from an English brass, although the letter forms in this
+example, as well as those of many other English brasses, may perhaps have
+been derived from Flanders, as many of the finest early Continental brasses
+were imported from the Netherlands.
+
+The Italian forms of Gothic Blackletters are generally too fussy and
+finikin to be of practical value for modern use, though they often possess
+suggestive value. The letters shown in 182 are fairly typical of the
+characteristic Blackletter minuscules of Italy. Figure 187 exhibits an
+example of beautiful lettering in the Italian style, redrawn from a rubbing
+of an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. The omission of capitals
+in long, confined lines is typical of many Blackletter inscriptions, as may
+be seen in 149, as well as in the plate just mentioned.
+
+In view of the number of fine specimens of Blackletter which have been
+handed down to us, it has been deemed [142] unnecessary to reproduce many
+examples of its employment by modern draughtsmen. The pages by Mr. Goodhue,
+188-9, have already been referred to; and figure 150 shows a very
+consistent and representative use of similar letter forms by the same
+designer. Figures 190 and 191 illustrate two modern varieties of
+Blackletter, one very simple and the other very ornate. The small cuts, 151
+and 152, show excellent modern Blackletters; the first, of unusually narrow
+form, being by Herr Walter Puttner, and the second, with its flourished
+initials, by Herr Otto Hupp.
+
+[Illustration: 154. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 12TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 155. UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. 13TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 156. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 157. UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 158. ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 159. SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. JUAN DE YCIAR, 1550]
+
+[Illustration: 160. VENETIAN WALL PANEL, 15TH CENTURY. FROM RUBBING]
+
+[Illustration: 161. VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15TH CENTURY. F.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: 162. GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS, FROM A BRASS. 14TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 163. FRENCH AND SPANISH UNCIAL CAPITALS. 14TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 164. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 165. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 166. ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. GIOV. PALATINO, 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 167. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 168. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 169. GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. P. FRANK, 1601]
+
+[Illustration: 170. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 171. ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16TH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 172. ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 173. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 174. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 175. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 176. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 177. ENGLISH GOTHIC TEXT LETTERS. FROM MANUSCRIPTS]
+
+[Illustration: 178. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 179. ENGLISH GOTHIC LETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 180. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS FROM A BRASS. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 181. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. 16th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 182. ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 183. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 184. GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 185. GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DUeRER, 16th CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: 186. ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. 15th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 187. ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 188. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 189. MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS. B. G. GOODHUE]
+
+[Illustration: 190. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. AFTER JULIUS DIEZ]
+
+[Illustration: 191. MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B.]
+
+[182]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ITALIC AND SCRIPT
+
+The regrettable modern neglect of those free and very interesting forms of
+the Roman letter, Italic and Script, seem to authorize consideration of
+them in a separate chapter, even at the risk of appearing to give them
+undue importance.
+
+[Illustration: 192. GERMAN ITALIC. GOTTLIEB MUNCH, 1744]
+
+The first Italic type letter was derived, it is said, from the handwriting
+of Petrarch, and several admirable examples of the style, variously
+treated, have come down to us. As far as construction goes Italic is,
+theoretically, only the exact Roman form sloped, and with such changes as
+are necessitated by the sloping of the letters. Practically, however, it
+will be found that certain alterations in the outlines of the Roman letters
+must be made after giving them a slope in order to adapt them to their new
+requirements of inter-juxtaposition; and, by a reflex action, when words in
+Italic capitals are used in the same panel with upright Roman letters,
+certain variations must be made in the latter, such as accenting the Roman
+O in the same fashion as the Italic _O_ is accented, an altered treatment
+of serifs, and other changes in detail.
+
+The Script form of letter was developed out of the running or writing hand,
+and still retains a cursive tendency in the linking together of its
+letters; although in some forms it so closely approximates to Italic as to
+be almost [183] indistinguishable from it. Script lettering came into its
+greatest vogue during the Georgian period in England and at the same time
+in France; and was extensively employed, usually in conjunction with the
+upright Roman, in carved panels of stone or wood, and in engraving. The
+Script forms are well worthy of the attention of modern designers since
+they offer unusual opportunities for freedom and individuality of
+treatment; and because of this vitality and adaptility to modern uses the
+present chapter will be devoted largely to the illustration of Script
+examples.
+
+The old Spanish and Italian writing-books (referred to in a previous
+chapter), which in a measure took the place filled so much less
+artistically to-day by our modern school copybooks, contain many specimens
+of beautiful Script, both capitals and small letters. Figures 193 to 196
+show pages from such books published in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: 193. SPANISH SCRIPT. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802]
+
+[Illustration: 194. SPANISH SCRIPTS. TORQUATO TORIO, 1802]
+
+[Illustration: 195. SPANISH SCRIPT. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[Illustration: 196. SPANISH CURSIVE. FRANCISCO LUCAS, 1577]
+
+[188]
+
+A simple type of Spanish capital Script letter is shown in 201, while a
+corresponding small letter, redrawn from a Spanish source, is illustrated
+in 202. It should be noted in the latter figure that the three lower lines
+are further removed from the ordinary writing hand and are more interesting
+than the letters in the three upper lines.
