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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Religion and Art in Ancient Greece, by 
+Ernest Arthur Gardner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Religion and Art in Ancient Greece
+
+Author: Ernest Arthur Gardner
+
+Release Date: February 6, 2007 [EBook #20523]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ron Swanson
+
+
+
+
+
+RELIGION AND ART
+IN
+ANCIENT GREECE
+
+
+BY
+ERNEST A. GARDNER
+
+YATES PROFESSOR OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND PUBLIC ORATOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF
+LONDON; LATE DIRECTOR OF THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS
+
+
+
+
+LONDON AND NEW YORK
+HARPER & BROTHERS
+45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W.
+1910
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Greek religion may be studied under various aspects; and many recent
+contributions to this study have been mainly concerned either with the
+remote origin of many of its ceremonies in primitive ritual, or with the
+manner in which some of its obscurer manifestations met the deeper
+spiritual needs which did not find satisfaction in the official cults.
+Such discussions are of the highest interest to the anthropologist and
+to the psychologist; but they have the disadvantage of fixing our
+attention too exclusively on what, to the ordinary Greek, appeared
+accidental or even morbid, and of making us regard the Olympian
+pantheon, with its clearly realised figures of the gods, as a mere
+system imposed more or less from outside upon the old rites and beliefs
+of the people. In the province of art, at least, the Olympian gods are
+paramount; and thus we are led to appreciate and to understand their
+worship as it affected the religious ideals of the people and the
+services of the State. For we must remember that in the case of religion
+even more than in that of art, its essential character and its influence
+upon life and thought lie rather in its full perfection than in its
+origin.
+
+In a short sketch of so wide a subject it has seemed inadvisable to make
+any attempt to describe the types of the various gods. Without full
+illustration and a considerable expenditure of space, such a description
+would be impracticable, and the reader must be referred to the ordinary
+handbooks of the subject. A fuller account will be found in Dr.
+Farnell's _Cults of the Greek States_, and some selected types are
+discussed with the greatest subtlety and understanding in Brunn's
+_Griechische Gotterideale_. In the present volume only a few examples
+are mentioned as characteristic of the various periods. It may thus, I
+trust, serve as an introduction to a more complete study of the subject;
+and may, at the same time, offer to those who have not the leisure or
+inclination for such further study, at least a summary of what we may
+learn from Greece as to the relations of religion and art under the most
+favourable conditions. It is easy, as Aristotle says, to fill in the
+details if only the outlines are rightly drawn--[Greek: doxeie d' an
+pantos einai proagagein kai diorthosai ta kalos echonta te perigraphe.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+
+  I.  IDOLATRY AND IMAGINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   1
+
+ II.  ASPECTS OF RELIGION--POPULAR, OFFICIAL, POETICAL,
+        PHILOSOPHICAL  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24
+
+III.  THE CONDITIONS OF RELIGIOUS ART IN GREECE  . . . . . . . . .  48
+
+ IV.  ANTHROPOMORPHISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  58
+
+  V.  IDEALISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  75
+
+ VI.  INDIVIDUALISM  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  94
+
+VII.  PERSONIFICATION, CONVENTION, AND SYMBOLISM . . . . . . . . . 108
+
+
+
+
+RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION--IDOLATRY AND IMAGINATION
+
+
+The relation of religion to art has varied greatly among different
+peoples and at different periods. At the one extreme is the
+uncompromising puritan spirit, which refuses to admit any devices of
+human skill into the direct relations between God and man, whether it be
+in the beauty of church or temple, in the ritual of their service, or in
+the images which they enshrine. Other religions, such as those of the
+Jews or of Islam, relegate art to a subordinate position; and while they
+accept its services to decorate the buildings and apparatus connected
+with divine worship, forbid any attempt to make a visible representation
+of the deity. Modern Christianity, while it does not, as a rule, repeat
+this prohibition, has varied greatly from time to time and from country
+to country as to the extent to which it allows such representations.
+Probably the better educated or more thoughtful individuals would in
+every case regard them merely as symbolic aids to induce the
+concentration and intensity of religious ideas and aspirations; but
+there is no doubt that among the common people they tend to become
+actually objects of worship in themselves. It is instructive to turn to
+a system in which idolatry, the worship of images, was an essential part
+of orthodox religious observance. It is easy and customary with a
+certain class of minds to dismiss all such examples of idolatry with a
+superficial generalisation such as "the heathen in his blindness bows
+down to stock and stone." But it seems worth while to devote a short
+study to an attempt to understand how such a system worked in the case
+of a people like the ancient Greeks, who possessed to a degree that has
+never been surpassed both clearness of intellectual perception and a
+power to embody their ideals in artistic form. Whether it tended to
+exalt or to debase religion may be a doubtful question; but there can be
+no doubt that it gave an inspiration to art which contributed to the
+unrivalled attainments of the Greeks in many branches of artistic
+creation. We shall be mainly concerned here with the religion of Greece
+as it affected the art of sculpture; but before attempting a historical
+summary it is necessary for us to understand exactly what we mean by the
+worship of representations of the gods, and to consider the nature of
+the influence which such representation must have upon artistic
+activity.
+
+Idolatry--the worship of images--is almost always used by us in a bad
+sense, owing, no doubt, chiefly to the usage of the word in the Jewish
+scriptures. Mr. Ruskin, in his chapter on the subject in his _Aratra
+Pentelici_, points out that it may also be used in a good sense, though
+he prefers to use the word imagination in this meaning. There is
+doubtless a frequent tendency to failure to
+
+  "Look through the sign to the thing signified,"
+
+but there is no essential reason why the contemplation of a beautiful
+statue, embodying a worthy conception of the deity, should not be as
+conducive to a state of worship and communion as is an impressive ritual
+or ceremony, or any other aid to devotion. This view of the matter is
+expressed by some later Greek writers; in earlier times it was probably
+unconsciously present, though it is hardly to be found in contemporary
+literature. But it was only by slow stages that art came to do so direct
+a service to religious ideas; in more primitive times its relation was
+more subordinate. The worship or service of images, even in the highest
+ages of Greek civilisation, was much more associated with primitive and
+comparatively inartistic figures than with the masterpieces of
+sculpture; and even where these masterpieces were actually objects of
+worship it was often from the inheritance of a sanctity transferred to
+them from an earlier image rather than for their own artistic qualities.
