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diff --git a/20557.txt b/20557.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c8c75d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/20557.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8327 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Household +Science in Rural Schools, by Ministry of Education Ontario + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Household Science in Rural Schools + +Author: Ministry of Education Ontario + +Release Date: February 10, 2007 [EBook #20557] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS *** + + + + +Produced by Sigal Alon, Turgut Dincer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + + + + +ONTARIO +TEACHERS' MANUALS + +HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE +IN +RURAL SCHOOLS + +[Illustration: Printer's mark.] + +AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION + +TORONTO +WILLIAM BRIGGS + +Copyright. Canada. 1918. by +The Minister of Education for Ontario + + + + +CONTENTS + + + + PAGE + +Preface vii + +Three Short Courses in Home-making 1 + Introduction 1 + A Library on Home Economics for the Rural School 2 +Twenty Lessons in the Care of the Home 4 + Suggestions to the Teacher 4 + Equipment 5 + Reference Books 6 + Lesson I: Arrangement and Care of the Kitchen 7 + Lesson II: Care of Cupboards and Utensils 10 + Lesson III: Care of Foods 12 + Lesson IV: Disposal of Waste 14 + Lesson V: Making Soap 17 + Lesson VI: Setting and Clearing the Table 18 + Lesson VII: Waiting on Table 21 + Lessons VIII and IX: General Cleaning of a Room 23 + Lesson X: Care of the Bed-room 25 + Lesson XI: Care of Lamps 27 + Lesson XII: Prevention of Pests 29 + Lesson XIII: Removing Stains, Bleaching Fabrics, + and Setting Colours 32 + Lesson XIV: Washing Dish-Towels, Aprons, etc. 34 + Lesson XV: Ironing 35 + Lessons XVI and XVII: Care of the Baby 36 + Lesson XVIII: Cost of Food, Clothing, and House 39 + Lesson XIX: How to Keep Accounts 39 + Lesson XX: Care of the Exterior of the House 41 + Reference Books 44 + +Twenty Lessons in Cooking 45 + Suggestions to the Teacher 45 + Abbreviations and Measurements 48 + Table of Level Measurements 48 + Comparisons Between Weights and Measures 48 + Reference Books 49 + Lesson I: Discussion of Foods and Cooking 50 + Recipes 52 + Lesson II: Preparing and Serving Vegetables 53 + Recipes 55 + Lesson III: The Value of Carbohydrates in the Diet 58 + Recipes 59 + Lesson IV: Fruits and Vegetables 60 + Recipes--Open-kettle Method; Cold-pack Method; + Single Process Method; Intermittent Method 63 + Lesson V: Fats--Vegetables--Continued 66 + Recipes 68 + Experiments in Using Starch for Thickening 69 + Conclusions Based on the Foregoing Experiments 69 + Lesson VI: Cereals 70 + Recipes 71 + Lesson VII: Classification of Foods--Reviewed 73 + Black-board Summary 76 + Lesson VIII: The Planning and Serving of Meals 76 + Examples of Well-chosen Menus 77 + Lesson IX: Milk 79 + Recipes 81 + Lesson X: Soups 82 + Recipes 83 + Lesson XI: Eggs 85 + Recipes 86 + Lesson XII: Simple Desserts--Custards 88 + Recipes 89 + Lesson XIII: Batters and Doughs 90 + Recipes 91 + Lesson XIV: Batters and Doughs--Continued 92 + Recipes 93 + Lesson XV: Meats 94 + Recipes 95 + Lesson XVI: Baked Pork and Beans--Baking-powder Biscuits 98 + Recipes 98 + Lesson XVII: Butter Cakes--Plain Yellow Cake--Cocoa + Coffee--Tea 99 + Recipes 101 + Lesson XVIII: Yeast Bread 103 + Recipes 104 + Lesson XIX: Serving a Simple Dinner Without Meat--Baked + Omelet--Macaroni and Cheese 106 + Recipes 106 + Lesson XX: Sugar 107 + Recipes 108 + +Twenty Lessons in Sewing 110 + Suggestions to the Teacher 110 + Reference Books 112 + Lesson I: Preparation for Sewing 113 + Lesson II: Hemming Towels 115 + Lesson III: Hemming Towels--Continued 116 + Lesson IV: Bags 119 + Lesson V: Bags--Continued 120 + Lesson VI: Bags--Continued 122 + Lesson VII: Bags--Continued 123 + Lesson VIII: Bags--Continued 124 + Lesson IX: Darning Stockings 127 + Lesson X: Patching 128 + Lesson XI: Cutting Out Aprons or Undergarments 130 + Lesson XII: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 132 + Lesson XIII: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 134 + Lesson XIV: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 135 + Lesson XV: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 136 + Lesson XVI: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 137 + Lesson XVII: Methods of Fastening Garments 138 + Lesson XVIII: Methods of Fastening Garments--Continued 140 + Lesson XIX: A Padded Holder for Handling Hot Dishes + Binding 142 + Lesson XX: A Cap to Wear with the Cooking Apron 144 + +Household Science Equipment 146 + Household Science Cabinet + Materials Required, Stock Bill, Tools, Directions + for Making 161 + Equipment for Rural School Household Science + Cabinet--No. I 173 + Equipment for Rural School Household Science + Cabinet--No. II 174 + The Hectograph 177 + +The Rural School Lunch 178 + The Box Lunch 179 + Contents of the Lunch Box 181 + Sandwich Making 182 + Suggestions for Sandwich Fillings 182 + Suggestions for Planning 183 + Suggestions for Desserts 184 + Packing the Lunch Box 184 + Rules for Packing 184 + Equipment for Packing 185 + +Serving a Hot Dish 186 + The Method 186 + Suggested Menus 189 + Suggestions for Hot Dishes for Four Weeks 189 + +Recipes Suitable for the Rural School Lunch 191 + Useful Bulletins 200 + +Household Science Without School Equipment 201 + First Method 201 + Second Method 204 + +The Fireless Cooker 208 + Directions for Fireless Cooker--No. I 210 + The Outside Container 210 + The Insulating Material 212 + The Inside Container 214 + The Kettle 214 + Extra Source of Heat 215 + Covering Pad 215 + Directions for Fireless Cooker--No. II 217 + Method of Making 217 + Directions for Fireless Cooker--No. III 217 + Method of Making 218 + +Use of the Fireless Cooker in the Preparation of Lunches 218 + +Special Grants for Rural and Village Schools 221 + + + + +PREFACE + + +This Manual is issued for the purpose of encouraging the introduction +and furthering the progress of Household Science in the rural schools of +this Province. There are 903 urban and 5,697 rural schools, and 45.87% +of the school population is in attendance at the latter schools. The +value of Household Science as an educational and practical subject has +been recognized, to some extent, in the urban schools of the Province +but, up to the present, little attempt has been made to give the subject +a place among the activities of the rural schools. + +There is a wide-spread impression that it is not possible in Household +Science to give any instruction that is of value without the provision +of separate rooms, elaborate equipment, and specially trained teachers. +Where these conditions exist, of course, the best work can be +accomplished; but, even where they cannot be realized, much may be done +toward giving definite, useful instruction in the cardinal principles of +home-making, which should be learned by every girl. There is certainly +not a single rural school where some practical work in sewing and some +valuable lessons in the care of the home may not be given. As for +cookery, it is doubtful if there is a single school so small and so +helpless that it is unable to use the hot noon-day lunch as a method of +approach to this branch of the subject. + +Students of the physical welfare of children are rapidly coming to the +conclusion that a warm mid-day meal greatly increases the efficiency of +the pupil and determines to a large extent the results of the +afternoon's study. There are other benefits to be derived from a school +lunch well prepared under proper conditions. In many communities it has +been the means of bringing about a healthy and satisfactory co-operation +between the school and the home, of developing a higher social life in +the neighbourhood, and of introducing into the school a Household +Science course, which has proved as great a benefit to the farmer's wife +as to his children. + +This Manual deals entirely with conditions that exist in our rural +schools and outlines only such plans and schemes as can be carried out, +even in adverse circumstances, by alert trustees, sympathetic +inspectors, and resourceful teachers. + +Permission has been obtained from the Bureau of Education, Washington, +U.S.A., to make use of a recently issued bulletin--"Three Courses in +Home-making for Rural Schools", and of various bulletins issued by State +Agricultural Colleges. The freest use has been made of this material, +and the permission to do so is hereby gratefully acknowledged. + +Only such theory as can be readily assimilated has been given; and the +teacher is advised for further information and help to consult the +Manuals issued by the Department of Education on _Household Management_ +and _Sewing_. Those who wish to become thoroughly competent and to earn +the highest Departmental grants should attend the Summer Schools +provided by the Department of Education. Under certain conditions the +expenses of teachers attending these courses are paid by the Department. + +Nothing has been included or recommended that cannot be accomplished in +the average rural school; and trustees, teachers, and inspectors are +urged to make a beginning by selecting the lessons that appeal to them +as being most suitable to the districts in which their schools are +situated. + +By careful planning and a wise use of the time before and after school +and during recess, the regular organization of the school need not be +interfered with; and, in addition to the educational and social +advantages to be derived from undertaking this work, much benefit will +result from the increased interest taken in the school by the parents +and the general public. + +It is not essential that the lessons in this Manual should be taken +exactly in the order given. Any other arrangement called for by the +peculiar circumstances of the school is admissible. + +The Inspector of Manual Training and Household Science is ready at all +times to visit rural schools for the purpose of conferring with the +Public School Inspectors, the trustees, and the teachers regarding the +introduction of Household Science as a regular subject of the school +curriculum. + + + + +HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE IN RURAL +SCHOOLS + +THREE SHORT COURSES IN HOME-MAKING + + +INTRODUCTION + +The three brief courses in home-making outlined in this Manual have been +especially prepared for use in elementary rural schools. They are in no +sense complete outlines of the subjects with which they deal; rather, +they indicate a few of the important phases of food study, sewing, and +the care of the home with which the pupil in the elementary school +should become familiar. The underlying thought for each problem should +be: "Will this help the pupils to live more useful lives, and will it +lead to better conditions in their homes?" + +The lessons are purposely made simple, and the plans are definitely +outlined, so that even the inexperienced teacher may be able to achieve +a certain measure of success. The experienced teacher will find in them +suggestions that may be of value in the further development of the +course. + +The teacher who desires to use this course will necessarily have to +adapt it to her own community, and it is hoped that she may be able to +do this with but little alteration. While conditions of living and +choice of foods differ in various parts of the Province, the general +principles of nutrition, the rules of sanitation, and the methods of +cooking and serving are much the same for all. + +Owing to the difficulty of securing time on the programme for frequent +lessons in home-making, each of the courses has been limited to twenty +lessons. Some teachers may not be able to have a greater number of +lessons during the school year, and they may find it well to carry the +three courses through three successive years. In other schools, where +more frequent lessons can be given, it may be well to offer all three +courses during one year. The courses in cooking and the care of the home +can be advantageously combined, as many of the problems in both are +related. The lessons in sewing may be given on another day of the week, +or it may be well to give them early in the year, to be followed, later, +by the cooking lessons. Thus an opportunity will be furnished for the +making of the cooking aprons and the hemming of the towels. + +It is most desirable that periods of at least forty minutes should be +provided for all the practical lessons. Longer periods will be necessary +for some of them, such as the preparation and the serving of a meal. If +no practical work is undertaken in the lesson, a forty-minute period is +sufficient. + + +LIBRARY ON HOME ECONOMICS FOR THE RURAL SCHOOL + +In addition to the text-books recommended as sources of special +reference for the rural teacher, the following books, bearing on home +economics or on methods of teaching, are suggested for the rural school +library. These books have been chosen with the threefold purpose of +providing references for the teachers, reading matter for the pupils, +and a lending library for the parents. + +_Laundering._ Balderston, L. Ray. Pub. by the Author. + Philadelphia $1.25 + +_Country Life and the Country School._ Carney, M. Row, + Peterson & Co., Chicago 1.25 + +_How the World is Fed._ Carpenter, F. O. American Book + Co., New York .60 + +_How the World is Clothed._ Carpenter, F. O. American + Book Co., New York .60 + +_How the World is Housed._ Carpenter, F. O. American + Book Co., New York .60 + +_How We Are Clothed._ Chamberlain, J. F. Macmillan's, + Toronto .45 + +_How We Are Fed._ Chamberlain, J. F. Macmillan's, + Toronto .45 + +_How We Are Sheltered._ Chamberlain, J. F. Macmillan's, + Toronto .45 + +_Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home._ Conn, H. W. + Ginn & Co., Boston 1.00 + +_The Boston Cooking-school Cook Book._ Farmer, F. M. + Little, Brown & Co., Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild + & Stewart, Toronto) 1.80 + +_The Rural School Lunch._ Farnsworth, N. W. Webb Pub. + Co., St. Paul, Minn. .25 + +_Clothing and Shelter._ Kinne, H., and Cooley, A. M. + Macmillan's, Toronto 1.10 + +_Foods and Household Management._ Kinne, H., and Cooley, + A. M. Macmillan's, Toronto 1.10 + +_Means and Methods of Agricultural Education._ Leake, + A. H. Houghton, Mifflin Co., New York. (Thos. Allen, + Toronto) 2.00 + +_Rural Hygiene._ Ogden, H. N. Saunders, Philadelphia 1.50 + +_Health and Cleanliness._ O'Shea, M. V., and Kellogg, J. H. + Macmillan's, Toronto .56 + +_Rural Education._ Pickard, A. E. Webb Pub. Co., St. Paul, + Minn. 1.00 + +_Manual of Personal Hygiene._ Pyle, W. L. Saunders, + Philadelphia 1.50 + +_Feeding the Family._ Rose, M. S. Macmillan's, Toronto 2.10 + +_Food Products._ Sherman, H. C. Macmillan's, Toronto 2.00 + + + + +TWENTY LESSONS IN THE CARE OF THE HOME + + +SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER + +The purpose of this course is to give the pupils instruction in various +household tasks, in order that better living conditions may be secured +in the homes. The beauty and sacredness of an ideal home life should +receive emphasis, so that the pupils may be impressed with the +importance of conscientious work in the performance of their daily +household duties. They should have some insight into the sanitary, +economic, and social problems that are involved in housekeeping, so that +they may develop an increased appreciation of the importance of the +home-maker's work. + +The two most important things to be taught are "cleanliness and order". +Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the value of fresh air and +sunshine and the necessity for the free use of hot water and soap. The +value of property should also be emphasized. Economy in the purchase and +handling of house furnishings and equipment should be considered. +Instruction should also be given in the care of foods and clothing and +in the care and arrangement of furniture. Simple instruction in the care +of babies should be given, since the older children are often +responsible, to some extent, for the care of the younger members of +their families. + +In some of the lessons more subjects may be suggested than the teacher +will have time to take up in a single period. In that case it will be +well for her to choose the subject which seems most vital to the +immediate needs of the community. In many cases she may be able to give +an increased number of lessons. Practice and drill in all of the +processes involved in housewifery are essential to successful training. + +If a cupboard and a table have been arranged for the use of the cooking +classes, most of the suggested work can be carried out with the school +equipment. Where there is no equipment in the school and school +conditions do not approximate home conditions, it may be possible to +secure permission to give the lesson after school hours in the home of +one of the pupils who lives nearby. + +In each lesson the teacher, while giving the pupils helpful general +information on the subject under discussion, should strive to impress on +them the importance of doing some one simple thing well. + +The rural teacher who is eager to make her school-room an attractive +place may devote some time in these lessons to such problems as the +hanging and the care of simple curtains, the care of indoor plants, the +arrangement of pictures, the planning of storage arrangements for +supplies and of cupboards for dishes, and the preparations for the +serving of the school lunch. + +In order to teach these lessons effectively, it is desirable to have the +following simple equipment on hand. Additional special equipment may be +borrowed from the homes. + + +EQUIPMENT + + Broom, 1 + Cloths for cleaning, 6 + Dish-cloths, 2 + Dish-towels, 12 + Dust-brush, 1 + Dust-pan, 1 + Garbage can (covered), 1 + Lamp, 1 + Oil-can, 1 + + +REFERENCE BOOKS + +_Rural Hygiene._ Brewer, I. W. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia + $1.25 +_The Healthful Farmhouse._ Dodd, H. Whitcomb & Barrows, + Boston .60 +_Community Hygiene._ Hutchinson, Woods. Houghton, Mifflin Co., + New York. (Thos. Allen, Toronto) .65 +_Foods and Sanitation._ Forster, G. H., and Weigley, M. + Row, Peterson &. Co., Chicago 1.00 +_The Home and the Family._ Kinne, H., and Cooley, A. M. + Macmillan's, Toronto .80 +_Housekeeping Notes._ Kittredge, M. H. Whitcomb & + Barrows, Boston .80 +_Practical Home-making._ Kittredge, M. H. The Century + Co., New York .70 +_A Second Course in Home-making._ Kittredge, M. H. + The Century Co., New York .80 + + + + +LESSON I: ARRANGEMENT AND CARE OF THE KITCHEN + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +In arranging the kitchen, the three things of most importance are the +stove, the sink, and the kitchen table. If there is no sink in the +kitchen, there will be some other place arranged for washing the dishes, +probably the kitchen table, and this must be taken into consideration +when the furniture is placed. As most of the work is done at the stove +and the table, both these must be placed where they will have a good +light, and they should be close to each other, so that but few steps are +necessary for the worker. + +In furnishing the kitchen, the housekeeper will find a high stool very +useful, as it will enable her to wash dishes, prepare vegetables, and do +other work while seated. + +All the furniture should be kept so clean and free from dust that the +kitchen will have a neat and attractive appearance. A vase of flowers or +a potted plant, and a washable table-cover to be used after the dishes +have been put away, will help to make this room a pleasant place for the +family. Special attention should be given to the ventilation. + +The kitchen should be thoroughly cleaned after each meal. If it has +become dusty or disarranged, it should be put in order before the next +meal is to be prepared. While the cooking is under way, everything +should be kept in an orderly condition. As soon as the meal is +completed, the left-over food should be covered and put away; the scraps +and waste material should be gathered and disposed of; and the dishes, +pots, and pans should be scraped, and washed in hot, soapy water, then +rinsed in clear, hot water, dried, and put away. The table should be +scrubbed, the stove cleaned, the floor swept and scrubbed whenever +necessary, and everything put neatly in its place. + +_Care of the coal or wood range._--All spots should be removed from the +range by wiping it with old paper. If it is in bad condition, it should +be washed with soap and water. If it is oiled occasionally, blacking +will not be necessary; but if blacking is used, it should be applied +with a cloth and rubbed to a polish with a brush, just as the fire is +being started. The ashes and soot flues back of the oven and underneath +it should be cleaned out once a week. + +_Directions for building a fire._--To build and care for a fire in the +coal or wood range, close all the dampers, clean the grate, and remove +the ashes from the pan. Put on the covers and brush the dust off the +stove. Open the creative damper and the oven damper, leaving the check +damper closed. Lay some paper, slightly crumpled into rolls, across the +base of the grate. Place small pieces of kindling wood across one +another, with the large pieces on top. Lay pieces of hardwood or a +shovelful of coal on top of the kindling, building so as to admit of the +free circulation of air. If the stove is to be polished, rub it with +blacking. Light the paper from below. When the fire begins to burn +briskly, add coal or wood: then add more when that kindles. When the +fire is well started and blue flame is no longer seen (about ten +minutes), close the oven damper. Close the creative damper when the fire +is sufficiently hot. Brush the stove and the floor beneath it as soon as +the fire is started. Polish the stove. If the fire becomes too hot, open +the check damper. Fill the tea-kettle with fresh water and set it on the +front of the range. + +_Care of the sink, wash-basin, and garbage pail._--A neglected sink or +garbage pail may be a fruitful source of disease, in addition to +attracting water-bugs and other pests. Scraps should never be left in +the sink. After washing the dishes it should be thoroughly cleaned, a +brush and scouring material being used. The nickel part may be washed +with hot soap-suds, wiped dry, and polished. Water should never be left +in the wash-basin. Both the soap-dish and the wash-basin should be +scoured daily. The garbage pail should be emptied and washed every day, +and carefully scalded once or twice a week. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It will be well to have this lesson succeed or follow a cooking lesson, +for then the pupils will have a keener interest in the problems of the +kitchen. (See Twenty Lessons in Cooking, Lesson I.) + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Cleanliness and order are the two points to be considered in this +lesson. The doing well of each simple household task and the thoughtful +arrangement and planning of all parts of the house should be emphasized +as being of great importance to the housekeeper's success. + +Begin the lesson with a discussion of the purpose of the kitchen; then +discuss its arrangement from the standpoint of convenience for the work +that must be done there. Emphasize the importance of having the +furniture so arranged that the work may be done quickly and easily, and +that the kitchen may be given a comfortable and attractive appearance. +Let the pupils arrange the furniture in the school-room. Discuss and +demonstrate the care of the stove by the use of the school stove. Assign +each pupil a time when she is to look after the stove on succeeding days +and grade her on her work. Let each pupil bring a report from home as to +what she is doing to help in the care of the home kitchen. Make a +specific assignment for home work. + + +Questions Used to Develop the Lesson + +What is the purpose of the kitchen? + +What are the principal articles of furniture in the kitchen? + +How should we arrange these things? + +Can we make any general rules as to arrangements? + +Why is it difficult to keep the kitchen clean? + +At what times is the kitchen most apt to become disarranged? + +Why is it important to keep the kitchen in good order? + +In what order should the kitchen be at the time we begin the preparation + of the meal? + +How should the floor be cleaned? The utensils? + +What should we do with any left-over food? + +How should we take care of the stove after the meal? + + + + +LESSON II: CARE OF CUPBOARDS AND UTENSILS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +It is of the utmost importance that cupboards and other places where +food is stored should be kept free from dirt and scraps of food. Ants, +cockroaches, mice, and other pests infest dirty places where food is +kept, and render a house unfit for human habitation. It requires +constant care and watchfulness on the part of the housewife to keep the +cupboards clean. She must look over the shelves daily, wiping them off +whenever they need it, and giving them a thorough cleaning at least once +a week. + +The housekeeper should know how to care for the various utensils used +and understand the simplest and best methods of keeping them clean. +Utensils should never be put in the cupboards until perfectly clean and +dry. Particular attention should be paid to the care of milk vessels. +Pans, pails, pitchers, or bottles in which milk has been kept, should be +rinsed in cold water, washed in strong, clean soap-suds, rinsed in +clean, boiling water, and dried in the sun. If utensils have become +discoloured or badly coated, they should be specially scoured. If +something has been burned in a kettle, the kettle should be cleaned by +filling with cold water, adding washing-soda, and boiling briskly for +half an hour; after that a slight scraping ought to remove the burned +portion. If the kettle is not yet clean, the process should be repeated. +If a kettle has been used directly over a wood fire and becomes +blackened with soot, it should be rubbed off with a newspaper and then +with an old cloth. Kettles should be dried well before being put away. +With proper care they seldom become rusty. If an iron kettle has rusted, +it should be rubbed with kerosene and ashes, then washed in strong, hot, +soda-water, rinsed in clear hot water, and dried on the stove. If a +kettle is very rusty, it should be covered thoroughly with some sort of +grease, sprinkled with lime, and left overnight. In the morning it +should be washed out with hot soda-water and rinsed in clear, hot water. +A new kettle is generally rusty, and should be greased thoroughly inside +and out and allowed to stand for two days; then washed in hot +soda-water. + +Bath-brick should be used for scouring iron utensils and steel knives +and forks. If iron pots and frying-pans are scrubbed with a piece of +bath-brick each time they are used and then washed in hot soap-suds, +they can be kept in good condition. Tinware and steel knives and forks +may be cleaned by scouring with ashes, but only fine ashes should be +used on tinware. The brown stains on granite utensils should be scoured +off; and this ware should be carefully handled, in order to avoid +chipping. Coffee-pots and tea-pots should be cleaned daily, the grounds +removed, and the interior of the pots washed out thoroughly. The +tea-kettle should be washed and dried overnight and left uncovered to +air. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +If school lunches are served or cooking lessons are given at the school, +it will be well to use this lesson to get the cupboards in readiness. If +it is impossible to do this at school, arrange to have such a lesson in +one of the homes outside of school hours. Be sure that the housekeeper +is in sympathy with the work and is willing to co-operate. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Assign each pupil a task in the cleaning, the scouring of the dishes, +and the arrangement of the cupboard. Set a definite amount to be done +and carry out the plans, leaving a clean and neatly arranged cupboard at +the end of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON III: CARE OF FOODS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Several important points must be borne in mind if foods are to be kept +in a good condition. Most foods change easily. Vegetables and fruits +lose water, wilt, and become unfit to eat. Flour and corn-meal become +mouldy. Potatoes decay and sprout. Some foods, such as milk, turn sour. +Eggs become tainted, and fat grows rancid. With proper care in handling, +storing, and keeping, this spoiling can be prevented. + +The spoiling of foods is due to the presence of micro-organisms; and if +foods are fresh and sound and kept cool and clean in every way, they +will not spoil readily, because such conditions are unfavourable to the +development of the micro-organisms. On the other hand, if foods are +roughly handled and bruised, decomposition will take place readily, for +micro-organisms develop in the bruised portions. Care must, therefore, +be taken to select foods wisely, handle them carefully, wash them if +they are not already clean, put them in clean receptacles, and keep them +in a clean, cool place. All pots, pans, and dishes in which foods are +kept or cooked should be thoroughly cleansed and rinsed well, so that no +fragments stick to them which may decay and cause possible infection to +the next food that is put in. Every part of the kitchen and store-rooms +should be kept clean, dry, and well aired. Light is the best germicide +and purifier known. + +Covered receptacles should be secured for all foods. Those that are +mouse-proof and insect-proof are essential to a well-kept pantry. All +bottles and cans should be neatly labelled and so arranged that each one +can be conveniently reached. The outside of the bottle or case should +always be wiped off after it has been opened and food has been removed +from it. The shelves on which the cases are kept should be wiped off +every day. If supplies of fruit or vegetables are kept on hand, they +should be looked over frequently, and whatever shows even the slightest +suggestion of spoiling should be removed. Bread should be kept in a +covered tin box, and the box should be washed out once or twice a week +and frequently scalded and aired. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +If cooking lessons are to be given, it will be well to take this lesson +on the care of foods in connection with the first cooking lesson, and to +make it a means of arranging for the materials that are to be kept on +hand and of determining how everything is to be handled. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Devote a large part of the lesson to a discussion of the necessity for +care in the handling, storing, and keeping of foods. If facilities +permit, devote a few minutes to the putting away of foods that are to be +used in the next cooking lesson or in the school lunch, discussing the +reasons for such care. + + + + +LESSON IV: DISPOSAL OF WASTE + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +If the daily disposal of waste is attended to, there will be no +undesirable accumulation of garbage. Scraps of food that cannot be +utilized for the table should be fed to the pigs or the chickens and +should not be allowed to stand and gather flies. A covered pail or pan +should be used for holding the garbage, until final disposal is made of +it. Those portions that are badly spoiled and will be of no value in +feeding the stock should be burned at once. Waste vegetable substances, +if suitable, should be fed to the stock, and if not, should be buried in +a thin layer on the ground at some distance from the house, so that they +may enrich the soil. + +Old papers that are badly soiled should be burned, but all others should +be kept for use in cleaning the stove, starting the fires, etc. Empty +cans should be well washed and buried, so that they will not prove a +breeding-place for flies. It is well to pierce them through the bottom +immediately after opening them, so that they will not hold water. +Dish-water should be emptied at some distance from the house, unless +there is a drain nearby. All receptacles that hold water should be +carefully emptied, and all depressions in the soil should be filled, in +order to prevent mosquitoes from breeding. All waste water should be +used on the garden. + +_Protection of the water supply._--Only the water from deep wells should +be used for drinking purposes, because all surface water and water in +shallow wells becomes dangerous through seepage from compost, pig-pens, +privies, and other places where decayed organic matter may accumulate. +In order that the water may be kept clean, the well must be supplied +with a tight-fitting top which need not be opened and a metal pump to +bring up the water. A well platform that allows the water spilled on it +to run back into the well is unsafe, for any filth carried on the +platform in any way will be washed directly into it. Rats, mice, and +other animals get into the well if the top is not tight, and these, in +addition to being unpleasant, are liable to introduce disease germs. + +_Simple disinfectants._--Sunshine and fresh air are nature's +disinfectants and should be freely admitted to every part of the house. +Windows should be left open whenever possible. The windows in the +sleeping rooms should always be opened at night. The interior of the +house should be kept perfectly dry. Decay does not easily take place in +dry places. A damp cellar should be drained, and the grounds around the +house should not be allowed to drain into the cellar. Coarse coal ashes +should be used to fill in around the house, on the walks, etc., to help +in securing thorough drainage. Wood ashes may be used as a simple +disinfectant to cover decayed organic matter. Whitewash is a good +disinfectant and should be frequently used both inside and outside the +house and on all out-buildings. Kerosene and creosote also make good +disinfectants. + +_Care of out-of-door closets._--The privy should be so arranged that it +may be cleaned often and all excreta disposed of in a safe way. The +building should be so well constructed that there will be no cracks for +the admission of flies. In a poorly constructed building, old paper can +be pasted over the cracks, to make the structure fly-proof. Dry earth, +street dust, or lime should be frequently sprinkled over the excreta, +and the seat should be closed, to prevent the entrance of flies or +mosquitoes. The seat should be washed frequently, and both the seat and +the floor scrubbed at least once a week. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It will be well to teach this lesson at a time when improvements are +necessary in the care of the school-house. The discussions in regard to +out-of-door closets will, of course, be taken when the girls are alone +with the teacher. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss the disposal of waste, the care of garbage, etc., in the home +and the school. Talk over the care of waste from the school lunch and +discuss methods of keeping the school in a sanitary condition. Follow +this by a general cleaning of the school-house. + + + + +LESSON V: MAKING SOAP + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Home-Made Hard Soap_ + + 6 lb. fat + 1 can lye + 1 pt. cold water + 1 tbsp. borax + +Melt the fat slowly. Mix the lye and water in a bowl or kettle (do not +use a tin pan), stirring with a stick until the potash dissolves. Add +the borax and allow the mixture to cool. Cool the fat and, when it is +lukewarm, add the lye, pouring it in a thin stream and stirring +constantly. Stir with a smooth stick until about as thick as honey, and +continue stirring for ten minutes. Pour the mixture into a box and allow +it to harden. Cut into pieces the desired size and leave in a cool, dry +place for ten days, to ripen before using. + +When making the soap, be careful not to spill potash or lye on the +hands, as it makes a bad burn. If the hands are burned, rub them with +grease at once. Do not wet them. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Some time before this lesson is given ask the pupils to bring scraps of +fat from home. See that these are in good condition, and weigh them, to +determine the portion of the recipe that can be made. Ask one of the +pupils to bring sufficient borax for the recipe. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Let the pupils look the fat over and put it on to melt, watching it +carefully. While it is heating and cooling, discuss the process of +soap-making, the cost of materials, the care necessary in the making of +soap, and the importance of its use. Get ready the other materials, and +a box for moulding the soap, and let the pupils work together. After the +soap has hardened and been cut, have it put away on a shelf to dry. + + + + +LESSON VI: SETTING AND CLEARING THE TABLE + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +The following points must be remembered when a meal is to be served: The +dining-room must be clean, well aired, sufficiently lighted, and in good +order. + +The table must be perfectly clean and covered with a clean white cover +(table-cloth, doilies, paper napkins, or oil-cloth). + +A vase of flowers or leaves or a small potted plant, in the centre of +the table, will help to make it attractive. + +The table should be prepared with everything necessary for serving the +meal, but only those foods should be placed on it that will not be +spoiled by standing. If there is danger of the food attracting flies, +cover it carefully. + +Plates for everyone who is to partake of the meal should be arranged at +equal distances from one another, and half an inch from the edge of the +table. + +The knife should be placed at the right of the plate with the cutting +edge toward the plate, and one inch from the edge of the table. + +The fork should be placed at the left of the plate with the tines turned +up, and one inch from the edge of the table. + +The spoon should be placed, bowl upward, at the right of the plate, to +the right of the knife. It should be placed one inch from the edge of +the table. Spoons and forks for serving should be placed at the right +and left of the dish to be served, or in another convenient position. No +one should have to use the personal fork or spoon for serving. + +The napkins should be folded simply and placed at the left of the fork. + +The tumbler should be placed at the upper end of the knife. + +The cups and saucers should be placed at the right of the plate with the +handle of the cup toward the right. + +The bread-and-butter plate, if used, should be placed at the upper left +hand of the fork. + +The salt-cellars and pepper-shakers should be placed near the centre of +the table or at the sides, where they can be conveniently reached. +Individual salt-cellars, if used, should be placed immediately in front +of the individual plate. + +The chairs should be placed at the table after it is set. Care should be +taken not to put them so close to it that it will be necessary to move +them after they are occupied. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +If possible, arrange to give this lesson before Lesson VIII in the +series of "Twenty Lessons in Cooking" is given; then the emphasis in +that lesson may be put upon the food to be served, proper combinations, +etc., while this lesson gives the drill in the arrangement and handling +of the dishes. + +It is desirable to give the pupils a thorough drill in table setting and +table service, since much of the pleasure derived from eating depends +upon the attention paid to these processes. + +Be careful to see that everything necessary is on hand to set the table +simply but daintily. For class practice a small table may be set for +four. This will necessitate a table-cover, four or more dinner plates, +four bread-and-butter plates, four tumblers, four cups and saucers, four +knives, four forks, four teaspoons, four napkins, a salt-cellar, a +pepper-shaker, a platter, one serving spoon, and one serving fork. If +these things are not already in the school, probably they can be brought +from home by the pupils. If linen cloths are not used and cannot be +afforded on the tables in the homes, the pupils should be taught to use +a white oil-cloth. + +Have a diagram made on the black-board by one of the pupils of the +arrangement of an individual place at the table. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 1._--Arrangement of an individual place at table +1. Knife 2. Spoon 3. Tumbler 4. Fork 5. Napkin +6. Bread-and-butter plate 7. Dinner plate] + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The process of table setting should be demonstrated with the materials +at hand, and the work should be adapted to home conditions. + +If there is no available table in the school-room, the desk tops may be +used for individual places. + +Reasons for the arrangement of the table should be given--the +convenience of placing the knives and the spoons to the right, the forks +to the left, the cup and saucer and the tumbler to the right, the use of +the napkin, etc. + + + + +LESSON VII: WAITING ON TABLE + + +SUBJECT MATTER + +The one who is to wait on table must be careful to see that everything +is in readiness before the meal is announced, so that she can do her +work easily, without subjecting those at the table to unnecessary delay. +She should have water, bread, and butter (if used), hot dishes ready for +the hot foods, and dessert dishes conveniently at hand. She must see +that her hands are perfectly clean and her hair and dress in order. A +clean, neat apron will always improve her appearance. The room should be +clean and neatly arranged. + +If the meal is to be a family one and all are to sit at the table +together, plates will be passed from one to another as they are served: +but it will still be well to have one person appointed to wait on the +table. She should be ready to supply more bread, water, etc., when it is +necessary, and to change the plates for the dessert course. She should +rise from the table quickly and quietly, in order not to disturb others, +and should take her place again as soon as the necessary service has +been rendered. + +The following rules should be observed: Hold the tumblers near the +bottom, being careful not to touch the upper edge. Fill only +three-quarters full. + +Put the butter on the table just before the meal is announced, and serve +in neat, compact pieces. + +Cut the bread in even slices, pile them neatly on a serving plate, and +place it on the table, covering it with a clean napkin or towel, if +there are flies about or there is danger of dust. If preferred, the +bread may be cut at the table as required. Place the dessert dishes at +one end of the table or, better still, on a side table, until it is time +to use them. When carrying the dishes to and from the table, be careful +not to let the fingers come in contact with the food. Learn to place the +hand under the dish. In particular service a napkin is used between the +hand and the dish, or a tray, if the dish is a small one. The tray +should be covered with a napkin or doily. + +When a dish is being passed, hold it at the left of the person to be +served and at a convenient height and distance. Be sure that each dish +is supplied with a spoon or a fork for serving, and turn the handle of +the spoon or the fork toward the one to be served. + +If a plate is to be placed in front of a person, set it down from the +right. Never reach in front of others at the table. + +When a course is finished, remove the dishes containing the food first; +then the soiled plates, knives, and forks. Be careful to handle only a +few dishes at a time and not to pile them. If another course is to be +served, remove the crumbs from the table, using for the purpose a napkin +and plate, or a crumb tray and brush, and brushing the crumbs lightly +into the plate. Fill the tumblers, and arrange the dishes and forks or +spoons quickly for the next course. + +When the meal is over, the chairs should be moved back from the table, +the dishes neatly piled and carried to the kitchen sink, the table +wiped, the crumbs brushed from the floor, and the room aired. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Let this lesson be a continuation of the previous one, placing emphasis +on the method of waiting on table. The same articles will be required as +were used in the last lesson. In addition to these the pupils must be +careful to have clean aprons for this lesson. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Have the table set, as a review of the work of the last lesson; then +have four or six of the pupils seat themselves and go through the forms +of serving one another to any simple meal upon which the class may +decide. Family meal service should be explained and demonstrated first; +then service where there is one waitress. Have the pupils, in turn, act +as waitresses and serve all the others, offering and placing the food, +removing the soiled dishes, filling the tumblers, etc. + + + + +LESSONS VIII AND IX: GENERAL CLEANING OF A ROOM + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Rooms which are in constant use should be swept and dusted every day. A +thorough cleaning of each room in the house will be necessary every week +or two, even though the room is swept and kept in order daily. First, +all cupboards, drawers, and other receptacles in which articles collect +should be cleaned; then all large movable articles should be dusted and +moved out of the room; those that are not readily movable should be +dusted and covered. The floor should be swept with the windows open; the +ceiling and walls should be brushed with a covered broom, and the dust +allowed to settle. The floor should then be wiped with a damp cloth on +the broom.[A] The woodwork should be cleaned with a damp cloth and a +soap that is not too strong. Soda or sapolio should not be used. The +furniture should be carefully uncovered, and everything arranged in +perfect order. + + [A] If the floor is of unfinished-wood, it will require a + thorough scrubbing. After sweeping the floor and allowing + the dust to settle, a small portion at a time should be + scrubbed with a floor-brush and soap. When scrubbing, the + grain of the wood should be followed. The scrubbing-water + should be changed frequently. For rinsing and drying the + floor, a cloth should be wrung out of clear water. + +The things that are highest should be dusted first, and care should be +taken to collect all the dust in the dust-cloth. After collecting the +dust, the cloth should be shaken out-of-doors, washed thoroughly, and +boiled. The dust-cloth should be dampened before using on all surfaces +except the polished furniture and windows. + +Sweeping should be done with short strokes and the broom should be kept +close to the floor, so that the dust will not be scattered. The corners +of the room should be swept first, the dust gathered in the centre, and +then swept into the dust-pan. The dust should be burned, for it may +contain disease germs. Loose hairs and fluff should be removed from the +broom after using, and it should also be washed periodically. + +Small rugs should be cleaned out-of-doors. They should be swept, beaten, +and re-swept, then rolled until ready to be put on the floor. If the rug +is a large one and cannot be removed, it should be wiped over with a +damp cloth, rolled, and the under side of the rug and the floor beneath +it should be wiped. + +After the room has been cleaned, the windows should be arranged so that +a supply of fresh, clean air can come constantly into it. This is +essential to every room in the house, if perfect health is to be +maintained. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It will be well to have Lesson IX given in one of the homes some day +after school hours, if possible. If that cannot be arranged, the +school-room may be utilized as the place for practice. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Devote Lesson VIII to a discussion of the methods of cleaning and to +various short tasks in connection with the school-room. In Lesson IX +have the pupils go through the entire process of cleaning a room. Assign +some portion of the task to each one of them, so that all may take part +in the work. Supervise the work carefully, assign home practice, and +have each pupil clean a room at home once a week for a month. + + + + +LESSON X: CARE OF THE BED-ROOM + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +As soon as one is dressed in the morning, the windows in the bed-room +should be opened wide to air the room thoroughly, and the bed-clothes +should be removed and put on chairs before the window to air. The night +clothing should also be aired. The slops should be emptied, and the +chamber should be washed with cold water, using a special cloth. The +basin should be washed in warm, soapy water, which should then be poured +into the chamber and used for washing it. The toilet articles should be +washed, then the basin rinsed and wiped dry. The slop jar should be +washed out thoroughly, and both the slop jar and the chamber should be +cleaned frequently with chloride of lime or some other disinfectant. The +pitcher should be filled with fresh water, and all the articles arranged +neatly on the wash-stand. If the towels are soiled, clean ones should be +supplied. The mattress should be turned and the bed made carefully; the +lower sheet being tucked under the mattress all around, and the other +covers tucked in at the bottom and sides of the bed. The bed should be +kept free from wrinkles and smooth in appearance, and the pillows should +be well shaken and arranged at the head of the bed. The floor should be +swept, the furniture dusted, and everything put in place. The windows +should be left partly opened, so that the bed-room may be well aired. +Fresh air is always necessary, but especially during sleep, when the +body is repairing itself, and it is important that the room should be +well aired during the day and the windows left open at night. + +When the room is to be thoroughly cleaned, the frame of the bed should +be dusted, the mattress turned, and the bed should be made. The window +shades should be dusted and rolled up. The curtains should be well +shaken and covered, if one has a dust sheet. All the small articles on +the bureau, table, and shelf should be placed on the bed, and the whole +covered with a sheet. The tables, chairs, and any other movable +furniture should be dusted and placed outside the room or covered. The +rugs should be rolled and cleaned out-of-doors. The room should be swept +and dusted. As soon as the dust has settled, the covers should be +removed, and the furniture, rugs, and all the small articles should be +restored to their places. The shades should be adjusted, and the room +left in perfect order. The broom and everything else that has been used +in the work should be cleaned and put back into their places. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It may be possible for the teacher to give this lesson in her own +bed-room or in the bed-room of one of the neighbours. If this is not +feasible, the only way to make it effective is to have the pupils report +each day on the work they do at home. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Illustrate each process and give the reasons for everything that is +done. Emphasize the importance of the sanitary care of the bed-room, a +regular time for doing the work, and the benefit of having each member +of the family care for her own personal belongings and her own portion +of the bed-room. + + + + +LESSON XI: CARE OF LAMPS + + +It is assumed that the teacher is acquainted with the possibilities of +electricity and other methods of better lighting in country homes, and +will instruct her pupils in the economic use of modern lighting +facilities. + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Directions for cleaning and filling lamps._--A bright light comes from +clean burners that allow a good draught. This means constant care on the +part of the one who looks after the lamps. In the daily cleaning, first +dust the chimney shade and the body of the lamp. Wash the chimney. If +sooty, clean with a newspaper before washing. Next, turn the wick high +enough to show all the charred part; cut this off, making it perfectly +even, then rub with a piece of soft paper. Wipe the burner and any other +part of the lamp that may be oily. Dry with another cloth. Fill the body +of the lamp with oil to within an inch of the top, leaving plenty of +room for the gas that may be generated from the kerosene, as this gas, +in a lamp that has been used many times without refilling, may be a +source of danger. + +When lighting the lamp, turn the wick down, allowing the chimney to +become heated gradually. If it is necessary to move the lighted lamp, +turn the wick low. The flaring up of the flame smokes the chimney. Do +not leave a lighted lamp in a room where there is no one to watch it. +When putting out the light, blow across the chimney, never down into it, +as this might send the flame down into the kerosene. + +About once a month give the lamp a thorough cleaning. Spread out a +newspaper and take the lamp apart. Wash the chimney and the shade in hot +water, dry with a towel, and polish, using soft paper. Boil every part +of the burner in water to which two tablespoonfuls of soda have been +added. Insert new wicks if the old ones are dirty, and put the parts all +securely together again. Keep an old pan and some cloths exclusively for +this purpose, and be very careful not to allow the dirty hands or a drop +of kerosene to come near any food. + +Have a regular time in the day for cleaning the lamps, preferably +immediately after all the morning work has been done after breakfast. Do +not fill the lamps near the kitchen stove. Do not light a match while +the oil-can is near, and never fill a lamp while it is lighted or while +near another one which is lighted. If a fire is caused by kerosene, +smother it with a heavy rug or a woollen garment, and do not attempt to +put it out with water. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It will be well to give this lesson just before some evening +entertainment at the school-house. If there are no lamps at the school +have a few brought in from neighbouring homes. Secure an old pan and +some cloths to use in cleaning. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss with the pupils the cost and properties of kerosene and the +danger of having a light or too great heat near a can of kerosene. +Explain the draught by means of which the kerosene can be made to burn +on the wick and the danger if the burner becomes clogged up and the +draught is cut off. Have the lamps taken apart, the burners boiled, the +chimneys cleaned, and the body of the lamps filled and wiped off. Then +have the lamps lighted, to see that they burn properly. + + + + +LESSON XII: PREVENTION OF PESTS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Household pests are annoying, dangerous to health, and destructive to +property. They carry disease germs from one person to another and from +the lower animals to human beings. Absolute cleanliness is essential, if +the house is to be kept free from pests. As a rule, they flourish in +dark, damp, dirty places. With proper care the housekeeper can keep her +house free from them and, if they are noticed, she should know how to +exterminate them. + +A few simple methods of extermination are here given: + +_Bedbugs._--Kerosene should be poured into all the cracks, and a brush, +dipped in kerosene, run briskly over all surfaces. Care must be taken to +have no fire in the room while this is being done. The windows should be +open, and the room should be kept free from dust. In four days this +should be repeated, in order to kill any bugs that may have just +hatched. + +_Cockroaches and water-bugs._--A solution of one pound of alum to three +pints of water should be poured into all the cracks. Insect-powder and +borax are also effective. Absolute cleanliness and freedom from dampness +are necessary, if the house is to be kept free from cockroaches. + +_Ants._--Oil of cloves or pennyroyal on pieces of cotton-batting +scattered about in the places where ants appear will drive them away. +Saturating the nests with coal-oil will destroy them. Food which +attracts ants should be removed from places which they are able to +reach. + +_Rats and mice._--These are best exterminated by the use of a trap or +some preparation such as "Rough on Rats". Traps should be set nightly +and should be scalded and aired after a mouse has been caught. Rat holes +may be stopped by sprinkling with chloride of lime and then filling with +mortar or plaster of Paris. + +_Mosquitoes._--These breed in swampy places, or in old barrels or kegs +or tin cans which hold stagnant water. Therefore, if the swampy places +are drained and the grounds about the house are kept free from stagnant +water, the housekeeper will, as a rule, not be troubled with mosquitoes. +Empty barrels or kegs should be inverted, and old tin cans should have a +hole punched in the bottom, so that they will not hold water. All high +weeds near the house should be cut down and destroyed, so that they will +not provide a damp place in which to harbour mosquitoes. If it is +impossible to get rid of all standing water, the breeding of mosquitoes +can be checked by pouring kerosene oil on the water. One ounce of oil on +fifteen square feet of water is sufficient, and this will have to be +renewed at least once in ten days. The doors, windows, and ventilators +of the house should be well screened, as a protection against +mosquitoes. + +_Flies._--These are one of the greatest carriers of typhoid and other +germs, as well as filth of all sorts. They can be got rid of only by +destroying the breeding places and killing the flies as rapidly as +possible. Materials that attract them should not be exposed in and about +the house. The house should be well screened with wire mesh or mosquito +netting, in order to keep out the flies. A fly swatter should be kept at +hand. The stables should be cleaned daily. Manure piles should be +screened, and every effort should be made to kill the larvae by frequent +spraying with kerosene, creoline (dilute creosote), or lime. + +_Fleas._--These will be troublesome if cats or dogs are kept in the +house. These pets should be given frequent baths, the rugs on which they +lie should be brushed and shaken daily, and the floors should be washed +with soap and water and wiped with kerosene. + +_Moths._--These are apt to develop in woollen clothes unless the +garments are thoroughly shaken and absolutely protected by wrapping in +newspapers before being put away. Woollen garments that are used only +occasionally should be kept in a light, dry place, examined frequently, +and hung in the sun occasionally. Moths or carpet beetles can be +exterminated by the use of kerosene. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Give this lesson at a time when the pupils are asking about household +pests or when the school is suffering from them. It would be well to +have it in the spring, just before the school closes, so that the pupils +may immediately put into practice what they learn. It may be desirable +to devote their efforts to the destruction of one particular pest; for +example, a fly crusade may be inaugurated. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +If there are pests in the school-room, discuss their habits, what seems +to attract them, where they come from, etc. Have the pupils report any +that they may have at home. Explain why they are dangerous, tell how +they can be exterminated, and assign to each pupil the task of +exterminating one household pest. Have her report, each day, the success +of her efforts. Continue this work for several weeks. + + + + +LESSON XIII: REMOVING STAINS, BLEACHING FABRICS, AND SETTING COLOURS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +As garments and household linens are apt to become stained and thus lose +their attractiveness, it is well to know the remedies for the most +common stains and the principle upon which their removal depends. All +stains should be removed as soon as possible. Boiling water will loosen +and remove coffee, tea, and fresh fruit stains. The stained spot should +be held over a bowl, and the water should be poured upon it with some +force. Cold water will remove stains made by blood or meat juice. +Soaking will help in the removal of blood stains. Rust stains may be +removed by wetting the stained spot with lemon juice, covering it with +salt, and placing the stained fabric in the sun. Stains from stove +blacking, paint, and grass may be removed by soaking in kerosene and +washing well with soap and water. Ink stains may be removed by soaking +in water, removing as much of the stain as possible, and then soaking in +milk. Stains from cream and other forms of grease may be washed out in +cold water, followed by warm water and soap. + +White cotton and white linen materials may be bleached by exposure to +the sunshine while still damp. If they are left out overnight, the +bleaching process is made effective by the moisture furnished by dew or +frost. A stream of steam from the tea-kettle may also help in the +bleaching process. + +Some colours are set by the addition of a small amount of acid to the +first water in which they are soaked, while others are set by the use of +salt. It is necessary to try a small amount of the material before +dipping in the entire garment, in order to be sure of satisfactory +results. Vinegar should be used for blues, one-half cup to one gallon of +water. Salt is most effective for browns, blacks, and pinks. In most +cases, two cups of salt to one gallon of cold water will be sufficient. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The towels used for drying dishes or the linen used for some school +entertainment may have become stained with coffee, fruit, or some other +substance. Make this the basis of a lesson, and let the pupils bring +from home other things which are stained. Each pupil should have an +article on which to practise. This lesson should be preliminary to the +lesson on laundry work. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Examine the various articles from which stains are to be removed. +Discuss the method of removal, and let each pupil work at her own stain +until it is as nearly removed as possible. + + + + +LESSON XIV: WASHING DISH-TOWELS, APRONS, ETC. + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Dish-towels should be thoroughly washed at least once a day. Wash one +piece at a time (the cleanest first) in warm, soapy water and rinse in +clear water in another pan. Hang in the sun, if possible, so that the +air will pass through. Boil at least once a week in soapy water, to keep +them fresh and white. Sunshine and fresh air are valuable for the +purposes of bleaching and purifying. + +Wash the aprons in hot, soapy water; boil, rinse, and blue slightly. A +small amount of thin starch may be desirable. A thin starch may be made +as follows: + +_Recipe for Thin Starch_ + + 2 tbsp. starch + 4 tbsp. cold water + 1/2 tsp. lard, butter, or paraffin + 1 qt. boiling water + +Add the cold water to the starch and lard, stir until smooth, then add +the boiling water slowly, stirring constantly. Boil for several minutes +in order to cook the starch thoroughly; then add one pint of cold water +and a small amount of blueing. Dilute if necessary. + +Hang the articles in the sun to dry, shaking well before putting on the +line, and folding the edge of each over at least six inches. Be sure to +have the line clean. When dry, fold carefully. A short time before +ironing, sprinkle well. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It may be desirable to give this lesson earlier in the course, if +cooking lessons are being given and dish-towels are in use, or if the +aprons are badly soiled. Other articles may be washed, if time and +facilities permit. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss briefly the need for laundry work and the general principles. +Let the pupils take turns at washing the towels or aprons; examine each +article after it is washed, and give careful directions for the boiling, +blueing, and starching. While these processes are being completed, let +some of the pupils prepare the line. Let two of them be appointed to +bring the towels in, before going home from school. + + + + +LESSON XV: IRONING + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +To do good ironing it is necessary to have a firm, unwarped ironing +board. This should be covered with some thick woollen material and a +white cotton cover that is clean, smooth, and tightly drawn. The thick +cover should be tacked on, while the top cover should be pinned, so that +it may be easily taken off to be washed. A heavy iron-holder should be +provided; and the irons should be clean and smooth. For this purpose +paper should be kept at hand, as well as a piece of beeswax, sandpaper, +or salt. A small cloth should be used to wipe the iron after using the +beeswax. A newspaper should be spread on the floor, to protect any +pieces that may hang down while being ironed. The coarser towels should +be ironed first, as the longer the irons are used, the smoother they +become. Starched pieces should not be ironed until the irons are very +hot. If the article is first laid smooth, it will be easier to iron it +and keep it in shape, and every piece should be ironed until it is +perfectly dry. As soon as the ironing is completed, the articles should +be hung up to air. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Arrange to have the ironing lesson just as soon after the laundry lesson +as possible. It will probably be easy to borrow the necessary equipment +from homes near the school. Each pupil may be directed to bring +something that will contribute toward the equipment, and one may be +instructed to have the fire ready and another to put the irons on to +heat before the lesson hour. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Call the pupils together early in the morning or at some time previous +to the lesson period, and give them directions for sprinkling the +articles to be ironed. When the class hour comes, demonstrate the method +of ironing, folding, and hanging the articles, and let the pupils take +turns in doing the work. + + + + +LESSONS XVI AND XVII: CARE OF THE BABY + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Because young girls are fond of little children and must help their +mothers often with their baby brothers and sisters, they should know how +to care for them. It is essential that they should understand the +following points: The little body needs protection. The head is soft, +and the brain may be injured by hard bumps or pressure. The skin is +tender and is easily irritated by the bites of insects, friction, and so +on. Kicking and wiggling are necessary to the development of the +muscles, but the baby should not be played with all the time; and it is +well for it while awake to lie quiet for part of the time. It should not +be made to sit up until ready to do so. A desire to creep should be +encouraged. Standing or walking should not be taught the baby until it +tries to stand or walk itself, and then it must be helped very +carefully. + +The baby should have plenty of fresh air and should be allowed to spend +much of its time out-of-doors. In cold weather it must be warmly covered +and sheltered from high winds. Its eyes should always be protected from +strong sunlight. + +Regular hours should be observed for sleep, and the baby should be put +to bed early in the evening. If the house is not well screened in +summer, a mosquito bar should be put over the crib. The clothing should +be light and loose, so that the body can move freely. + +Perfect cleanliness is necessary to keep the baby's skin in good +condition; and a daily bath should be given. A morning hour, midway +between the meals, is usually the best time for this. The baby should be +taught to use the chamber before the bath and after the nap. Everything +should be ready before it is undressed. The room should be very warm. +The water should be only moderately warm, and should be carefully tested +to make sure that it is not too hot. The towels and covers for the baby +should be at hand. The head and the feet should be washed first, and the +body soaped before putting the child into the bath. Little soap should +be used, for even the best soap is strong and is apt to irritate the +delicate skin. The bath should be given quickly, and the body wrapped at +once in a blanket or towel and kept covered as much as possible while it +is being dried. + +The baby should be fed in small quantities at regular intervals and +given plenty of cold water to drink. Not until it is eleven or twelve +months of age should it be given solid or semi-solid food. Even then, +milk should continue to form the basis of its diet, and of this a +considerable quantity should be used--about a quart a day from the +twelfth month on. As the child grows older a more varied diet will be +necessary. The most hygienic methods of food preparation should always +be observed. + +Certain foods should never be given; for example, fried foods, pastries, +condiments, pickles, preserves, canned meats, fish, pork, sausage, cheap +candies, coarse vegetables, unripe and overripe fruits, stimulants, +foods treated with a preservative or colouring matter, and half-cooked +starches. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher should talk with the pupils, in order to see what points in +connection with the care of the baby it is necessary for them to know, +so that they may do their work at home intelligently. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +It will probably not be possible to have anything more than a class +discussion of the points in question, but the pupils' home experiences +ought to make this discussion vital. If there is a nurse in the +neighbourhood who can be secured to give one lesson on the care of the +baby, the teacher should supplement her own lessons by an additional +lesson given by the nurse. + + + + +LESSON XVIII: COST OF FOOD, CLOTHING, AND HOUSE + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +It is of great importance that children should learn in an elementary +way the value of property. This will prepare them for the knowledge of +the cost of living that is essential. They should learn that the cost of +food can be decreased by having gardens, and by the proper choice, care, +and handling of foods; that taking care of clothing will reduce another +item of expense; and that the owning of one's own house and lot is +something worth working for, in order to obviate the necessity of paying +rent. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher will have to acquaint herself thoroughly with conditions in +the community, so that she can talk intelligently with the pupils, +emphasize the right points, and give constructive help. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Begin with a discussion of the cost of food; how much the pupils earn or +spend during the week; and why it is worth while to cook and sew well +and to look after property. Continue such discussions from time to time, +in connection with other school work. + + + + +LESSON XIX: HOW TO KEEP ACCOUNTS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +It is well for every one to keep a written record of all money received +and all money spent. Children should be taught to do this as soon as +they are old enough to have money in their possession. A simple little +note-book in which all expenditures are entered on the right side and +all receipts on the left side, with the balance drawn up each week or +month, will prove an easy and satisfactory method of keeping accounts. +If the little girl learns to do this with her pennies, she will be +better able to take care of the more important household accounts when +she is in charge of a home. However, there will be no real incentive for +her to keep accounts unless she is endeavouring to save for some good +purpose. If she learns to save for the future purchase of a book, a +dress, or some little treat, she will feel that her account-keeping is +worth while. As a housekeeper, she will appreciate the importance of +saving for some future benefit to the family. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +In order to make the lesson of vital interest, introduce it at a time +when the pupils are saving for some specific purpose--material for a +dress to be made in the sewing class, refreshments for a party for their +mothers, a school library, or something else that will be a pleasure and +help in the work of the school. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +After discussing the sources of income of the pupil and of her family, +and the means of increasing and taking care of that income, discuss +simple methods of keeping accounts, illustrate these on the black-board, +show how to balance the accounts, and see that each pupil has a small +book suitable for the purpose. It may be necessary to make or to rule +this book as a portion of the class exercise. + + + + +LESSON XX: CARE OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE HOUSE + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Closely allied to the housekeeper's work within the home is the care of +the exterior of the house and its surroundings. It is absolutely +necessary that the grounds be kept neat and clean. In addition to this +they should be made attractive by the careful selection of a few trees +and shrubs suitably placed. While the gardens at the rear of the house +may be planned solely for the pleasure and use of the family, in +planning the lawn at the sides and front the neighbours and passers-by +must be considered. The grounds should be a picture of which the house +is the centre, the trees and shrubs being grouped to frame the picture. + +In placing shrubs, the effect of the whole landscape should be +considered. As a rule, shrubs should be placed in corners, to hide +outhouses from view, or to screen other places which should be shielded. +The centre of the lawn should be left free, and in no case should a +shrub be placed in the middle of an open space in a lawn or yard. A few +flowers should be planted among the shrubs, to give colour at different +seasons. + +The exterior of the house must be considered, if the picture framed by +the shrubs and vines is to be a pleasing one. The house should be +painted in a soft brown or dark green to blend with the landscape of +oaks and pines. The paint will help to preserve the house, but its +colour must be carefully chosen to give a pleasing effect. + +The general plan of the grounds and local conditions in regard to soil +and climate will determine to a large extent the kind of shrubs to be +used. Many beautiful shrubs which have been introduced from foreign +countries do well in Ontario, but our native shrubs serve all decorative +purposes. For damp ground there is no better shrub than the red osier +dogwood. This shrub will do well on almost any kind of soil. The swamp +bush honeysuckle grows quickly and is suitable for clay land; so are the +black elderberry and several species of viburnum. The hazel which may be +obtained from the woods makes a good dense shrub, and the wild rose also +has possibilities. The common barberry is an attractive shrub; but, as +it assists in the formation of wheat rust, it should not be used in +rural sections. The lilac may be used where a high shrub is desirable. +The common arbor vitae or cedar of the swamps makes a good evergreen +shrub. It serves well as a shield for both winter and summer and thrives +with moderate care. The weigela, forsythia, and spiraea are also +excellent shrubs. + +The ground at the back of the house should be used for vegetable gardens +with flower borders. For this purpose a deep, rich soil is necessary, +and every square foot of space should be utilized. Every family should +learn to make use of an increased number of vegetables and fruits and to +cook them in a variety of ways. No crops should be allowed to go to +waste. A family of five people could be entirely provided with +vegetables for the summer and autumn from a garden less than fifty by +seventy-five feet. + +The attractiveness, as well as the usefulness, of the borders depends +upon the choice and arrangement of flowers. These should be chosen with +due consideration as to height of plants, colour of blooms, and seasons +of blooming. The tallest plants should be placed at the back of the +border; for a border six feet wide none of the plants need be over five +feet in height. There can be a riot of colours, if the flowers are +arranged in clumps of four to six throughout the entire length of the +border. In a well-planned flower border some flowers should be in bloom +each month. Hardy perennial flowers should predominate, with enough +annuals to fill up the spaces and hide the soil. The well-tried, +old-fashioned flowers will give the best satisfaction. Every four years +the flower borders need to be spaded, well manured, and replanted. + +The following lists of flowers for borders may be suggestive: + +_Perennials._--Bleeding-heart, carnations, chrysanthemums, columbine, +coreopsis, dahlias, gaillardias, golden glow, iris, larkspur, oriental +poppies, peonies, phlox, pinks, platycodon, snapdragon. + +_Biennials._--Forget-me-not, foxglove, Canterbury bells, hollyhock, +sweet-william, wallflower. + +_Annuals._--African daisy, ageratum, aster, calendula, calliopsis, +balsam, candytuft, cornflower, cosmos, marigold, mignonette, nasturtium, +petunia, poppy, stock, sweet alyssum, sweet-pea, verbena, zinnia, annual +phlox, red sunflower, cut-and-come-again sunflower. + +Each home gardener should study garden literature, in order to assist in +solving the garden problems; for the day has passed when one needed only +to scratch the soil with a shell, plant the seeds, and receive an +abundant crop. Today successful gardening depends upon intelligent +management of the soil and crop and upon persistent labour. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher should, if possible, visit the homes of all the pupils, in +order to make herself familiar with the condition in which their grounds +are kept. She may be able to secure permission from one of the +housekeepers to use her grounds as the practice place for the lesson, or +it may be more desirable to give this lesson at the school and to +conduct a school garden as a model home garden. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss the arrangement and care of the home or school grounds. Have the +class tidy the lawn and garden chosen for the lesson, supervising the +work carefully. Assign the tidying up of the home lawns or work in the +home gardens for the coming week. Let this lesson serve as a means of +interesting the pupils in home gardening, if that has not already been +taken up, or of emphasizing the relation of gardening to the +housekeeper's work, if they are already interested in the former. + + +REFERENCE BOOKS + +_Bush Fruits._ Card. Macmillan's, Toronto $1.75 + +_When Mother Lets Us Garden._ Duncan. Moffat, + Yard & Co., New York .75 + +_A Woman's Hardy Garden._ Ely. Macmillan's, Toronto 1.75 + +_The Beginner's Garden Book._ French. Macmillan's, + Toronto 1.00 + +_Productive Vegetable Garden._ Lloyd. Lippincott Co., + Philadelphia 1.50 + + + + +TWENTY LESSONS IN COOKING + + +SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER + +The teacher should learn how the pupils live in their own homes, what +food produce is grown for home use, what foods they use, and how they +prepare and serve their foods. The instruction given in the lessons +should be based on this knowledge, and the possibilities for the +improvement of accepted methods of cooking should be considered. Those +foods should be used in the recipes which the pupils can afford to use +at home. They should be encouraged to grow in their gardens a variety of +garden produce, and to keep chickens, pigs, and cows. + +Elementary principles of nutrition and sanitation should be taught. +Simple meals, with plain but well-cooked dishes, should be planned. +Variations should be suggested, and the value of a mixed diet +emphasized. Care should be taken not to waste time on points that are +unrelated to the homes of the pupils, except as such points may be +necessary to raise their ideals. + +All the work should be done carefully. The sanitary handling of food and +care in the storage of foods should be insisted upon. Careful attention +should be given to the dish-washing, care of the dish-towels, etc., +emphasizing the points in sanitation involved. The pupils should be +drilled faithfully in all points connected with the handling of anything +that comes in contact with the food. + +Proper methods of sweeping and cleaning should be employed, and +thoroughness must be practised in every detail of the work. Constant +drill in these processes should be given. + +The order in which the lessons are to be given will be regulated, in +part, by the season of the year in which they occur, the locality, the +foods obtainable, and any special local needs. However, care must be +taken that the lessons are given in proper sequence, so that the pupils +may see the relation of one to another and may appreciate the value of +each. It may be necessary to combine two lessons or to give only part of +a lesson. In some of the lessons more recipes are suggested than can be +prepared in a brief period. In every case the choice of a recipe will +have to be made by the teacher. Wherever it is possible, simple +experiments should be performed to show the composition of, and the +effect of heat on, food. + +No attempt has been made to give a complete set of recipes; but those +included here are chosen as illustrating the subjects to be discussed in +the lessons. The teacher who desires to make use of a greater number of +recipes will do well to supply herself with one of the text-books +listed. Level measurements should be used in the preparation of all the +recipes, and all the directions should be carefully followed. + +The first few lessons are more fully outlined than the others, +furnishing suggestions for methods of procedure that may be adapted to +later lessons. The teacher should have a detailed plan for every lesson, +outlining her method of work, the leading questions for the discussion, +and the home assignments which she desires to make. + +Foods that are in common use are suggested for the lessons outlined. +There will necessarily be exceptions to their use in different +localities. If any foods used in the homes are harmful because of the +manner in which they are prepared, the teacher should do all in her +power to correct the situation, but she must, at the same time, be +careful not to be too radical. If the lessons given are not followed by +home practice, the time devoted to them will be, to all intents and +purposes, wasted. Simple meal service should be introduced wherever it +is possible, and as much instruction on the furnishing and the care of +the kitchen should be included as time permits. + +By the time the course is completed, the pupil should be able to keep +her kitchen in a sanitary condition and should have a sufficient +knowledge of food values and of the processes of cooking to enable her +to provide simple, wholesome meals for her family. + +For the teaching of food values, it will be helpful to secure the set of +sixteen food charts which may be obtained from the Superintendent of +Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., price one +dollar. + +It will be shown later how the school luncheon may be managed with very +little interference with the ordinary organization of the school. Where +definite instruction is given in Household Science, a place must be +provided for it on the school time-table, as is the case with the other +school subjects. In sewing and household management lessons of forty +minutes each are sufficient, and these can be arranged for at the times +found to be most convenient. If each pupil keeps her sewing in a box or +bag, it may often be used as "busy work" when the pupil has finished her +assigned work or while she is waiting for the teacher, who may be +engaged with another class. Lessons in cookery should be, if possible, +at least one hour in length, and should be given at a time when this +period can be exceeded, if the character of the lesson renders it +desirable; for example, in those cases where the cooking is not +completed at the expiration of the time assigned. For this reason the +last hour on Friday afternoon has proved a very suitable time. In some +schools the lesson is commenced at half-past three and runs on until +completed, and in this way only half an hour of the regular school time +is taken. The possibilities of a Saturday morning cooking class should +not be overlooked. + +ABBREVIATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS + + tbsp. = tablespoonful + tsp. = teaspoonful + c. = cupful + qt. = quart + pt. = pint + oz. = ounce + lb. = pound + min. = minute + hr. = hour + +TABLE OF LEVEL MEASUREMENTS + + 3 tsp. = 1 tbsp. + 16 tbsp. = 1 c. (dry measure) + 12 tbsp. (liquid) = 1 c. + 2 c. = 1 pt. + +COMPARISONS BETWEEN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES + + 2 c. butter, packed solidly = 1 lb. + 2 c. sugar (granulated) = 1 lb. + 2 c. meat, finely chopped = 1 lb. + 2-2/3 c. brown sugar = 1 lb. + 2-2/3 c. oatmeal = 1 lb. + 4-3/4 c. rolled oats = 1 lb. + 4 c. flour = 1 lb. + 2 tbsp. butter = 1 oz. + 4 tbsp. flour = 1 oz. + 9 or 10 eggs = 1 lb. + 1 lemon (juice) = 3 tbsp. + + _Note._--The half-pint measuring cup and not the ordinary + tea cup is the one to be used. + + + + +REFERENCE BOOKS + +_Household Management._ Ontario Teachers' Manual. The + Copp, Clark Co., Ltd., Toronto $0.19 + +_Domestic Science._ Austin, B. J. Lyons & Carnahan, + Chicago. Vol. I .60 + Vol. II .60 + +_Principles of Cooking._ Conley, G. American Book Co., + New York .52 + +_Home Economics._ Flagg, G. P. Little, Brown & Co., + Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Toronto). .75 + +_Lessons in Elementary Cooking._ Jones, M. C. Boston + Cooking School Magazine Co., Boston 1.00 + +_Food and Health._ Kinne, H., and Cooley, A. M. Macmillan's, + Toronto .65 + +_The School Kitchen Text-book._ Lincoln, M. J. Little, + Brown & Co., Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & + Stewart, Toronto) .60 + +_Food and Cookery._ Metcalf, M. L. Industrial Education + Co., Indianapolis 1.00 + +_Household Science and Arts._ Morris, J. American Book + Co., New York .60 + +_The Science of Home-making._ Pirie, E. E. Scott, Foresman + & Co., Chicago .90 + +_Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery._ Williams, + M. E., and Fisher, K. R. Macmillan's, Toronto 1.00 + + + + +LESSON I: DISCUSSION OF FOODS AND COOKING + +_Management of the kitchen stove. Cooking by dry heat. Baked vegetable +or fruit._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Foods._--The body uses food to build and repair its tissues, to provide +heat and energy, and to regulate the body processes. Foods differ from +one another in their composition and in their ability to assist the body +in the performance of its varied functions. These differences have led +to the classification of foods into five groups, which are spoken of as +the five food-stuffs or food principles. + +_Cooking._--While some foods can be used as they occur in nature, most +of them are made more acceptable by the application of heat. Heat +softens the structure of vegetables and fruits, makes tender the tissues +of meat, prepares starch for digestion, develops the flavour in many +foods, and destroys the parasites and germs that may be present. The +five food-stuffs are differently affected by heat--some require slow +cooking, others require intense heat. Hence, it is necessary to study +cooking, in order that each food may be properly prepared. + +_The stove._--A knowledge of the construction of the stove and the +methods whereby heat is obtained is imperative if one is to be a +successful cook. For all stoves three things are necessary--fuel, a +supply of oxygen, and a certain degree of heat, known as the kindling +point, whereby the fire is started. The supply of oxygen is regulated by +dampers and checks so arranged as to admit or cut off the draught of +air. + +The creative dampers are doors or slides that come below the fire box. +When open, they admit the entrance of air, increase the draught, and +facilitate combustion. + +The oven damper is a flat plate which closes the opening into the +chimney flue, to decrease the drawing of the draught. When the oven +damper is closed, the heat from the fire remains in the stove and passes +around the oven. + +Checks are doors or slides higher than the fire-box, which, when open, +allow the cold air to pass over the fire, retarding combustion. + +A stove is also provided with means for disposing of the ashes, soot, +and the gases formed. All parts of the stove are so arranged that they +may be kept clean. + +(See Twenty Lessons in the Care of the Home. Lesson I) + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +There should be provided for this lesson (from the homes of the pupils +or the school garden), some fruit or vegetable in season that can be +cooked by dry heat. Each pupil may be able to bring an apple or a +potato. The teacher should be sure to have an oven that can be well +heated for baking and to have the fire well started before the lesson +begins, so that the oven will be ready for use. + +Lessons in geography and nature study should be correlated with the +cooking lesson, to give the pupils an opportunity to study the source of +foods and the reasons for cooking them. + +One of the pupils should write the recipes on the black-board before the +lesson hour. + + +RECIPES + +_Baked Apples_ + +Wash the apples, core them, and cut through the skin with a knife, so +that the apple can expand in baking without breaking the skin. Place the +apples in a baking-dish and fill each cavity with sugar. Cover the +bottom of the dish with water one quarter of an inch deep and bake until +the apples are soft (20 to 45 minutes), basting them every 10 minutes. +Place them in a serving dish and pour the juice over them. Serve hot or +cold. + + +_Baked Potatoes_ + +Select smooth potatoes of medium size, scrub carefully, and place in a +baking-pan. Bake in a hot oven from 45 minutes to one hour. When soft, +break the skin to let the steam escape and serve at once. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss very briefly the food that is to be cooked and the method of +cooking it. Have as many apples or potatoes baked as there are members +of the class or as the baking-dish will hold. + +Assign tasks to special members of the class. + +As quickly as possible put the vegetable or fruit in the oven to bake. + +While the baking is in process, take up a general discussion of foods +and cooking and a special discussion of the food which is being used and +the method of cooking that is being employed. + +Give as thorough a lesson on the stove and combustion as time permits. +Examine the baked article and discuss the methods of serving it, the +time for serving, and so on. + +Use the finished product for the school lunch or have it served daintily +in the class. Encourage the pupils to bring a dish to school in order to +take the results of their work home for the family meal, if a school +lunch is not served or if they do not need a lunch. Give careful +directions for washing the dishes and supervise the housework carefully. +(See pages 52, 53, _Household Management._) + + _Note._--It may be necessary to go on with some other + recitation before the baking is completed, in which case + one member of the class should be appointed to watch the + oven. + +Questions Used to Develop the Lesson + +What food have we on hand for use to-day? + +Does this food need cooking? Why? + +How shall we prepare it for cooking? + +How shall we prepare the oven? + +How shall we care for the fire? + +How long will it be necessary to cook this food? + +(Time the baking carefully and discuss more thoroughly at the +close of the lesson.) + +How can we tell when it is cooked? + +How shall we serve it? + +For what meal shall we serve it? + +Of what value is it to the body? + +_Home assignment._--The pupils should prepare the baked dish at home and +at the next lesson report the result of their work. + + _Note._--The recipes given in this Manual are prepared for + normal times; but in every case the Regulations of the + Canada Food Board should be observed, and substitutes used + wherever possible. + + + + +LESSON II: PREPARING AND SERVING VEGETABLES + + +_Water and mineral matter in vegetables. How to prepare and serve +uncooked vegetables--lettuce, cress, cabbage, etc. Cooking by moist +heat. How to boil, season, and serve beet tops, turnip tops, cabbage, +sprouts, kale, spinach, mustard, or other vegetable greens._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Water._--All fluids and tissues of the body contain large quantities of +water, therefore water is regarded as one of the most important +food-stuffs required by the body. Practically all foods contain some +water. Fresh vegetables and fruits provide the body with a high +percentage of water. + +Water is a valuable medium for cooking. As it heats, small bubbles are +formed, which continually increase in number and size, but gradually +disappear. Some time before the boiling-point is reached, an occasional +large bubble will rise to the surface and disappear. The water has then +reached the simmering-point, 185 deg., a temperature frequently made use of +in cooking. When many bubbles form and break, causing a commotion on the +surface of the water, the boiling-point, 212 deg., has been reached. + +_Mineral matter._--Mineral matter is a second food-stuff that is needed +by the body, but the amount required is very small. If a variety of food +is used, there is generally sufficient mineral matter in the diet. +Fruits and vegetables, especially fresh green vegetables, are +comparatively rich in mineral matter. Mineral matter builds up the bones +and certain tissues, such as the hair, teeth, and nails, and regulates +the body processes by keeping the blood and digestive fluids in proper +condition. + +_Green vegetables._--Green vegetables hold an important place in the +diet, because they contain valuable mineral matter. They also contain a +high percentage of water and considerable cellulose. With few exceptions +they should be eaten raw, because the mineral salts, being soluble, are +lost in the water in which they are cooked and because the cellulose +serves its purpose best in the crisp form. Cabbage is rendered much more +difficult of digestion by cooking. Spinach, beet tops, etc., are more +palatable when cooked. The delicately flavoured vegetables should be +boiled in a very small amount of water, so that they need not be +drained. Thus the mineral matter will be retained when the vegetables +are served. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +There should be provided for the lesson (from the homes of the pupils or +the school garden), some fresh vegetables in season; one that can be +cooked by boiling and one that can be served uncooked with a simple +dressing. + +One of the pupils should write the recipes on the black-board before the +lesson hour. + + +RECIPES + +_Preparation of Fresh Green Vegetables_[A] + +Wash the vegetables thoroughly, leaving them in cold water to crisp, if +wilted. Keep cool until ready to serve, then arrange daintily, and dress +with salt, vinegar, and oil as desired, or prepare a dressing as +follows: + +_Cooked Dressing_ + + 1/2 tbsp. salt + 1 tsp. mustard + 1-1/2 tbsp. sugar + A few grains pepper + 1/2 tbsp. flour + 1 egg or yolks of 2 eggs + 1-1/2 tbsp. melted butter + 3/4 c. milk + 1/4 c. vinegar + +Mix the dry ingredients, add the egg slightly beaten and the butter and +the milk. Cook over boiling water until the mixture thickens. Add the +vinegar, stirring constantly. Strain and cool. + + Note.[A]--It may be well to omit from this lesson the + uncooked vegetable that is served in the form of a salad + and to give it at some other time. It is not well to + attempt to teach more than the pupils can master + thoroughly. + +_Recipe for Boiling and Seasoning Fresh Green Vegetables_ + +Wash the vegetables carefully and put them on to cook in boiling water. +Delicately flavoured vegetables (spinach, celery, fresh peas, etc.) will +require but little water, and that should be allowed to boil away at the +last. If spinach is stirred constantly, no water need be added. Starchy +vegetables should be completely covered with water, and strongly +flavoured vegetables (as turnips, onions, cabbage, and cauliflower) +should be cooked in water at simmering temperature. + +After the vegetables have cooked for a few minutes, salt should be +added, one teaspoonful to each quart of water. Cook the vegetable until +it can be easily pierced with a fork. Let the water boil away at the +last. If it is necessary to drain, do so as soon as the vegetable is +tender. Season with salt, pepper, and butter (1/4 teaspoon salt, 1/8 +teaspoon pepper, and 1/2 tablespoon butter to each cup of vegetable). + + _Note._--The water in which the vegetables are cooked + should be saved for soups and sauces, as it contains most + of the valuable mineral matter. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss the heating of water and apply the facts to cooking. Have the +pupils observe and describe the heating of water. + +If a new tin sauce-pan or other bright tin vessel is at hand in which to +heat the water, the changes which take place as the temperature +increases will be more readily apparent, and the pupils will enjoy +watching the process. + +Discuss why one vegetable is to be cooked and another served uncooked. + +Emphasize the cleaning of the vegetable, its structure, composition, and +the effect of the boiling water upon it. + +After the vegetable has been put on to cook, discuss the method of +seasoning or dressing the vegetable which is to be served uncooked, and +have it prepared attractively to serve on the plates. Especial emphasis +should be placed on the use and importance of fresh, green vegetables. + +Continue the discussion of vegetables, letting the members of the class +suggest others that may be prepared as salads or cooked in the manner +being illustrated, and write the list on the black-board for the pupils +to copy in their note-books. + +When the cooked vegetable is tender, have it drained, seasoned, and +served, and serve the uncooked vegetable at the same time. + +When ready for serving, let the pupils arrange their plates and forks +carefully, then let them all sit down except the two who pass the +vegetables. Be sure that they eat carefully and daintily. + +Emphasize the careful washing of the dishes, etc., as on the previous +day. + +_Questions Used to Develop the Lesson_ + +How shall we prepare our vegetables for serving? + +Of what value is hot water in cooking food? + +How must the vegetable be prepared for boiling? + +Does this vegetable contain any water? + +Will it be necessary to add any more? + +Will it be necessary to cover the sauce-pan? + +How hot must the water be kept? How can one tell when + the water is sufficiently hot? + +How can we determine when the food has cooked long enough? + +How shall we serve this vegetable? + +How does boiling compare with baking-- + + In the time needed? + + In the matter of flavour? + + In the amount of fuel used? + + In the amount of work necessary? + +_Home assignment._--Practice in the boiling and the serving of +vegetables. + + + + +LESSON III: THE VALUE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN THE DIET + +_Potatoes as a source of carbohydrates. The choice, cost, care, +composition, food value, and cooking of potatoes, baked squash, steamed +squash._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Carbohydrates._--A third class of food-stuffs required by the body is +known as the carbohydrates, or sugars and starches. This class of foods +is used as fuel, for the production of heat and energy in the body. +Excess of carbohydrates may be stored in the body as fatty tissue. + +_Potatoes._--Potatoes are a cheap source of carbohydrates. They are also +valuable for their mineral matter and for the large quantity of water +which they contain. Three fourths of the potato is water. The framework +of the potato is cellulose, which is an indigestible carbohydrate +material. Potatoes have only a small amount of cellulose, however, and +they are comparatively easy of digestion. When dry and mealy, they are +most digestible. When used for a meal, potatoes should be supplemented +by some muscle-building food, such as milk, cheese, eggs, fish, or meat. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +At some previous period the teacher should have discussed with the +pupils the use of potatoes and learned from them the different ways in +which they cook them in their homes. She should determine upon some +recipes for the lesson that will increase the variety of ways in which +potatoes may be served and that will improve the methods used in the +homes. + +Each pupil should be asked to bring one or two potatoes for the lesson. +The best methods of cooking and the means of securing variety should be +emphasized. + + +RECIPES + +_Mashed Potatoes_ + + 6 potatoes + 1/4 c. hot milk or cream + 1 tbsp. butter + 1 tsp. salt + +Wash and pare the potatoes, boil, drain, dry, and mash (with a potato +masher) in the sauce-pan in which they were cooked. Beat them until very +light and creamy; add hot milk, butter, and salt, and beat again, +re-heat, and serve. Serves six to eight. + + +_Browned Potatoes_ + +Wash, scrub, and pare potatoes of a uniform size. Parboil for 10 +minutes, then put in a dripping-pan with the meat or on a rack in a +baking-pan. + +Baste with fat every 10 minutes, when the meat is basted. + +Allow about 40 minutes for the potatoes to cook. + + +EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE PRESENCE OF STARCH IN POTATOES + +Scrub and pare a potato. Examine a thin cross-section. + +Grate the potato. Remove the coarse, shredded portion. Examine. + +Examine the liquid and note any sediment. + +Heat the liquid and stir until boiling. How has it changed? + +Examine the portion of the grater. How has the colour changed? Why? + + +_Baked Squash_ + +Wipe the shell of the squash, cut it into pieces for serving, remove the +seeds and stringy portion, place in a dripping-pan, and bake in a slow +oven for three quarters of an hour (until tender). Serve at once. + + +_Steamed Squash_ + +Prepare the squash as for baking, put in a steamer over boiling water, +and cook for 30 minutes or until soft. Then scrape the squash from the +shell, mash, and season with butter, salt, and pepper. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss the composition and structure of the potato. Read over and +discuss the recipes that are to be used. + +Make assignments of work. After the potatoes have been put on to cook, +have the class examine a raw potato, following the directions given.[A] + + [A] Squash is another vegetable containing a high + percentage of carbohydrate. The recipe for squash can be + used at this time or in some other lesson. + +If one of the recipes requires the use of the oven, be careful to have +the potatoes for it prepared first and as quickly as possible. It may be +necessary to proceed with another class, assigning one pupil to take +charge of the baking. Special attention should be given to the careful +serving of the potatoes. + +_Home assignment._--Before the next lesson, each pupil should be able to +report that she has cooked potatoes at home, using the recipes learned +in class. + + + + +LESSON IV: FRUITS AND VEGETABLES + + +_Food value and use of fruits. Reasons and rules for canning. How to can +and use such vegetables as beets, beans, tomatoes, and carrots, and such +fruits as figs, grapes, apples, and peaches. The drying of fruits and +vegetables._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Fruits impart palatability and flavour to other foods and exercise a +favourable influence upon the digestive organs, though their food +value is low. They contain a high percentage of water and only a small +percentage of nutrients. Most fruits are eaten raw and are exceedingly +valuable to the body because of the fresh acids they contain. Cooking +softens the cellulose of the fruit and, therefore, renders some fruits +more easy of digestion. The cooking of fruit is of value chiefly for the +purpose of preservation. + +_The drying of fruits._--Fruits are dried so that they may be preserved +for use. Bacteria and moulds, which cause the decay of fruits, need +moisture for development and growth. If the moisture is evaporated, the +fruits will keep almost indefinitely. Fruits and vegetables can be +easily and inexpensively dried. When dried fruits are to be used for the +table, they must be washed thoroughly and soaked for several hours, or +overnight, in water, so as to restore to them as much water as possible. +They should be cooked, until soft, in the same water in which they are +soaked. + +_Canning and preserving._--Other methods of preservation are desirable, +in order that vegetables and fruits be made of value for a longer period +of time than through their ripening season. Canning is one of the +methods most commonly employed in the home, being both easy and +satisfactory. Fruit which is to be canned is first sterilized by boiling +or steaming, in order to destroy all germs and spores. This can be +adequately accomplished by boiling for twenty minutes, but a shorter +time is sometimes sufficient. In order to ensure complete success, all +germs must also be destroyed on the cans and on everything which comes +in contact with the food. This will be effected by boiling or steaming +for twenty minutes. The jars, covers, dipper, and funnel should all be +placed in cold water, heated until the water comes to the +boiling-point, boiled five minutes, and left in the water until just +before sealing. As for the rubbers, it will be sufficient to dip them +into the boiling water. After the fruit has been put into the can, it +must be sealed so that it is perfectly air-tight. In order to do this, +it is necessary to have good covers, with new, pliable rubbers, and to +see to it that they fit tightly. + +When the jar is to be filled, it should be placed on a board or wooden +table, or on a cloth wrung out of hot water, and should be filled to +overflowing. + +Sugar is not essential to sterilization and is used only to improve the +flavour. Both fruits and vegetables can be canned without sugar. +However, fruits canned with a large amount of sugar do not spoil +readily, for germs develop slowly in a thick syrup. + +_Methods of canning._--The simplest method of canning is the +"Open-kettle Method" employed for small, watery fruits, such as berries, +grapes, tomatoes, etc. The fruit is boiled in an open kettle (which +permits of the evaporation of some of the water in the fruit) and +transferred at once to a sterilized jar, which is immediately sealed. + +Another and safer method, which secures more complete sterilization +without serious change of flavour in the fruit, is that known as the +"Cold-pack Method". After being transferred to the cans, the vegetable +or fruit is subjected to an additional period of heating of considerable +length, or to three periods of briefer length on three successive days. +If the three periods of sterilization are used, the process is known as +the "Intermittent Method". + +The Single Process Method is described in the recipe for canned beets. +The Intermittent Process proves more satisfactory for canned beans. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher should ascertain what fruits and vegetables are most +abundant and select for canning those that the class can provide. + +Each pupil should be asked to bring some vegetable or fruit, some +granulated sugar, and a jar in which to can her fruit. If the school +does not possess enough kettles or sauce-pans in which to do the +cooking, they may be borrowed from the homes. + +Only one fruit or one vegetable should be taken up at a time, for the +preparation necessarily varies slightly, and the different methods will +prove confusing. It is not necessary to confine the choice of fruits and +vegetables to those mentioned in the recipes included here. The teacher +will find it better to base her instruction on the products of the +particular time and place. The principles of canning should be taken up +at some other period, if possible, in order that the cooking lesson may +be devoted entirely to the practical work. + + +RECIPES + +_Canned Tomatoes_ + +(Open-kettle Method) + +Scald and peel the tomatoes. Boil gently for 20 minutes. Sterilize the +jars, covers, and rubbers. Stand the jars on a cloth in a pan of hot +water or on a board or wooden table. Fill the jars with hot tomatoes, +being careful to fill to overflowing and to expel all air bubbles from +the jar. Adjust the rubbers and covers. Seal and allow to cool. Test, +label, and set away in a cool, dry, dark place. + + +(Cold-pack Method) + +Scald in water hot enough to loosen the skins. Plunge quickly in cold +water and remove the skins. Pack whole or in pieces in the jars. Fill +the jars with tomatoes only. Add 1 level teaspoonful of salt to each +quart. Place the rubber and cover in position. Partially seal, but not +tightly. Place the jars on a rack in a boiler. Pour sufficient warm +water into the boiler to come half-way up the jars. Place the filled +jars on the rack so as not to touch one another, and pack the spaces +between them with cotton, to prevent the jars striking when the water +boils. Sterilize for 22 minutes after the water begins to boil. Remove +the jars from the boiler. Tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and test +the joints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching and store in a +cool, dry, dark place. This method of cooking is also called "The Hot +Water Bath". + + +_Canned Grapes_ + +(Open-kettle Method) + + 6 qt. grapes + 1 qt. sugar + 1/2 c. water + +Pick over, wash, drain, and remove the stems from the grapes. Separate +the pulp from the skins. Cook the pulp 5 minutes and then rub through a +sieve that is fine enough to hold back the seeds. Put the water, skins, +and pulp into the preserving kettle and heat slowly to the +boiling-point. Skim the fruit and then add the sugar. Boil 15 minutes. +Put into jars as directed. + +Sweet grapes may be canned with less sugar; very sour grapes will +require more sugar. + + +_Canned Peaches_ + +Choose firm, solid fruit. Scald long enough to loosen the skins. Peel +and cut in halves. If clingstone peaches are used, they may be canned +whole. Pack the fruit into sterilized jars, fill with boiling syrup (1 +c. sugar to 1-1/2 c. water). Then put on the covers loosely and place on +wooden racks in the boiler. Sterilize in hot water bath for 20 minutes. +Remove the jars and tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and test the +joints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching; then store. + + +_Canned Beets_ + +(Single Process) + +Wash the beets and boil them until they are nearly tender and the skins +come off easily. Remove the skins and carefully pack the beets in a jar. +Cover with boiling water, to which one tablespoonful of salt is added +for each quart, and put the cover on the jar, but do not fasten it down. +Place the jar on a rack or a folded cloth in a large kettle that can be +closely covered. Pour enough water into the kettle to reach within two +inches of the top of the jar, cover the kettle, bring the water to the +boiling-point, and boil from one and one-half to two hours. As the water +around the jar boils down, replenish with boiling water, never with +cold. Remove the jars and tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and test +the joints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching; then store. + + _Note._--In canning beets, if vinegar is added to the + water in the proportion of one part vinegar to four parts + water, the natural bright colour will be retained. + + +_Canned String Beans and Peas_ + +(Intermittent Method) + +Can on the same day that the vegetables are picked. Blanch in boiling +water from 2 to 5 minutes. Remove, and plunge into cold water. Pack in +sterilized jars. Add boiling water to fill the crevices. Add 1 level +teaspoonful of salt to each quart. Place rubbers and covers in position. + +Set the jars on the rack in the boiler and bring gradually to boiling +heat. At the end of an hour's boiling, remove the jars from the boiler. +Tighten the clamps or rims and set the jars aside to cool until the +following day. Do not let the vegetables cool off in the boiler, as this +results in over-cooking. On the second day, loosen the clamps or unscrew +the rims, place the jars in warm water, heat again to boiling +temperature, and boil for an hour; then remove them again. On the third +day, repeat the hour's boiling, as on the preceding day. + +Corn may be canned successfully in the same way. + + +_Dried Corn_ + +Pick the corn early in the morning. Immediately husk, silk, and cut the +corn from the cob. Spread in a very thin layer on a board, cover with +mosquito netting which is kept sufficiently elevated so that it will not +come in contact with the corn, place in the hot sun, and leave all day. +Before the dew begins to fall, take it into the house and place in an +oven that is slightly warm. Leave in the oven overnight and place out in +the sun again the next day. Repeat this process until absolutely dry. + + +_String Beans_ + +String beans are hung up to dry and kept for winter use. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +If possible, let each pupil can a jar of vegetables or fruit for her own +home. If the class is large, let the pupils work in groups of two or +three. + +Begin the lesson with a very brief discussion of how to prepare fruit +for canning. + +Let the pupils proceed with the practical work as quickly as possible. +Demonstrate the method of filling and sealing the jars. + +Assign the care of the jars and the intermittent canning on succeeding +days to members of the class, and hold them responsible for the +completion of the work. + +The drying of some vegetables can be undertaken at school, and carefully +followed from day to day. It will furnish the pupils with an interesting +problem. + + + + +LESSON V: FATS--VEGETABLES--Continued + +_Preparation of white sauce to serve with vegetables. How to boil, +season, and serve such vegetables as lima or butter beans, string beans, +onions, cabbage, corn, beets, turnips, or carrots._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Fats._--Butter belongs to the class of food-stuffs known as fats. It +increases the fuel value of those dishes to which it is added. + +Fats supply heat and energy to the body in a concentrated form. For this +reason they should be used in a limited quantity. Fats undergo several +changes during the process of digestion, and the excessive use of them +interferes with the digestion of other foods and throws a large amount +of work upon the digestive organs. Cooked fats are more difficult of +digestion than uncooked fats, and other foods cooked with hot fat are +rendered more difficult to digest. + +_Vegetables._--Vegetables should be used when in season, as they are +always best and cheapest then. They are better kept in a cold, dry, and +dark place. + +If the vegetables contain starch or tough cellulose, they will require +cooking; as raw starch is indigestible, and the harsh cellulose may be +too irritating to the digestive tract. + +In old or exceedingly large vegetables the cellulose may be very tough; +hence a long period of cooking is necessary. They should be cooked only +until they are tender. Longer cooking may destroy the flavour, render +the vegetables difficult of digestion, and cause the colour to change. +In very young vegetables the cellulose is delicate and, if young +vegetables do not contain much starch, they may be eaten raw. + +When cooked vegetables are served, they are usually seasoned and dressed +with butter (for one cup of vegetables use 1/2 teaspoonful of salt, 1/8 +teaspoonful of pepper, and 1/2 tablespoonful of fat), or a sauce is +prepared to serve with them. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It may be well to have a preliminary lesson devoted to simple +experiments with flour, liquid, and fat, in order to determine the best +method of combining the ingredients in the white sauce. However, if the +lesson period is of sufficient length, a few of these experiments may be +performed in connection with it. + +There should be provided for the lesson some vegetable that is improved +by serving with white sauce, and sufficient milk, butter or other fat, +flour, and salt for the sauce and the experiments. Discuss with the +pupils the fat that is used in their homes, in order to know what is +available. + +The recipes should be written on the black-board before the lesson hour. + + +RECIPES + +_Stewed Onions_ + + 1 qt. onions + White pepper + 2 tbsp. butter + 1/4 tsp. salt + +Peel the onions under cold water. Cover with boiling water, add salt, +and simmer until tender. Drain and serve with one cup of white sauce; or +omit the sauce and serve seasoned with butter and pepper. Serves six. + + +_Cabbage_ + +Cut the cabbage into quarters and soak one-half hour in cold salt water +to draw out any insects. Chop or shred, cover with boiling water, add +salt, and simmer until tender. Drain, and serve with butter, salt, and +pepper, or with a sauce. + + +_Carrots_ + +Scrape the carrots and cut them into large dice or slices. Add boiling +water and boil until tender (from 30 to 45 minutes). Drain, and season +with butter, salt, and pepper, or serve with white sauce. + + +_String Beans_ + +String the beans, if necessary, and cut into pieces. Boil in salted +water until tender. Season with butter, salt, and pepper, and serve hot. + +Salt pork may be boiled with the beans, to give them an added flavour. + + +EXPERIMENTS IN USING STARCH FOR THICKENING + +(Any powdered starch may be used) + +1. Boil 1/4 cup of water in a small sauce-pan. While boiling, stir into +it 1/2 tsp. of cornstarch and let it boil one minute. Observe the +result. Break open a lump and examine it. + +2. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of cold water and stir into 1/4 +cup of boiling water. Note the result. + +3. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of sugar and stir into 1/4 cup +of boiling water. Note the result. + +4. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of melted fat in a small +sauce-pan and stir into it 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result. + + +CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE FOREGOING EXPERIMENTS + +1. Starch granules must be separated before being used to thicken a +liquid: + + (1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid, + (2) By adding a double quantity of sugar, + (3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat. + +2. The liquid which is being thickened must be constantly stirred, to +distribute evenly the starch grains until they are cooked. + + +_White Sauce_ + + 2 tbsp. butter or other fat + 2 tbsp. flour + 1 c. milk + 1/4 tsp. salt + 1/8 tsp. pepper + +(Sufficient for 1 pint vegetables) + +Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir over the fire until frothy. Add +the milk and stir constantly until it thickens. Stir in the seasonings. + + _Note._--Vegetable water may be substituted for part of + the milk. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Review the facts on boiling vegetables learned in the previous lesson. +Let the pupils put water on to boil and prepare a vegetable for cooking. +If experiments are to be made, they can be performed while the vegetable +is cooking. If the experiments have been made previously, they can be +reviewed in discussion at this time. Prepare a white sauce by +demonstration, using the method which seems most practical. Have the +vegetables drained, dried, and added to the white sauce. When +well-heated, serve. + + +Questions Used to Develop the Lesson + +What facts regarding the boiling of vegetables did we learn in the last +lesson? + +Does the vegetable that we are to cook to-day differ in any marked way +from those we cooked before? Should we follow the same rule in cooking +it? + +Should we add the flour directly to the cold milk? To the hot milk? + +How shall we combine the white sauce? + +With what other vegetables can white sauce be used? + +_Home assignment._--Each pupil should prepare some vegetable and serve +it with white sauce, before the next lesson. + + + + +LESSON VI: CEREALS + + +_Kinds, composition, care, and general rules for cooking cereals. +Oatmeal, cracked wheat, corn-meal porridge, rice. Fruits to serve with +cereals--stewed prunes, stewed apples, or apple sauce._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +The term "cereals" is applied to the cultivated grasses--rice, wheat, +corn, rye, oats, and buckwheat. They are widely grown throughout the +temperate zone and are prepared in various forms for use as food. +Cereals contain a high percentage of starch and a low percentage of +water, with varying proportions of mineral matter and fat. In addition +to the four food-stuffs already studied, cereals contain a small amount +of another food-stuff known as protein--a muscle-building material. For +the most part, the cereals contain a large amount of cellulose, which is +broken up during the process of preparation for market and requires long +cooking before being ready for use by the body. The digestibility of the +cereals depends upon the amount of cellulose which they contain and the +thoroughness of the cooking. Cereals are palatable, and they are +valuable, because in cooking they can be blended in various ways with +other substances. They are beneficial also to the body, because their +cellulose acts mechanically on the digestive organs by stimulating them +to action. Cereals are made more attractive by serving with fresh or +cooked fruit. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The cereals should be discussed in a nature study or geography lesson, +and two or three kinds that are in common use should be brought from +home by the pupils. If cereals are not generally used as breakfast +foods, the lesson may be a means of introducing them. Some pupils should +bring a little milk and sugar, to serve with the cooked cereal. Apples +or prunes should be brought, to cook and serve with the cereal. + + +RECIPES + +_Oatmeal_ + + 3 c. boiling water + 3/4 c. oatmeal + 3/4 tsp. salt + +Add the oatmeal slowly to boiling salted water. + +Boil for 10 minutes, stirring constantly, then cook slowly, preferably +over water, at least one and one-half hours longer; the flavour is +developed by longer cooking. Serves six. + +_Cracked Wheat_ + +Follow the recipe for oatmeal, using 3/4 c. of cracked wheat. + + +_Corn-meal Porridge_ + + 4 c. boiling water + 3/4 c. corn-meal + 1 tsp. salt + +Add the corn-meal slowly to boiling salted water. + +Boil for 10 minutes, stirring constantly, then cook slowly for three +hours longer, preferably over water. Serves six to eight. + + +_Boiled Rice_ + + 3 qt. boiling water + 1 c. rice + 2 tsp. salt + +Pick the rice over carefully and wash thoroughly. Add it to the boiling +salted water so gradually that it will not stop boiling. Partly cover +and cook for 20 minutes, or until the grains are soft; turn into a +colander, and pour cold water through it, drain, dry, and re-heat in a +hot oven with door open. Serve hot as a vegetable or as a simple dessert +with cream and sugar. Serves six to eight. + + +_Stewed Prunes_ + + 1/2 lb. prunes + 1 qt. cold water + +Wash the prunes in two or three waters; then soak them in cold water for +several hours. Heat them in the water in which they are soaked and +simmer until tender (an hour or more). Serves six to eight. + + +_Stewed Apples_ + + 10 small apples + 1/2 c. sugar + 3/4 c. water + +Cook the sugar and water together until it boils. + +Wash, pare, and cut the apples into quarters; core, and slice the +quarters lengthwise into 1/4-inch slices; put the apple slices into +boiling syrup and cook slowly until tender. Remove from the syrup at +once and let the syrup boil down to thicken. + + +_Apple Sauce_ + + 10 small apples + 1/2 c. sugar + 3/4 c. water + +Wipe, quarter, core, and pare sour apples; add the water and cook until +the apples begin to soften; add the sugar and flavouring, cook until the +apples are very soft, then press through a strainer and beat well. +Serves eight to ten. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +As soon as the class meets, discuss the recipes briefly and put the +cereals on to cook at once. Prepare the fruit. While the long cooking of +the cereal is in progress, discuss the composition, food value, and +methods of using cereals. Then go on with another lesson and call the +class together, for serving, later in the day. Serve the fruit and the +cereals together. + + + + +LESSON VII: CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS--Reviewed + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Those foods which build up and repair the muscular tissues of the body +are called protein foods, muscle builders, or flesh formers. Meat, fish, +eggs, cheese, milk, cereals, legumes, and nuts are classed as protein +foods. + +Those foods which serve solely as fuel for the body--providing heat and +energy--are classed under two groups: the carbohydrates (sugar and +starches), which the body is able to use in relatively large quantities; +and the fats, which the body cannot use in such large quantities, but +which yield a large amount of heat and energy. Protein also serves as +fuel, though tissue building is regarded as its special function. Sugars +and starches are abundant in fruits and vegetables. Fats are found in +meats, fish, milk, and in some vegetable foods. Heat-giving food may be +stored in the body as fatty tissue. + +Mineral compounds must be present in our food, to help in the regulation +of the body processes and to enter into the composition of the structure +and the fluids of the body. Mineral compounds are best supplied by fresh +green vegetables, fruits, and milk. + +Water is absolutely essential to the body, is present in large +quantities in many foods, and is combined with many other foods during +the processes of cooking. + +One or more of the food-stuffs sometimes predominate in a single food. +For example, rice is almost entirely carbohydrate, and butter is almost +pure fat. Occasionally, we find a food that contains all the five groups +of food principles. Milk is an example of such a food, containing all +five food principles in such proportions as to supply all the +nourishment which a baby needs during the early months of its life. As +the child grows older, foods rich in both carbohydrates must be added to +the diet. Wheat contains all that the body needs for nourishment except +water, which is easily added in cooking. + + _Protein foods_ _Carbohydrate foods_ + + Meats Sugar + Fish Honey + Poultry Syrup + Eggs Vegetables: + Cheese Potatoes + Milk Parsnips + Cereals: Peas + Wheat Beets + Oatmeal Carrots + Rye Cereal preparations: + Legumes: Meals + Peas Flours, etc. + Beans Fruits + Lentils Prepared foods: + Peanuts Bread + Nuts Crackers + Macaroni + Jellies + Dried fruits + Candy + Milk + + + _Fat foods_ _Mineral foods_ + + Cream Fruits + Butter Vegetables: + Lard Spinach + Suet Tomatoes + Fat meats Onions + Fish Turnip tops + Salad oil Cauliflower + Nuts Cereals: + Chocolate Grits and other coarse preparations + Milk + Eggs + +_Choice of food._--The diet must be carefully chosen, to give a needed +variety and to combine the foods properly so that one may have a right +proportion of all the food-stuffs. Each meal should contain some protein +food, some fats or carbohydrates, some mineral matter, and water. All +five forms of food-stuffs should have a place in the day's diet. The +greater part of the water which the body needs should be taken between +meals. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Review the foods discussed in the previous lessons and sum up the +classification of foods, being sure that the pupils can name common +examples of each. Discuss simple combinations for the different meals, +using dishes already prepared in the course and creating an interest in +other recipes to be prepared in succeeding lessons. + + +BLACK-BOARD SUMMARY + +There are five food principles: + +1. _Water_--builds and repairs the tissues, regulates the system-- + +found in all food-stuffs. + +2. _Mineral matter_--builds and repairs the tissues, regulates the +system-- + +found in vegetables, fruits, cereal, and so on. + +3. _Carbohydrates_--give heat and energy to the body-- + +found in sugar and starches. + +4. _Fats_--give heat and energy to the body-- + +found in cream, nuts, pork, and so on. + +5. Protein--builds and repairs the tissues-- + +found in meat, eggs, cheese, seeds. + +Always choose a diet carefully: + +1. To give variety. + +2. To combine the foods properly, so that they will contain adequate +proportions of each food-stuff at every meal. + + + + +LESSON VIII: THE PLANNING AND SERVING OF MEALS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Experience has shown that some foods are more acceptable at one time of +day than other foods, and that certain combinations are more pleasing +than others. The choice of foods will also depend upon the season of the +year. For example, breakfast is, as a rule, made up of simple foods that +are not highly seasoned nor subjected to elaborate methods of cooking. A +fruit, a cereal, and bread, with, possibly, eggs or meat, are served at +breakfast. A hot beverage is added by most people to this meal. + +Fundamentally, dinner consists of a hot meat or other protein dish, with +one or two vegetables. Soup, salad, and a sweet dessert are often +served. The soup is served before the meat course, and the salad and +dessert follow it. The dessert may be a fruit, a cookie or other pastry, +a pudding, or a frozen dish. + +Lunch or supper may be a very simple meal, consisting of a soup with +crackers, one protein dish (eggs, milk, or meat) with bread and stewed +fruit, or a salad, with a simple dessert. + + +EXAMPLES OF WELL-CHOSEN MENUS + +_Breakfast_ + +No. I Apple sauce + Sausage or bacon + Oatmeal + Toast + +No. II Baked apples + Eggs in the shell + Cracked wheat + Corn muffins + +No. III Stewed figs or berries + Poached eggs + Corn-meal porridge + Toast + + Note.--Eggs should be omitted from the breakfast menu if + they are not cheap and easily obtainable. + +_Dinner_ + +No. I Pork chops + Potatoes + Fried apples + Mashed turnips + Bread + Rice pudding + +No. II Beef or mutton stew + Biscuits + Spinach or turnip tops + Cornstarch pudding + +No. III Baked beans + Grape sauce + Cabbage salad + Bread or biscuits + +_Supper_ + +No. I Stewed apricots or other fruit + Whole wheat bread + Buttermilk or sweet milk + Peanut cookies + +No. II Omelet + Creamed potatoes + Bread + Fresh fruit + +No. III Cream of carrot soup + Biscuits + Cottage cheese + Syrup + +The table should always be neatly set, with individual places arranged +for each one who is to partake of the meal. Each place should be wide +enough for a plate, with a knife and spoon at the right and a fork at +the left side. A tumbler should be placed at the point of the knife and +a napkin at the left of the fork. Everything on the table should be +perfectly clean, the napkin should be neatly folded, and all the +articles should be uniformly arranged, in order to give a neat +appearance to the table. A flower or plant in the centre will add to its +attractiveness. Salt, pepper, sugar, vinegar, and anything of the kind +that may be needed with the meal should be arranged where it can be +easily reached. Fresh water should be poured into the tumblers just +before the meal is served. The bread, butter, and so on, may be put on +the table several minutes before the meal is announced, but the hot +dishes should be placed immediately before the family is seated. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +If Lesson VI, entitled "Setting and Clearing the Table" as outlined in +the course on the Care of the Home has been given, this lesson may be +devoted to what to serve and how to serve it, or it may precede the +lesson on "Waiting on Table". The manner of serving may be demonstrated +in the next lesson, in connection with the course on the Care of the +Home. + +Simple equipment for family service will be required, if the form of +serving is to be taken up. For class practice, a table for four may be +arranged. This will necessitate a table-cover, four dinner plates, four +bread-and-butter plates, four tumblers, four cups and saucers, four +knives, four forks, four teaspoons, four napkins, a platter, one serving +spoon, and one serving fork. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss meal service from the standpoint both of choice and combination +of foods and of the method of service. Let the class plan a meal, then +go through the form of serving that meal at table. In the absence of a +table, the top of a desk may be used. Later in the course, the teacher +should plan to combine this lesson with one on cooking and have the food +served. In each cooking lesson, suggestions for serving the food should +be made, and each dish cooked should be carefully served. Interest in +this lesson may be increased by allowing the pupils to make original +menus, and, if they are having some lessons in drawing, simple menu +cards may be planned and executed. + + + + +LESSON IX: MILK + +_Care, cost, and food value of milk. Value and use of sour milk--cottage +cheese, curdled milk. Rice or cornstarch pudding (plain, caramel, or +chocolate)._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Milk contains all the food-stuffs which the body requires, except +starch, and, therefore, is capable of sustaining life for comparatively +long periods. It is one of the most important protein foods; but it +contains so small a percentage of carbohydrate (milk sugar) that for the +adult it must be supplemented with carbohydrate foods. For the baby, +milk is a perfect food, and it is a valuable adjunct to the diet of all +children. One quart of milk should be allowed for the diet of each child +daily, after the twelfth month; and the diet of the adult should be +supplemented by the use of milk. The greatest care should be exercised +in protecting milk from dust and dirt, for it is easily contaminated and +may be the means of carrying disease germs to the body. The changes +which milk undergoes when souring do not render it harmful. For many +people buttermilk is more easy of digestion than sweet milk, because of +the changes produced by souring, as well as the absence of fat. Sour +milk is of value in cooking, producing a tender bread which can readily +be made light by the addition of soda--one teaspoonful of soda to one +pint of sour milk that has curdled. + +In the preparation of cheese, the whey is separated from the curds, thus +extracting most of the water, sugar, and mineral matter, and leaving a +substance rich in protein and fat. Cheese is of value in cooking, for it +increases the food value of those foods to which it is added. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher should make inquiries a few days in advance, to be sure that +one quart of sour milk can be secured, and, when it is brought, she +should examine it to see that it is in proper condition to make cottage +cheese. She should arrange to have about one quart of sweet milk and +such other supplies as are necessary for the pudding, brought by the +pupils. + +An opportunity may be afforded to discuss the use of left-over cereal by +the preparation of a rice pudding, if the teacher provides some cold +cooked rice for the lesson. In the absence of cold rice, the cornstarch +pudding may be prepared. + + +RECIPES + +_Cottage Cheese_ + +Heat sour milk slowly until the whey rises to the top, pour the whey +off, put the curd in a bag, and let it drip for six hours without +squeezing. Put the curd into a bowl and break into fine pieces with a +wooden spoon; season with salt and mix into a paste with a little cream +or butter. Mould into balls, if desired, and keep in a cold place. (It +is best when fresh.) + + +_Rice Pudding_ + + 1/2 c. rice + 2 c. milk + 2 eggs + 1/3 c. sugar + 1/8 tsp. salt + 1/2 tsp. vanilla + +Scald the milk in a double boiler. Add the prepared rice and cook until +soft. Beat the egg-yolks, sugar, and salt together until well mixed. +Stir into the rice and cook for 3 minutes. Remove from the heat and +serve cold. Serves eight. + + +_Cornstarch Pudding_ + + 1/4 c. sugar + 5 tbsp. cornstarch, or 1/2 c. flour + 1 tsp. vanilla, or other flavouring + 3 c. milk + 1 egg + +Mix the sugar and cornstarch thoroughly. Add one cup of cold milk and +stir until smooth. Heat the remainder of the milk in a double boiler; +add the cornstarch mixture slowly, stirring constantly until it begins +to thicken. Continue cooking for 20 minutes. Beat the egg well, add the +hot pudding slowly, strain, and cool. Serve with milk or cream and +sugar. (The egg may be omitted, if desired.) Serves eight. + +For chocolate cornstarch pudding, use 1/4 cup of sugar additional +and two squares of chocolate. Melt the chocolate carefully, +add the sugar, and add to the cornstarch mixture. + +For caramel cornstarch pudding, use 1 cup of brown sugar +and 1/2 cup of boiling water. Heat the sugar until it becomes a +light-brown liquid, add the boiling water, and stir until the +sugar is all dissolved. Let it cool; then add to the cornstarch +mixture. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +As soon as the class meets, demonstrate the method of making cottage +cheese. Show the separation of curd and whey, by adding vinegar or lemon +juice to sweet milk. While the cheese is draining, make assignments of +work and have the rice or cornstarch pudding made. + +In this lesson and in those following emphasize the use of protein +foods. + +Discuss also the food value of skimmed milk and sour milk and the +purposes for which these may be used in cooking. + +Use the cottage cheese and the pudding for the school lunch. + + + + +LESSON X: SOUPS + +_Cream soups. Cream of carrot, potato, or onion soup, green pea soup. +Toast, croutons, or crisp crackers to serve with soup._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Cream soups._--The strained pulp of cooked vegetables or legumes, with +an equal portion of thin white sauce, is the basis for cream soups. The +liquid for the soup may be all milk, part vegetable water and part milk, +or all vegetable water. + +A binding of flour is used to prevent a separation of the thicker and +the thinner parts of the soup. This is combined as for white sauce and +is stirred into the hot liquid just before the soup is to be served. The +soup should be made in a double boiler and kept in this utensil until it +is served. + +Four tablespoons of flour to each quart of soup is a good proportion to +use for thickening all vegetable soups that are not of a starchy nature; +half that amount will be sufficient for soup prepared from a very +starchy vegetable. + +The value of the vegetable water should be impressed upon the pupils, +and it should be pointed out that these soups are an excellent way of +using the cooking water and any left-over vegetables. From these, +attractive cream soups may be prepared, and a combination of flavours +often gives good results. + +_Accompaniments._--Crisp crackers, croutons, soup sticks, or bread +sticks are served with cream soups, and are valuable because they +necessitate thorough mastication, thus inducing the flow of saliva and +aiding in the digestion of the starchy ingredients of the soups. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +As a basis for the soup, the teacher should secure a vegetable that the +pupils use in their own homes, and crackers or bread to serve with the +soup. + +If dried peas are used, they should be allowed to soak overnight and be +put on to cook early in the morning. + +It will be well to have the cooking of the carrots begun before the +lesson period. If the carrots are cut up in small pieces, they will cook +more quickly. + + +RECIPES + +_Cream of Carrot Soup_ + + 1 c. cooked carrots + 2 c. vegetable water + 2 c. milk + 4 tbsp. flour + 2 tbsp. butter + Salt and pepper to taste + +Press the vegetables through a sieve or chop finely; put the vegetable +water on to heat. Mix the flour smoothly with an equal measure of milk +and thin it with a little more of the milk. Stir into the steaming +liquid, stirring constantly until it thickens. Stir in the butter, +vegetable pulp, and remaining milk. Season to taste and serve hot. +Serves six. + + +_Cream of Potato Soup_ + + 1 pt. milk or milk and water + 2 tsp. chopped onions + 3 potatoes + 1 tbsp. butter + 1 tbsp. flour + 1 tsp. salt + 1/8 tsp. pepper + 2 tsp. chopped parsley + +Put the milk to heat in a double boiler. Boil the potatoes and onion +together until soft, then rub the liquid and pulp through a strainer +into the hot milk. Bind with the flour, add the seasonings, and serve +hot. Serves four. + + +_Pea Soup_ + + 1 c. split peas + 2-1/2 qt. water + 2 tbsp. chopped onion + 3 tbsp. butter + 3 tbsp. flour + 1-1/2 tsp. salt + 1/8 tsp. pepper + 1 pt. milk + +Wash the peas and soak them overnight in cold water, drain and rinse +thoroughly, add 2-1/2 quarts of cold water and the onion, cook slowly +until soft, rub the liquid and pulp through a strainer, and bind with +the flour. Add the milk and the seasonings and serve hot. Serves six to +eight. + + +_Toast_ + +Cut stale bread into slices one quarter of an inch thick; put on the +toaster or fork, move gently over the heat until dry, then brown by +placing near the heat, turning constantly. Bread may be dried in the +oven before toasting. Hot milk may be poured over dry toast. + + +_Croutons_ + +Cut stale bread into one-half-inch cubes and brown in the oven. + + +_Crisp Crackers_ + +Put the crackers into the oven for a few minutes, or split and butter +thick crackers, and brown in a hot oven; serve with soup. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Devote a few minutes to a discussion of cream soups and a review of the +cooking of vegetables and white sauce. + +Divide the work among the members of the class, assigning enough to each +pupil to keep her busy, arranging the work so that the soup and its +accompaniments will be ready for serving at the same time. + + + + +LESSON XI: EGGS + +_Food value and general rules for cooking eggs. Cooked in shell, +poached, scrambled, and omelet._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Eggs are a very valuable food, because of the large amount of protein +and fat they contain. Though lacking in carbohydrates, they furnish +material for building up the muscles and provide heat and energy to the +body. If cooked at a low temperature, eggs are very easily and very +completely digested. Combined with other foods, they serve as a +thickening agent (for sauces and soups) and as a means of making batters +light (popovers and sponge cake). They add flavour and colour and +increase the nutritive value of other foods. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The lesson on eggs furnishes one of the best opportunities to teach the +muscle-building foods. If eggs are scarce, it may be well to give this +lesson at some other time. Each pupil should be asked to bring an egg; +one or two should bring a little milk; and sufficient bread should be +provided to toast for the poached eggs. The teacher should not undertake +to give too many recipes in this lesson, but should try to make the +pupils familiar with a sufficient variety of ways of using eggs to make +egg cookery interesting. The necessity of having a moderate temperature +for the cooking of eggs should be emphasized. + + +RECIPES + +_Soft-cooked Eggs_ + +Put the eggs in boiling water sufficient to cover them, remove from the +fire, cover, and allow them to stand from 5 to 8 minutes. + + +_Hard-cooked Eggs_ + +Put the eggs in cold water, heat, and, when the water boils, reduce the +heat, and let them stand for 20 minutes with water just below the +boiling-point, then put them into cold water. + + +_Poached Eggs_ + +Break each egg into a saucer carefully, slip the egg into boiling water, +decrease the heat, and cook for 5 minutes, or until the white is firm +and a film has formed over the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, trim +off the rough edges, and serve on slices of toast. Season. + +Poached eggs are attractive when covered with white sauce to which +chopped parsley has been added. + + +_Baked Eggs_ + +Line a buttered baking-dish with buttered bread crumbs or with cold +mashed potatoes. Break the eggs in the dish without separating and add +one tablespoon of milk or cream for each egg. Season with salt and +pepper and sprinkle with grated cheese, if desired. Bake in a moderate +oven until the eggs are set. + + +_Creamed Eggs_ + + 3 hard-boiled eggs + 6 slices toast + 1 c. medium white sauce + +Prepare a white sauce. Add hard-boiled eggs cut in halves, sliced, or +chopped and, when hot, serve on toast. + +Or separate the whites and yolks, chop the whites fine, add to the white +sauce and, when hot, serve on toast and garnish with yolks run through a +sieve or ricer. Season with salt and pepper. Serves four to six. + + +_Creamy Omelet_ + + 1 egg + 1/4 tsp. salt + Pepper + 1/2 tsp. butter + 1 tbsp. milk + +Beat the egg slightly, add the milk and seasonings, put the butter in +the hot omelet pan and, when melted, turn in the mixture. As it cooks, +draw the edges toward the centre until the whole is of a creamy +consistency, brown quickly underneath, fold, and turn on a hot platter. +Serve at once. Serves one. + + +_Scrambled Eggs_ + +Double the quantity of milk given for Creamy Omelet and stir all the +time while cooking. + + +_Foamy Omelet_[A] + + 1 egg + 1/8 tsp. salt + 1 tbsp. milk or water + 1/2 tsp. butter + Cayenne or white pepper + +Beat the yolk of the egg until creamy, add seasoning and milk. Beat the +white until stiff, but not dry, cut and fold into the yolk carefully. +Heat an omelet pan, rub the bottom and sides with the butter, and turn +in the omelet, spreading it evenly on the pan. Cook gently over the heat +until the omelet is set and evenly browned underneath. Put it into a hot +oven for a few minutes, to dry slightly on top, fold, and serve +immediately. Serves one. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Devote one half of the class period to a discussion of the structure of +the egg and the effect of heat upon it. Use simple experiments or watch +the poached egg, to make a study of the changes produced in the egg by +the application of heat. If the pupils are sufficiently experienced, let +them work together in small groups, first scrambling an egg, then making +an omelet. Demonstrate the cooking of the omelet before the entire +class. Serve the egg dishes carefully while hot. + + [A] The omelet recipes given are for individual portions. + To make a large omelet, multiply the quantity of each + ingredient by the number of eggs used. The best results + will be obtained by making an omelet of not more than four + eggs, as larger omelets are difficult to cook thoroughly + and to handle well. A two-egg omelet will serve three + people. A four-egg omelet will serve six people. + + + + +LESSON XII: SIMPLE DESSERTS--CUSTARDS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +A custard is a combination of eggs and milk, usually sweetened and +flavoured, and either steamed, or baked as cup custard, or cooked in a +double boiler as soft custard. The whole egg may be used or the yolks +alone. The yolks make a smoother, richer custard. + +The eggs must be thoroughly mixed, but not beaten light, the sugar and +salt added, and the milk scalded and stirred in slowly. The custard must +be strained through a fine sieve and cooked at a moderate temperature. +It is desirable to strain a custard, in order to remove the cords and +pieces of the membrane which inclosed the yolk. The cup custard should +be strained before cooking, the soft custard may be strained afterwards. + +A soft custard is cooked over water and is stirred constantly until +done. When done, the froth disappears from the surface, the custard is +thickened and coats the spoon and sides of the pan, and there is no sign +of curdling. If the custard is cooked too long, it becomes curdled. If +it becomes curdled, put it into a pan of cold water and beat until +smooth. + +A steamed or baked custard is done when it becomes set and when a silver +knife will come out clean after cutting it. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +This lesson will furnish an opportunity for a review of milk and eggs. +The pupils should arrange to bring the necessary materials from their +homes. + + +RECIPES + +_Steamed Custards_ + + 1 qt. milk (heated) + 4 eggs or 8 egg yolks + 1/2 c. sugar + 1/4 tsp. salt + 2 tbsp. caramel or 1/2 tsp. nutmeg + +Beat the eggs sufficiently to mix them thoroughly; add the sugar, salt, +and hot milk slowly. + +Strain into cups, flavour with caramel, or sprinkle nutmeg on top, and +steam until firm over gently boiling water--from 20 to 30 minutes. + + +_Baked Custards_ + +Prepare as for Steamed Custards, set in a pan of hot water, and bake in +a slow oven until firm--from 20 to 40 minutes. + + +_Chocolate Custards_ + +Use the recipe for Steamed Custards, adding 1 ounce of chocolate +(melted) to the hot milk. Steam or bake as desired. + + +_Soft Custard_ + + 1 pt. milk (heated) + 4 egg yolks + 1/16 tsp. salt + 1/2 tsp. vanilla extract + 4 tbsp. sugar + +Beat the egg yolks sufficiently to mix them thoroughly, add the sugar, +salt, and hot milk slowly. Cook over water that is boiling gently. Stir +constantly until the custard thickens. Strain. Flavour when cool. + +For soft Chocolate Custard add 1/2 ounce chocolate (melted) to the hot +milk. Serves six. + + +_Floating Island_ + +Use recipe for Soft Custard and, when cold, garnish with a meringue made +according to the following recipe: + + +_Meringue_ + + 4 egg whites + 1/4 c. powdered sugar + +Beat the egg whites very light, add powdered sugar, and continue +beating. Drop in large spoonfuls on the cold custard. Serves eight to +ten. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +It may be possible to teach two or three recipes in this lesson. The +baked custard may be put into the oven while the soft custard or +floating island is being made. Serve at the school lunch. + + + + +LESSON XIII: BATTERS AND DOUGHS + +_Griddle Cakes_ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Batters._--Batters are mixtures of flour or meal and a liquid, with +salt or sugar to give flavour, butter to make tender, and steam, air, or +gas to make light. + +One scant measure of liquid is used with one measure of flour for thin, +or pour, batter. One measure of liquid is used with two measures of +flour for a thick, or drop, batter. One measure of liquid is used with +three measures of flour for a soft, or bread, dough. One measure of +liquid is used with four measures of flour for a stiff, or pastry, +dough. + +Before mixing a batter, the oven or griddle should be at the proper +temperature, with the fire well regulated and in good condition. The +oven should be tested by putting in a piece of white paper or two +tablespoonfuls of flour, which should brown in three minutes. The pans +should be prepared by greasing with lard, salt pork, or beef dripping. +All the materials should be measured and ready before beginning to +combine the ingredients. When the batter has been mixed and beaten until +smooth, it should be baked at once. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher will be better prepared to give the lesson on batters if she +first makes herself familiar with the kinds of breads that are used in +the homes of the pupils and the methods followed in their preparation. +The simple, general methods of preparing batters should be taught. The +teacher should not attempt the preparation of more than one or two +batters in this lesson. + + +RECIPES + +_Sour-milk Griddle Cakes_ + + 2-1/2 c. flour + 1/2 tsp. salt + 1-1/4 tsp. soda + 1 egg + 2 c. sour milk + +Mix and sift the flour, salt, and soda; add the sour milk and egg well +beaten. Drop, by spoonfuls, on a greased hot griddle; cook on one side. +When puffed full of bubbles and cooked on the edges, turn, and cook on +the other side. Serve with butter and maple syrup. + + +_Sweet-milk Griddle Cakes_ + + 3 c. flour + 1-1/2 tbsp. baking-powder + 1 tsp. salt + 1/4 c. sugar + 2 c. milk + 1 egg + 2 tbsp. melted butter + +Mix and sift the dry ingredients, beat the egg, add the milk, and pour +on the first mixture. Beat thoroughly and add the butter. Cook the same +as Sour-milk Griddle Cakes. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Discuss batters briefly. Have all measurements made, the fire regulated, +the pans prepared, and so on. Demonstrate the mixing and cooking of +Griddle Cakes. Serve the cakes daintily after they are cooked. + + + + +LESSON XIV: BATTERS AND DOUGHS--Continued + +_Muffins--Baking-powder Biscuits_ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Methods of making batters light._--Batters are made light by beating +air into them, by adding eggs into which air has been beaten, or by +entangling gas in the batter. Gas is secured by using soda and sour milk +in a batter (one teaspoon of soda to one pint of sour milk), or soda +with molasses (one teaspoon of soda to one cup of molasses), or soda +with cream of tartar (one teaspoon of soda with two slightly rounding +teaspoons of cream of tartar). The soda should be mixed well with the +other dry ingredients, then the sour milk or molasses added, the whole +beaten up quickly, and baked at once. + +Baking-powder is a preparation containing soda and cream of tartar, and +may be used in place of soda if sweet milk is used. Two level +teaspoonfuls of baking-powder should be used with one cup of flour. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +This lesson is a continuation of the lesson on batters. Care should be +taken not to undertake more than can be done well in the time available. + + +RECIPES + +_Graham Muffins_ + + 1 c. graham flour + 1 c. flour + 1/4 c. sugar + 1 tsp. salt + 1 c. milk + 1 egg + 1 tbsp. melted butter + 4 tsp. baking-powder + +Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Gradually add the milk, the egg +well-beaten, and the melted butter. Bake in a hot oven in greased gem +pans for 25 minutes. + + +_Plain Muffins_ + + 1/4 c. butter + 1/4 c. sugar + 1 egg + 3/4 c. milk + 2 c. flour + 3 tsp. baking-powder + +Cream the butter, add the sugar and egg well beaten, sift the +baking-powder with the flour, and add to the first mixture, alternating +with the milk. Bake in greased gem pans for 25 minutes. + + +_Baking-powder Biscuits_ + + 2 c. flour + 4 tsp. baking-powder + 1 tsp. salt + 2 tbsp. fat + 3/4 to 1 c. milk or water + +Sift the dry ingredients together, chop the fat into the flour with a +knife, slowly add sufficient milk to make a dough not too soft to be +handled. Toss and roll the dough gently on a slightly-floured board and +cut into small biscuits. Moisten the tops with a little milk. Handle the +dough quickly, lightly, and as little as possible. Place on a buttered +sheet. Bake in a hot oven till brown--from 12 to 15 minutes. Either +white or whole wheat flour may be used for the biscuits. Serves six to +eight. Oven test--the oven should be hot enough to colour a piece of +unglazed white paper to a golden brown in one minute. + + +_Soda Biscuits_ + + 2 c. flour + 1/2 tsp. soda (scant) + 1/2 tsp. salt + 1 c. sour milk (scant) + 2 tbsp. shortening (lard or other fat) + +Proceed as for Baking-powder Biscuits. + +If the sour milk is not thick enough to curdle, it will not contain +sufficient acid to neutralize the soda, and the biscuits will be yellow +and bitter. To avoid this, cream of tartar may be mixed with the soda (1 +teaspoonful). If there is no cream of tartar at hand, it will be wise to +use the recipe for Baking-powder Biscuits. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Have the oven and pans prepared and all the measurements made. +Demonstrate the mixing of the muffins and, while these are baking, the +mixing of the biscuits. Have one pupil take charge of the baking of the +muffins and another of the baking of the biscuits. When the breads are +done, have the class sit down and serve them to one another, or to all +the pupils at the school lunch hour. + + + + +LESSON XV: MEATS + +_Composition and food value. How to make tough cuts of meat palatable. +Pork chops with fried apples. Beef or mutton stew with vegetables and +dumplings. Rabbit stew. Bacon._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Meats are rich in protein and usually in fats, but are lacking in the +carbohydrates. They build up the muscular tissue, furnish heat and +energy, are more stimulating and strengthening than any other food, and +satisfy hunger for a greater length of time. For the most part, meats +are a very expensive food. One cannot perform more labour by the use of +a meat diet than on a diet of vegetable foods. Those who use large +quantities of meat suffer from many disturbances of the system. Hence it +should form a very small part of the diet. The cuts of meat that come +from those portions of the animal's body that are much exercised are +tough, owing to the development of the connective tissues, but they +contain a high percentage of nutrition. For the same reason, the meat +from older animals is apt to be tough. The flesh of chickens, turkeys, +and other fowls is very nutritious and is easily digested if not too +fat. + +The flavour of meats is developed by cooking. Dry heat develops the best +flavour, hence the tender cuts are cooked by the processes known as +broiling and roasting. Tough cuts of meat require long, slow cooking in +moist heat, hence they are prepared in the form of stews and pot roasts +or are used in meat soups. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +After the teacher has found out what meats are used in the homes or what +the school can afford to use, she should determine upon a method of +cooking that will make the meat palatable, digestible, and attractive. +If it can be prepared as a stew, she should use a recipe in which +vegetables are also used and, if possible, have dumplings prepared to +serve with the meat, as a review of the lesson on batters. + + +RECIPES + +_Beef or Mutton Stew_ + + 2 lb. beef or mutton + 1 qt. water + Salt, pepper, flour to dredge + 1 onion, cut in slices + 1/2 c. turnip cut in dice + 3/4 c. carrot cut in dice + 4 potatoes cut in 1/2-inch slices + 1 tsp. salt + 1/4 tsp. pepper + 1/2 c. flour + 1/4 c. cold water + +Remove the fat and cut the meat into 1-inch pieces. Reserve half of the +best pieces of meat, put the rest of the meat and the bone into cold +water, soak for one hour, then heat until it bubbles. Season half the +raw meat and roll it in the flour, melt the fat in a frying-pan, remove +the scraps, brown the sliced onion and then the floured meat in the hot +fat, add both to the stew, and cook for 2 hours at a low temperature. To +this add the vegetables and cook 1/2 hour; then add the flour and +seasonings, which have been mixed with one-half cup of cold water, and +cook for 1/2 hour longer, until the meat and vegetables are tender. +Remove the bone from the stew and serve. Serves six to eight. + + +_Rabbit_ + +If beef and mutton are not commonly used and are not readily obtainable, +but rabbit can be secured, substitute rabbit for beef in the stew. After +the rabbit has been thoroughly cleaned, cut up in eight pieces (four leg +and four body pieces), season, and dredge with flour, brown in the fat, +and proceed as with Beef Stew. + + +_Dumplings_ + + 2 c. flour + 4 tsp. baking-powder + 1/2 tsp. salt + 2 tbsp. fat (lard or butter) + 3/4 c. milk or water (about) + +Sift the dry ingredients together, cut in the butter, and add the milk +gradually, to make a soft dough. Roll out on a floured board, cut with a +biscuit cutter, lay on top of meat in a stew pan (they should not sink +into the liquid), cover the kettle closely, keep the stew boiling, and +cook the dumplings for 10 minutes without removing the lid. (Do not put +the dumplings in to cook until the meat is tender.) + + _Note._--If desired, the rolling may be eliminated and, + after mixing, the dough may be dropped by spoonfuls into + the stew. + + +_To Cook Bacon_ + +Place thin slices of bacon from which the rind has been removed in a hot +frying-pan, and pour off the fat as fast as it melts. Cook until the +bacon is crisp and brown, turning frequently. Another method of cooking +is to lay the bacon on a rack in a baking-pan and bake in a hot oven +until crisp and brown. + + +_Pork Chops_ + +Wipe the chops with a damp cloth, and place in a hot frying-pan. Turn +frequently at first and cook slowly until well browned on each side. +Sprinkle with salt and pepper. + + +_Fried Apples_ + +Wash and core the apples and slice to the centre. Roll in flour if very +juicy. + +After the chops have been removed from the pan, lay the apples in and +cook till tender. Serve around the chops. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +If the meat is to require two or three hours' cooking, arrange to have +the lesson divided and given at two periods through the day. Half an +hour before opening the morning session or a portion of the morning or +noon recess may be sufficient time to put the meat on to cook and to +prepare the vegetables. When the second class period is called, the +vegetables should be added to the partially cooked meat and the +dumplings should be made. It would be well to serve the completed dish +at the lunch period. There should be as much discussion regarding the +kinds of meat, their food value, and the methods of cooking as time +permits; but it may be necessary to complete this discussion at some +other class period. + +Should it be possible for the teacher to give additional lessons on +meat, it might be well to devote one lesson to the preparation and +cooking of poultry, directions for which may be secured from any +reliable cook-book. + + + + +LESSON XVI: BAKED PORK AND BEANS--BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Peas, beans, and lentils which are dried for market contain a high +percentage of protein, carbohydrate, and mineral matter. They form an +excellent substitute for meat and are much cheaper in price. The +digestion of leguminous foods proceeds slowly, involving a large amount +of work: on this account they are not desirable for invalids, but they +are satisfactory for those who are well and active. The dried legumes +must be soaked overnight in water and then cooked for a long time, in +order to soften the cellulose and develop the flavour. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It will be necessary to plan this lesson several days in advance, if the +beans are to be baked. As they will be prepared and put on to bake +before the lesson period, the Baking-powder Biscuits may be made during +the lesson, to serve with them. + + +RECIPE + +_Boston Baked Beans_ + + 1 qt. navy beans + 1 tbsp. salt + 1/2 tbsp. mustard + 3 tbsp. sugar + 2 tbsp. molasses + 1 c. boiling water + 1/2 lb. fat salt pork + Boiling water to cover + +Look over the beans and soak them in cold water overnight. + +In the morning drain, cover with fresh water, and simmer them until the +skins will burst, but do not let the beans become broken. + +Scald one-half pound of fat salt pork. Scrape the pork. Put a slice in +the bottom of the bean pot. Cut the remaining pork across the top in +strips just through the rind, and bury the pork in beans, leaving the +rind exposed. + +Add one cup of boiling water to seasonings and pour over the beans. +Cover with boiling water. Bake slowly, adding more water as necessary. +Bake from 6 to 8 hours, uncover at the last, so that the water will +evaporate and the beans brown on top. Serves twelve. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Have the beans washed and put to soak the night before the lesson is to +be given. Assign to one of the pupils the task of putting them on to +simmer early the next morning. Call the class together for a few moments +when the beans are ready to bake. Assign one of the pupils to attend to +the fire and the oven. Let the beans bake all day. If the lesson is to +be given late in the afternoon, the beans may be ready to serve, or the +cooking may be continued on the second day and the lesson completed +then. It would be well to serve the dish at the lunch period. Have the +biscuits prepared to serve with the baked beans. + + + + +LESSON XVII: BUTTER CAKES--PLAIN YELLOW CAKE--COCOA--COFFEE--TEA + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Cakes._--Cakes made with fat resemble other batters, except that the +fat, sugar, and eggs are usually larger in amount and the texture of the +baked batter is finer and more tender. + +When preparing cake, first get the pans ready. Grease them or line them +with greased paper. Make sure that the oven is at the proper +temperature. For a small cake, the oven should be hot enough to brown a +piece of unglazed paper or a tablespoonful of flour in three minutes. +Bake a small cake from twenty to thirty minutes. When done, the cake +will shrink from the sides of the pan; the crust will spring back when +touched with the finger; the loud ticking sound will cease; a fine +knitting-needle will come out clean if the cake is pierced; and the +crust will be nicely browned. When the cake is removed from the oven, +let it stand in the pan for about three minutes, then loosen, and turn +out gently. Do not handle while hot. Keep in a clean, ventilated tin box +in a cool, dry place. + +_Cocoa._--Chocolate and cocoa are prepared from the bean of a tropical +tree. This bean is rich in protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter, +and a stimulant called theobromine. In the preparation of chocolate the +seeds are cleaned, milled, and crushed into a paste. In the preparation +of cocoa much of the fat is removed, and the cocoa is packed for market +in the form of a fine powder. Cocoa is more easily digested than +chocolate, because it contains less fat. Though the amount of cocoa used +in a cup of this beverage is not large, when prepared with milk it +serves as a nutritious food. It is slightly stimulating as well, because +of the theobromine present and because it is served hot. + +_Coffee and Tea._--Coffee and tea have no food value when prepared as +beverages. They contain stimulating properties that are harmful to the +body if taken in large quantities and, on this account, they should be +used with discretion. They should never be given to children or to those +troubled with indigestion. If carelessly prepared, both coffee and tea +may be decidedly harmful to the body. Coffee should not be boiled for +more than eight minutes. Tea should never be permitted to boil. Fresh, +boiling water should be poured on the leaves and left for three minutes. +It should then be strained off and kept hot until used. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +It may be wise to give this lesson on some special occasion, as it is +well adapted to serve for the refreshments for a mother's club or a +little class party. + + +RECIPES + +_Plain Yellow Cake_ + + 1/2 c. butter + 1 c. sugar + 2 eggs + 1/2 c. milk + 2 tsp. baking-powder + 1-1/2 c. flour + 1 tsp. spice or 1-1/2 tsp. flavouring + +Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and mix well. Add the +well-beaten yolks of eggs, then the flour and baking-powder alternately +with the milk. Then add the flavouring and cut and fold in the whites of +the eggs carefully. Turn into buttered pans and bake at once in a +moderately hot oven. + +For chocolate cake, 2 ounces of melted chocolate may be added after the +yolks of the eggs. Serves sixteen to twenty. + + +_Gingerbread_ + + 1/4 c. butter + 1/2 c. brown sugar + 1 egg + 1/2 c. molasses + 1/2 c. milk (sour if possible) + 1/2 tsp. soda + 1-3/4 c. flour + 1 tsp. ginger + 1/2 tsp. cinnamon + Salt + +Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then a well-beaten egg. Add +the molasses. Sift all the dry ingredients together and add alternately +with the milk. Bake in a buttered tin or in gem pans in a moderate oven +for 25 or 35 minutes. Serves eight to ten. + + +_Cocoa_ + + 1/4 c. cocoa + 1/4 c. sugar + 1 c. water + 3 c. milk + +Mix the cocoa and sugar with the water and boil from 3 to 5 minutes. +Stir into the hot milk and serve at once. If a scum forms, beat with a +Dover egg-beater. Serves eight to ten. + + +_Tea_ + + 1 tsp. green or 2 tsp. black tea + 2 c. boiling water (freshly boiling) + +Scald the tea-pot, put the tea in the tea-pot, and pour boiling water +over it; steep 3 minutes, strain, and serve. Serves four. + + +_Coffee_ + +Take two tablespoonfuls of ground coffee for each cup of boiling water +that is to be used. Put the coffee in the coffee-pot and add enough cold +water to moisten the coffee and make it stick together--about one +teaspoonful of water to each tablespoonful of coffee. Pour the boiling +water over the coffee and boil it for 3 minutes. Place it where it will +keep hot, but not boil, for 5 minutes or more, and then serve. If a +small amount of egg white and shell is mixed with the coffee grounds and +cold water, it will aid in clarifying and settling the coffee. + + _Note._--The recipes for coffee and tea are given, so that + the teacher can discuss their preparation with the pupils + and compare their value with that of cocoa. If coffee and + tea are both commonly used in the homes, it may be well to + have the pupils prepare both in the class, to be sure that + they understand how to make them properly. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Begin the lesson period with a discussion of the methods of preparing +cakes, and put the cake in the oven as soon as possible. While it is +baking, prepare the cocoa. If the cocoa is not to be served for some +time, it can be kept hot or re-heated over hot water. + + + + +LESSON XVIII: YEAST BREAD + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Yeast bread is made light by the presence of a gas produced by the +action of yeast in the sponge or dough. Yeast is a microscopic plant +which grows in a moist, warm temperature and feeds on starchy materials +such as are present in wheat. A portion of the starch is converted into +sugar (thus developing new and pleasant flavours), and some is still +further changed, giving off the gas upon which the lightness of the +bread depends. If the yeast is allowed to work for too long a time or +the temperature is very hot, a souring of the dough may result. This +souring can be prevented by kneading the dough thoroughly, as soon as it +has risen well or doubled in bulk, or by putting it in a very hot oven +to bake, when it has reached this stage. The yeast plant thrives in a +heat of about the same temperature as our bodies. A little extra heat +will only make it more active, but boiling temperature will kill it. +Cold makes yeast inactive, though it does not kill the plants. + +Yeast develops in a natural state on hops and other plants. It is +prepared for market in the form of dry or moist cakes. The latter must +be kept very cold. For home use, a liquid yeast is often prepared from +the dry cakes. This has the advantage of being more active. + +When the yeast has been added to a batter, it is spoken of as a sponge. +When the batter has had enough flour added, so that it may be handled, +it is called a dough. If the bread is to be made in a few hours, the +yeast is made up at once into a dough. If it is to stand overnight, a +sponge is often made first. More yeast is required for quick rising. In +ordinary circumstances, one yeast cake is sufficient for one quart of +liquid. Thorough kneading and baking are both essential to the success +of the bread. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Arrange to have the class meet the afternoon before, in order to begin +the process by making the sponge, and to come early in the morning to +care for the dough. Begin the study of flour, yeast, and bread in a +previous class period, correlating the work with geography, nature +study, or some other subject. Either white or whole-wheat flour may be +used for the breads. + + +RECIPES + +_Bread_ + +(Prepared with dry yeast) + + 1 dry yeast cake + 1 c. warm water + 1 c. flour + 1 qt. water or milk (scalded) + Flour enough to make a soft dough + 2 tsp. salt + 2 tbsp. sugar + 2 tbsp. lard or butter + +At noon put a dry yeast cake to soak in a cup of warm water. When it is +soft, add a cup of flour, cover, and put in a warm place to grow light. +This will require several hours. + +In the evening, when ready to begin the dough, mix the salt, sugar, fat, +and hot liquid in a large bowl; when lukewarm, add the cup of light +yeast and enough flour to knead (about three quarts). Mix thoroughly and +knead it into a smooth dough, and continue this process until it is soft +and elastic. Return the dough to the bowl, moisten, cover, and set in a +moderately warm place for the night. Be sure that the place is free from +draughts. In the morning knead slightly; divide into loaves or shape in +rolls; put into pans for baking; cover, and let it rise until double in +bulk. Bake large loaves from 50 to 60 minutes. Rolls will bake in from +25 to 35 minutes, for they require a hotter oven. It is of the utmost +importance that all yeast breads be thoroughly cooked. (Makes 4 loaves.) + +(Time required for making bread with dry yeast, from 16 to 20 hours.) + + +_Bread_ + +(Prepared with compressed yeast) + + 2 c. milk or water (scalded) + 2 tsp. salt + 2 tsp. sugar + 1 tbsp. lard or butter + 1/4 cake compressed yeast (1 cake if set in morning) + 1/4 c. water (lukewarm) + Flour, white or whole wheat + +Put the hot water or milk, salt, sugar, and fat in a bowl; when +lukewarm, and the yeast softened in the lukewarm water, then the flour +gradually and, when stiff enough to handle, turn the dough out on a +floured board and knead until soft and elastic (20 minutes). Return the +dough to the bowl, moisten, cover, and let it rise in a warm place until +double in bulk; then knead slightly, divide into loaves or shape into +rolls, cover, and let rise in the pan in which they are to be baked +until double in bulk, and bake from 50 to 60 minutes. (Makes 2 loaves.) + +(Time required for making bread, if one cake of compressed yeast is +used, 6 hours.) + + +METHOD OF WORK + +If the class is large, prepare two or three bowls of sponge, so that all +can have some practice in stirring and kneading. Do not make too large a +quantity of bread to bake in the oven, unless arrangements can be made +to do some of the baking at the home of one of the pupils. Use the bread +for the school lunch or divide it among the class to take home. + +Plan a bread contest, so that each pupil will be interested in making +bread at home. + + + + +LESSON XIX: SERVING A SIMPLE DINNER WITHOUT MEAT--BAKED OMELET--MACARONI +AND CHEESE + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN AND METHOD OF WORK + +At some previous time the teacher should discuss with the pupils the +plans for the dinner. It may be well to let them invite the members of +the school board or others interested in their work to partake of the +dinner. They should decide on the menu, with the help and suggestions of +the teacher, and should choose foods that they can bring from their +homes. The main course should consist of such a vegetable dish as baked +beans, an omelet, or macaroni with white sauce and grated cheese. To +accompany this there should be potatoes and a fresh green vegetable, +such as spinach or cabbage, and a hot bread. + +A simple dessert which the pupils know how to make should be chosen. One +duty should be assigned to each pupil, and she should be entirely +responsible for that portion of the dinner. The teacher should supervise +all the work carefully. + +Instructions for making the menu cards may be given in a drawing lesson. + + +RECIPES + +_Baked Omelet_ + + 2 tbsp. butter + 2 tbsp. flour + 1/2 tsp. salt + 1 c. milk, heated + 4 eggs + 2 tsp. fat + Pepper + +Melt the butter, add the flour and seasonings, mix thoroughly, then add +the hot milk slowly. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks, and add the +white sauce to them. Beat the whites until stiff and cut and fold them +carefully into the yolk mixture, so that the lightness is all retained. +Turn into a greased baking-dish and bake in a moderate oven from 20 to +30 minutes. Serve hot. Serves six. + + +_Macaroni and Cheese_ + + 1 c. macaroni, noodles, or rice + 2 tbsp. fat + 3 tbsp. flour + 1/2 tsp. salt + Pepper + 1-1/2 c. milk + 1 c. grated cheese + 2 c. buttered bread crumbs (two tbsp. butter or other fat) + +Break the macaroni into 1-inch pieces and cook it in a large amount of +salted boiling water from 30 to 45 minutes. Drain it well when tender +and pour cold water through it. + +Break up the bread crumbs and add two tablespoonfuls of melted butter to +them. Grate the cheese and make a white sauce of the fat, flour, +seasonings, and milk. Mix the cheese with the sauce, add the macaroni, +and pour it into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the bread crumbs and +bake 15 or 20 minutes, to brown the crumbs. Serves eight. + + + + +LESSON XX: SUGAR + +_Food value and cooking. The use of peanuts in candy. Peanut cookies, or +peanut, molasses, or fudge candies, to be made for a special +entertainment._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Sugar is valuable to the body as a source of heat and energy. While it +is easy of digestion, it is very irritating to the body if taken in +large quantities and, on this account, it should be taken in small +quantities and preferably at meal time or with other food. Two or three +pieces of candy taken at the end of the meal will not be hurtful, but +when eaten habitually between meals, it is sure to produce harmful +effects. + +Sugar is present in many fruits and in most vegetables. Milk contains a +large percentage of sugar. In preparing foods to which the addition of +sugar seems desirable, care should be taken not to add it in large +quantities. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +As it is desirable to have a discussion regarding sugar and its value to +the body, the preparation of cookies or candy for some school function +or Christmas party may be undertaken in conjunction with this lesson, +which should be given at a time when it will mean most to the pupils. +The work should be so planned that they will learn something of the +principles of sugar cookery, as well as the specific recipes they are +using. + + +RECIPES + +_Cookies_ + + 1 c. fat + 1 c. sugar + 2 eggs + 1/4 c. milk + 3 c. flour + 3 tsp. baking-powder + 1 tbsp. cinnamon + 1/2 c. sugar + +Cream the butter and add the sugar and well-beaten eggs. Then add the +milk alternately with the sifted dry flour (sifted with baking-powder). +Mix to the consistency of a soft dough, adding more milk if necessary. +Roll lightly, cut in shapes, and dip in the one-half cup of sugar and +cinnamon that have been sifted together. Place on buttered sheets and +bake in a hot oven for about 10 minutes. Slip from the pan and lay on +the cake cooler. To make a softer cookie, use only one-half cup of +butter. (Three to four dozen.) + + +_Peanut Cookies_ + + 2 tbsp. butter + 1/4 c. sugar + 1 egg + 1 tsp. baking-powder + 1/8 tsp. salt + 1/2 c. flour + 2 tsp. milk + 1/2 c. finely chopped peanuts + 1/2 tsp. lemon juice + 2 doz. whole peanuts shelled + +Cream the butter and add the sugar and the egg well beaten. Add the milk +and sifted dry ingredients, alternately, to the first mixture, then the +peanuts and lemon juice. Drop from a teaspoon on a baking sheet an inch +apart and place 1/2 peanut on top of each. Bake from 12 to 15 minutes in +a moderate oven. (Two and a half to three dozen.) + + +_Peanut Brittle_ + + 1 c. sugar + 1 c. peanuts in the shell + +Stir the sugar over the heat, constantly, until it becomes a clear +liquid. Take at once from the heat, add the prepared peanuts, and pour +on a warm, buttered tin. Mark in squares and cool. Serves ten. + + +_Molasses Candy_ + + 2 c. molasses + 2/3 c. sugar + 1 tbsp. vinegar + 1/4 tsp. soda + 2 tbsp. butter + +Put the molasses, sugar, and butter into a thick sauce-pan or kettle and +stir until the sugar is dissolved. Boil until the mixture becomes +brittle when tried in cold water. Stir constantly at the last to prevent +burning. Add vinegar and soda just before removing from the fire. Pour +into a well-greased pan and let it stand until cool enough to handle. +Then pull until light and porous and cut in small pieces with scissors, +arranging on buttered plates. Serves sixteen to twenty. + + +_Fudge_ + + 2 c. sugar + 1 c. milk + 1 tbsp. butter + 1/2 c. nuts, broken up + +Put the sugar and the milk in a sauce-pan and stir over the heat until +the sugar is dissolved. Add the butter and boil to the "soft ball" +stage. Take from the heat and beat until creamy. Add the nuts and pour +on buttered pans. When cool, cut in squares. Serves sixteen to eighteen. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +Devote, if possible, a separate period to the discussion of the food +value and cooking of sugar; then assign two recipes for the practical +work, allowing the pupils to work in groups. Assign only as much work as +can be carefully supervised. Do not undertake both the cookies and the +candy. + + + + +TWENTY LESSONS IN SEWING + + +SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER + +The teacher should be familiar with the conditions in which the pupils +live, should know how much money they can afford to pay for materials, +what materials are available, what previous experience in hand work they +have had, whether they can afford to have sewing-machines in their own +homes, and to what extent they make their own clothes or buy them +ready-made. + +The lessons should be planned to furnish hand training, to give pupils +practical instruction in the care of their own clothes, and to provide +an opportunity for preparing the apron for the cooking lessons. The +lesson course should tend to develop habits of thrift, industry, and +neatness. The pupils should be encouraged to learn to sew, both to +improve their own home conditions and to give them suggestions as to a +possible means of livelihood. If sewing-machines are available and are +in use in the homes, it is well to have lessons given in machine sewing +and to have the long seams run by machine. If the pupils cannot have +sewing-machines in their own homes, the lessons given should be limited +to sewing by hand. In some schools, it may be necessary to simplify the +lessons; in others, an increased number of articles may be prepared in +the time allotted. Should the apron and cap not be needed for the +cooking class, an undergarment (corset cover) may well be +substituted.[A] + + [A] Should the teacher feel that an apron or corset-cover + is too large a piece for her pupils to undertake, and + should she desire to have more time spent on the first ten + lessons. Lessons XI to XVIII may be omitted, two periods + each devoted to both Lessons XIX and XX, and three lessons + used for the making of a simple needle-book or other small + piece. + +For each lesson the teacher should have in mind a definite plan of +procedure. The lesson should be opened with a brief and concrete class +discussion of the new work that is to be taken up or the special stage +that has been reached in work that is already under way. Though +individual instruction is necessary, it should not take the place of +this general presentation of the subject-matter, which economizes time +and develops the real thought content of the work. Whenever possible, +the teacher should endeavour to correlate this work with the other +subjects on the curriculum. + +New stitches may be demonstrated on large pieces of scrim, with long +darning-needles and coarse red or black yarn. The scrim should be pinned +to the black-board with thumb tacks, and the stitches made large enough +for all to see without difficulty. A variety of completed articles +should be kept on hand, in order to show additional application of +points brought out in the lesson. Each class may be given the privilege +of preparing one article to add to this collection, and a spirit of +class pride and valuable team work may be thereby developed. + +During the lesson, posture, neatness, and order should be emphasized. +Application can be secured by making the problems of interest. Care must +be taken that none of the work demands unnecessary eye strain. Each +lesson should be closed in time to have one of the members of the class +give a brief summary of the steps that have been covered. + +Since the class period for sewing in the rural school will necessarily +be brief, the pupils should be encouraged to continue their work at some +other period. However, no work outside of the class period should be +permitted until the pupil has mastered the stitch and can be trusted to +do the work in the right way. The privilege of sewing may be made the +reward for lessons quickly learned, home practice may be assigned, or +the class may meet out of school hours. All outside practice must be +carefully supervised, the pupil bringing her work to the teacher for +frequent inspection. + +If it is possible to keep on hand a permanent equipment for sewing, the +following should be provided for a class of twelve: + + Approximate cost + Scissors, 1 dozen $3.00 + Thimbles, 1 dozen .50 + Tape-measures, 1 dozen .60 + Emery, 1 dozen .50 + Boxes for work, 1 dozen 1.00 + ------ + $5.60 + + _Note._--Shoe or candy boxes may be used, but an effort + should be made to have them uniform. + +The teacher who is to give lessons in sewing should secure a helpful +elementary text-book or some bulletin that deals with the teaching of +sewing. + + +REFERENCE BOOKS. + +_School Sewing, Based on Home Problems._ Burton, I. R. + and M. G. Vocational Supply Co., Indianapolis $1.00 + +_Handbook of Elementary Sewing._ Flagg, E. P. Little, + Brown & Co., Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & + Stewart, Toronto) .50 + +_Constructive Sewing, Book I._ (paper) Industrial Book & + Equipment Co., Indianapolis .60 + +_School Needlework._ Hapgood, O. C. Ginn & Co., Boston .50 + +_Clothing and Health._ Kinne, H., and Cooley, + A. M. Macmillan's, Toronto .65 + +_Handicraft for Girls._ McGlauflin, I. Manual Arts Press, + Peoria. Ill. 1.00 + +_Home and School Sewing._ Patton, F. Newson & Co., + New York .60 + +_A Sewing Course._ Woolman, M. S. Frederick A. Fernald, + Washington 1.50 + +_Sewing._ Department of Education of Ontario .20 + + + + +LESSON I: PREPARATION FOR SEWING + +_Preparation and use of working equipment: Needles, pins, thread, +tape-measure, thimble, scissors, box for work. Talk on cleanliness and +neatness (care of hands, etc.). Discussion of hemming. Hems folded on +sheets of paper._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +A hem is made by twice turning over the edge of a piece of cloth toward +the worker, and then sewing it down. It is used to finish a narrow edge. +In turning a narrow hem the first fold must not be so deep as the +second, in order that the hem may lie smoothly. If the hem is a wide +one, the first fold can be much narrower than the second. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher should have interested the pupils in the sewing lessons +before the first meeting of the class, and each pupil should be asked to +bring with her the box in which to keep her materials and such other +equipment as is required. If the school is to furnish the equipment, the +teacher should be sure that there is an adequate supply on hand. + +It will probably be necessary to have the towels to be used in the +cooking classes hemmed, and the pupils should be interested in doing +this work. If some of them wish to hem towels for use in their own +homes, it may be desirable to allow them to do so. Flour or meal sacks +will answer. It may be well to have each pupil hem a towel for home use, +as well as for school use, in order to impress upon her the desirability +of having hemmed dish-towels for daily use. The towels may be planned +during this lesson, and the pupils may arrange to bring the material +from home, if they are to provide it; but it will be well for the +teacher to have on hand material for one or two towels. Plain paper will +answer for the practice folding of the hem in the first lesson. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should devote a few minutes to a talk on cleanliness, +emphasizing its importance, and the necessity for exercising care in +handling the sewing materials. This should be followed by a discussion +regarding the care of the hands and the condition in which they should +be for the sewing lesson. Each pupil should inspect her own hands and +show them to the teacher. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 2.--Gauge] + +When all the pupils have their hands in a proper condition for sewing, +the teacher should look over their supplies with them, give them +suggestions as to how they are to keep these, and let them arrange their +boxes. + +Next, she should tell them what their first work is to be, show them the +material for the towels, and discuss with them the best method of +finishing the ends. (See Lesson II.) + +Before turning the hem, the pupils should make a gauge from heavy paper, +notched to indicate the depth of the hem. A few minutes should be +devoted to practice in measuring and turning a hem of the desired depth +on a sheet of paper. This should give practice in the double turning +necessary--first, the narrow turn to dispose of the cut edge; second, +the fold to finish the edge. + +When the lesson is finished, the boxes should be put away in systematic +order, and all scraps should be carefully picked up from the desks and +the floor. + + + + +LESSON II: HEMMING TOWELS + +_Turning and basting hems. Hemming towels of crash, sacking, or other +material, for use in washing and drying dishes at home or in school._ + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 3.--Even basting] + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Basting is used to hold two pieces of material together until a +permanent stitch can be put in. It is done by taking long stitches +(one-fourth inch) from right to left and parallel to the edges that are +to be basted together. In starting, the thread is fastened with a knot; +when completed, it is fastened by taking two or three stitches one over +the other. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher should have the necessary materials on hand or should see +that they are supplied by the pupils. The articles needed will include +material for the towels, white thread for basting and hemming, and +gauges for measuring. + +The teacher should also have a large square of unbleached cotton or +canvas, 18 by 18 inches, and a large darning-needle and coloured worsted +thread, to use for demonstration purposes. The canvas should be fastened +to the black-board, where the class can see it easily. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +As soon as the class is called, the supplies are at hand, and the hands +are in a proper condition, the teacher should demonstrate the +basting-stitch, with a large needle and thread, on the square of canvas +that has been fastened on the wall. Materials for work should be passed. +Each pupil should straighten the ends of her towel by drawing a thread. +Then she should turn and baste a hem three eighths of an inch in depth. + +At the close of the lesson, the pupils should fold their work carefully +and put it neatly in their boxes. + + + + +LESSON III: HEMMING TOWELS--Continued + +_The overhanding stitch and the hemming stitch._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +_Overhanding_ (also called overseaming or top sewing).--The edges to be +overhanded are held between the first finger and the thumb of the left +hand, with the edge parallel to the first finger. The needle is inserted +just below and perpendicular to the edge. The needle is pointed straight +toward the worker. The stitches proceed from right to left, each stitch +being taken a little to the left of the preceding stitch. The stitches +should all be straight on the right side, but they will slant a little +on the wrong side. They should not be deep. It may be desirable to use +this overhanding stitch at the ends of hems, to hold the edges of the +material together. The overhanding stitch is also used for seams, for +patching, and for sewing on lace. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 4.--Overhanding] + +The overhanding of narrow hems is not always necessary, but the ends may +be made stronger thereby, and the stitch is a valuable one for the +pupils to know. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 5.--Hemming] + +_Hemming._--The hemming-stitch is placed on the inside of the hem. The +end of the basted hem is laid over the first and under the second finger +of the left hand, with the folded edge outside and the material toward +the worker. It is held in place with the thumb. The stitch is begun at +the end of the hem. The fastening of the thread is concealed by slipping +it underneath the hem in the inside fold of the material. The needle is +pointed over the left shoulder, a small stitch is taken by inserting the +needle through the material just below the hem, then through the folded +edge. This is repeated, making the next stitch nearer the worker and +moving the goods away from the worker as necessary. Uniformity of slant, +size, and spacing of the stitches is important. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Before this lesson is given, all the pupils should report to the +teacher, having both ends of their towels basted, so that they will all +be ready to proceed at once with the new stitches. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should begin by demonstrating on the large square of canvas +with the large needle and heavy thread the stitches to be used. After +overhanding the end of the hem, the hemming-stitch should follow with +the same thread. The pupils will probably not be able to finish the +hemming in this first lesson, so provision should be made for additional +time. This can be required as an outside assignment, if the pupils have +mastered the method during the class period. The teacher may also be +able to give them some supervision while she is looking after other +classes. + + + + +LESSON IV: BAGS + +_A school bag. Bag (made of material obtainable) to hold sewing +materials. Measuring and straightening the material for the bag. Basting +the seams._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +The basting-stitch will be used as a review of work in the second +lesson. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Some time before the lesson, the teacher should discuss with the pupils +the kind of material they will be able to provide for their bags and, if +the material has to be purchased, she should suggest something that is +suitable, washable, and inexpensive. The bag should cost only a few +cents. The dimensions of the finished bag should be about 12 by 18 +inches. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The pupils should get out the materials they have brought and determine +upon the size and shape of their bags. It will not be necessary to make +them uniform. The teacher should help the pupils to use their material +to the best advantage. It should be straightened, pulled in place, and +measured carefully. When the bags have been cut out, the sides should be +basted. + + + + +LESSON V: BAGS--Continued + +_Sewing up the seams with a running-stitch and a back-stitch._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Running is done by passing the needle in and out of the material at +regular intervals. Small, even stitches and spaces should follow +consecutively on both sides of the material. The stitches should be much +shorter than those used for basting, the length being determined largely +by the kind of cloth used. + +When running is combined with a back-stitch, two or more +running-stitches and one back-stitch are taken alternately. The +back-stitch is a stitch taken backward on the upper side of the cloth, +the needle being put back each time into the end of the last stitch and +brought out the same distance beyond the last stitch. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher should be sure that all the pupils are ready to report, +having the sides of their bags basted ready for stitching. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should first demonstrate the running-stitch with the +back-stitch, and the pupils should begin to sew the sides of the bag, +using this stitch. They should commence sewing three quarters of an inch +from the top of the bag, so that there will be a space left for slits in +the hem through which to run the cord.[A] The seams will doubtless have +to be finished outside of the class hour, and may be assigned for +completion before the next lesson. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 6.--Running-stitch with a back-stitch] + + [A] The draw-string, or cord, is to be run through the hem + from the inside of the bag, and it will be necessary to + leave three quarters of an inch of space at the ends of + the seams, to provide slits as outlets for the cord. + + + + +LESSON VI: BAGS--Continued + +_Overcasting the seams and turning the hem at the top of the bag._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Overcasting is done by taking loose stitches over the raw edge of the +cloth, to keep it from ravelling or fraying. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The teacher should be sure that all the pupils are ready to report, +having the sides of their bags neatly sewed with the running-stitch. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 7.