+
+[Illustration: 197. MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON]
+
+[Illustration: 198. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. GEORGE WHARTON EDWARDS]
+
+The French artists and engravers were, as has been said, among the first to
+appreciate the qualities of Script, and used it in many of their engraved
+title-pages, especially during the reigns of Louis xv. and xvi. Figure 199
+shows a set of French Script capitals of the time of Louis XV., highly
+flourished but more formal than those shown in 201.
+
+A form of Script very nearly allied to the Italic was frequently used for
+the lettering on headstones and wall tombs in the churches and churchyards
+of England. Figure 203, in which the lettering is taken from a tomb in
+Westminster Abbey, illustrates this style of Script.
+
+A set of Script small letters with some unusual characteristics, adapted by
+Hrachowina from the German Renaissance form shown in outline in 192, is
+exhibited as a solid letter in figure 200.
+
+[Illustration: 199. FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 200. GERMAN SCRIPT AFTER HRACHOWINA. 18th CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: 201. SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. EARLY 18th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 202. SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. LATE 17th CENTURY. F. C. B.]
+
+[Illustration: 203. ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. FROM INSCRIPTIONS. F. C. B.]
+
+[194]
+
+[Illustration: 204. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 205. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. BRUCE ROGERS]
+
+[Illustration: 206. MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. AFTER FRANK HAZENPLUG]
+
+[Illustration: 207. MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B.]
+
+Among modern American designers, Mr. Bruce Rogers has admirably succeeded
+in catching the French and Georgian spirit in his treatment of the Script
+characters; yet, nevertheless, his lettering in this style is still modern
+in feeling. In the title from a book cover, 204, Mr. Rogers has allowed
+himself just the proper amount of interlacement and flourishing--both of
+which require the restraint of a subtle taste or the result may prove to be
+over-elaborate. The page of lettering by the same designer, shown in 205,
+is a successful solution of a difficult problem, and, together with the
+book cover, will serve to exhibit the possibilities of this style of
+Script.
+
+Mr. George Wharton Edwards is another modern designer who has a penchant
+for the Script form. He uses one distinctive and personal style of it in
+which the larger letters are formed by two black lines separated by a
+narrow white space, as exhibited in 198.
+
+The lines from an advertisement, 197, by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, in
+which Script, Italic and Roman letters are combined, are of especial
+interest from the easy manner in which the three different styles have been
+adapted to each other and made to harmonize in one small panel, [198] while
+still preserving an appropriate Georgian aspect. The interlacement and
+flourishing, too, are handled with commendable restraint.
+
+Few modern artists have so successfully treated Italic capitals with Script
+freedom as Mr. Will Bradley. Sometimes employing forms of Italic capitals
+and small letters little removed from type, he will again give us an
+example of his handiwork in which Italic is used with examplary freedom, as
+is shown in the specimen from a book catalogue, 109. The modern trick of
+wide spacing often lends itself aptly to the swing and freedom of the
+swashed and flourished lines of Script, as may be seen in figure 207.
+
+An excellent modern Script letter, adapted from a design by Mr. Frank
+Hazenplug, is shown in 206. Its heavy face and originality of form make it
+a useful and pleasing variant.
+
+[Illustration: 208. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. ANONYMOUS]
+
+[Illustration: 209. MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. EDWARD PENFIELD]
+
+The magazine heading, by an anonymous designer, 208, and the line from the
+pen of Mr. Edward Penfield, 209, suggest still other useful varieties of
+the Script form.
+
+[199]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TO THE BEGINNER
+
+The beginner in any art or craft is likely to have an undue respect for the
+mere instruments of his trade. He will eventually learn that tools play a
+much less important part in his work than he at first thinks; but, as it is
+unlikely that any sudden change in human nature will occur, it seems as
+well to devote here some consideration to the tools which the student will
+always believe to be an important part of his equipment. He will ultimately
+ascertain for himself what is best adapted to his own individual needs.
+
+Though every draughtsman will recommend a pen that he has discovered to be
+especially suitable for his own use, few will be found to agree. Perhaps it
+is safe to say, however, that the best all-round pen for lettering is the
+Gillot No. 303. It is not too sharp, and when broken in is flexible and
+easy. The crowquill pen will be found of little use. It is an advantage to
+have at hand a large coarse pen of little flexibility and smooth point for
+drawing heavy lines of even width. In using water-color in place of ink
+such a pen will be found more satisfactory than the Gillot 303, as the
+thinness of the fluid causes the line to spread whenever pressure is
+applied to a limber and finely pointed pen, with the result that the line
+is not only broadened, but when dry shows darker than was intended, as more
+color is deposited than in a narrow line. When a [200] narrow line of even
+width and sharpness is desired it is best to use a new pen; an older pen
+will, on the other hand, allow of more ease in swelling and broadening the
+line under pressure. A thin dry line may be obtained by turning the pen
+over and drawing with the back of the nib, although if the pen so used be
+worn it is apt to have a "burr" over the point that may prevent its working
+satisfactorily in this way. A new hard pen is likely to be the cause of a
+"niggling" line; a too limber one of a careless or undesirably broad line.