+It does not, indeed, follow that the influence of the great sculptors
+upon the religious ideals of the people was a negligible quality; we
+have abundant evidence, both direct and indirect, that it was very
+great. But it was exercised chiefly by following and ennobling
+traditional notions rather than by daring innovation, and therefore can
+only be understood in relation to the general development both of
+religious conceptions and of artistic facility.
+
+Here we shall be mainly concerned with art as an expression of the
+religious ideals and aspirations of the people, and as an influence upon
+popular and educated opinions and conceptions of the gods. But we must
+not forget that it is also valuable to us as a record of myths and
+beliefs, and of ritual and customs associated with the worship of the
+gods. This is the case, above all, with reliefs and vase-paintings. In
+them we often find representations which do not merely illustrate
+ancient literature, but supplement and modify the information we derive
+from classical writers. The point of view of the artist is often not the
+same as that of the poet or historian, and it is frequently nearer to
+that of the people, and therefore a help in any attempt to understand
+popular beliefs. The representations of the gods which we find in such
+works do not often embody any lofty ideals or subtle characterisation;
+but they show us the traditional and easily recognisable figures in
+which the gods usually occurred to the imagination of the Greek people.
+
+The association of acts of worship with certain specially sacred objects
+or places lies at the basis of much religious art, though very often art
+has little or nothing to do with such objects in a primitive stage of
+religious development. Stocks and stones--the latter often reputed to
+have fallen from heaven, the former sometimes in the shape of a growing
+tree, sometimes of a mere unwrought log--were to be found as the centres
+of religious cult in many of the shrines of Greece. These sacred objects
+are sometimes called fetishes; and although it is perhaps wiser to avoid
+terms belonging properly to the religion of modern savages in speaking
+of ancient Greece, there seems to be an analogy between the beliefs and
+customs that are implied. Such sacred stocks or stones were not regarded
+merely as symbols of certain deities, but were looked upon as having
+certain occult or magic qualities inherent in them, and as being in
+themselves potent for good or evil. The ceremonies used in their cult
+partook of the nature of magic rather than religion, so far as these
+consisted of anointing them with oil or with drink offerings; such
+ceremonies might, indeed, be regarded as gratifying to the deity
+worshipped under their form, when they were definitely affiliated to the
+service of an anthropomorphic god; but in a more primitive stage of
+belief the indwelling power probably was not associated with any such
+generalisation as is implied in the change from "animism" or
+"polydaemonism" to polytheism. We are here concerned not with this
+growth of religious feeling, but rather with its influence upon the
+sacred things that were objects of worship and with the question how far
+their sanctity encouraged their artistic decoration.
+
+It is perhaps easier to realise the feeling of a primitive people about
+this matter in the case of a sacred building than in that of the actual
+image of a god. A temple does not, indeed--in Greece, at least--belong
+to the earliest phase of cult; for it is the dwelling of the god, and
+its form, based on that of a human dwelling-house, implies an
+anthropomorphic imagination. We find, however, in Homer that the gods
+are actually thought of as inhabiting their temples and preferring one
+to another, Athena going to Athens and Aphrodite to Paphos as her chosen
+abode. It was clearly desirable for every city to gain this special
+favour; and an obvious way to do this was to make the dwelling-place
+attractive in itself to the deity. This might be done not merely by the
+abundance of sacrifices, but also by the architectural beauty of the
+building itself, and by the richness of the offerings it contained. Here
+was, therefore, a very practical reason for making the dwelling of the
+god as sumptuous and beautiful as possible, in order that he might be
+attracted to live in it and to give his favour and protection to those
+that dwelt around it. Doubtless, as religious ideas advanced and the
+conception of the nature of the gods became higher, there came the
+notion that they did not dwell in houses made with hands; yet a Greek
+temple, just like a mediaeval cathedral, might be made beautiful as a
+pleasing service and an honour to the deity to whom it was dedicated;
+and there was a continuous tradition in practice from the lower
+conception to the higher, nor is it easy to draw the line at any
+particular stage between the two.
+
+If we turn now to the sacred image of the deity we find the same process
+going on. The rude stock or stone was sometimes itself the actual
+recipient of material offerings; or it might be painted with some bright
+and pleasing colour, or wrapped in costly draperies. In most of these
+customs an assumption is implied that the object of worship is pleased
+by the same things as please its worshippers; and here we find the germ
+of the anthropomorphic idea. It was probably the desire to make the
+offerings and prayers of the worshippers perceptible to the power within
+that first led to the addition of human features to the shapeless block.
+Just as the early Greeks painted eyes upon the prows of their ships, to
+enable them to find their way through the water, so they carved a head,
+with eyes and ears, out of the sacred stone or stock, or perhaps added a
+head to the original shapeless mass. We find many primitive idols in
+this form--a cone or column with a head and perhaps arms and feet added
+to it; and the tradition survives in the herm, or in the mask of
+Dionysus attached to a post, round which we still see the Maenads
+dancing on fifth-century vases. The notion that such carved eyes or ears
+actually served to transmit impressions to the god is well illustrated
+by Professor Petrie's discovery at Memphis of a number of votive ears of
+the god, intended to facilitate or to symbolise his reception of the
+prayers of his votaries. In fact, the taunt of the psalmist against the
+images of the heathen--"Eyes have they, but they see not; they have
+ears, and yet they hear not"--is not a merely rhetorical one, as it
+seems to us, but real and practical, if spoken to men who gave their
+gods ears and eyes that they might hear and see.