--Overcasting] + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should demonstrate the method of overcasting and explain its +use. She should have the pupils trim the edges of their seams neatly and +overcast them carefully. After the seams have been overcast, she should +discuss the depth of the hem that the pupils expect to use and the +method of turning and basting it. They should then measure, turn, pin, +and baste the hems, using the gauge for determining the depth of the +hem. If the bags are deep enough to admit of a heading at the top, a +deep hem (about 2-1/2 inches) can be made, and a running-stitch put in +one-half inch (or more) above the edge of the hem, to provide a casing, +or space, for the cord. If it is necessary to take a narrow hem, the hem +itself can be made to answer as space for the cord; in this case the hem +should be made about one-half inch deep. + + + + +LESSON VII: BAGS--Continued + +_Hemming the top of the bag and putting in a running-stitch to provide a +space for the cord._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Review of the hemming-stitch and the running-stitch. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The pupils, having the hems basted, should report to the teacher. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should review briefly the method of making the +hemming-stitch and the running-stitch, asking the pupils to describe +these stitches and to demonstrate them on the large square of canvas +before the class. The basted hems should then be sewed with the +hemming-stitch. + +After the hem is finished, the pupils should run a basting thread around +the bag, to mark the location of the running-stitch, which is to be half +an inch above the hem. They should measure for this carefully. If there +is not time to do all the hemming in the class period, the +hemming-stitch and the running-stitch (which is to provide space for the +draw-string) should be assigned for outside work, and each pupil should +bring in her finished hem at a designated time before the next class +period. + + + + +LESSON VIII: BAGS--Continued + +_Preparing a cord or other draw-string for the bag. Putting a double +draw-string in the bag, so that it can easily be drawn up. Use of the +bodkin._ + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 8.--Bag nearly completed] + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +To make a cord, it is necessary to take more than four times as much +cotton as the final length of the cord will require, for some of the +length will be taken up in the twisting of the cord. It will be easier +for two to work together in making a cord. The cord should be doubled, +the two lengths twisted together firmly, and the ends brought together +again and held in one hand, while the middle is taken in the other hand, +and the lengths are allowed to twist firmly together. The ends should be +tied, and the cord run into the bag with a bodkin or tape-needle. If one +cord is run in from one side and another is run in from the other side, +each cord running all the way around, the bag can be drawn up easily. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 9.--Bodkin] + +In place of the cord, narrow tape may be used. Take two pieces of tape, +each piece being twice as long as the width of the bag plus two inches. +Run one tape in from one side and a second from the other side, each +tape running all the way around. Join the tape ends in the following +manner: + +1. Turn a narrow fold on one end of the tape to the _wrong_ side, and on +the other end of the tape to the _right_ side. + +2. Slip one fold under the other and hem down the folded edges. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +If the pupils are not able to supply cords for their own bags, the +teacher should have a sufficient supply of cord on hand. She should be +sure the bags are in readiness for the cord before the class period. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 10.--- Completed bag] + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should begin the lesson by describing the method of making +the cord, estimating the amount necessary, and demonstrating the process +with the assistance of one of the pupils. The pupils should be numbered, +so that they may work in groups of two. After they have completed the +cord and run it into the bag, methods of finishing the ends neatly +should be suggested to them. + + + + +LESSON IX: DARNING STOCKINGS + +_Use of a darning-ball or gourd as a substitute for a ball. Talk on the +care of the feet and the care of the stockings._ + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 11.--Darning] + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +This lesson will involve running and weaving. Darning is used to fill in +a hole with thread, so as to supply the part that has been destroyed or +to strengthen a place which shows signs of weakness. A darning-ball, a +gourd, or a firm piece of cardboard should be placed under the hole. The +darn should extend one quarter of an inch beyond the edge of the +material, beginning with fine stitches in the material, making rows +running close together in one direction, then crossing these threads +with rows that run at a right angle to them. Care should be taken +alternately to pick up and drop the edge of the material around the +hole, so that no raw edges will be visible, and to weave evenly in and +out of the material and the cross threads. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Each pupil should provide a pair of stockings with a few small holes and +a gourd or ball of some sort that she can use as a darning ball. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +When the class meets, the teacher should discuss briefly the care of the +feet and of the stockings, and demonstrate the method of darning, on a +large piece of coarse material, with heavy yarn and a needle. If the +pupils finish one darn during the lesson period, more darning should be +assigned for practice out of class. + + + + +LESSON X: PATCHING[A] + +_Hemmed patches on cotton garments. Talk on the care of the clothes._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +This lesson will involve measuring, trimming, basting, and hemming. A +patch is a piece of cloth sewed on to a garment to restore the worn +part. The material used for the patch should be as nearly like the +original fabric in colour and quality as possible. In placing the patch, +the condition of the material about the hole must be taken into +consideration, as well as the size of the hole. The worn parts around +the hole should be removed, and the hole cut square or oblong. The patch +should be, on all four sides, an inch larger than the trimmed hole. The +corners of the hole should be cut back diagonally, so that the edges may +be turned under. The patch should be matched and pinned to the wrong +side of the garment, leaving the edges to project evenly on all four +sides. The edges of the material around the hole should be turned in and +basted to the patch. The edges of the patch should be turned in so that +they extend, when finished, one-half inch from the edge of the hole. The +patch and the cloth should be basted together and hemmed. + + [A] Used when special problem comes up. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 12.--Patching] + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The lesson on patching should be given at any time in the course when it +can be applied to an immediate need. If a pupil tears her dress while +playing at school, or if she wears a torn apron, the teacher can +announce a patching lesson for the next sewing class, and request each +pupil to bring a torn garment and the material for the patch from home. +It may be desirable to use two or three periods for this lesson. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should demonstrate the process of patching on a large piece +of cotton. The pupils should practise placing a patch on a piece of +paper with a hole in it. Each step should be assigned in +succession--examination of the article to determine its condition, +calculation of the size and preparation of the patch, placing the patch, +trimming the article around the hole, basting the patch and material +together, and hemming the patch. + + + + +LESSON XI: CUTTING OUT APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +When cutting out an apron, the length of the skirt should first be +measured, and to this measure 6 inches should be added for the hem and +the seams. One length of the material corresponding to this length +should be cut. This should be folded lengthwise through the middle. +Three quarters of an inch should be measured on this fold, and the +material cut from the end of the selvage to this point, in order to +slope the front of the apron. When the waist measure is taken, 3 inches +should be added to it (1 for the lap and 1 at each end, for finishing). +This makes a strong piece at each end for the button and button-hole. Two +pieces of this length and 2-1/2 inches wide should be cut lengthwise of +the material for the belt. A measure should be made from the middle of +the back of the waist line, over the shoulder, to a point 5 inches to +the right to the centre front and on the waist line. Two pieces of the +length of this measure and 4-1/2 inches wide should be cut lengthwise of +the material for the shoulder straps. A piece 9 by 12 inches should be +cut for the bib, the longer distance lengthwise of the material. These +measurements allow one quarter of an inch for seams. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Before the lesson the teacher should see if arrangements can be made to +secure the use of one or two sewing-machines, so that the pupils may sew +all the long seams by machine. + +At a previous lesson she should discuss the kinds of material suitable +for the aprons. The pupils should consider whether their aprons shall be +white or coloured, and whether they shall be of muslin, cambric, or +gingham. Each pupil will need from 1-1/2 to 2 yards of material, +according to her size. The taller ones will need 2 yards. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 13.--Cutting out skirt of apron] + +There should be on hand a sufficient number of tape-measures, pins, and +scissors, so that the pupils may proceed with the cutting of their +aprons without unnecessary delay. + +The apron to be made is to have a skirt, with a bib and shoulder straps, +in order to be a protection to the dress, the skirt, and the waist.[A] + + [A] If the pupils are very inexperienced and find the + sewing difficult, it may be advisable to omit the bib and + straps and to make the simple full-skirted apron. If a + machine is not at hand to use for the long seams, the + limited time may make the simpler apron necessary. This + will give more time for the various steps. Lessons XIV and + XV may then be omitted, Lesson XVI made more simple, and + less outside work may be required. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +As soon as the class meets, the pupils should take the measurements for +their aprons. One measurement should be assigned at a time, and the +reason for each measurement should be given. The pupils should have +explicit directions as to the measurements, as they are apt to become +confused if the directions are not clear. They should work carefully, so +that the material does not become crumpled or soiled and, at the +conclusion of the lesson, they should fold it carefully and put it away +neatly. All threads and scraps of material should be carefully picked +off the floor and the desks, and the room left in order. + + + + +LESSON XII: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued + +_Basting the hem for hemming on the machine or by hand. Uneven basting._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +An uneven basting forms the better guide for stitching. In uneven +basting, the spaces are made about three times as long as the stitches. +The stitch should be about one eighth of an inch and the space three +eighths of an inch. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +In addition to the apron material which has been cut out in the previous +lesson, each pupil should provide her own spool of thread (number sixty +white thread will probably answer for all the work), a piece of +cardboard 5 inches wide for a gauge, and pins to use in fastening the +hem. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 14.--Uneven basting] + + +METHOD OF WORK + +As soon as the class meets, the pupils should prepare a 5-inch gauge, to +guide them in turning the hems of the skirts of their aprons. They +should make a half-inch notch in the measure for the first turn in the +material. A half-inch edge should be turned up from the bottom of the +skirt, then a 5-inch hem should be turned, pinned, and basted carefully +with uneven basting. The gauge should be used for both measurements. + + + + +LESSON XIII: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued + +_Gathering the skirt and stitching to the belt._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +In gathering, a stitch much like running is employed. Small stitches are +taken up on the needle, with spaces twice as great between them. The top +of the skirt should be divided into halves, and each half gathered with +a long thread, fine stitches one quarter of an inch from the edge being +used. The middle of the belt and the middle of the top of the skirt of +the apron should be determined upon. The belt should be pinned to the +wrong side of the apron at these points, and the fulness drawn up to fit +(approximately one half of the waist measure). The skirt and the belt +should be pinned, basted, and sewn together. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 15.--Gathering] + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +If the hems have been completed in the skirts, the pupils are ready to +gather the skirts and attach them to the belt. It will be well to have a +supply of pins on hand, to use in fastening the skirt and belt together. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should first demonstrate the method of gathering and assign +that portion of the lesson. When the skirts have all been gathered, she +should show the pupils how to measure, pin, and baste the skirt to the +belt. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.--Sewing on the belt of the apron] + + + + +LESSON XIV: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued + +_Making the bib._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +A 2-inch hem should be turned across one short end of the bib. This +should be basted and hemmed. The bottom of the bib should be gathered, +the method employed for the top of the skirt being used, and sufficient +thread being left to adjust the gathers easily. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +If the pupils have completed the skirts and attached them to the belts, +they are ready to make the bibs. They should be provided with a 2-inch +marker, for use in making the hems in the top of the bibs. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should guide the pupils carefully in the making of the bibs, +reviewing their knowledge of basting, hemming, and gathering. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 17.--Bib and straps of apron] + + + + +LESSON XV: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued + +_Making the straps._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +One end of one of the straps should be placed at the bottom of the bib. +The edge of the strap should be pinned, basted, and sewed to the right +side of the bib with a running-stitch. The other long edge of the strap +should then be turned in one quarter of an inch and the side turned in +one inch. The strap should then be folded through the middle for its +entire length and the free side basted to the wrong side of the bib and +hemmed. The remaining edges of the strap should be overhanded together. +The other strap should be sewn to the other side of the bib in the same +way. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The bibs should have been completed before the pupils report for this +lesson. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +As soon as the pupils report for the lesson, the teacher should explain +the method of attaching the straps to the bib and tell them how to +finish the former. As they proceed with their work, she should supervise +them carefully and assign the unfinished portion to be done out of +class. + + + + +LESSON XVI: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued + +_Putting the bib and the skirt on the belt._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +The middle of the bottom of the bib should be determined, and pinned to +the middle of the upper edge of the belt, to which the skirt has already +been attached. The belt should be fastened to the wrong side of the bib. +The gathering string of the bib should be drawn up, leaving 2 inches of +fulness on each side of the middle. The bib should be pinned, basted, +and sewn to the belt. The remaining long edges of the belt should be +turned in one quarter of an inch, and the ends one inch. The edges of +the other belt piece should be turned in in the same way, and should be +pinned over the belt to which the skirt and the bib have been attached +(with all the edges turned in), and basted carefully, to keep the edges +even. The skirt and the bib should be hemmed to this upper belt, and all +the remaining edges should be overhanded. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +The bib and the straps of the apron should be completed before the +pupils report for this lesson. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should guide the pupils carefully in the various steps +necessary in fastening the bib to the belt and in completing the belt. +If the hemming and overhanding is not completed during the class hour, +they may be assigned as home work. + + + + +LESSON XVII: METHODS OF FASTENING GARMENTS + +_Sewing buttons on the aprons, corset-cover, or other garment._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +This lesson should teach neatness in dress, through a consideration of +the best methods of fastening garments. The position of the button is +measured by drawing the right end of the band one inch over the left +end. The place for the button should be marked with a pin on the left +end of the band. A double thread is fastened on the right side of the +band, drawn through one hole of the button, and back through the other, +and then taken through the band close to the first stitch. A pin should +be inserted on top of the button under the first stitch, left there +until the button is firmly fastened in place, and then removed. Before +the thread is fastened, it should be wrapped two or three times around +the threads holding the button, between the button and the cloth, then +fastened neatly on the wrong side with a few small stitches one on top +of another. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 18.--Sewing on buttons] + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Each pupil should come to the class with her apron as nearly completed +as possible, and with three buttons to sew on it, for fastening the belt +and straps. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should discuss the best methods of fastening garments and +should demonstrate the method of sewing on buttons. The pupils should +sew one button on the left end of the apron band in the middle of the +width about 1 inch from the end, and another button 4 inches from each +end of the band, to hold the shoulder straps. + + + + +LESSON XVIII: METHODS OF FASTENING GARMENTS--Continued + +_Button-holes on practice piece and on apron._ + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +Directions for making the button-hole.--Measure carefully the position +for the button-hole, lengthwise of the band, so that the end will come +one quarter of an inch from the edge of the garment. Mark the length of +the button-hole on the material by putting in two lines of +running-stitches at the ends. To cut the button-hole, insert the point +of the scissors at the point marked by the running-stitches nearest the +edge of the garment, and cut carefully along the thread of the material +to the row of stitches marking the length at the other end. + +[Illustration: + (_a_) Starting the button-hole + (_b_) The button-hole stitch + (_c_) The finished button-hole + _Fig._ 19.--Working button-holes] + +To make the button-hole, use a thread of sufficient length to do both +the overcasting and the button-holing. Beginning at the lower right +corner, overcast the raw edges with stitches one sixteenth of an inch +deep. Do not overcast around the ends of the hole. As soon as the +overcasting is done, proceed with the button-holing without breaking the +thread. Hold the button-hole horizontally over the first finger of the +left hand and work from right to left. Insert the point of the needle +through the button-hole (at the back end), bringing the point through, +toward you, four or five threads below the edge of the button-hole. +Bring the doubled thread from the eye of the needle from right to left +under and around the point of the needle, draw the needle through, and +pull the thread firmly, so that the purl is on the edge. At the end of +the button-hole, near the end of the band, make a fan, by placing from +five to seven stitches. The other end of the button-hole should be +finished with a bar made by taking three stitches across the end of the +button-hole, then button-hole over the bar, taking in the cloth +underneath and pulling the purl toward the slit. The thread should be +fastened carefully on the under side of the button-hole. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +For this lesson it is desirable to have small pieces of cotton on hand, +to use as practice pieces for the button-holes. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The teacher should demonstrate the making of a button-hole, illustrating +each step of the process on a large piece of canvas. The pupils should +sew two small strips of cotton together and cut a button-hole one +quarter of an inch from the edge, and lengthwise of the material, to +work for practice. When the button-hole has been sufficiently perfected +on the practice piece, the pupils should make three in the apron--one in +the right end of the band and one in the end of each shoulder strap. + + + + +LESSON XIX: A PADDED HOLDER FOR HANDLING +HOT DISHES--BINDING + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +A holder 6 inches square will be satisfactory for handling hot dishes. +It can be made of quilted padding bound with tape, or of two thicknesses +of outing flannel covered with percale or denim and bound with tape or +braid. If made of the outing flannel and covered, it should be quilted, +by stitching from the middle of one side to the middle of the opposite +side in both directions, in order to hold the outing flannel and the +outside covering together. The tape that is to be used for the binding +should be folded through the middle lengthwise; then, a beginning being +made at one corner of the padding, the edge should be basted, half on +one side and half on the other. Right-angled corners should be formed. +When basted all around, the tape should be sewn on each side with a +hemming-stitch. + +If the holder is to be suspended from the apron band, a tape of from 27 +inches to 36 inches in length should be attached to one corner. The raw +edge at one end of the tape should be turned in. The end should be so +placed that it overlaps the corner of the holder about half an inch and +it should be basted to the holder. The tape should then be secured +firmly to the holder, hemmed down on one edge, across the bottom, and up +the other edge. The other end of the tape should be finished with a +2-inch loop. The raw edge should be folded over, the tape turned 2 +inches down for the loop, and basted in place. This should be hemmed +across the end. One quarter of an inch up from the end, the double +thickness of tape should be back-stitched together, and the edges of the +tape should be overhanded from there to the hemmed end. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +Each pupil should provide sufficient denim, percale, huckaback, or other +washable material to cover the two sides of a holder 7 inches square, +and enough outing or canton flannel for a double lining. About 1-1/2 +yards of straight tape one-half inch wide will be needed for the binding +and for suspending the holder from the apron. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 20.--The holder] + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The pupils should first carefully measure and turn the material for the +covering of the holder and then prepare the lining, basting it all +together. They should then put in the running-stitch and finish with the +binding. If it is not possible to complete the holder in one period, a +second lesson period should be provided, or arrangements may be made to +have supervised work done outside of the lesson hours. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 21.--Cap] + + + + +LESSON XX: A CAP TO WEAR WITH THE COOKING APRON + + +SUBJECT-MATTER + +The simplest cap to make will be the circular one. A pattern should be +made by drawing with a pencil and string on a piece of wrapping-paper a +circle 21 inches in diameter. The material for the cap should be cut +carefully around the circle and finished with a narrow hem. A tape to +hold the draw-string should be placed 1-1/4 inches inside the edge of +the hem. A small piece of cardboard cut about one-half inch wide should +be used for measuring the position of the tape. Bias strips three +quarters of an inch wide should be prepared for the tape, or a +commercial tape three eighths of an inch wide may be purchased. The +outer edge of the tape should be basted first and the edges joined; then +the inner edges should be basted, the edge being kept smooth. Both edges +should be neatly sewn with the hemming-stitch by hand or on the machine. +An elastic should be inserted in the band, carefully fitted to the head, +and the ends fastened neatly. + + +PRELIMINARY PLAN + +This lesson will give a good opportunity to make a cap that will answer +for a dust cap or serve as a part of the cooking uniform. If such a cap +does not seem desirable and the former lesson has not been completed, +the cap may be omitted and the work on the holder continued. + + +METHOD OF WORK + +The pupils should first make the pattern for the cap and then cut out +their material. The hem should be basted and stitched with the +hemming-stitch. The bias strip should be basted on and sewn with a +running-stitch. It will probably not be possible for the pupils to +complete the cap in one class period; but, if the material has been cut +out and the work started, they may be able to complete it at some other +time. The stitches are not new, and the work will serve as an excellent +test of the skill they have acquired in the course. + + +HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE EQUIPMENT + +The introduction of Household Science into rural schools has been +hindered by the prevalent impression that the subject requires equipment +similar to that in the Household Science centres of towns and cities, +where provision is made for the instruction of twenty-four pupils at one +time and for from ten to fifteen different classes each week. Owing to +the expense and the lack of accommodation, it is not possible to install +such equipment in rural schools. For this and other reasons it has been +concluded that the subject is beyond the possibilities of the rural +school. That this is not the case is shown by the fact that many rural +schools in the United States, and some in Saskatchewan, as well as a +number in our own Province, are teaching the subject successfully, with +equipment specially designed to meet existing conditions. + +The accommodations and equipment required may be classified as follows: + + 1. Working tables + 2. Cupboards and cabinets for storing the utensils + 3. Stoves + 4. Cooking and serving utensils + +1. The provision for working tables is conditioned by the space +available, and every effort must be made to economize this space. The +equipment may be placed in the basement or in a small ante-room. In one +school in the Province very successful work is being done in a large +corridor. When a new school-house is being erected, provision should be +made by building a small work-room off the class-room. The possibilities +of a small, portable building, in close proximity to the school, should +not be overlooked. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 22.--Working drawing of folding table] + +Where the school is provided with a large table, this may be made of +service. When used as a working table it should be covered with a sheet +of white oil-cloth. When used as a dining-table a white table-cloth may +be substituted for the oil-cloth. If the school does not possess a +table, two or three boards may be placed on trestles, if the space at +the front or the back of the room permits, and these may be stored away +when not required. A table with folding legs, such as is shown in +Figures 22 and 23, may also be used. The top of the cabinet containing +the utensils or an ordinary kitchen table closed in as a cupboard +underneath, may be made to serve. Long boards, about eighteen inches +wide, placed across the tops of six or eight desks, provide good +accommodation. These should be blocked up level and should be provided +with cleats at each end, in order to prevent movement. When not in use +they may stand flat against the wall and occupy very little space. +Separate boards, resting on a desk at each end, may also be placed +across the aisles. Each of these will provide working space for one +pupil. Tables which drop down flat when not in use may be fixed to the +walls of the school-room. As schools vary in many respects, it is not +possible to outline a plan which will suit all; but that plan should be +chosen which will best meet the requirements of the particular school. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 23: Folding Table] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 24--Household Science Cabinet for Rural Schools] + +2. The cupboards and cabinets to contain the utensils may take various +forms. A kitchen cabinet costing from twenty-five to thirty-five dollars +may be obtained from a furniture store, or one may be made by a local +carpenter. A large packing-case painted brown outside and white inside +(for cleanliness) is satisfactorily used in some schools. If covered +with oil-cloth, the top of this may be used as an additional table. A +few shelves placed across a corner of the room and covered with a door +or curtain may be used, or it may be possible to devote one shelf of the +school cupboard to the storing of the utensils. It is desirable to have +a combination cupboard and table, which will contain most of the +equipment, including the stove. Figure 24 is a working drawing of such a +cabinet, which may be made by a local carpenter or by the older boys of +the school. + +The directions for making this cabinet are as follows: + +Obtain two boxes and cut or re-make them so that each is 30 inches high +when standing on end, 12-1/4 inches across the front inside, and 18 +inches from front to back. These will form the two end Sections, A and +B. Inside the sides of these boxes nail 1 inch x 7/8 inch strips, to +form the slides for the drawer. The slides come within 7/8 of an inch of +the front edge. Rails may be nailed across the front. Guide pieces +should be nailed to the slides, in order to keep the drawers straight. +Divide Section A for one drawer and cupboard. The drawers may be made +out of raisin boxes cut down to the required size. To the front of each +drawer, nail a piece of beaver board or pine a little larger than the +drawer front. Use any handles that may be conveniently obtained. Cut two +pieces 4' 9-1/2" x 1-1/2" x 7/8". Space the Sections as shown, and nail +these pieces firmly to the fronts of the larger boxes, _A_ and _B_, top +and bottom. Four end pieces 18" x 1-1/2" will be required. Fill in +Section _C_, in this case, 2' 7-1/2", with the pieces from the box lids +or with ordinary flooring. Make a door for the cupboard from similar +material. The top is best made from good, clear, white pine. Screw +battens across, and screw the whole firmly to the box top from the +inside. If more table space is required, make a similar bench top, which +can rest on top of the cabinet when not in use. When required, it may be +placed over the desks. Steel or glass shoes or wooden skids or battens +should be fixed under the cabinet, so that it can be pulled away from +the stove and replaced easily. The dimensions given are for a +two-flame-burner oil-stove which is 30 inches high, 31 inches across the +front, and 16 inches from front to back. The middle Section, _C_, and +the total height of the cabinet may be enlarged or reduced to fit other +sizes of stoves. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 25.--Cabinet, showing stove in position for use] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 26.--Cabinet, with stove behind centre partition +when not in use] + +The material required for, and the approximate cost of, such a cabinet, +labour not included, are as follows: + + 2 boxes @ 25 $0.50 + 5 raisin boxes @ 5 .25 + 5 handles at 45c per doz. .20 + 1 cupboard latch .15 + or 1 turn button .02 + About 9 sq. ft. flooring .25 + About 8 sq. ft. pine for top .50 + Pieces for battens, etc. .25 + Steel shoes .10 + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 27.--Space taken by equipment in class-room] + +Figure 27 shows another type of equipment and the space it occupies in +the class-room when not in use. The cupboard and the back of the cabinet +contain the equipment necessary for teaching twelve pupils at one time +and also for serving one hot dish at the noon lunch to twenty-four +pupils. One drawer contains linen, etc., and the other, knives, forks, +and spoons. The dimensions of the cupboard and the cabinet are shown in +Figures 28 and 29, and the construction of each is such that it can be +made easily by any carpenter. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 28.--Working drawings of cupboard] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 29.--Working drawing of cabinet] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 30.--Cupboard with drawers and doors open, showing +equipment] + +Figure 30 shows the cupboard and drawers open and the method of storing +the equipment. The shelves may be covered with white oil-cloth or brown +paper, in order to obviate the necessity for frequent scrubbing. The +cupboard may be fixed to the wall with mirror plates or small iron +brackets, or it may be screwed through the back. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 31.--Back of cabinet with equipment in place] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 32.--Back of cabinet with stove removed] + +Figure 31 shows the back of the cabinet, with the three-flame-burner +stove-oven, the one-flame-burner stove, and other utensils in place. The +folding table, previously described, rests on the top of the cabinet. +Figure 32 shows the back of the cabinet with the stove and oven removed. +The method of storing utensils and the construction of the cabinet are +clearly shown. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 33.--Three-flame-burner oil-stove, with kettles +and one-flame-burner oil-stove on shelf] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 34.--Household Science equipment with drop-leaf +table] + +Figure 33 shows the three-flame-burner oil-stove with the shelf +underneath containing three kettles and the one-flame-burner oil-stove. + +Another type of equipment is shown in Figure 34. Each end of the top of +this cabinet drops down when the cupboard doors are closed, space being +thus economized. The top of the table may be covered with oil-cloth or +zinc carefully tacked down on the edges. + +The directions for making this cabinet are as follows: + +MATERIALS REQUIRED + +Lumber: + + 7 pieces 3/4" x 4" x 14' yellow pine ceiling + 6 pieces 1" x 4" x 12' yellow pine flooring + 1 piece 1" x 12" x 12' } + 1 piece 1" x 8" x 12' } No. 1 common white pine + 1 piece 1/2" x 6" x 14' } + 4 white pine laths + +Hardware: + + 7 pairs 1-1/2" x 3" butt hinges + 3 cupboard catches + 1 piece zinc (27" x 39") + 2 pieces zinc (21" x 27") + 1 drawer pull + 1 lb. 8d finishing nails + 1 lb. 6d finishing nails + 1/4 lb. box 1" brads + 1/4 lb. box 1-1/4" brads + 1 box tacks + 2 ft. stopper chain + + +STOCK BILL + ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|Lumber |Cut into |Finished Dimensions |Use | +| | the | | | +| |following| | | +| | pieces: | | | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +| 1" x 8" x 12' | 2 |13-16" x 2" x 32-1/2" |Top side rails | +| | 2 |13-16" x 2" x 18-1/2" |Top end rail | +| | 4 |13-16" x 2" x 29-3/4" |Frame posts | +| | 1 |13-16" x 2" x 30-7/8" |Bottom side | +| | | |rail | +| | 2 |13-16" x 2" x 18-1/2" |Bottom end | +| | | |rails | +| | 1 |13-16" x 5" x 14-3/8" |Drop door | ++------------- -----+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|2 pieces, 1" x 4" x | | |Flooring | +|12' flooring | 7 |3/4" x 3-1/4" x 32-1/2"|(bottom) | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|5 pieces, 1" x 4" x | | |Ceiling (ends | +|14' yellow pine | | |and side) | +|ceiling | 24 |1/4" x 3-1/4" x 31-1/4"| | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|1" x 12" x 12' | 3 |13-16" x 10-1/4" x | | +| | | 32-1/2" |Shelf | +| | 1 |13-16" x 8" x 32-1/2" |Shelf | +| | 3 |13-16" x 1-3/4" x | | +| | | 31-1/4 |Casing | +| | 2 |13-16" x 1-3/4" x | | +| | | 14-3/8" |Casing | +| | 1 |13-16" x 5" x 14-3/8" |Drawer front | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|2 pieces, 1" x 4" x | | |Top | +|12' flooring | 8 |3/4" x 3-1/4" x 36" | | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|2 pieces, 1" x 4" x | | |Doors | +|14' yellow pine | | | | +|ceiling | 10 |3/4" x 3-1/4" x 22-7/8"| | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|2 pieces, 1" x 4" x | | |Swing tops | +|12' flooring | 12 |3/4" x 3-1/4" x 24" | | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|1/2" x 6" x 12' | 2 |7-16" x 5" x 19-5/8" |Drawer slides | +| | 1 |7-16" x 5" x 13-1/2" |Drawer back | +| | 4 |7-16" x 4-3/4" x | | +| | | 13-1/2" |Drawer bottom | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ +|1/2" x 6" x 12' | 1 |7-16" x 4-1/2" x | | +| | | 13-1/2" |Partitions | +| | 3 |7-16" x 4-1/2" x 10" |Partitions | ++--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+ + +TOOLS + + Rule + Lead-pencil + Saw + Hammer + Steel square + Plane + 1/2" Chisel and + Screw-driver + + +DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING + +I Cutting and Squaring Stock-- + +Cut the stock only as needed, in the following order, and square up +according to the directions previously given. + + 1. Frame; rip the 1" x 8" x 12' piece for the frame material + 2. Bottom + 3. Ends and sides + 4. Shelves + 5. Top + 6. Casing + 7. Doors + 8. Swing tops + 9. Miscellaneous pieces + +II Assembling-- + +Frame: + +1. Check up the dimensions of the pieces squared up for the frame. + +2. Lay out and cut the lap joints in the top side rails and frame posts, +as shown in the drawing. + +3. Nail the frame together. + +4. Test the corners of the frame with a steel try-square and brace it by +nailing, temporarily, several strips diagonally across the corners. + +Bottom: + +1. Cut seven pieces of flooring 32-1/2" long for the bottom and plane +off the groove of one piece. + +2. Turn the frame upside down and nail this piece with the smooth edge +projecting 7/8" over the front side of the frame. Nail the rest of the +flooring so that each piece matches tightly. + +Ends: + +1. For the back, cut eleven pieces of ceiling 31-1/4" long. + +2. Plane off the groove edge of one piece of ceiling and nail it on the +back of the frame even with the end. 3. Nail the rest of the ceiling on +the back. Be sure that each joint matches tightly. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 35.--Frame of cabinet nailed together] + +Shelves: + +1. Make four strips (3/4" x 3/4" x 16-1/2") and nail two of them inside, +across each end, 15" and 24" from the bottom. These strips hold the +shelves. + +2. From a 1" x 12" piece cut two pieces 32-1/2" long; fit and +nail them in for the upper shelf. + +3. Make the bottom shelf of two pieces, one 10-1/4" wide and the other +8" wide. When these boards are nailed in place, the shelf is narrow +enough to allow the doors, with pockets on, to close. + +4. Make two strips; one 13-16" x 1" x 16-1/2" and the other 13-16" x +1-3/4" x 20-1/2", and nail them to the top shelf for drawer guides. + +Top: + +1. Cut eight pieces of flooring 36" long for the top. + +2. Plane off the groove of one piece and nail it on the top of the +frame, so that the smooth edge and the ends project 1" over the front +side and ends of the cabinet. + +3. Nail the rest of the flooring on for the top, being sure that each +joint matches tightly. The last piece must also project 1" over the back +side. + +Casing: + +1. Nail the casing, which is 1-3/4" wide, on the front of the cabinet. + +Doors: + +1. Make each door 3/4" x 14-3/8" x 22-7/8" from five pieces of ceiling +22-7/8" long, held together by cleats at the top and bottom. + +2. Fit each door carefully, then hang them with butt hinges. Fasten a +cupboard catch on each door. + +Drop Door: + +1. Make the drop door 13-16" x 14-3/8" and hinge it with a pair of butt +hinges. Put on the stopper chain and catch. Swing Tops: + +The swing tops are each made from six pieces of flooring 24" long +cleated together. + +[Illustration: _Fig_. 36.--Working details] + +1. Plane off the groove edge of one piece and match them all together. + +2. Make the cleats 3/4" x 2" x 15" and nail the top to them. (See the +drawing for the position of the cleats.) + +3. Rip off the tongue edge and plane it so that the top is exactly 18" +wide. + +4. Turn the cabinet upside down on the floor and fit the swing tops. +Hang them with a pair of butt hinges opposite the ends of the cleats. + +5. Make a T-brace with a nailed cross lap joint from two pieces, one +being 13-16" x 2" x 14", the other 13-16" x 2" x 16-1/2". The long edge +of the T and the leg must be bevelled 13-16" on one side. Fit and hang a +T-brace with a pair of butt hinges on each side of the swing tops. + +6. Make two brace cleats and fasten them to the ends of the cabinet, so +that the swing tops are held level and even with the top of the cabinet. + +Putting Zinc on the Top: + +1. Unscrew the swing tops from the cabinet to put the zinc on. + +2. Place the piece of zinc, 27" x 39", on top, extending 1-1/2" over the +edges all around. + +3. Hold the zinc firmly in place and make a square bend along the front +edge with a hammer or mallet, bending the edge of the zinc up under the +top. + +4. Punch a straight row of holes 1" apart through the zinc and tack it +on. + +5. Bend the back edge, punch and tack in the same manner as the front +edge, but be sure the zinc fits snugly on the top. + +6. Bend the ends of the zinc the same as before, but be very careful to +fold the corners neatly. + +7. Put the zinc on the swing tops in the same manner. + +8. Fasten the swing tops again to the top of the cabinet. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 37.--Working details] + + +Drawer: + +The drawer front, 13-16" x 5" x 14-3/8", with lap 3/8" x 1/2" cut out on +the ends. + +1. Nail the sides, 1/2" x 5" x 19-5/8", to the lap of the front and to +the ends of the back. + +2. Nail the bottom in between the sides 1/8" from the lower edge. This +allows the drawer to slide on the edges of the sides. + +3. Put the partitions in the drawer as called for by this plan. + +The racks for covers and pie tins shown in the drawings are made from +two pieces, 13-16" x 2" x 4", one piece 13-16" x 2" x 10-1/2" for the +bottom, and two pieces of lath 12" long for the sides. These racks may +be placed on the doors as shown, or may be changed to suit the +equipment. + + +III Finishing-- + +1. Set all the nails and putty the holes. + +2. Sandpaper the cabinet carefully. + +3. Paint or stain and wax the outside of the cabinet, to harmonize with +the surroundings where it is to be used. + +4. Paint the inside with two coats of white enamel. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 38.--Cabinet completed] + +Before putting on the enamel, apply a coat of ordinary white-lead paint +and allow it to dry thoroughly. If desired, the outside of the cabinet +may be finished in white enamel, though this is somewhat more expensive +than the paint or stain recommended above. + +All the Household Science Cabinets shown have a two-fold purpose. In the +first place, they furnish storage space for the utensils and working +space for the pupils. In the second place, they offer a most interesting +manual training project for a boys' club. The members can make any one +of them, thus correlating their practical woodwork and the domestic +science of the girls and, in this way, exhibiting the co-operative +spirit of the home and the school. + +3. In some cases it may be possible to use the school stove for cooking +purposes. Some schools use natural gas for heating and, where this is +the case, provision for cooking may readily be made. Other schools +situated on a hydro-electric line, may, as has been done in one case, +use electricity as a source of heat. At present, however, the majority +of schools may find it best to use one of the many oil-stoves now on the +market. One-, two-, or three-flame-burner stoves may be obtained for +general use. The two-, or three-flame-burner stoves are recommended, as +they are less likely to be overturned. The one-flame-burner stove, +however, is often useful as an additional provision. A good grade of oil +should be used, and the stove should be kept scrupulously clean, +constant attention being paid to the condition of the wick. Any oil +spilt on the stove when it is being filled should be carefully wiped off +before lighting. If attention is paid to these details, the stove will +burn without any perceptible odour. + +4. The number of the utensils and the amount of equipment depend upon +the community and the number of pupils to be considered. By careful +planning few utensils are needed. They should be as good as the people +of the neighbourhood can afford and, in general, should be of the same +character as those used in the homes of the district. All the +table-cloths, towels, dish-cloths, etc., required should be hemmed by +the pupils. Articles for storing supplies may be bought or donated. +Glass canisters with close lids are best, but as substitutes, fruit +jars, jelly glasses, or tin cans will serve the purpose. It is an easy +matter to secure an empty lard-bucket or a syrup-can for flour or meal, +empty coffee-cans for sugar or starch, etc., and baking-powder or +cocoa-tins for spices. Each should be plainly labelled. + +Several typical lists of equipment in Household Science are given here. +These may be modified to suit particular circumstances. Considerable +expense may be saved if the pupils bring their own individual +equipment--soup-bowl, cup and saucer, plate, spoon, knife, fork, and +paper napkins. This plan is not advised unless it is absolutely +necessary, but, if followed, an effort should be made to have the +articles as uniform as possible. + +The following equipment is that contained in the cabinet illustrated on +page 152 and is sufficient for giving organized instruction to six +pupils. If a noon lunch is provided, additional individual equipment +will be required. + + +EQUIPMENT FOR RURAL SCHOOL HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE +CABINET--NO. 1 + + 1 Perfection blue-flame stove (two-flame) $15.00 + 1 Two-burner oven 4.50 + 1 Coal-oil can .50 + 1 Dish-pan 1.15 + 1 Tea-kettle 1.50 + 1 Large sauce-pan and cover .75 + 2 Medium sauce-pans and covers, 30c each .60 + 2 Small sauce-pans and covers, 25c each .50 + 2 Frying-pans, 20c ea. .40 + 2 Pudding bake-dishes, 50c ea. 1.00 + 2 Muffin pans (12 rings, each 30c) .60 + 1 Soap-dish .25 + 4 Small mixing bowls, 16c ea. .64 + 2 Pitchers, 55c ea. 1.10 + 3 Casseroles, 20c, 25c, 30c .75 + 6 Measuring cups, 90c ea. .60 + 6 Custard cups, 90c doz. .45 + 6 White plates, $1.45 doz. .73 + 6 Supply jars, 90c doz. .45 + 2 Vegetable brushes, 5c ea. .10 + 1 Grater .20 + 2 Egg-beaters, 10c ea. .20 + 12 Forks 2.25 + 12 Teaspoons 1.20 + 6 Tablespoons, $2.85 doz. 1.43 + 6 Vegetable knives, 25c ea. 1.50 + 6 Case knives, $3.00 doz. 1.50 + 2 Strainers, 20c ea. .40 + 1 Spatula .40 + 1 Bread knife .50 + 1 Can-opener .10 + 1 French knife .45 + 2 Water pails, $1.15 ea. 2.30 + 6 Dish-towels, 25c ea. 1.50 + 3 Dish-cloths, 10c ea. .30 + 3 Rinsing cloths, 10c ea. .30 + 1 yd. oil-cloth .45 + 5 yards cheesecloth .35 + + +EQUIPMENT FOR RURAL SCHOOL HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE CABINET--NO. II + +The equipment included in the Cabinet and Cupboard shown in Figure 27, +page 154, is as follows: + +For Six Pupils + + 1 Cupboard $15.00 + 1 Cabinet table 10.00 + 1 Three-burner oil-stove 21.00 + 1 Portable oven 2.20 + 1 Storage tin 1.35 + 2 Dish-pans 1.30 + 2 Draining pans .90 + 2 Scrub basins .80 + 2 Soap-dishes .40 + 1 Pail .55 + 2 Pails 1.80 + 2 Dippers .70 + 2 Tea-kettles 2.00 + 3 Kneading boards .90 + 3 Rolling-pins .45 + 1 Oil-can 1.10 + 1 Stove mitt .20 + 1 Dust-pan .10 + 1 Whisk .15 + 2 Scrub-brushes .30 + 3 Vegetable brushes .15 + 3 Stew pans 1.05 + 2 Sauce-pans .50 + 3 Frying-pans .75 + 3 Strainers .39 + 3 Pie plates .15 + 3 Measuring cups (tin) .30 + 1 Measuring cup (glass) .15 + 1 Double boiler .85 + 3 Baking-dishes .38 + 2 Cake tins .30 + 3 Toasters .30 + 1 Tea-pot .25 + 1 Coffee-pot .35 + 1 Pitcher (2 quarts) .18 + 1 " (1 pint) .10 + 5 Bowls .60 + 6 Custard cups .60 + 1 Butter crock .30 + 1 Covered pail (1 pint) .15 + 2 Trays .20 + 1 Grater .10 + 1 Potato masher .10 + 1 Can-opener .10 + 1 French knife .35 + 1 Bread " .35 + 3 Egg-beaters .15 + 1 Dover egg-beater .10 + 3 Wooden spoons .15 + 6 Paring knives .90 + +For Eight Pupils + + 1 Cupboard $15.00 + 1 Cabinet table 10.00 + 1 Collapsible table 5.00 + 1 Three-burner oil-stove 21.00 + 1 One-burner oil-stove 6.50 + 1 Portable oven 2.20 + 1 Storage tin 1.35 + 2 Dish-pans 1.30 + 2 Draining pans .90 + 4 Scrub basins 1.60 + 2 Soap-dishes .40 + 1 Pail .55 + 2 Pails 1.80 + 2 Dippers .70 + 3 Tea-kettles 3.00 + 4 Kneading boards 1.20 + 4 Rolling-pins .60 + 1 Oil-can 1.10 + 1 Stove mitt .20 + 1 Dust-pan .10 + 1 Whisk .15 + 4 Scrub brushes .60 + 4 Vegetable brushes .20 + 4 Stew-pans 1.40 + 2 Sauce-pans .50 + 4 Frying-pans 1.00 + 4 Strainers .52 + 4 Pie plates .20 + 4 Measuring cups (tin) .40 + 1 Measuring cup (glass) .15 + 1 Double boiler .85 + 4 Baking-dishes .50 + 2 Cake tins .30 + 4 Toasters .40 + 1 Tea-pot .25 + 1 Coffee-pot .35 + 2 Pitchers (2 quarts) .35 + 1 Pitcher (1 quart) .10 + 6 Bowls .72 + 6 Custard cups .60 + 1 Butter crock .30 + 1 Covered pail (1 pint) .15 + 2 Trays .20 + 1 Grater .10 + 1 Potato masher .10 + 1 Can-opener .10 + 1 French knife .35 + 1 Bread " .35 + 4 Egg-beaters .20 + 1 Dover egg-beater .10 + 4 Wooden spoons .20 + 6 Paring knives .90 + +For Twelve Pupils + + 1 Cupboard $15.00 + 1 Cabinet table 10.00 + 1 Collapsible table 5.00 + 2 Three-burner oil-stoves 42.00 + 1 Portable oven 2.20 + 1 storage tin 1.35 + 3 Dish-pans 1.95 + 3 Draining-pans 1.35 + 6 Scrub basins 2.40 + 3 Soap-dishes .60 + 1 Pail .55 + 2 Pails 1.80 + 2 Dippers .70 + 3 Tea-kettles 3.00 + 6 Kneading boards 1.80 + 6 Rolling-pins .90 + 1 Oil-can 1.10 + 2 Stove mitts .40 + 1 Dust-pan .10 + 1 Whisk .15 + 6 Scrub brushes .90 + 6 Vegetable brushes .30 + 6 Stew pans 2.10 + 3 Sauce-pans .75 + 6 Frying-pans 1.50 + 6 Strainers .78 + 6 Pie plates .30 + 6 Measuring cups (tin) .60 + 1 Measuring cup (glass) .15 + 1 Double boiler .85 + 6 Baking-dishes .75 + 3 Cake tins .45 + 6 Toasters .60 + 1 Tea-pot .25 + 1 Coffee-pot .35 + 2 Pitchers (2 qt.) .35 + 2 " (1 qt.) .20 + 8 Bowls .96 + 6 Custard cups .60 + 1 Butter crock .30 + 1 Covered pail (1 pt.) .15 + 2 Trays .20 + 1 Grater .10 + 1 Potato masher .10 + 1 Can-opener .10 + 1 French knife .35 + 1 Bread " .35 + 6 Egg-beaters .30 + 3 Dover egg-beaters .30 + 6 Wooden spoons .30 + 12 Paring knives 1.80 + +In the equipment for twelve pupils, three one-burner oil-stoves at $6.50 +each might be used in place of the second large stove. In this case +extra provision must be made for storing the stoves when not in use, as +the cabinet shown does not provide space for more than one large stove. +Care should be taken in using the one-burner stove to avoid upsetting it +while it is in use. The equipment given above is generous, and +reductions may be made if necessary. In any case it is not advisable +that the whole equipment should be purchased at once; only sufficient to +make a beginning should be secured, and further utensils may be added as +the necessity for their use arises. + +If a hot dish is served at the noon lunch, as is most desirable, the +following will be needed in addition, in order to serve twenty-four +pupils: + + 24 Knives $2.40 + 24 Forks 1.20 + 24 Teaspoons .40 + 12 Tablespoons .60 + 6 Salt and pepper shakers 1.50 + 24 Glasses 1.50 + 24 Plates 2.20 + 4 Plates (large) .50 + 24 Cups and saucers 4.20 + 24 Fruit and vegetable dishes 1.50 + + +HECTOGRAPH + +The hectograph is a device for making copies of written work. Teachers +whose schools have limited black-board space will find it of great +service. Recipes and other rules for work may be copied and distributed +to the pupils, and thus kept in a permanent form. Many other uses in +connection with the general work of the school will suggest themselves. + +The following are the directions for making: + +Soak 1-1/2 ounces of white glue in three ounces of water until it is +well softened. Cook in a double boiler until the whole mass is smooth. +Remove from the fire and add six ounces of glycerine. Mix well, re-heat, +skim, and pour into a shallow pan or on a slate. Prick the bubbles as +soon as they show. Allow the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours, and +it is then ready for use. + +Write the material to be copied, in hectograph ink, on a sheet of the +same size as that on which the copy is to be made. Write clearly and +space carefully. Wipe the hectograph with a damp cloth. Lay a sheet of +unglazed paper on the hectograph, rub it carefully, and take off at +once. This removes any drops of water, but leaves the surface moist. Lay +the written side of the sheet on the hectograph and rub it carefully +over its whole surface with a soft cloth, so that every particle of the +writing comes in contact with the surface of the hectograph. Leave it +there for four or five minutes. Lift one corner and peel off carefully. +Lay a plain sheet on the hectograph and rub as before. Take off as +before. If the copy is not clear, leave the next sheet on a little +longer. When sufficient copies have been made, wash the hectograph with +a wet cloth before putting it away. Keep in a cool, dry place. + + + + +THE RURAL SCHOOL LUNCH + + +The best method of approach to Household Science in the rural school is +through the medium of the hot noon-day lunch or the preparation of one +or two hot dishes to supplement the lunch brought from home. Owing to +the fact that many pupils live far from the school, it is impossible for +them to go home for the mid-day meal, and they are thus dependent upon +lunches which they bring with them. Very frequently the pupils are +allowed to eat their lunches where and how they please, and the method +chosen is conducive neither to comfort nor to health. In fine weather +they do not wish to lose any time from their games, and so they eat +their food while playing, or they bolt it, in order that they may get to +their play more quickly. In severe weather they crowd round the steps or +the stove and do not hesitate to scatter crumbs and crusts. In one case +even a teacher has been seen holding a sandwich in one hand and writing +on the black-board with the other. + +In many cases the lunch does not attract the pupil. It is often carried, +without proper wrapping, in a tin pail, and it then absorbs the taste of +the tin; again, it is often wrapped in a newspaper and is flavoured with +printer's ink; occasionally, it is wrapped in cloth not too clean. +Conditions such as these are not fair to the pupils. They come a long +way to school, often over poor roads; and it is necessary, for both +their physical and their mental development, that they should receive +adequate nourishment served as attractively as possible. Many of the +defects found among school children can be traced, to a greater or less +extent, to lack of nutrition. The United States military draft shows +that the number of those physically defective is from seven to twenty +per cent. higher in rural districts than in towns and cities, and this +difference is not peculiar to that country. May we not reasonably +suppose that many of these defects are caused by mal-nutrition, and that +this mal-nutrition is in part due to the poor noon-day lunch? As these +defects hinder mental as well as physical development, the question of +proper nutrition through the medium of the school lunch becomes an +educational one. + + +THE BOX LUNCH + +With proper care in the selection of food, the packing of the lunch box, +and rational methods of consumption, there is no reason why the box +lunch should not be nourishing, attractive, and possess an educational +value. + +It may be laid down as an axiom that every school lunch should be +supervised by the teacher and hap-hazard methods of eating the lunch +should be prohibited. Those schools that are fortunate enough to possess +a large table can approximate somewhat to the best home conditions, and +have the table set in the proper manner, as shown in Lesson VI, page 18. +The pupils should sit round the table, at the head of which is the +teacher, and the lunch may be made to partake of the nature of a family +party. If rightly managed, the meal, even under the unusual difficulties +presented in the rural school, may offer the most favourable +opportunities to inculcate habits of cleanliness and neatness and to +cultivate good manners. The pupils will learn something about the proper +selection of food and the importance of thorough mastication. Clean +hands and faces and tidy hair should be insisted upon, and individual +drinking cups should be encouraged. As a manual training exercise, each +pupil may be taught to make his own drinking cup from heavy waxed paper. +Grace may be said by the older pupils in turn. + +The table should be made to look as attractive as possible. The pupils, +in turn, might undertake to have the table-cloth washed at home or, in +place of a linen cloth, a covering of white oil-cloth may be used. In +some cases the school garden will be able to supply flowers or a growing +plant for a centrepiece. Three or four of the larger pupils, either boys +or girls, may set the table in ten minutes, while the others are washing +their hands and faces and tidying their hair. Some such plan as this +will add palatability and cheer to the monotony of the everyday cold and +often unattractive lunch and will create a spirit of true and healthy +sociability among the pupils. + +In schools that do not possess tables large enough to be used as +suggested above, each pupil should be required to set one place at his +own desk, as shown in the illustration on page 20. A paper napkin may be +used for a table-cloth, if a small piece of white oil-cloth is not +procurable. Each pupil retains his place until all have finished; he +should then dispose of the crumbs and leave his desk tidy. From twenty +minutes to half an hour is generally found sufficient for the meal. +There should be cheerful conversation and restrained laughter throughout +the meal, and acts of courtesy and generosity should be encouraged. At +seasons when there are no flies, and on days when the weather is +favourable, it is a pleasant change to serve lunch out-of-doors. + +The lunch is provided by the home, but the teacher may give some useful +lessons in Household Science by talks on the contents of the lunch box +and the proper methods of packing the same, so that the food will keep +in good condition until the time for its consumption arrives. It is the +duty of the school authorities to provide a suitable storage place for +the lunch boxes. These boxes should be kept free from dust or flies and +in a place where the food will not freeze in winter. Open shelves, so +often seen, are not suitable and a properly ventilated cupboard in the +school-room should be provided. + + +CONTENTS OF THE LUNCH BOX + +The whole question of the box lunch presents a serious problem, when we +consider the large number of children who must depend upon it for their +noon-day meal. This meal should be so constituted as to make it a real +meal and not a makeshift. The same principles which govern the +preparation of the meal should govern the preparation of the lunch box. +It is said that the school lunch should consist of "something starchy +and something meaty, something fat and something fibrous, something +sweet and something savoury". + +With so many varieties of breads, meats, cheese, jams, etc., innumerable +kinds of sandwiches may be made. For example, there are brown, graham, +rye, raisin, nut, and date breads, and equally many kinds of meat. Such +variety makes it quite unnecessary to have an egg sandwich or +hard-boiled eggs in the lunch box each day. While eggs are very valuable +in the diet, a lunch with hard-boiled eggs five times each week becomes +monotonous, and the appetite of the consumer flags. With skill and +thought one can make little scraps of meat or other "left-overs" into +attractive sandwiches. Ends of meat, ground and mixed with salad +dressing or cream, make delicious sandwich fillings. + + +SANDWICH MAKING + +The bread should be cut evenly. + +The thickness of the slice should vary with the appetite of the + consumer. + +The crust should not be removed. + +The butter should be creamed for spreading. + +Both slices should be buttered, in order to prevent the absorption of + the filling. + +The filling should be carefully placed between the slices. + +The sandwiches should be wrapped in waxed paper, to prevent drying. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR SANDWICH FILLING + +1. Egg and ham: + + Three eggs hard boiled and chopped fine or ground + An equal amount of chopped or boiled ham + Salad dressing + Mix and spread. + +2. Raisin filling: + + One cup of raisins ground or chopped + One half-cup of water + One half-cup of sugar + One tablespoonful of flour into the same quantity of vinegar + Juice and grated rind of one lemon + Cook in a double boiler until thick. + +3. Fig filling: + + Remove the stems and chop the figs fine. + Add a small quantity of water. + Cook in a double boiler until a paste is formed. + Add a few drops of lemon juice. + Chopped peanuts may be added. + +4. Egg: + + Chop a hard-cooked egg. + Mix with salad dressing or melted butter, to a + spreading consistency. + +5. Equal parts of finely-cut nuts and grated cheese, + with salad dressing + +6. Equal parts of grated cheese and chopped olives + +7. Sardines with lemon juice or a little dressing + +8. Chopped dates with a little cream. Nuts may be added. + +9. Thinly sliced tomatoes (seasonal) + +10. Sliced cucumbers + +11. Marmalade. Chopped nuts may be added. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR PLANNING + +In selecting the food the following suggestions may prove helpful: + +_Protein_--Sandwiches of fish, meat, egg, cheese, nuts, dish of cottage + cheese + + For the older pupils, baked beans + +_Carbohydrates_--Bread, cake, cookies, jam, honey, dates, figs, raisins, + prunes, candy + +_Fats_--Butter, cream, peanut-butter + +_Mineral matter_--Celery, lettuce, radish, tomatoes; fresh fruits + + _Note._--When possible, a bottle of clean sweet milk + should form part of every lunch. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR DESSERTS + +Cup custards of various flavours + +Cookies with nuts and fruits + +Cakes--not too rich + +Pies well made and with good filling + +Candy--plain home-made + +Preserves + +Canned fruits + +Fresh fruits + +As often as possible, a surprise should be included, generally in the +form of a dessert of which the pupil is fond. A surprise adds to the +pupil's pleasure in eating and, indirectly, aids digestion. + + +PACKING THE LUNCH BOX + +Much of the attractiveness of a lunch depends upon the manner of +packing. We must consider the fact that the foods must be packed +together closely and must remain so packed for several hours. This makes +careful packing a necessity. + + +RULES FOR PACKING + +1. Be sure that the box is absolutely clean. +2. Line it with fresh paper every time it is used. +3. Wrap each article of food in wax paper. +4. Place in the box neatly, the food that is to be used last in the + bottom of the box, unless it is easily crushed. +5. Lay a neatly folded napkin on the top. + + +EQUIPMENT FOR PACKING + + Lunch box + Waxed paper + Paper napkin + Cup or container with screw top + Drinking cup + Knife, fork, and spoon + Thermos bottle or jar for milk or other liquid + +The box itself should be of odourless material, permanent, and light in +weight, admitting of safe means of ventilation. Paper bags should never +be used for food containers, as it is impossible to pack the lunch in +them firmly and well and there is danger of their being torn or of +insects or flies creeping into them. Boxes of fibre, tin, basket weave, +or other material, may be used. The box will require scrubbing, and +should be frequently dried and aired well. Many types of lunch boxes +have compartments provided for the various kinds of food. + +Waxed paper and paper napkins, or the somewhat heavier paper towels of +much the same size, are very useful for packing lunches, and may be +obtained at a low price, particularly if bought in large quantities. An +extra napkin, either of paper or cloth, should be put in the basket, to +be spread over the school desk when the lunch is eaten. Napkins can be +made out of cotton crepe at a cost of a very few cents each. The crepe +may be bought by the yard and should be cut into squares and fringed. +Such napkins have the advantage of not needing to be ironed. + +Paper cups, jelly tumblers with covers which can now be bought in +several sizes, and bottles with screw tops, such as those in which candy +and other foods are sold, may all be used for packing jellies, jams, +honey, etc. The thermos bottle may be used for carrying milk, or, if +this is too expensive, a glass jar with a tight cover may be +substituted. If the thermos bottle is used, hot drinks may also be +carried. + + +SERVING A HOT DISH + +The serving of a hot lunch or of one hot dish need be neither an +elaborate nor an expensive matter. Many rural schools in the United +States, some of them working under conditions worse than any of ours, +are serving at least one hot dish to supplement the lunch brought from +home. The advantages of this plan are: + +1. It enables the pupils to do better work in the afternoon. + +2. It adds interest to the school work and makes the pupils more ready + to go to school in bad weather. + +3. It gives some practical training and paves the way toward definite + instruction in Household Science. + +4. It gives a better balance to meals, and as compared with a cold lunch + it aids digestion. + +5. It teaches neatness. + +6. It gives opportunity to teach table manners. + +7. It strengthens the relationship between the home and the school. + + +THE METHOD + +The teacher should have a meeting of the school trustees and of the +mothers of the pupils and outline the method of procedure. It is only in +this way that the co-operation of all can be secured, and without this +co-operation there can be no success. This meeting should be addressed +by the Public School Inspector; and after the consent of the parents and +the trustees has been secured, the scheme may be put into operation. +Some thought will have to be given to the organization, in order that +the plan may work smoothly. If properly organized, there need be little +or no interruption to the ordinary routine of the school. + +The pupils, both boys and girls, should be arranged in groups, each +group taking the work in turn. Even the smallest pupils should be +allowed to take part, as there are many duties which they can perform +successfully. If each group is composed of five or six pupils, the work +may be arranged as follows: two will prepare the dish, two will get the +table or the desks ready (or each pupil may prepare his own desk), and +the others will wash the dishes. + +The furnishing of supplies is a problem which each teacher will have to +solve for herself, according to the conditions which exist in the +community. Supplies which can be stored are best purchased by the school +trustees; while the mothers of the pupils should furnish the perishable +articles, such as milk and butter. As often as possible, the pupils may +be asked to bring various articles, such as a potato, an apple, a +carrot, an egg, etc. These may be combined and prepared in quantities. +The school garden should be relied upon to supply many vegetables in +season, thus adding interest and life to both the garden work and the +lunch. In some districts the neighbourhood is canvassed for +subscriptions in order to provide funds to purchase supplies for the +term lunches. Some schools give a concert or entertainment in order to +raise funds for this purpose, and in others all the supplies have been +purchased by the school trustees. + +The pupils who are to prepare the hot dish may make the necessary +preparations before school or at recess, and they must so time the +cooking that the dish will be ready when required. They should be +allowed to leave their desks during school hours to give it attention if +necessary. In schools where this method is adopted, it has been found +that the privilege has never been abused, nor have the other pupils been +less attentive on account of it. However, most of the recipes suggested +later require little or no attention while cooking. + +At twelve o'clock the assigned pupils get the dish ready for serving and +set the table. The others wash their hands, tidy their hair, and get +their lunch boxes. All pass to their places. The pupils who have +prepared the dish may serve it, using trays to carry each pupil's +supply, or the pupils may pass in line before the serving table and to +their places, time being thus saved. When the meal is finished, the +pupils rise and bring their dishes to the serving table and stack them +with the other dishes. Two remain behind to clear up and wash the +dishes, while the others go to play. If the desks are used, each pupil +is responsible for leaving his own desk clean. + +The pupils may be required to keep an account of the cost of the food +and to calculate the cost per head per day or per week. A schedule of +the market prices of food should be posted in a conspicuous place, and +the pupils may take turns in keeping these prices up to date. A separate +black-board may be used for this purpose. + +The dish chosen should be as simple as possible--a vegetable or cream +soup, cocoa, baked potatoes, baked apples, white sauce with potatoes or +other vegetables, apple sauce, rice pudding, etc. It may be well, in +some cases, to have plans made on Friday for the following week. As a +rule, each day a little before or after four o'clock, the recipe for the +following day should be discussed, the quantities worked out to suit the +number of pupils, and the supplies arranged for. The element of surprise +should be made use of occasionally, the pupils not being allowed to know +the dish until they take their places. + + +SUGGESTED MENUS + +The following are some suggested menus in which the food brought from +home is supplemented by one hot dish. (The name of the hot dish is +printed in italics.) + +1. _Potato soup_, meat sandwiches, orange, sponge cake + +2. _Cream of tomato soup_, bread and butter sandwiches, stuffed egg, + pear, oatmeal cookies + +3. _Apple cooked with bacon_, bread and butter sandwiches, gingerbread, + milk + +4. _Cocoa_, date sandwiches, celery, graham crackers, apple + +5. _Stewed apples_, egg sandwiches, plain cake, prunes stuffed with + cottage cheese + +6. _Custard_, brown bread sandwiches, apple, raisins, sauce, molasses + cookies + +7. _Baked beans_, bread and butter sandwiches, fruit, sauce, molasses + cookies + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOT DISHES FOR FOUR WEEKS + + _First week_ _Second week_ + + Monday Potato soup Rice and milk + Tuesday Cocoa Tomato soup + Wednesday Coddled eggs Egg broth + Thursday Creamed potatoes Chocolate custard + Friday Soft custard Rice and tomato + + _Third week_ _Fourth week_ + + Monday Macaroni and cheese Rice soup + Tuesday Creamed eggs Cocoa + Wednesday Cheese soup Boiled rice and milk + Thursday Apple sauce Soft-cooked eggs + Friday Cheese Wheat pudding + + _First week_ _Second week_ + + Monday Rice soup Macaroni and cheese + Tuesday Cocoa Apple sauce + Wednesday Baked apples Shirred eggs + Thursday Custard Cheese soup + Friday Baked eggs Apple custard + + _Third week_ _Fourth week_ + + Monday Potato soup Rice and tomato + Tuesday Tapioca cream Apple custard + Wednesday Cocoa Tomato soup + Thursday Creamed potatoes Cracker pudding + Friday Soft custard Cocoa + + +RECIPES SUITABLE FOR THE RURAL SCHOOL LUNCH + +All the recipes given have been used with success in preparing rural +school lunches. The number that the recipe will serve is generally +stated and, where this number does not coincide with the number of +pupils in any particular school, the quantities required may be obtained +by division or multiplication. The recipes given in the lessons on +cooking may also be used in preparing the school lunch, as each recipe +states the number it will serve. + + +_White Sauce_ + + 1 c. milk + 2 tbsp. flour + 1/2 tbsp. butter + 1/4 tsp. salt + 1/8 tsp. white pepper + +Reserve one quarter of the milk and scald the remainder in a double +boiler. Mix the flour to a smooth paste with an equal quantity of the +cold milk and thin it with the remainder. Stir this gradually into the +hot milk and keep stirring until it thickens. Add the butter, salt, and +pepper, and cover closely until required, stirring occasionally. This +recipe makes a sauce of medium consistency. To make a thick white sauce, +use 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of flour to one cup of milk. + + +_Cocoa_ + + 6 tbsp. (18 tsp.) cocoa + 6 tbsp. (18 tsp.) sugar + 6 c. milk + 6 c. boiling water + 1/2 tsp. salt + +Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt, then +stir in the boiling water and boil for 3 minutes. Add this mixture to +the scalded milk. If a scum forms, beat with a Dover egg-beater for one +minute. The preparation should begin at half-past eleven, to have the +cocoa ready at twelve o'clock. (Will serve eighteen.) + + +_Potato Soup_ + + 1 qt. peeled potatoes cut + in thin slices + 3 qt. milk + 2 tsp. salt + 4 tsp. butter + 4 tbsp. flour + 1/8 tsp. black pepper + 1 small onion + 1/2 tsp. celery seed or a stock of celery + +Before the opening of school, the potatoes should be pared and put into +cold water; and the butter, flour, salt, and pepper should be thoroughly +mixed. At eleven o'clock, the potatoes, onion, and celery should be put +on to boil gently and the milk put into a double boiler to heat. When +the vegetables are tender, they should be strained with the cooking +liquid into the hot milk and the mixture bound with the flour. The soup +should be closely covered until required. (Will serve ten.) + + +_Cream of Pea Soup_ + + 1 can peas or 1 qt. fresh peas + 1 pt. milk + 2 tbsp. butter + 2 tbsp. flour + 1 tsp. salt + 1/4 tsp. pepper + +Heat the peas in their own water, or cook them in boiling salted water +until tender. Put the milk to heat in a double boiler. When the peas are +tender, rub them, with the cooking liquid, through a strainer into the +scalded milk. Add the butter and flour rubbed to a smooth paste and stir +until thickened. Season and cover until required. (Will serve six pupils +generously.) + + +_Cream of Tomato Soup_ + + 1 pt. or 1 can tomatoes + 2 tbsp. butter + 3 tbsp. flour + 1 tsp. sugar + 1 qt. milk + Sprig of parsley + 1/4 tsp. white pepper + 1/2 tsp. soda + 1 tsp. salt + +Cook the tomatoes slowly with the seasonings for ten minutes and rub +through a strainer. Scald the milk, thicken with the flour and butter +rubbed to a paste, re-heat the tomatoes, and add the soda, mix with the +milk, and serve at once. (Will serve six pupils generously.) + + +_Cream of Corn Soup_ + + 2 pt. cans corn + 1 pt. cold water + 2 slices onion + 2 qt. of thin white sauce Seasonings + +The process is that used in making Cream of Pea Soup. When making the +thin white sauce, place the onion in the milk and leave it until the +milk is scalded. Then remove the onion to the other mixture and make the +sauce. This gives sufficient onion flavour. (Will serve eighteen.) + + +_Lima-bean Soup_ + + 1 c. Lima beans + 2 qt. water + 2 whole cloves + 1 bay leaf + 1 tsp. salt + 3 tbsp. butter + 2 tbsp. flour + 3 tbsp. minced onion + 1 tbsp. " carrot + 1 tbsp. " celery + 1/4 tsp. pepper + +Soak the beans overnight in soft water or in hard water which has been +boiled and cooled. If cold, hard water is used, add 1/4 tsp. baking-soda +to 1 qt. of water. In the morning, drain and put on to cook in 2 qt. of +water. Simmer until tender. It takes 2 hours. Cook the minced vegetables +in the butter for 20 minutes, being careful not to brown them. Drain out +the vegetables and put them into the soup. Put the flour and butter into +a pan and stir until smooth. Add this mixture to the soup. Add the +cloves, bay leaf, and seasonings, and simmer for 1 hour. Rub through a +sieve. One cup of milk may be added. Bring to the simmering point and +serve. (Will serve eighteen.) + + _Note._--If desired, the vegetables may be used without + browning and the cloves and bay leaf omitted. + + +_Milk and Cheese Soup_ + + 4 c. milk + 2 tbsp. flour + 1-1/3 c. grated cheese + Salt and pepper to taste + +Thicken the milk with flour, cooking thoroughly. This is best done in a +double boiler, stirring occasionally. When ready to serve, add cheese +and seasoning. (Will serve six.) + + +_Cream of Rice Soup_ + + 4 tbsp. rice + 4 c. milk + 3 tbsp. butter + 1/2 small onion + 4 stalks celery + 1/2 bay leaf + Salt and pepper to taste + +Scald the milk, add the well-washed rice, and cook for 30 minutes in a +closely covered double boiler. Melt the butter and cook the sliced onion +and celery in it until tender, but not brown. Add these, with the bay +leaf, to the contents of the double boiler, cover, and let it stand on +the back of the stove for 15 minutes. Strain, season with salt and +pepper, re-heat, and serve. Note that the bay leaf is added and allowed +to stand, to increase the flavour, and may be omitted if desired. (Will +serve six.) + + +_Rice Pudding_ + + 3 c. rice + 6 c. water + 6 c. milk + 2 c. sugar + 4 eggs + 2 tsp. salt + 3 c. fruit (chopped raisins) if desired + +Wash the rice in a strainer placed over a bowl of