+On rare occasions, and for obtaining certain effects, a stub pen may be
+found of value, but it cannot be recommended to the beginner, as it is very
+difficult to find one that has sufficient flexibility of nib. Quill pens
+are undoubtedly useful in drawing a few types of letters (see some of the
+designs by Mr. Walter Crane shown in previous pages, for examples) but, not
+to allude to the difficulty of properly pointing a quill, which seems to be
+a well-nigh lost art nowadays, the instrument possesses so many annoying
+peculiarities that it is as well to avoid its use until a satisfactory
+command over the more dependable steel pens has been obtained.
+
+A pencil is, of course, a necessity in laying out the first scheme for
+lettering. The softer the pencil the more felicitous will the composition
+seem; but the beginner should guard against being too easily pleased with
+the effect thus obtained, as it is often due to the deceptive
+indefiniteness of line and pleasant gray tone. When inked-in, in
+uncompromising black against the white paper, the draughtsman is apt to
+find that his sketch has developed many an imperfection, both in
+composition and in individual letter shapes, that the vague pencil lines
+did not reveal. [201]
+
+As to paper, Bristol-board has the best smooth surface for lettering. The
+English board is in some ways better than the American, but has the
+disadvantage of being made in smaller sheets. The difficulty with any
+smooth board is that erasures, even of pencil lines, are likely to spoil
+its surface. The rough "Strathmore" American board has a very grateful
+surface upon which the pen may be used with almost as much freedom as the
+pencil. All rough surfaces, however, while tending to promote interesting
+lines, are not suited for careful lettering, and the classic and Italian
+forms especially require to be drawn upon the smoothest possible surface.
+The American "Strathmore" board may also be obtained in smooth finish; and,
+indeed, is less injured by erasures than most Bristol-boards.
+
+The prepared India or carbon inks such as "Higgin's" or "Carter's" are best
+for the beginner; although all prepared inks have a tendency to get muddy
+if allowed to stand open, and the so-called "waterproof" inks are easily
+smudged.
+
+In devising a panel of lettering, such as a title-page for example, the
+draughtsman's first step would naturally be to sketch out the whole design
+at a very small size, say an inch and a half high, in pencil. This small
+sketch should determine, first, the general balance of the page; second,
+the inter-relations and spacings of the various lines and words and their
+relative importance and sizes. From this thumb-nail sketch the design
+should be drawn out at full size in pencil, and much more carefully. In
+this redrawing the separate letter shapes and their harmonious relations to
+each other should be determined, and such deviations made from the smaller
+sketch as seem to benefit the effect. [202] Some draughtsmen sketch out
+each line of lettering separately on thin paper, and then, after blackening
+the back of this sheet, lay each line over the place where it is needed in
+the design, tracing the outlines of the letters with a hard point, and thus
+transferring them to the design beneath. In this way a page of lettering
+may be studied out line by line, and accurately placed or centered; but the
+process is tedious, and there is always danger of losing sight of the
+effect as a whole.
+
+In outlining letters which are ultimately intended to be solidly
+blacked-in, the beginner should guard against making his outlines too wide,
+especially as regards the thin lines, for the eye in judging an outline
+sketch follows the insides of the bounding lines rather than the outsides
+which will really be the _out_lines of the blacked-in letter, so that when
+finished the letter is likely to look heavier and more clumsy than in the
+sketch.
+
+When the entire pencil scheme seems satisfactory in every detail, and each
+line has been exactly determined, the whole should be carefully inked-in.
+In inking-in letters the swing of the arm should be as free and
+unobstructed as possible. For the best result it is absolutely necessary to
+work at a wide board on a solid table of convenient height and angle. It is
+impossible to letter well in a cramped or unsteady position. One thing
+cannot be too strongly urged upon the beginner. Never use a T-square,
+triangle or ruling pen in inking-in lettering. It will be found ultimately
+much easier to train hand and eye to make a straight and true line
+free-hand than to attempt to satisfactorily combine a ruled and free-hand
+line. The free-hand method is, be it acknowledged, both more lengthy and
+[203] difficult at first, but when the draughtsman does finally gain a
+mastery over his line he has achieved something which he will find of the
+greatest value.
+
+In a drawing to be reproduced by mechanical processes, the proportions of
+the design are, of course, unalterably determined by the required panel or
+page; but the _size_ of the _drawing_ may be such as best suits the
+inclination and convenience of the draughtsman. If the drawing is to be
+reduced in size (and that is the usual method, because, in general, it is
+easier to draw large rather than small), the draughtsman must first decide
+on the amount of reduction to which his style of rendering and the subject
+itself are best adapted, remembering, however, that a drawing is sure to
+suffer from excessive reduction, not only in general effect but in
+interest, for the quality of the line is sure in a measure to disappear. A
+reduction of height or width by one-third is the usual amount; but many of
+our modern designers obtain their best effects by making their drawings but
+a trifle larger than the required reproduction. Some even make their
+drawings of the same size; others only from a twelfth to a sixth larger. As
+a rule, the less the reduction the less the departure from the effect of
+the original, and the more certainly satisfactory the result, although more
+careful drawing and greater exactness of line are necessary.