+
+An imagination so entirely materialistic may belong to a more primitive
+stage than any we can find among the Greeks. As soon as religion has
+reached the polytheistic stage the gods are regarded as travelling from
+image to image, just as they travel from temple to temple. Even in
+AEschylus' _Eumenides_ it will be remembered that when Orestes, by the
+advice of Apollo, clasps as a suppliant the ancient image of Athena at
+Athens, the goddess comes flying from far away in the Troad when she
+hears the sound of his calling. The exact relation of the goddess to the
+image is not, in all probability, very clearly realised; but, so far as
+one can trace it from the ritual procedure, what appears to be implied
+is that a suppliant will have a better chance of reaching the deity he
+addresses if he approaches one of the images preferred by that deity as
+the abode of his power; often there is one such image preferred to all
+others, as this early one of Athena at Athens. The deity was not,
+therefore, regarded as immanent in any image--at least, in classical
+times; the gods lived in Olympus, or possibly visited from time to time
+the people whom they favoured, or went to the great festivals that were
+held in their honour. But the various images of them, especially the
+most ancient ones, that were set up in their temples in the various
+cities of Greece were regarded as a means of communication between gods
+and men. The prayer of a worshipper addressing such an image will be
+transmitted to the deity whom he addresses, and the deity may even come
+in person to hear him, if special aid is required. A close parallel may
+be found even in modern days. I have known of a child, brought up in the
+Roman Catholic religion, who had a particular veneration or affection
+for a certain statue of the Virgin, and used often to address it or, as
+she said, converse with it. And she said she had an impression that, if
+only she could slip in unawares, she might see the Virgin Mary herself
+approaching or leaving the statue, whether to be transformed into it or
+merely to dwell in it for a time. On Greek vases we see the same notion
+expressed as in the _Eumenides_, when a god or goddess is represented as
+actually present beside the statue to which a sacrifice or prayer is
+being offered.
+
+In such a stage of religious belief or imagination it is clearly of high
+importance that the image of any deity should be pleasing to that deity,
+and thereby attract his presence and serve as a ready channel of
+communication with him. From the point of view of art, it would seem at
+first sight that the result would be a desire to make the image as
+beautiful as possible, and as worthy an embodiment of the deity as the
+sculptor could devise. This doubtless was the result in the finest
+period of art in Greece, and it involved, as we shall see, a great deal
+of reciprocal influence on the part of religion and art. But in earlier
+times the case is not so simple; and even in statues of the fifth
+century it is not easy to understand the conditions under which the
+sculptor worked without some reference to the historical development
+that lay behind him.
+
+Before the rise of sculpture in Greece, images of the gods, some of them
+only rudely anthropomorphic, had long been objects of worship; and it
+was by no means safe in religious matters to depart too rashly from the
+forms consecrated by tradition. This was partly owing to the feeling
+that when a certain form had been accepted, and a certain means of
+communication had worked for a long time satisfactorily, it was a
+dangerous thing to make a change which might not be agreeable to the
+powers concerned, and which might, so to speak, break the established
+connection. But while hieratic conservatism tended to preserve forms and
+formulae almost for what we may call magic reasons, there was also a
+sentiment about the matter which gave popular support to the tendency.
+Thus Pausanias probably expresses a common feeling when he says that the
+images made by Daedalus, "though somewhat strange in aspect, yet seem to
+be distinguished by something in them of the divine."
+
+It is true that these early images attributed to Daedalus showed already
+a considerable advance on the shapeless or roughly shaped stocks or
+stones that had served as the most primitive objects of worship; but it
+was their resemblance to these rather than their difference from them
+that impressed the imagination of Pausanias. He appreciated them not so
+much as examples of an art that promised much for the future, but rather
+as linked with the past by the tradition of an immemorial sanctity. We
+find, in fact, that the rude early images remained the centres of state
+cult and official worship, as well as of popular veneration, long after
+the art of sculpture had become capable of providing their worshippers
+with more adequate embodiments of the gods they represented. It was the
+early image of Athena, not the Athena Parthenos by Phidias, that was
+annually washed in the sea, and for which the peplos was woven by the
+chosen women of Athens. The connection between art and religion is, in
+such a case, reduced to narrow limits; but, on the other hand, we hear
+of many instances where new statues of the gods were made as temple
+statues, to be the chief objects of worship and centres of cult. And
+this was sometimes done with the official sanction of the gods
+themselves, as expressed through the oracle of Delphi.
+
+The sanctity of the old image was sometimes transferred to the new one;
+a striking example of this is seen in the case of Artemis Brauronia on
+the Athenian Acropolis. It had been the custom for the garments
+presented to the goddess by her worshippers to be placed upon her
+primitive statue; and when a new and worthier representation of the
+goddess was placed in the temple in the fourth century, we are informed
+by inscriptions that dedicated garments were sometimes hung upon it,
+even though it was a statue from the hand of Praxiteles. It sometimes
+happened that the old and the new statues stood side by side in the same
+temple, or in adjacent temples, and they seem then to exemplify the two
+kinds of idolatry--the literal and the imaginative--the one being the
+actual subject of the rites ceremonially observed, and the other being
+the visible presentment of the deity, and helping the worshipper to
+concentrate his prayers and aspirations. Here the art of the sculptor
+had the fullest scope, and it is in such cases that he could, as
+Quintilian said of Phidias, "make some addition to the received
+religion."