cold water, by rubbing +the rice between the fingers. Lift the strainer from the bowl and change +the water. Repeat until the water is clear. Put the water in the upper +part of a double boiler directly over the fire, and when it boils +rapidly, gradually add the rice to it. Boil rapidly for 5 minutes, then +add the milk, to which has been added the sugar, salt, and eggs slightly +beaten. Cover, place in the lower part of the double boiler, and cook +until kernels are tender--from 45 minutes to 1 hour. If raisins are +used, add them before putting the rice in the double boiler. Serve with +milk and sugar as desired. (Will serve eighteen.) + + +_Rice Pudding_ + + 2 c. rice + 1 c. raisins + 1 tsp. salt + 4 qt. milk + 1 c. sugar + 1 tsp. cinnamon + +Prepare the rice and raisins and put them, with the other ingredients, +in a buttered pan. Bake all forenoon, stirring occasionally during the +first hour. Serve with milk or cream. (Will serve ten.) + + +_Cream of Wheat_ + + 1-1/2 c. cream of wheat + 10 c. boiling water + 1-1/2 tsp. salt + 1-1/2 c. dates (chopped) + +Put the boiling water and salt in the upper part of the double boiler +directly over the heat. When boiling, add the cereal slowly. Stir +constantly until the mixture thickens. Add the dates and cook for 5 +minutes. Place in the lower part of the double boiler and cook at least +1 hour. Serve with milk and sugar. (Will serve eighteen.) + + +_Scrambled Eggs_ + + 9 eggs + 1 c. milk + 2 tbsp. butter + 1 tsp. salt + Pepper + +Beat the eggs until the yolks and whites are well mixed. Add the +seasonings and milk. Heat the frying-pan, melt the butter in it, and +turn in the egg mixture. Cook slowly, scraping the mixture from the +bottom of the pan as it cooks. As soon as a jelly-like consistency is +formed, remove at once to a hot dish or serve on toast. (Will serve +nine.) + + +_Creamed Eggs_ + + 6 hard-cooked eggs + 4 tbsp. butter + 2 c. milk + 4 tbsp. flour + Salt and pepper + +Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir in the milk gradually. Cook +well and season with salt and pepper. Cut hard-cooked eggs in small +pieces and add them to the white sauce. It may be served on toast. (Will +serve six.) + + +_Egg Broth_ + + 6 eggs + 6 tbsp. sugar + 1 c. hot milk + Few grains salt + Vanilla or nutmeg + +Beat the eggs and add the sugar and salt. Stir in the hot milk +gradually, so that the eggs will cook smoothly. Flavour as desired. +(Will serve six.) + + +_Soft-cooked Eggs_ + +Wash the eggs and put in a sauce-pan, cover with boiling water, remove +to the back of the stove or where the water will keep hot, but not boil. +Let them stand, covered, from 7 to 10 minutes, according to the +consistency desired. + + +_Baked Shirred Eggs_ + +Butter small earthen cups. Break an egg in each and sprinkle with a few +grains of salt and pepper and bits of butter. Bake in a moderate oven +until the white is set. For Shirred Eggs proceed as above, but to cook, +place in a pan of hot water on the back of the stove, until the white is +set. + + +_Creamed Potatoes_ + + White sauce (medium consistency) + 3 tbsp. flour + 3 tbsp. butter + 1-1/2 c. milk + Salt and pepper + +Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk, and seasonings. Cut cold +potatoes (about eight) into cubes or slices and heat in the sauce. Serve +hot. (Will serve nine.) + + +_Mashed Potatoes_ + +Boil the potatoes, drain, and mash in the kettle in which they were +boiled. When free from lumps, add to each cup of mashed potatoes: + + 1 tsp. butter + 1 or more tbsp. hot milk + 1/4 tsp. salt + +Beat all together until light and creamy. Re-heat, and pile lightly, +without smoothing, in a hot dish. + + +_Baked Potatoes_ + +Use potatoes of medium size. + +Scrub thoroughly in water with a brush. Place in a pan in a hot oven. +Bake from 45 to 60 minutes. When done, roll in a clean napkin and twist +until the skin is broken. Serve immediately. (If no oven is available, +place a wire rack on the top of the stove. Put the potatoes on this rack +and cover them with a large pan. When half cooked, turn.) + + +_Macaroni and Cheese_ + + 3 c. macaroni (2 pieces) + 3 tsp. salt + 3 qt. boiling water + 6 c. white sauce (medium) + +Cook the macaroni in boiling salted water until tender. Drain, pour cold +water over it, and drain it once more. Put the macaroni into a baking +dish, sprinkling a layer of grated cheese upon each layer of macaroni. +Pour in the sauce and sprinkle the top with cheese. Cook until the sauce +bubbles up through the cheese and the top is brown. To give variety, +finely-minced ham, boiled codfish, or any cold meat may be used instead +of the cheese. (Will serve ten.) + + +_Cornstarch Pudding_ + + 1 qt. milk + 3/4 c. cornstarch + 1/2 tsp. salt + 3/4 c. sugar + Vanilla + +Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar, cornstarch, and salt +together. Gradually add to the hot milk and stir constantly until it +thickens. Cover, cook for 30 minutes, add vanilla, and pour into cold, +wet moulds. When set, turn out, and serve with milk and sugar. (Will +serve nine.) + + +_Apple Sauce_ + + 9 tart apples + 3/4 c. water + 6 whole cloves (if desired) + 3/4 c. sugar + Piece of lemon rind (if desired) + +Wipe, pare, quarter, and core the apples. Put the water, apples, lemon +rind, and cloves into a sauce-pan. Cook covered until the apples are +tender, but not broken. Remove the lemon peel and cloves. Add the sugar +a few minutes before taking from the fire. The apples may be mashed or +put through a strainer. (Will serve nine.) + + _Note._--The lemon and the cloves may be used when the + apples have lost their flavour. + + +_Stewed Prunes or Other Dried Fruit--Apricots, Apples, Pears_ + + 3/4 lb. fruit (about) + 1-1/2 pt. of water + 1/3 c. sugar + 1 or 2 slices lemon or a few cloves + and a piece of cinnamon stick + +Wash the fruit thoroughly and soak overnight. Cook in the water in which +it was soaked. Cover, and simmer until tender. When nearly cooked, add +sugar and lemon juice. The cloves and cinnamon should cook with the +fruit. All flavourings may be omitted, if desired. (Will serve nine.) + + +_Soft Custard_ + + 2 c. milk + 6 tbsp. sugar + 2 eggs + 1/2 tsp. vanilla + A few grains of salt + +Scald the milk in a double boiler. Add the sugar and salt to the eggs +and beat until well mixed. Stir the hot milk slowly into the egg mixture +and return to the double boiler. Cook, stirring constantly, until the +spoon, when lifted from the mixture, is coated. Remove immediately from +the heat, add vanilla, and pour into a cold bowl. To avoid too rapid +cooking, lift the upper from the lower portion of the boiler +occasionally. (Will serve six.) + + +_Tapioca Custard Pudding_ + + 3 c. scalded milk + 2 eggs slightly beaten + 2 tbsp. butter + 4 tbsp. pearl, or minute, tapioca + 6 tbsp. sugar + A few grains of salt + +Minute tapioca requires no soaking. Soak the pearl tapioca one hour in +enough cold water to cover it. Drain, add to the milk, and cook in a +double boiler for 30 minutes. Add to remaining ingredients, pour into +buttered baking-dish, and bake for about 25 minutes in a slow oven. +(Will serve eight.) + + +_Rice and Tomato_ + + 2 c. cooked rice + 2 tbsp. butter + 2 tbsp. flour + 2 c. unstrained or 1 c. strained tomato + 1 slice of onion minced + Salt and pepper + +Cook the onion with the tomato until soft. Melt the butter, and add the +flour, salt, and pepper. Strain the tomato, stir the liquid into the +butter and flour mixture, and cook until thick and smooth. Add the rice, +heat, and serve. (Will serve six.) + + +_Cracker Pudding_ + + 6 soda crackers + 3 c. milk + 3 eggs + 6 tbsp. sugar + 1/2 tsp. salt + +Roll the crackers and soak them in milk. Beat the yolks and sugar well +together and add to the first mixture, with some salt. Make a meringue +with white of eggs, pile lightly on top, and put in the oven till it is +a golden brown. Serve hot. (Will serve six.) + + _Note._--Dried bread crumbs may be used in place of the + crackers. + + +_Candied Fruit Peel_ + +The candied peel of oranges, lemons, grapefruit, and other fruits makes +a good sweet which is economical, because it utilizes materials which +might otherwise be thrown away. Its preparation makes an interesting +school exercise. The skins can be kept in good condition for a long time +in salt water, which makes it possible to wait until a large supply is +on hand before candying them. They should be washed in clear water, +after removing from the salt water, boiled until tender, cut into small +pieces, and then boiled in a thick sugar syrup until they are +transparent. They should then be lifted from the syrup and allowed to +cool in such a way that the superfluous syrup will run off. Finally, +they should be rolled in pulverized or granulated sugar. + +A large number of recipes have been given, in order that a selection may +be made according to season, community conditions, and market prices, +and so that sufficient variety may be secured from day to day. + +Attention given to this matter will be well repaid by the improved +health of the pupils, the greater interest taken in the school by the +parents, and the better afternoon work accomplished. It has been well +said: "The school lunch is not a departure from the principle of the +obligation assumed by educational authorities toward the child, but an +intensive application of the measures adopted for the physical nurture +of the child, to the end of securing in adult years the highest +efficiency of the citizen". + + +USEFUL BULLETINS + +_The Rural School Luncheon_: Department of Education, Saskatchewan + +_The Box Luncheon_: New York State College of Agriculture, + Cornell University + +_Hints to Housewives_: Issued by Mayor Mitchell's Food Supply + Committee, New York City + +_Home Economics in Village and Rural Schools_: Kansas State + Agricultural College + +_Home-made Fireless Cookers and Their Use_: Farmers' Bulletin, + United States Department of Agriculture + +_Hot Lunches for Rural Schools_: Parts I and II, Iowa State + College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts + +_Rural School Lunches_: University of Idaho, Agricultural Extension + Department + +_The Rural School Lunch_: University of Illinois College of Agriculture + +_The School Luncheon_: Oregon Agricultural College + + +HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE WITHOUT SCHOOL EQUIPMENT + +There is no school so unhappily situated or so poorly equipped that it +is unable to teach effectively the lessons previously outlined in the +"Care of the Home" and "Sewing". Now that a grant in aid is provided by +the Department of Education any rural school may procure one of the sets +of equipment for cooking suggested or some modification thereof. As a +stepping-stone to the provision of that equipment and as a means of +educating the people of the district in regard to the advantages of +teaching this branch of Household Science, it may be advisable or even +necessary, in some cases, to attempt practical work, even where no +equipment is installed by the school authorities. + +It should be remembered that the present position of Manual Training and +Household Science in urban schools is entirely owing to private +initiative and demonstration, by which the people were shown how and why +these subjects should be included in the curriculum of the schools. It +is reasonable to suppose that the same results will follow if somewhat +the same methods are tried in the case of the rural schools, which form +such a large part of our educational system. Two methods of giving +instruction of this character have, in the United States, been followed +by successful results. + + +FIRST METHOD + +In the first of these, the teacher spends the last thirty or forty +minutes, generally on Friday afternoons, in the description and +discussion of some practical cooking problem which may be performed in +the homes of the pupils. Before this plan is adopted, it should be +discussed with the pupils who are to take the work. They should be +required to promise that they will practise at home; and the consent and +co-operation of the parents should be secured, as the success of this +home work depends, in the first place, on the willingness of the pupil +to accept responsibility, and, in the second place, on the honest and +hearty co-operation of the parents. + +A meeting of the mothers should be called, in order that the plan may be +laid before them and their suggestions received. At this meeting +afternoon tea might be served. The teacher should plan the lessons, but +occasionally, particularly at festive seasons, the pupils themselves +should be allowed to decide what shall be made. When it is possible, the +food prepared at home should be brought by the pupil to the school, in +order that it may be compared with that made by other pupils and be +judged by the teacher. In other cases, the mother might be asked to fill +up a previously prepared form, certifying to the amount and character of +the work done at home by the pupil each week. + +The instructions placed on the black-board should be clear and concise +and give adequate information concerning materials, quantities, and +methods. They should be arranged in such a way as to appeal to the eye +and thus assist the memory. Connected composition should not be +attempted, but the matter should be arranged in a series of numbered +steps, somewhat as follows: + + +_Recipe: Boiled Carrots_ + + Carrots + Boiling water + Salt and pepper + Butter + +1. Scrub, scrape, and rinse the carrots. + +2. Cut them into pieces by dicing them. + +3. Place the pieces in a sauce-pan. + +4. Set over the fire and cover with boiling water. + +5. Cook until the pieces are soft at the centre when pierced with a + fork. + +6. Serve in a hot vegetable dish. + +After being thoroughly explained, these directions are placed in a +note-book, for the guidance of the pupil in her home practice. In some +cases, the directions are placed on properly punched cards, so that at +the end of the year every pupil will have a collection of useful recipes +and plans, each one of which she understands and has worked out. In many +lessons of this type demonstrations may be given by the teacher and, if +the food cannot be cooked on the school stove, it may be taken home to +be cooked by one of the pupils. + +Lessons given according to this method, by which the theory is given in +school and the practice acquired at home, need not be restricted to +cookery. Any of the lessons prescribed in the curriculum for Form III, +Junior, may be treated in the same way. Lessons on the daily care of a +bed-room, weekly sweeping, care and cleaning of metals, washing dishes, +washing clothes, ironing a blouse and, in fact, on all subjects +pertaining to the general care and management of the home, may be given +in this way. + +Each lesson should conclude with a carefully prepared black-board +summary, which should be neatly copied into the note-books, to be +periodically examined by the teacher. The black-board work of many +teachers leaves much to be desired, and time spent in improving this +will be well repaid. Examples of summaries of the kind referred to are +to be found in the Ontario Teachers' Manual on _Household Management_. +These instructions may be type-written or hectographed by the teacher +and given to the pupils, thus saving the time spent in note-taking. + + +SECOND METHOD + +The second of the plans referred to is a modification of what is known +as the "Crete" plan of Household Science, so called from the name of the +place in Nebraska, U.S.A., where it was first put into operation. By +this plan, definite instruction is given in the home kitchens of certain +women in the district, under the supervision of the educational +authorities. It was adopted, at first, in connection with the high +schools of the small towns in that State but, with certain +modifications, it is suitable to our rural school conditions. + +In every community there are women who are known to be skilful in +certain lines of cookery, and the plan makes use of such women for +giving the required instruction. They become actually a part of the +staff of the school, giving instruction in Household Science, and using +the resources of their households as an integral part of the school +equipment. + +In order to put this plan into operation, a meeting of women interested +in the school should be called and if, after the plan has been laid +before them and fully discussed, enough women are willing to open their +homes and act as instructors, then it is safe to proceed. The subjects +should be divided, and a scheme somewhat as follows may be arranged: + + Mrs. A. bread and biscuits + Mrs. B. pies and cakes + Mrs. C. canning and preserving + Mrs. D. gems and corn bread + Mrs. E. desserts and salads + Mrs. F. cookies and doughnuts + Mrs. G. vegetables. + +Six has been found a convenient number for a class, though ten is +better, if the homes can accommodate that number. Half-past three is a +good time for the classes to meet, as they then may be concluded by five +o'clock, thus leaving the housewife free to prepare her evening meal. +The day of the week should be chosen to suit the convenience of the +instructor. The classes may meet once a week. + +Arriving at the home of the instructor at half-past three, the pupils +are seated in the most convenient room, and the lesson is given. During +this talk the pupils are given not only the recipe, but details as to +materials, the preparation thereof, the degree of heat required, the +common causes of failure and, in fact, everything that in the mind of a +practical cook would be helpful to the class. Notes are taken, and +afterwards properly written out and examined by the teacher of the +school. + +The instructors prepare the food for cooking, and sometimes, as in the +case of rolls and so on, they cook the food in the presence of the +pupils. When white bread is to be baked, the pupils are asked to call, a +few minutes after school, at the home of the instructor, to watch the +first step--setting the sponge--and again the next morning before school +to see the next step--mixing the bread--and again, about half-past +eleven or twelve, to see the bread ready for the oven and, finally, on +the way back to school, to see the result--a fine loaf of well-cooked +bread. The pupils try the recipe carefully in their own homes, not +varying its terms until they are able to make the dish successfully. +When they can do this, they are free to experiment with modifications, +and there should be no objection to receiving help from any source; in +fact, it is a good thing for the daughter to get her mother to criticize +her and offer suggestions in the many little details familiar to every +housekeeper, but which cannot always be given by an instructor in one +lesson. + +By this method the pupils learn in their own homes and handle real +cooking utensils on a real stove heated by the usual fire of that home. +If it is a good thing--and no one doubts it--to learn Household Science +in a school where everything that invention and skill can provide for +the pupils is readily at hand, is it not worth while to enter the field +of actual life and, with cruder implements, win a fair degree of +success? + +At the end of five or six months, after the pupils have had an +opportunity to become skilful in making some of the dishes which have +been taught, it may be well to have an exhibition of their work. Each +pupil may, on Saturday afternoon, bring one or more of the dishes she +has learned to prepare to the school-house, where they may be arranged +on tables for the inspection of the judges. The dishes exhibited should +be certified to as being the work of the pupil with no help or +suggestion from anybody. Of course, work of this kind cannot be +undertaken by the "suit case" teacher. The teacher who packs her bag on +Friday at noon, carries it to school with her, and rushes to catch a +train or car at four o'clock, not returning to the district until Monday +morning, has no time for this kind of service. + +Occasionally the entire class may meet with their instructors in the +school-room. An oil-stove and the necessary equipment may be obtained, +and a demonstration may be given by one of the instructors. By this +means much valuable instruction will be given that is not included in +the regular course. At this time also many things may be discussed that +pertain to the growth of the movement and the general well-being of the +pupils. + +The plan is flexible and may be modified easily to suit different +localities. It calls for no outlay on the part of the school trustees; +nor are the instructors necessarily put to any expense, as the articles +prepared in giving the lessons may be used in their own homes. + +By the adoption of one of the plans outlined, or such modifications of +them as the peculiar requirements of the district may demand, every +rural school may do something, not only toward giving a real knowledge +of some phases of Household Science, but also toward developing the +community spirit and arousing an interest in the school, which will +benefit all concerned. + + +THE FIRELESS COOKER + +At the present time there is urgent need for thrift and economy in all +that pertains to the management of the household--particularly in food +and fuel. In the average home much fuel could be saved by the proper use +of what is known as the fireless cooker. The scientific principle +applied has long been known and is, briefly, as follows: If a hot body +is protected by a suitable covering, the heat in it will be retained for +a long time, instead of being lost by radiation or conduction. This is +why a cosy is placed over a tea-pot. + +In using a fireless cooker, the food is first heated on the stove until +the cooking has begun, and then it is placed in the fireless cooker--a +tight receptacle in which the food is completely surrounded by some +insulating substance to prevent the rapid escape of the heat, which in +this way is retained in the food in sufficient quantity to complete the +cooking. Sometimes, when a higher cooking temperature is desired, an +additional source of heat, in the form of a hot soapstone or brick or an +iron plate such as a stove lid, is put into the cooker with the food. + +The same principle is also employed in cookery in other ways. For +example, in camp life beans are often baked by burying the pots +overnight in hot stones and ashes, the whole being covered with earth; +and in the "clam bakes" on the Atlantic Coast, the damp seaweed spread +over the embers on the clams prevents the escape of the heat during +cooking. The peasants in some parts of Europe are said to begin the +cooking of their dinners and then to put them into hay boxes or between +feather beds, so that the cooking may be completed while the family is +absent in the fields. + +The chief advantages in the use of the fireless +cooker are these: + +1. It saves fuel, especially where gas, oil, or electric stoves are +used. Where coal or wood is the fuel, the fire in the range is often +kept up most of the day, and the saving of fuel is not so great. In +summer, or when the kitchen fire is not needed for heating purposes, the +dinner can be started in the stove early in the morning, and then placed +in the fireless cooker, the fire in the range being allowed to go out. +During the hot weather, the use of a kerosene or other liquid-fuel stove +and a fireless cooker is a great convenience, since it not only +accomplishes a saving in fuel, but helps to keep the kitchen cooler. The +saving in fuel resulting from the use of a fireless cooker is greatest +in the preparation of foods such as stews, which require long and slow +cooking. + +2. It saves time. Foods cooked in this way do not require watching, and +may be left, without danger from fires or of over-cooking, while other +duties are being performed or the family is away from home. + +3. It conserves the flavour of the food and makes it easier to utilize +the cheaper cuts of meat which, although not having so fine a texture or +flavour, are fully as nutritious, pound for pound, as the more expensive +cuts. Long cooking at a relatively low temperature, such as is given to +foods in the fireless cooker, improves the flavour and texture of these +tougher cuts of meat. Most people do not cook cereals long enough. By +this method, the cereal may be prepared at night, cooked on the stove +for about fifteen minutes, and then put in the fireless cooker. In the +morning it will be cooked and ready to be served. + +The fireless cooker may be used to advantage in preparing the following: +soups; pot roasts; beef stew; Irish stew; lamb stew; corned beef and +cabbage; boiled ham; baked beans; chicken fricassee; vegetables, such as +turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets; dried vegetables, such as peas and +beans; and dried fruits, such as peaches, apples, apricots, and prunes; +cereals; and puddings. + +The fireless cookers described in the following pages are not +experiments. They have all been tested and found to be most practical. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER--NO. I + +While there are many good fireless cookers on the market which cost from +five to twenty-two dollars, according to size and make, it is possible +to construct a home-made cooker which will give very satisfactory +results and will be considerably cheaper than one which is purchased in +the shops. + +Materials required: A box or some other outside container; some good +insulating or packing material; an inside container for the kettle, or a +lining for the nest in which the kettle is placed; a kettle for holding +the food; and a cushion, or pad, of insulating material, to cover the +top of the kettle. + + +THE OUTSIDE CONTAINER + +For the outside container a tightly built wooden box, such as that shown +in Figure 39, is satisfactory. The walls should be thick and of some +non-conducting material. An old trunk, a small barrel, or a large butter +or lard firkin or tin will serve the purpose. Another possibility is a +galvanized iron bucket with a closely fitting cover (this has the +advantage of being fire-proof). A shoe box 15 by 15 by 28 inches is +convenient in size, since it may be divided into two compartments. It +should have a hinged cover and, at the front, a hook and staple, or +some other device to hold down the cover tightly; an ordinary clamp +window fastener answers this purpose very well. The size of the +container, which depends upon the size of the kettle used, should be +large enough to allow for at least four inches of packing material all +round the nest in which the kettle is placed. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 39.--Completed fireless cooker] + +THE INSULATING MATERIAL + +For packing or insulating material a variety of substances may be used. +Asbestos and mineral wool are the best, and have the additional +advantage that they cannot burn. Ground cork (used in packing Malaga +grapes), hay, excelsior, Spanish moss, wool, and crumpled paper may also +be used satisfactorily. Of these materials crumpled paper is probably +the best, as it is clean and odourless and, if properly packed, will +hold the heat better than the others. It is wise to line the box with +one thickness of heavy paper or with several thicknesses of newspaper, +to make it as air-tight as possible. Asbestos sheeting may be used +instead. To pack the container with paper, crush single sheets of +newspaper between the hands and pack a layer at least four inches deep +over the bottom of the outside container, pounding it in with a heavy +stick of wood. + +Place the inside container for the cooking kettle or the lining for the +inside of the nest in the centre of this layer, and pack more crushed +paper about it as solidly as possible. The method of packing with paper +is shown in Figure 40. If other material is used it should be packed in +a similar way. + +Where an extra source of heat is to be used, it is much safer to use +some non-inflammable material such as asbestos or mineral wool. A cheap +substitute and one which is easily obtained are the small cinders sifted +from coal ashes, preferably those from soft coal. However, the cinders +from hard coal burned in the kitchen range will do. If a fire-proof +packing material is not used, a heavy pad of asbestos should be placed +at the bottom of the metal lining, and a sheet or two of this paper +should be placed between the lining of the nest and the packing +material. Whatever is used should come to the top of the inside +container, and the box should be filled to within about four inches of +the top. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 40.--Fireless cooker, showing method of packing +with paper] + +THE INSIDE CONTAINER + +The inside container for the cooking kettle or the lining for the nest +in which it is to be placed should be cylindrical in shape, should be +deep enough to hold the cooking kettle and stone, if one is used, and +should fit as snugly as possible to the cooking kettle, but at the same +time should allow the latter to be moved in and out freely. For this +purpose a galvanized iron or other metal bucket may be used, or, better +still, a tinsmith may make a lining of galvanized iron or zinc which can +be provided with a rim to cover the packing material, as shown in Figure +41. In case no hot stone or plate is to be used, the lining may be made +of strong cardboard. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 41.--Metal lining with rim] + + +THE KETTLE + +The kettle to be used for cooking should be durable and free from seams +or crevices which are hard to clean. It should have perpendicular sides, +and the cover should be as flat as possible and be provided with a deep +lid fitting well down into the kettle, in order to retain the steam. A +kettle holding about six quarts is a convenient size for general use. +Tinned iron kettles should not be used in a fireless cooker, for, +although cheap, they are very apt to rust from the confined moisture. +Enamelware kettles are satisfactory. + + +EXTRA SOURCE OF HEAT + +Fireless cookers are adapted to a much wider range of cooking if they +are provided with an extra source of heat in the form of a soapstone, +brick, or an iron plate which is heated and placed underneath the +cooking kettle. This introduces a possible danger from fire, in case the +hot stove plate should come into direct contact with inflammable packing +material such as excelsior or paper. To avoid this danger, a metal +lining must be provided for the nest in which the cooking vessels and +stone are to be placed. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 42.--Tightly fitting lid] + + +COVERING PAD + +A cushion, or pad, must be provided, to fill completely the space +between the top of the packing material and the cover of the box after +the kettle is in place. This should be made of some heavy goods, such as +denim, and stuffed with cotton, crumpled paper, or excelsior. Hay may be +used, but it will be found more or less odorous. Figure 43 shows the +vertical cross-section of a home-made fireless cooker. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 43.--Vertical cross-section of fireless cooker. A. +Outside container; B. packing or insulating material; C. metal lining of +nest; D. cooking kettle; E. soapstone plate, or other source of heat; F. +pad of excelsior for covering top; G. hinged cover of outside +container.] + + +DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER--NO. II + +(Single Cooker) + +Materials required: Galvanized iron can, No. 3, with a cover; some +sawdust; a covered agate pail (to be used as a cooking pail); and two +yards of denim; any old linen, cotton, or woollen material may be used +instead of denim. + + +METHOD OF MAKING + +Place loose sawdust in the bottom of the can to a depth of about three +inches. Measure the depth of the cooking pail. Turn a fold two inches +greater than this depth the entire length of the denim or other material +and make a long bag. Lay the bag flat on the table and fill it with an +even layer of sawdust, so that when completed it will still be half an +inch wider than the depth of the pail. Roll the bag around the cooking +pail, so that a smooth, firm nest is formed when the bag is placed +upright in the can on the top of the sawdust. From the remaining denim +or other material make a round, flat bag (the material will have to be +pieced for this). Fill this bag with sawdust and use it on top of the +cooking pail. The bags must be made and fitted into the can in such a +way that there will be no open spaces whatever between the sides of the +cooking pail and the can, or between the top of the cooking pail and the +cover of the can, through which the heat might escape. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER--NO. III + +(Double Cooker) + +Materials required: One long box and two square boxes; the long box must +be large enough to hold the other two and still leave two inches of +space all around them; five and one-quarter yards of sheet asbestos one +yard wide; two covered agate pails to be used as cooking pails; and +about one yard of denim or other material. + + +METHOD OF MAKING + +Line the bottoms and sides of all three boxes with sheet asbestos. In +the bottom of the long box lay newspapers flat to a depth of about half +an inch. Put two inches of sawdust on top of this layer of newspapers. +Place the two square boxes inside the long one, leaving at least two +inches of space between them. Fill all the spaces between the boxes with +sawdust. Tack strips of denim or other material so that they will cover +all the spaces that are filled with sawdust. + +The outside box must have a hinged lid, which must be fastened down with +a clasp. Line the lid with the sheet asbestos to within half an inch of +the edge. Put a layer of sawdust one inch deep on top of the asbestos. +Tack a piece of denim or other material over the sawdust, still leaving +the edge free and clear so that the cover may fit tightly; or the lid +may be lined with asbestos and a denim pillow filled with sawdust made +to fit tightly into the top of the box. + + +USE OF THE FIRELESS COOKER IN THE PREPARATION OF LUNCHES + +The fireless cooker should prove very useful in the lunch equipment of +rural schools, as its use should mean economy of fuel, utensils, time, +and effort. It might be made by the pupils and would afford an excellent +manual training exercise. + +Many of the dishes in the recipes given may be cooked in this way, but +more time must be allowed for cooking, as there is a fall of temperature +in placing the food in the cooker. When the vessel is being transferred +from the stove to the cooker, the latter should be in a convenient +position, and the transfer should be made, and the cushion placed in +position, very quickly, so that the food will continue boiling. If the +quantity of food is small, it should be placed in a smaller tightly +covered pail, set on an inverted pan in the larger pail, and surrounded +with boiling water. When there is an air space above the food in the +cooking dish, there is greater loss of heat, as air gives off heat more +readily than water. + +The following are examples of the foods that may be cooked in a Fireless +Cooker: + +Apple sauce--Bring to boiling temperature and place in the cooker, leave + two hours. + +Apple compote--Cut the apples in halves or quarters so that they need + not be turned. Leave them in the cooker about three hours. + +Dried fruits--Soak overnight, bring to the boiling-point, and leave in + the cooker at least three hours. + +Cream of wheat--Boil until thick, place in the cooker, leave overnight + and, if necessary, re-heat in double boiler before using. + +Rolled oats--Boil five minutes, then place in the cooker. Leave at least + three hours and longer if possible. + +Macaroni--Boil, then place in the cooker for two hours. + +Rice--Boil, then place in the cooker for one hour. + +All vegetables may be cooked in the cooker. They must be given time +according to their age. A safe rule for all green vegetables is to allow +two and a half times as long as if boiled on the stove. + +In the home, where the cooking is much greater in amount than it can be +in the school, the saving in fuel, by the judicious use of the properly +made fireless cooker, is correspondingly much larger. For example: in +soups, from 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 hours use of fuel is made unnecessary; pot +roast 2-1/2 hours; beef stew 2-1/2 hours; lamb stew 1-1/2 hours; corn +beef and cabbage 2-1/2 hours; baked beans 5-1/2 to 7-1/2 hours; chicken +fricassee 2 hours; dried peas, beans, and lentils 3 hours; dried fruits +3 hours; rice pudding 1-1/2 hours. + + +SPECIAL GRANTS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS + +(From the Revised Regulations of the Department of Education, 1918) + +(1) The Board of a rural or a village school which is unable to comply +with the provisions of the General Regulations, but which maintains +classes in Manual Training as applied to the work of the Farm or in +Household Science suitable to the requirements of the rural districts, +which employs a teacher qualified as below, and which provides +accommodations and equipment and a course of study approved by the +Minister before the classes are established, will be paid by the +Minister the sums provided in the scheme below, out of the grants +appropriated therefor: said grants to be expended on the accommodations, +equipment, and supplies for Manual Training and Household Science. In no +year, however, will the Departmental grants exceed the total expenditure +of the Board for these classes. + +(2) On the report of the Inspector of Manual Training and Household +Science that the organization and the teaching of the classes in Manual +Training or Household Science maintained as provided above are +satisfactory, an annual grant will be paid by the Minister out of the +Grant appropriated according to the following scheme: + +(_a_) (i) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate but is not +specially certificated in Manual Training or Household Science-- + +Initial Grant to board, $40; to teacher, $15. Subsequent Grant: to +board, $20; to teacher, $15. + +(ii) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and has +satisfactorily completed the work of one Summer Course in Manual +Training or Household Science, provided by the Department, and +undertakes to complete Part II the following year, or receives +permission from the Minister to postpone said part-- + +Initial Grant: to board, $40: to teacher, $20. Subsequent Grant: to +board, $20: to teacher, $20. + +(_b_) (i) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and in +addition the Elementary certificate in Manual Training or Household +Science-- + +Initial Grant: to board, $75; to teacher, $40. Subsequent Grant: to +board, $30; to teacher, $40. + +(ii) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and in addition +the Ordinary certificate in Manual Training or Household Science-- + +Initial Grant: to board, $75; to teacher, $50. Subsequent Grant: to +board, $30; to teacher, $50. + +(_c_) When a school taking up Household Science provides at least one +hot dish for the pupils staying to lunch from November 1st to March +31st, the above grants to the teacher of Household Science will be +increased $10. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Household +Science in Rural Schools, by Ministry of Education Ontario + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS *** + +***** This file should be named 20557.txt or 20557.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/5/5/20557/ + +Produced by Sigal Alon, Turgut Dincer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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