+
+[Illustration: 210. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL]
+
+To keep the outlines of a panel in the same proportion while enlarging its
+area for the purpose of making a drawing for reproduction, lay out the
+required _finished_ size of the panel near the upper left hand corner of
+the paper, and draw a diagonal line through the upper left hand and lower
+right hand corner of this panel, extending it beyond the panel [204]
+boundaries. From any given point along this diagonal, lines drawn parallel
+to the side and top lines of the original panel, and extended till they
+intersect the extended left side line and top line of the original panel,
+will give an outline of the same proportions as the required panel. By
+taking various points on the diagonal, panels of any height or width but
+still of the proper proportions may be obtained (see diagram 210). Diagram
+211 illustrates a variation of the previous method of enlarging the
+proportions of a panel, in which, by the use of two diagonals, both
+perpendicular and horizontal center lines are retained.
+
+When it is necessary to lay out a border of a predetermined width within
+the required panel, the foregoing method can only be used to determine the
+_outside_ lines of such a border, and it becomes necessary to make the
+drawing some numerical proportion, say, one-half as large again, or twice
+as large as the finished panel. The width of the border will then be of the
+same proportionate width.
+
+The beginner will find it always wise to base his lettering on penciled top
+and bottom guide lines, and occasionally to add "waist" guide lines, as in
+193. Indeed, it is rare that even accomplished letterers dispense with
+these simple aids. These guide lines should invariably be laid-in with the
+[205] T-square and triangle. After drawing the horizontal guides, it is
+often advisable to run a few perpendicular lines up and down the paper,
+which will serve to guard against the very common likelihood of the letters
+acquiring a tilt. In drawing Italic, Script, and all sloping letters
+numerous sloping guide lines are especially necessary; see 193.
+Perpendicular guide lines will be found of marked assistance, also in
+drawing Gothic small letters, which, as they do not come against the top
+and bottom guide lines squarely, but at an angle, are often deceptive.
+
+[Illustration: 211. DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL]
+
+If it is desirable to make two lines of lettering of the same length,
+although they contain an unequal number of letters, this may be
+effected--provided, of course, that the number of letters does not vary too
+greatly--by broadening or narrowing the letters that occur in one line but
+not in the other, and by varying the spacings about the I's and the open
+letters. Note, for example, the spacing of the upper lines in the poster by
+Mr. Crane, 87. It is by no means essential to draw the same letter always
+exactly alike even in the same line; in fact, variation is generally
+demanded by the different surroundings and neighboring letters. So long as
+the general character of the letter remains unchanged in its distinctive
+features, such as weight, [206] treatment of serifs, angles, height of
+waist and cross lines, etc., its width and outlines may be varied and
+arranged to help out the spacing without interfering, to any noticeable
+extent, with the uniform appearance of the line.
+
+In Roman lettering emphasis may be obtained for any special word by spacing
+its letters farther apart. This has something of the same emphasizing
+effect as the use of Italic, without so greatly breaking the harmony of the
+line. Much of the lettering of the Italian Renaissance shows a very subtle
+appreciation of this use, and in some of the most beautiful inscriptions
+the important words are often so differentiated, while others are
+emphasized by slightly larger characters.
+
+As a general rule, and within certain limits, the wider a letter the more
+legible it is likely to be. Blackness and boldness of stem alone will not
+make a letter readable. Width, boldness of hair lines and serifs, and a
+proper amount of surrounding white space are more essential. The Roman
+letter is more legible than the Blackletter mainly because it is black
+against a roomy white ground; while Blackletter, on the contrary, is really
+defined by small interrupted areas of whites upon a black ground.
+
+A common limitation of many draughtsmen is that they become accomplished in
+the rendering of but one style of letter, and find themselves obliged to
+use it on all occasions, whether it be suited to the work in hand or not,
+because they can command no other. In the case of certain designers, of
+course, the individuality of their work is strong enough to bind both
+lettering and design so closely together that they can never seem at
+dissonance; but, speaking generally, the adherance to the use of but [207]
+one type of letter can be but narrowing. The beginner is urged, therefore,
+to practice the use of many styles, even at the expense of gaining an
+immediate mastery over no one form. He will find himself amply repaid in
+the end by the increase in freedom and variety.
+
+While the student should possess enough knowledge of the historic styles
+and examples of lettering to prevent him from using incongruous or
+anachronous forms in the same design, historic accuracy need not prevent
+him from engrafting the characteristics of dissimilar styles upon one
+another, provided that the results prove harmonious and appropriate.
+
+Finally, the draughtsman's first aim should be to make his lettering
+readable: after this has been accomplished he should strive to give it
+beauty. Art in lettering is only to be attained by solving the problem of
+legibility in the way most pleasing to the eye. Good lettering should
+appeal both to the eye and to the mind. Only when it combines legibility
+with beauty can it be excellent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  A., 6, 9.
+  Abbey, Edwin A., 97, 132, 140.