+
+This duality was, however, the result of accident rather than the normal
+arrangement, and, so long as the primitive image remained the official
+object of worship, it was difficult, if not impossible, for the new and
+more artistic statue to have its full religious effect. In many cases,
+probably in most cases, it was actually substituted, sooner or later,
+for the earlier embodiment of the deity. Sometimes the early image,
+which was often of wood, may have decayed or been worn away by the
+attentions lavished upon it; we hear of a statue of which the hand had
+perished under the kisses of the devout. We hear also of cases in which
+it had been entirely lost--for instance, the Black Demete of Phigalia,
+an uncouth image with a horse's head; here, when a plague had warned the
+people to replace it, the AEginetan sculptor Onatas undertook the task;
+and he is said to have been vouchsafed a vision in sleep which enabled
+him to reproduce exactly this unsightly idol. It would not seem that
+such a commission gave much scope to his artistic powers; but it is
+noteworthy that the Phigalians employed one of the most famous sculptors
+of the day. Elsewhere the conditions were more favourable, and it was
+possible for the artist, while conforming to the accepted type, to give
+it a more correct form and more pleasing features.
+
+Daedalus, we are told--and in this story Daedalus is an impersonation of
+the art of the early sculptors in Greece--made statues of the gods so
+life-like that they had to be chained to their pedestals for fear they
+should run away. It is likely that this tale goes back to a genuine
+tradition; for Pausanias actually saw statues with fetters attached to
+them in several early shrines in Greece. The device is natural enough.
+Daedalus was a magician as well as a sculptor; and if he could give his
+statues eyes that they might see, and ears that they might hear, it was
+an obvious inference that if he gave them legs they might run away and
+desert their shrines and their worshippers.
+
+We may very likely find also in a similar notion the explanation of a
+peculiarity often found in early statues of the gods--the well-known
+archaic smile. Many explanations, technical and otherwise, have been
+given of this device; but none of them can get over the fact that it was
+just as easy, or even easier, for a primitive sculptor to make the mouth
+straight as to make it curve up at the ends, and that he often did make
+it straight. When he does not do so, it is probably done with intention;
+and it is quite in accordance with the conditions of early religious art
+that he should make the image of a deity smile in order that the deity
+himself might smile upon his worshippers; and a pleasant expression
+might also, by a natural transfer of ideas, be supposed to be pleasing
+to the god, and so attract him to his statue. We are told that at Chios
+there was a head of Artemis set high up, which appeared morose to those
+entering the temple, but when they left it seemed to have become
+cheerful. This may have been originally due to some accident of placing
+or lighting, but it seems to have acquired a religious significance; and
+we can hardly deny a similar significance to the smile which we find on
+so many early statues. In some cases, especially in statues of men, it
+may have been intended merely as a device to give expression and life to
+the face; but it cannot have been a matter of indifference to a
+primitive worshipper that his deity should smile on him through the face
+of its visible image. This point of view being given, it is evidently
+only a question of how far it is within the power of art to express the
+benignity of the god, and later on his character and personality, in an
+adequate manner; and this power depends on the gradual acquisition of
+mastery over form and material, of knowledge and observation of the
+human body and face, and of the technical skill requisite to express
+this knowledge in marble or bronze, or more precious materials such as
+gold and ivory. All this development belongs to the history of art, not
+to that of religion. But before we can pursue the investigation any
+further, it is necessary to consider the different sources and channels
+of religious influence on art with which we have to deal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+VARIOUS ASPECTS OF RELIGION
+
+
+Religion, for our present purpose, may be considered as (1) popular, (2)
+official, (3) poetic, and (4) philosophical. These four divisions, or
+rather aspects, are not, of course, mutually exclusive, and they act and
+react extensively upon one another; but, in their relations to art, it
+is convenient to observe the distinction between them.
+
+(1) The beliefs of the people are, of course, the basis of all the
+others, though they come to be affected by these others in various
+degrees. There is no doubt that the people generally believed in the
+sanctity and efficacy of the shapeless idols or primitive images, and
+this belief would tend to support hieratic conservatism, and thus to
+hinder artistic progress. But, on the other hand, the people of Greece
+showed throughout their history a tendency to an intensely and vividly
+anthropomorphic imagination. This tendency was doubtless realised and
+encouraged by the poets, but it was not created by them, any more than
+by the mythologists who defined and systematised it. The exact relation
+of this anthropomorphic imagination to the primitive sacred stocks and
+stones is not easy to ascertain; but it seems to have tended, on the one
+hand, to the realisation of the existence of the gods apart from such
+sacred objects, and thus to reduce the stocks and stones to the position
+of symbols--a great advance in religious ideals; and, on the other hand,
+to the transformation of the stocks and stones into human form, not
+merely by giving them ears and eyes that they might hear and see, but
+also by making them take the image and character of the deity whom they
+represented.
+
+It was impossible for any ordinary Greek to think of the gods in other
+than human form. He had, indeed, no such definite dogma as the Hebrew
+statement that "God created man in His own image"; for the legends about
+the origin of the human race varied considerably and many of them
+represented crude philosophical theorising rather than religious belief.
+But the monstrous forms which we find in Egypt and Mesopotamia as
+embodiments of divine power were alien to the Greek imagination; if we
+find here and there a survival of some strange type, such as the
+horse-headed Demeter at Phigalia, it remains isolated and has little
+influence upon prevalent beliefs. The Greek certainly thought of his
+gods as having the same human form as himself; and not the gods only,
+but also the semi-divine, semi-human, sometimes less than human beings
+with which his imagination peopled the woods and mountains and seas. His
+Nereids had human feet, not fishy tails like our mermaids; and if
+centaurs and satyrs and some other creatures of his imagination showed
+something of the beast within the man in their visible shape, they had
+little about them of the mysterious or the unearthly. It would be a
+great mistake to regard all these creatures as mere impersonations or
+abstractions. If "a pagan suckled in a creed outworn" could
+
+  "Have sight of Proteus coming from the sea
+   And hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn,"
+
+much more were such sights and sounds familiar to his forefathers, to
+whom the same beliefs were fresh and real. Even to the present day Greek
+peasants may often be found who can tell of such experiences; to them,
+as to the Greeks of old, desert places and remote woods and mountains
+are terrible, not because they are lonely, but because when a man is
+alone then is he least alone; hence the panic terror, the terror of Pan.