+  Accenting, of Blackletters, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 2;
+    of Minuscules, 56;
+    of Round Gothic, 132;
+    of Italic and Script, 182.
+  American Lettering, Modern Roman, 53, 64, 75, 82, 97;
+    Classic Roman, 3, 14;
+    Gothic, 132, 136, 140, 142;
+    Italic, 194, 198;
+    Script, 194, 198.
+  Anglo-Saxon Letters, 46, 47;
+    modern use of, 46.
+  Ascenders, height above body, 57;
+    in "Cheltenham Old Style" type, 71;
+    in Gothic, 131;
+    in Blackletters, 135.
+  Ashbee, C. R., 74.
+  Auriol, George, 88.
+
+  B., 6.
+  Badia, Florence, lettering from, 45.
+  Bell, Robert Anning, 96.
+  Blacked-in letters, 202.
+  Blackletters, 127, 131, 132, 140, 141, 142;
+    accents of, 132;
+    ascenders and descenders of, 135;
+    capitals for use with, 134, 136, 139;
+    a condensed form of Gothic, 128;
+    construction of, 132, 141;
+    definition of, 128, 131;
+    effect of page of, 132;
+    with Roman letters, 72;
+    even color of, 134;
+    flourishes, 135;
+    individual letter forms, 132, 136;
+    illegibility of, 135, 136, 206;
+    a part-Roman form, 84;
+    a narrow form, 132;
+    old examples of, 136;
+    in panel forms, 136;
+    used solidly, 134, 135;
+    spacing of, 134, 136;
+    variety of, 82, 132, 135, 136.
+  Bonnard, Pierre, 91, 92.
+  Border, to lay out a, 204.
+  Boston Public Library, 14.
+  Bragdon, Claude Fayette, 64, 111, 194.
+  Brasses, Blackletters from, 138, 140.
+  Bridwell, H. L., 8, 112.
+  Bristol-board, 201.
+  Byzantine influence on Italian lettering, 45.
+
+  C., 8.
+  Capitals, used with Roman minuscules, 57;
+    with Round Gothic, 132;
+    with Blackletters, 136, 139;
+    (see also under Blackletter, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Modern Roman
+        Capitals, Script, Round Gothic, Uncial).
+  "Caroline" Text, 52.
+  Caslon, William, 64;
+    his type, 69.
+  Centering lines of lettering, 202.
+  Charlemagne, 52.
+  "Cheltenham Old Style" type, 71.
+  Cheltenham Press, The, 71.
+  Chisel-cut guide lines, 3.
+  Classic Capitals, see Roman Capitals.
+  Classic forms of letters, to draw, 3, 6, 201;
+    composition of, 6;
+    Italian Renaissance, 15, 27, 30.
+  "Colonial" lettering, 117.
+  Constantine, Arch of, lettering from, 11.
+  Construction, of Blackletters, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 3, 6;
+    of Roman Minuscules, 53, 56.
+  Craig, Gordon, 95, 96.
+  Crane, Walter, 47, 92, 200, 205.
+  Cross-bar in Roman Capitals, 6.
+  "Cursive" Letters, 91, 122.
+  Cursive tendency in Script lettering, 182.
+
+  D., 8.
+  'Dance of Death,' Holbein's, 117.
+  Day, Lewis F., 93.
+  Descenders, (see Ascenders).
+  De Vinne, Theo. L., 69.
+  Dove's Press, The, 69.
+  Drawing of letters, 201, 202, 205;
+    for reproduction, 203, 204.
+  Duerer, Albrecht, 31, 132, 138, 141.
+
+  E., 6, 104.
+  Early Gothic, (see Round Gothic).
+  Early Printing, 52, 64, 71.
+  Edwards, Edward B., 116.
+  Edwards, George Wharton, 194.
+  Emphasis in lettering, placing of, 206
+    (see also Accenting).
+  English Brasses derived from Flanders, 141.
+  English Gothic, 140, 141.
+  English lettering, modern, 75, 82, 92.
+  English, Letters, 47;
+    Script, 188,
+    (see also Anglo-Saxon).
+  Engraved Title-pages, French, 188.
+  Enlarging Drawings, 203, 204.
+
+  F., 6, 104.
+  f., 56.
+  Fell, H. Granville, 96.
+  Flanders, Brasses from, 141.
+  Flourishing, of Blackletters, 135;
+    of Script, 194, 198.
+  Free-hand lines, 202.
+  French, modern lettering, 74, 82, 86;
+    Script, 188, 194.
+  Freedom, in lettering, 53, 74, 82, 92, 102, 118, 122, 201;
+    in Blackletters, 136;
+    in Gothic, 127;
+    in Italic, 198;
+    in kerns, serifs and swash-lines, etc., 53;
+    in Roman letters, 82;
+    in Script, 183.
+
+  G., 8.
+  g., 57.
+  Georgian English lettering, 117, 183, 194, 198.
+  German lettering, modern, 74, 82, 84, 92;
+    early, 110, 117;
+    Script, 52, 188;
+    types, 52.
+  Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, 71, 102, 136, 142.
+  Gothic Capitals, for use with Blackletters, 139;
+    pen drawn, 140;
+    not to be used to form words, 132.