+
+The same idea, which later takes the religious or philosophic form of
+the belief in the omnipresence of the deity, peopled the woods with
+dryads, the streams and springs with nymphs and river-gods, the seas
+with Nereids and Tritons. When an artist represented a mountain or a
+river-god, a nymph or a Triton, or added such figures to a scene to
+indicate its locality by what seems to us at first sight a mere artistic
+convention, he was not inventing an impersonation, but he was
+representing something which, in the imagination of the people, might
+actually be seen upon the spot--at least, by those whose eyes were
+opened to see it. It was the same gift of imagination that made Blake
+say: "'What,' it will be questioned, 'when the sun rises, do you not see
+a disc of fire, somewhat like a guinea?' 'Oh no, no! I see an
+innumerable company of the heavenly host, crying "Holy, holy, holy is
+the Lord God Almighty!" I question not my corporeal eye, any more than I
+would question a window, concerning a sight. I look through it, and not
+with it.'"[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Blake, "Aldine" edition, p. cvi.]
+
+In the case of the gods, the matter is somewhat less simple than in that
+of all these daemonic creatures of the popular imagination. Gods imply a
+greater power of generalisation and a higher stage of religious
+development. It was not thought likely that the gods would show
+themselves to mortal eyes, as had been their habit in the Golden Age,
+except perhaps upon some occasion of a great national crisis; and even
+then it was the heroes rather than the gods who manifested themselves.
+But the ordinary Greek believed that the gods actually existed in human
+form, and even that their characters and passions and moods were like
+those of human beings. The influence of the poet and the artist could
+not have been so vigorous if it had not found, in the imagination of the
+people, a suitable and sympathetic material.
+
+(2) Official or state religion consisted in the main of an organisation
+of popular ritual. There was no priestcraft in Greece, no exclusive
+caste to whom the worship of the gods was assigned, although, of course,
+the right to practise certain cults belonged to particular families. But
+a priesthood, as a rule, was a political office like any other
+magistracy, and there was no exclusive tradition in the case of the
+chief cults of any Greek state to keep the point of view of the priests
+different from that of the people generally. The tendency of state
+religion was, as a rule, conservative, for reasons that we have already
+noticed; innovations in the matter of ritual are dangerous, for the new
+rite may not please the gods as well as the old; and the same feeling
+applies to the statues that form the centres of ritual. Pericles, for
+example, doubtless wished to make the Athena Parthenos of Phidias the
+official and visible representation of the goddess of Athens, and
+thereby to raise the religious ideals of the Athenians. In this last
+part of his attempt he was successful; the statue became the pride and
+glory of the city in its fitting shrine, the Parthenon; but the old
+image was still preserved in the temple of Athena Polias, and remained
+the official centre of worship. We are not told that Pericles meant to
+supersede it; but it is very probable that he intended to do so, and was
+only prevented by the religious conservatism that curtailed other plans
+of his for the beautifying of the Acropolis. On the other hand, there is
+no evidence that in Greece--at least, in the best period of Greek
+art--any statesman held the views as to the official religion frankly
+expressed in Rome, that it was expedient for this religion to be
+accepted by the common people, but that educated men could only
+reconcile their consciences to taking part in it by a philosophical
+interpretation.
+
+There is something unreal and artificial about any such compromise. If
+Pericles was intimate with Anaxagoras, who was prosecuted for atheism,
+he was also the friend of Phidias, who expressly said that his Zeus was
+the Zeus of Homer, no mere abstract ideal of divinity. If this was the
+case with Pericles, who held himself aloof from the common people, it
+must have been much more so with other statesmen, who mingled with them
+more freely, or even, like Nicias, shared their superstitions. Under
+such conditions the influence of art upon the representations of the
+gods could not well go in advance of popular conceptions, though it
+might accompany and direct them. The making of new statues of the gods,
+to be set up as the centres of worship in their temples, in some cases
+received the formal sanction of the Delphic oracle, the highest official
+and religious authority. Public commissions of this sort are common at
+all times, but commonest in the years immediately succeeding the Persian
+Wars, when the spoils of the Persians supplied ample resources, and in
+many cases the ancient temples and images had been destroyed; and at the
+same time the outburst of national enthusiasm over the great deliverance
+led to a desire to give due thank-offerings to the gods of the Hellenic
+race, a desire which coincided with the ability to fulfil it, owing to
+the rapid progress of artistic power. Such public commissions, and the
+popular feeling which they expressed, offered an inspiration to the
+artist such as has rarely, if ever, found a parallel. But any great
+victory or deliverance might be commemorated by the setting up of
+statues of the gods to whom it was attributed; and in this way the
+demands of official religion offered the sculptor the highest scope for
+the exercise of his art and his imagination.
+
+(3) The influence of poetic mythology upon art can hardly be
+exaggerated. The statement of Herodotus that Homer and Hesiod "made the
+Greek theogony, and assigned to the gods their epithets and
+distinguished their prerogatives and their functions, and indicated
+their form," would not, of course, be accepted in a literal sense by any
+modern mythologist. But it is nevertheless true that the clear and vivid
+personality and individuality given to the gods by the epic poets
+affects all later poetry and all Greek art. The imagination of the poets
+could not, as we have already noticed, have had so deep and wide an
+influence unless it had been based upon popular beliefs and conceptions.
+But it fills these conceptions with real and vivid character, so that
+the gods of Homer are as clearly presented to us as any personalities of
+history or fiction. They are, indeed, endowed not only with the form,
+but with the passions, and some even of the weaknesses of mankind; and
+for this reason the philosophers often rejected as unworthy the tales
+that the poets told of the gods. But even an artist such as Phidias
+expressly stated that it was the Zeus of Homer who inspired his greatest
+work, quoting the well-known passage in the Iliad in which the god
+grants the prayer of Thetis:--
+
+  "He said; and his black eyebrows bent; above his deathless head
+   Th' ambrosian curls flowed; great heaven shook."
+
+Descriptive passages such as this are not, indeed, common, because, as
+Lessing clearly pointed out, the poet depends more upon action and its
+effect than on mere enumerative description. Even here it is the action
+of the nod, and the shaking of heaven that follows it, that emphasises
+the impression, rather than the mere mention of eyebrows or hair. In
+many other cases the distinctive epithet has its value for all later
+art--the cow-eyed Hera, the grey-eyed Athena, the swift messenger
+Hermes; but, above all, it is the action and character of the various
+gods that is so clearly realised by the poet that his successors cannot,
+if they wish, escape from his spell.
+
+The influence of the various Greek poets is not, indeed, for the most
+part, to be traced in contemporary Greek art. This is obvious in the
+case of the Homeric poems, for the art of the time was of a purely
+decorative character, and was quite incapable of representing in any
+adequate way the vivid and lively imagination of the poets; and, for
+that matter, for many centuries after the date of the composition of the
+Iliad and Odyssey, Hellenic art made no attempt to cope with any so
+ambitious problems. Even when the art of sculpture had attained to a
+considerable degree of mastery over material and expression, we find its
+aims and conceptions lagging far behind those of the poet. This will
+become clearer when, in the next chapter, we consider the conditions of
+artistic expression in Greece; but it must be noted here, in order to
+prevent possible misconception. As soon, however, as art became capable
+of aiming at something beyond perfection of a bodily form--a change
+which, in spite of Pausanias' admiration of something divine about the
+works of Daedalus, can hardly be dated earlier than the fifth century
+B.C.--the Homeric conceptions of the gods came to have their full
+effect. Zeus, the king and father of gods and men; Athena, the friendly
+protectress of heroes, irresistible in war, giver of all intellectual
+and artistic power; Apollo, the archer and musician, the purifier and
+soothsayer--these and others find their first visible embodiment in the
+statues whereby the sculptors of the fifth century gave expression to
+the Homeric conceptions.
+
+The tales, too, that were told about the gods, some of them trivial
+enough, but others full of religious and ethical significance, had for
+some time before this been common subjects upon reliefs and
+vase-paintings, and on these also the influence of the poets was very
+great. Here we have not only the Iliad and Odyssey to consider, but many
+other early epics that are now lost to us. The vase-painter or sculptor
+did not, indeed, merely illustrate these stories as a modern artist
+might; often he had a separate tradition and a repertory of subjects
+belonging to his own art, and developed them along different lines from
+those followed by the poets. But although this tradition might lead him
+to choose a version less familiar to poetry, or even to give a new form
+to an old story, his conception was essentially poetical, in that it
+implied an imaginative realisation of the scene or action, and even of
+the character of the deity or hero represented.
+
+The conception of the gods to be found in other early epics probably did
+not differ essentially from that we find in the Iliad and Odyssey; but
+with the Homeric hymns and with some of the earlier lyric poets we find
+a change setting in. There seems to be a new interest in the adventures
+of the gods themselves, apart from their relation to mankind; romantic
+and even pathetic stories are told about them, implying almost a
+psychological appreciation of their personality--the tale of Demeter's
+mourning for her daughter Persephone, her wanderings and adventures; of
+the love of Aphrodite for a mortal; of how Hermes invented the lyre and
+tricked Apollo about his cattle; of the birth of Apollo and the founding
+of his worship at Delos and Delphi; of the marvellous birth of Athena
+from the head of Zeus. It is hardly too much to say that in the later of
+these Homeric hymns--those that are mentioned first in the above
+enumeration--an almost human interest is given to the gods, to their
+sufferings and adventures. It is the same tendency which we see in the
+lyric poetry of the Greeks, with its intensely personal note. The
+reflexion of this tendency in art is not, indeed, to be seen until the
+fourth century; not only the power of expression, but the desire to
+express such a side of the character of the gods seems to be absent
+until this period.
+
+It may seem curious at first sight that art was so slow in this case to
+follow the lead given it by poetry; but it is to be remembered that a
+power of expression such as would have enabled it to do so was not
+attained until the fifth century, and that in this age there was an
+exaltation of national and religious enthusiasm, owing mainly to the
+victories over the Persians, which checked the tendency to sentiment and
+pathos; and it was not until this vigorous reaction had died away that
+the tendency once more asserted itself. The early fifth century was also
+marked by poets such as Pindar and AEschylus, who raised the religious
+ideals of the nation on to a higher plane, who consciously rejected the
+less worthy conceptions of the gods, and, whether in accordance with the
+popular beliefs or not, gave expression to a higher truth in religion
+than had hitherto been dreamed of. The gods whom the sculptors of the
+fifth century were called upon to represent may have been the gods of
+Homer, but they were the Homeric gods transformed by the creative
+imagination of a more reflective age, and purified by a poetic, if not a
+philosophic, idealism. But while AEschylus suggests "a deeply brooding
+mind, tinged with mysticism, grappling with dark problems of life and
+fate,"[2] and so was, in some ways, remote from the clarity and
+definition of sculptural form, Sophocles "invests the conceptions of
+popular religion with a higher spiritual and intellectual meaning; and
+the artistic side of the age is expressed by him in poetry, much as in
+architecture and sculpture it is interpreted by the remains of the
+Parthenon; there is the same serenity and wholeness of work; power
+joined to purity of taste; self-restraint; and a sure instinct of
+symmetry."[3] Sophocles was a friend and companion of Pericles, and
+therefore probably of Phidias; and in both alike we see the same harmony
+and absence of exaggeration that are characteristic of Greek art at its
+best. In this case we may say with some confidence that the poet and the
+sculptor probably influenced each other.