+  Gothic, English, (see English Gothic).
+  Gothic lettering, 127, 131, 134, 205;
+    cut in stone, 140;
+    (see also Blackletters and Uncial).
+  Granite, letters cut in, 11, 14,
+    (see also Stone-cut, V-sunk and Incised).
+  Grasset, Eugene, 86.
+  Greek type, 73.
+  Grolier Club, 69.
+  Guide-lines, 3, 204.
+
+  H., 6.
+  "Half-Uncial," 52.
+  Harvard Architectural Building, lettering on, 14.
+  Hazenplug, Frank, 116, 198.
+  Historic styles of lettering, knowledge of, 207.
+  Holbein's 'Dance of Death' initials, 117.
+  Horne, Herbert P., 72.
+  Hrachowina, C., 188.
+  Hupp, Otto, 142.
+
+  I., 8, 9;
+    space around, 205.
+  Illegibility of Blackletters, 135, 136.
+  Image, Selwyn, 73, 93.
+  Incised letters in stone, Gothic, 139, 140;
+    Classic Roman, 9, 14, 45;
+    (see also Granite, Inlaid, Marble, Sandstone, V-sunk and Stone-cut).
+  Ink, 201.
+  Inking-in lettering, 200, 202.
+  Inlaid lettering, Gothic, 141.
+  Interlacement of Script letters, 194.
+  Inter-relation of letters, 6, 135, 201.
+  Iorio, Adrian J., 107.
+  Irish letters, (see Anglo-Saxon).
+  Italian, Blackletters, 139, 141;
+    modern lettering, 92;
+    Renaissance (see Renaissance);
+    Roman small letters, 64;
+    types, 52;
+    writing-books, 64, 183;
+    letters, drawing of, 201.
+  Italic, 52, 182, 188, 194, 198;
+    capitals, 182, 198;
+    drawing of, 205;
+    emphasis of, 206.
+
+  J., 8.
+  j., 56.
+  Jenson, Nicholas, 64.
+  Jones, A. Garth, 96.
+
+  K., 6.
+  k., 56.
+  Kerns, 53, 56.
+  Kimball, H. Ingalls, 71.
+
+  L., 104.
+  Late Gothic, (see Blackletter).
+  Laying out, lettering, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205;
+    a border, 204.
+  Le Boutillier, Addison B., 110.
+  Legibility of lettering, 206, 207;
+    of Round Gothic, 132.
+  Letters, outlines of, 202, 206;
+    widths of, 206;
+    to lay out, 205;
+    execution of in various materials, 14;
+    (see also Brasses, Inlaid, Marble, Granite, Pen and Printed forms,
+        Sandstone, Type).
+  Lines, heavy, 199;
+    narrow, 199;
+    thin, 200;
+    in water-color, 200;
+    freehand, 202, 203;
+    ruled, 202.
+  Linking, of Blackletters, 136;
+    of Round Gothic, 132;
+    of Roman Capitals, 45;
+    of Script, 182.
+  Lowell, Orson, 117.
+
+  M., 2, 28.
+  m., 56.
+  Marble, letters cut in, 17, 27,
+    (see also Incised, Inlaid).
+  Marsuppini tomb, Florence, 28.
+  Magonigle, H. Van Buren, 102.
+  McKim, Mead & White, architects, 14.
+  Medals, lettering on, 30.
+  Merrymount Press, The, 71, 72.
+  "Merrymount" type, 71.
+  Minuscule, 1;
+    modern Roman, 52, 53, 56, 57, 64;
+    monumental uses, 57;
+    composition of, 64;
+    growing use of, 76, 122;
+    spacing of, 57;
+    (see also, Roman, Gothic, Italic, Script).
+  Modern lettering, (see under countries, American, English, French,
+      German, Italian).
+  Modern Roman Capitals, 6;
+    (see Chapter II).
+  Modern type, (see Type).
+  "Montaigne" type, 69.
+  "Mont' Allegro" type, 73.
+  Moore, Guernsey, 116.
+  Morris, William, 72;
+    types of, 69.
+  Mucha, Alphons M., 91.
+
+  N., 2.
+  Netherlands, brasses from, 141.
+  New, Edmund H., 96.
+  Nicholson, William, 95.
+
+  O., 8, 182.
+  o., 182
+  Optical Illusions in Roman Capitals, 8.
+  Outline letters, 202.
+
+  P., 6.
+  Pantheon, Rome, Raphael's tomb, 27.
+  Papers, drawing, 201.
+  Parchment, 128.
+  Parrish, Maxfield, 110, 122.
+  Parsons, Alfred, 96.
+  Pens, 199, 201;
+    crowquill, 199;
+    reed, 2;
+    ruling, 202;
+    stub, 200;
+    quill, 200.
+  Pen drawn forms of letters, 9, 27, 30, 31, 45, 56, 64, 74, 76, 122, 140,
+      182, 199, 202.
+  Pencils, 200, 201.
+  Penfield, Edward, 100, 116, 118, 198.
+  Petrarch, 52;
+    handwriting of, 182.