+
+[Footnote 2: Sir R. C. Jebb in _Cambridge Companion to Greek Studies_,
+p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Ibid_. p. 113.]
+
+It seems a tempting hypothesis to see something of the influence of
+"Euripides the human" in the individualistic tendencies of the art of
+the fourth century; but it seems hardly to be justified by the facts.
+The influence of his dramas is, indeed, to be seen in later
+vase-paintings; but this is not a matter with which we are here
+concerned. In his treatment of the gods, Euripides can hardly be quoted
+as an example of the humanising tendency. "He resented the notion that
+gods could be unjust or impure"; but the purer and more abstract
+conceptions of divinity that appealed to him were hardly such as could
+find expression in art; it has even been said that "he blurred those
+Hellenic ideals which were the common man's best without definitely
+replacing them." The bringing of these ideals nearer to the common life
+of man finds its poetic inspiration rather in the tendency which has
+already been noticed in the Homeric hymns and the lyric poets, and which
+now, after the reaction of the fifth century, exerts its full force on
+the art of Scopas and Praxiteles.
+
+There is no need to dwell here on the influence of later poets upon
+religious art, though we shall have to notice hereafter the parallel
+development of the representation of the gods in Hellenistic sculpture.
+The Alexandrian poets expressed in elegant language their learning on
+matters of religion and mythology, but there was no living belief in the
+subjects which they made their theme; and the art they inspired could
+only show the same qualities of a correct and academic eclecticism. The
+idylls of Theocritus find, indeed, a parallel in the playful treatment
+of Satyrs and other subjects of a similar character; but these belong to
+what may be called mythological genre rather than to religious art. The
+dramatic vigour and intensity which we find in the art of Pergamon
+cannot easily be traced to the influence of any similar development in
+literature, though its artificial and learned mythology is such as we
+find also in the work of Hellenistic poets.
+
+(4) The philosophical aspect of religion had no very great influence
+upon art in Greece. We might perhaps expect that, so far as the
+philosophers accepted the popular religion, they would tend to purify it
+and to give it a higher meaning, just as the more thoughtful of the
+poets doubtless assisted the idealising tendency of fifth-century art.
+And it might well seem that, for example, Plato's theory of ideas
+supplies a more satisfactory basis for an idealist art than any other
+system, since it might be maintained that the true artist represents not
+the material object which he sees before him, but the ideal prototype of
+which it is but a faint and inadequate reflexion. This theory is
+peculiarly applicable to statues of the gods, and we find it so applied
+by later philosophical and rhetorical writers; for instance, Cicero says
+that Phidias "when he was making the statue of Zeus or of Athena did not
+derive his image from some individual, but within his own mind there was
+a perfect ideal of beauty; and gazing on this and in contemplation of
+it, he guided the craft of his hand after its likeness."[4] The same
+notion underlies the saying quoted by Strabo, that Phidias was "either
+the only man that saw, or the only man that revealed to others the
+images of the gods."[5] But there is no trace or encouragement of any
+such feeling in the philosophic literature contemporary with the great
+age of Greek art. Plato expressly states that the artist only makes "an
+imitation of an imitation"; and the higher ideas of divinity preached by
+philosophers did not so much tend to ennoble the popular conceptions as
+to substitute others for them. Above all, the monotheistic idea, even if
+associated with the name of Zeus, tended to become an abstract
+conception with little relation to the national god of Hellas, whom
+Phidias embodied in his Olympian statue.
+
+[Footnote 4: _Or_. 2. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 5: viii. p. 353. It does not matter whether the passage is
+quoted by Strabo himself or by an interpolator.]
+
+The philosophic or theological conception of a monotheistic deity does
+not, in fact, seem to lend itself at any time to impressive artistic
+representation. We may observe the same thing in Christian art, in which
+representations of God the Father are not very common nor, as a rule,
+very expressive of the most vivid religious ideals; while Christ,
+usually not as God, but as man or child, and the Virgin Mary are the
+constant themes of the most devout religious art, not to speak of the
+numerous saints who correspond more or less to the gods of a
+polytheistic system. Philosophical thought was antagonistic to
+anthropomorphism, which, as we have seen, was the most characteristic
+feature of popular religion in Greece, and which was essential to Greek
+religious art. As soon as the human form is a mere symbol, no longer
+regarded as the express image of the god and the embodiment of his
+individuality, it loses touch with reality. And this reality in the
+relation of the god to his image must be believed in by the people, and
+at least through the people by the artist, if religious art is to
+preserve its vitality.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CONDITIONS OF RELIGIOUS ART IN GREECE
+
+
+The Greeks possessed, as we have seen, to an exceptionally high degree
+the vivid anthropomorphic imagination necessary for the expression of
+their conception of the gods in their art; we have also noticed the
+conditions which encouraged or restricted such representation, and the
+influences that affected its nature. Given the desire to represent the
+character and individuality of the gods in human form, the next question
+we have to consider is how far their art, and especially the art of
+sculpture, was capable of giving effect to this desire. The answer lies
+mainly in the history of Greek sculpture, which can only be touched on
+here in the barest outline. But, at the outset, it is necessary to
+remove a misconception which is prevalent at the present day, and more
+especially in England, owing partly to the dominating influence of a
+great critic. Mr. Ruskin's _Aratra Pentelici_ is full of the most
+admirable and suggestive appreciations of Greek sculpture in its more
+technical aspects; but side by side with them are found passages such as
+the following: "There is no personal character in true Greek art;
+abstract ideas of youth and age, strength and swiftness, virtue and
+vice--yes; but there is no individuality." Or again: "The Greek, as
+such, never expresses personal character, while a Florentine holds it to
+be the ultimate condition of beauty." If this criticism were just, it
+would follow that any study of the relation of religion to art in Greece
+would lose most if not all of its interest. But anyone who is acquainted
+with the present state of our knowledge of Greek sculpture will not so
+much feel called upon to refute such statements as to explain how so
+strange a misconception could have arisen. Nor is the explanation very
+far to seek. Mr. Ruskin was writing for a generation not yet penetrated
+by the constructive criticism of recent investigation. Its conception of
+"the antique" in art was based mainly on the mass of mechanical and
+academic copies or imitations, of Graeco-Roman date, with which our
+museums are filled, and on the influence of such sculpture to be seen in
+the work of Flaxman or Thorwaldsen. It had, indeed, learnt from the
+Elgin marbles that the Greek sculptors in the fifth century possessed a
+nobility in their conception of the human form, a mastery in the
+treatment of the nude and of drapery, and a skill in marble technique of
+which only a faint reflection can be traced in the later Graeco-Roman
+tradition; but the great statues in which the sculptors of the fifth
+century embodied their ideals of the gods were either entirely lost or
+preserved only in inadequate copies; and it is only in recent years that
+the discovery of originals or the identification of trustworthy copies
+has enabled us to appreciate the intensity of expression and of inner
+life which distinguished the work of the great sculptors of the fourth
+century, such as Scopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippus. Still, if Mr. Ruskin
+had, like Brunn in his _Gotteridealen_, selected heads like those of the
+Demeter of Cnidus or the Hera Farnese to illustrate his theme, instead
+of a series of heads on coins magnified to many times the size for which
+they were designed, he could hardly have written the passages just
+quoted. But the second of those passages itself supplies us with another
+clue. In this estimate of Greek sculpture there is throughout implied a
+comparison with Christian, and above all with Florentine art, and its
+desire to
+
+       "... bring the invisible full into play;
+  Let the visible go to the dogs; what matters?"