+  Pisano, Vittore, 30.
+  "Post Old Style" type, 116.
+  Presses, (see Merrymount, Vale, Riverside, Cheltenham, Dove's, and De
+      Vinne).
+  Printed forms of Roman letters, 9, 30, 52, 53, 56, 64, 69, 122.
+  Printers, German, 52;
+    Italian, 52, 64;
+    American, 69;
+    English, 64, 69, 72, 73;
+    Venetian, 53, 64.
+  Proportions of a design, 203.
+  Puttner, Walter, 142.
+  Pyle, Howard, 117.
+
+  Q., 2, 8, 92.
+  "Quadrigesimale," 69.
+  Quill pens, 200;
+    method of holding, 2, 131.
+
+  R., 2, 6, 8.
+  Railton, Herbert, 96.
+  Raphael's tomb, lettering from, 27.
+  Reduction of drawings, 203, 204.
+  Renaissance, letters, 15, 27, 30;
+    artists of the, 53;
+    lettering of the Italian, 206;
+    medals, 30;
+    purity of letter shapes, 69.
+  Renner, 69.
+  Renner type, 69.
+  Reproduction of drawings, 203.
+  Ricketts, Charles, 93.
+  Riverside Press, The, 69.
+  Rogers, Bruce, 69, 194.
+  Roman Capitals, 1, 27;
+    (see also Modern Roman);
+    thick and thin lines of, 1, 6;
+    model for, 3;
+    rules for, 2;
+    squareness of, 1, 6, 131;
+    peculiarities of, 6, 8.
+  Roman letters, 127, 136;
+    with Italic, 182;
+    combined with Script and Italic, 194;
+    cross bars of, 6;
+    definition of, 1;
+    legibility of, 206;
+    waist lines of, 6;
+    width proportions of, 6.
+  Roman minuscules, (see Minuscule).
+  Roman forms, Gothic Spirit in, 84;
+    Uncial, 128.
+  Romanesque influence on Italian lettering, 45.
+  Ross, Albert R., 3, 11, 32, 56.
+  Roty, O., 30.
+  Round Gothic, analysis of, 131;
+    definition of, 131;
+    capitals to use with, 132, 139.
+  Round letters, capitals, 2, 3;
+    Minuscules, 56, 71;
+    stone-cut, 3, 9.
+  Rubbings, from inscriptions, 11, 16.
+  Ruling pen, 202.
+
+  S., 8.
+  Sandstone, letters cut in, 14.
+  Santa Croce, Florence, lettering from, 28, 141.
+  Script, 182, 183, 188, 194, 198;
+    capitals, 188;
+    cursive tendency in, 182;
+    developed from writing hands, 182;
+    drawing of, 205;
+    French, 188;
+    German, 188;
+    on English headstones and wall tombs, 188;
+    Spanish, 188;
+    used in engravings, 188;
+    used with upright Roman, 182, 183.
+  Serifs, 8, 16;
+    definition of, 3;
+    in Minuscule letters, 53, 69, 71;
+    in Italic letters, 182;
+    treatment of, 206.
+  Serlio, Sebastian, 3, 11, 32.
+  Shadows in V-sunk letters, 10, 11, 14.
+  Shaw, Byam, 96.
+  Simpson, Joseph W., 93.
+  Small letters, (see Minuscule, also Modern Roman, Gothic, Script and
+      Italic).
+  Spacing, of Classic Roman letters, 6, 8;
+    of Blackletters, 128, 134, 136;
+    of Minuscules, 53, 56, 57;
+    of type, 56;
+    of "Montaigne" type, 69;
+    of "Cheltenham" type, 71;
+    of letters and words, 201, 205;
+    emphasis obtained by, 206.
+  Spanish, Script, 188;
+    Roman letters, 64;
+    writing-books, 64, 183.
+  Stone-cut letters, Roman, 3, 9, 14;
+    (see also Incised, V-sunk, Granite, Marble, Sandstone).
+  Sullivan, James F., 96.
+  Swash lines, 2, 53, 136.
+
+  T., 8, 28.
+  Tagliente, G. A., 31.
+  Thompson, Hugh, 96.
+  Tory, Geoffrey, 31.
+  Townsend, Harry Everett, 117.
+  Transferring of lettering, 202.
+  Type, 9, 52, 64, 74.
+  Type-founders, 9, 56, 64.
+  Type models for pen lettering, use of, 74, 76, 122.
+
+  Uncial letters, 45, 76, 84, 92, 128;
+    Gothic, 139;
+    meta forms of, 140;
+    pen forms of, 140;
+    stone-cut, 140;
+    stone and marble, 139.
+  Updike, D. Berkeley, 71.
+
+  V., 9.
+  Vale Press, The, 93.
+  Van Rysselberghe, Theo., 91.
+  Venetian printers, 53, 64.
+  Verneuil, M. P., 86.
+  Vinci, Leonardo da, 31.
+  V-sunk Roman lettering, 9, 10, 14;
+    (see also Incised).
+
+  W., 9.
+  w., 56.
+  Waist lines, 6, 204;
+    of Roman letters, 6, 204, 206.
+  Westminster Abbey, England, 188.
+  Width proportions, of Roman Capital letters, 6.
+  Writing-books, 64, 183.
+  Writing hand, 188;
+    of Petrarch, 182;
+    Script developed from, 182.
+
+  X., 6.
+
+  Y., 6.
+  y., 56.
+
+  Z., 2.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS
+
+PEN DRAWING
+
+By CHARLES D. MAGINNIS
+
+An illustrated treatise, with many examples of the work of all the more
+eminent modern pen draughtsmen. A practical text-book, which aims to put
+the student in the most direct way of attaining successful proficiency in
+the art of drawing.
+
+"The book is very useful; all the features are good."--JOHN P. KUHL,
+Carlstadt, N. J.
+
+"I have learned a great deal in a short time from Mr. Maginnis's
+treatise."--H. E. HUNT, Ambridge, Pa.
+
+"I have found it a great help in pen drawing, and consider it a most
+instructive book."--WM. E. MEVINS, Buffalo, N. Y.
+
+"Would recommend it to any one wishing to do pen drawing or to a student
+wishing to take up the work as I did."--E. E. CHRISTOPHER, St. Louis, Mo.
+
+"I find it a most delightful little book, valuable for the student, as also
+for those desirous of gaining some insight into this art."--CHAS. J.
+FELLGER, Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+"The illustrations are excellent, and the instructions clear and to the
+point. It is a guide to the beginner and material help to the experienced.
+I am very pleased with it."--A. E. BUCKLER, Niagara Falls, N. Y.
+
+"'Pen Drawing' has benefited me a great deal, as it would anybody who made
+a proper use of it. Its many illustrations, together with their descriptive
+text, make the book what I think it was intended for, a good teacher."--H.
+W. BONNAH, Port Huron, Mich.
+
+"I think it a most excellent little book, well worth careful reading by any
+artist or draughtsman. Everything seems to me clearly stated and all points
+aptly illustrated with good examples. I do not see how it could be much
+better for the price."--S. GIFFORD SLOCUM, Architect, New York City
+
+PRICE, POSTAGE PREPAID, $1.50
+
+144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS
+
+DETAILS OF
+
+Building Construction
+
+By CLARENCE A. MARTIN
+
+A collection or 33 plates, 10 x 121/2 inches, giving over 300 separate
+details covering all the ordinary methods of building, and in many cases
+showing alternative methods. The plates are models of detail drawing, and
+the text is in the form of notes lettered on the drawings.
+
+"I think it a valuable book to have near one in the draughting-room."--C.
+A. MCGREEN, Columbus, O.
+
+"I have studied all the details and I have found them very profitable to
+me."--ERNEST H. DOWNING, New York City
+
+"This book and 'Kidder's' are two that I could hardly get along
+without."--LOREN O. KIRK, Minneapolis, Minn.
+
+"The best book of its kind on the market. It is concise, practical, saves
+time and gives new ideas."--S. R. QUICK, Fort Collins, Col.
+
+"It saves me considerable time, is twice worth the price I paid for it, and
+also gives me endless number of new ideas."--JOHN SCHIER, Milwaukee, Wis.
+
+"Has saved me time, labor and trouble. A good book for ready reference in
+the draughting-room."--A. C. STORCH, Pittsburg, Pa.
+
+"The work has proven to be very useful to me, and I do not hesitate to
+recommend it highly, especially to students."--W. R. TROWBRIDGE, Altoona,
+Pa.
+
+"During the last few years I have purchased from you at least 25 or 30
+copies. My customers are well pleased with it."--THOMAS HENRY, Book Dealer,
+Toronto, Ont.
+
+"The most practical work on the subject there is, or at least that I have
+seen. I have never regretted the money I paid for it, and the book is
+always near at hand."--H. A. GOODSPEED, Providence, R. I.
+
+PRICE, POSTAGE PREPAID, $2.50
+
+144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BATES & GUILD COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS
+
+ARCHITECTURAL
+
+SHADES & SHADOWS
+
+By HENRY McGOODWIN
+
+The purpose and usefulness of this book is twofold: it is intended, first,
+as a practical reference hand-book for the architect's office--a
+"dictionary," as it were, of all the shades and shadows of those
+architectural forms and details which are used in rendering drawings; and
+second, as a clear and accurate course of study in the methods of
+determining shadows, for use in schools, offices, and ateliers.
+
+As a text-book for draughtsmen it is the clearest and most thorough work
+that has ever been written on the subject. The study is approached from the
+standpoint and in the language of the architect rather than of the
+geometrician; and great pains have been taken to demonstrate every problem
+in the simplest terms and by the simplest methods.
+
+The book measures 91/2 x 121/2 inches, and is substantially bound in cloth.
+
+PRICE, EXPRESS PAID, $4.00
+
+144 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON, MASS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Letters and Lettering, by Frank Chouteau Brown
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTERS AND LETTERING ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20590.txt or 20590.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/5/9/20590/
+
+Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Keith Edkins and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/20590.zip b/20590.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5164e24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20590.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6eda848
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #20590 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20590)