+
+It is evident that the expression of the invisible, of character and
+individuality, will be more striking and obvious in an art which lets
+them "shine through the flesh they fray" than in the case of the Greek
+sculptors whose respect and even passionate admiration for the human
+body would not allow them thus to transfigure it, at least in their
+statues of the gods, and led them to seek for subtler methods of
+expression by means of the flesh and in harmony with its nature. Their
+expression of character and emotion is rendered in terms of a beautiful
+and healthy body. How this end was attained we must consider later on;
+but there is yet another current prejudice in favour of this
+exaggeration of individuality which has its influence especially upon
+modern artists. It is sometimes said nowadays that a departure from the
+individual model is an attempt to "improve upon nature," and is
+therefore an artistic mistake. Now the Greek sculptor, as a rule, did
+not work from an individual model at all. He trusted partly, especially
+in earlier times, to the tradition which familiarised him with a few
+fixed types, on which he made variations, partly to his observation and
+memory trained for generations, and daily supplied with new material in
+the gymnasium where nude youths and men were constantly exercising, or
+in the marketplace where he met his fellow-citizens. To see before him,
+whether draped or nude, the figures he wanted for his art, he had no
+need to pose a model in a studio; his models were at all times around
+him in his daily life. The result was that when he wished to represent a
+youth or a maiden, or even to make a portrait of a statesman, he tended
+to reproduce the type with certain personal modifications rather than to
+produce a portrait in the modern sense. But when he came to making
+statues of the gods, his freedom of hand was of incalculable service to
+him in giving a bodily form to his imagination; it enabled him to create
+after nature, without being dependent on an individual model or having
+to fall back upon such vague and generalised forms as are sometimes
+associated with an academic or classical art; for it was his own trained
+observation and memory that he called into play, not a mere mechanical
+system he had learnt from his predecessors. In the more individualistic
+art of the fourth century, as we shall see, it is probable that the
+personal model was of more importance, especially in female statues; but
+even then it was still modified by the tradition and style which makes a
+harmonious whole, not only of each Greek statue, but of the development
+of Hellenic sculpture generally. In typical examples of the sculpture of
+the fourth century we find not only this harmony and restraint, and the
+beauty of bodily form in figure as well as in features which is
+generally recognised as characteristic of Greek art, but also an
+expression of character and individuality, of mood and temperament, of
+pathos and passion, which is none the less intense and real because it
+is expressed by means of the perfection of physical form, not as wasting
+or deforming it.
+
+It may be asked how the invisible, mental, or spiritual qualities can be
+portrayed in visible form, especially if that visible form be not
+overmuch distorted or modified, and in a more general way, how the
+expression of a statue, and the impression it produces, can be analysed
+or discussed. For examples of the way this can be done, the reader may
+be referred once more to Brunn's _Gotteridealen_, a study of a few
+selected representations of Greek gods in which the character of each is
+brought out by a subtle and discriminating analysis of the visible
+forms. Here it may suffice to quote Brunn's own words from the
+Introduction to that work: "The spiritual effect produced on us by a
+work of sculpture cannot be comprehended as a moral or a metaphysical
+peculiarity, completely independent of corporeal phenomena; it can
+become intelligible to us only by means of tangible sculptural forms, as
+the exponents of spiritual expression." And again: "The spiritual
+understanding of ideal artistic creations can only be attained on the
+basis of a thorough analysis of their forms"; hence in such a study we
+have to do with "no subjective fancies, but an investigation of
+objective artistic principles, according to the method of scientific
+work."
+
+There are various ways in which spiritual qualities, mood, and character
+may be given material expression in harmony with the bodily forms, not
+in combat with the flesh. There are, for instance, certain bodily
+peculiarities that usually accompany, and therefore suggest by
+association, various temperaments or mental qualities; and, moreover,
+the actual effect upon the features and bearing of certain emotions or
+moods often leaves permanent traces, from which a habitual or repeated
+tendency to such emotions or moods can be inferred. That certain types
+of face and certain expressions are usually associated with certain
+spiritual or mental qualities will hardly be denied; and here the method
+of the Greek artist, in observing and working from memory rather than
+from a posed model, gave him a great advantage in variety and freedom in
+the expression of character no less than in the rendering of bodily
+form. If he realised clearly the individuality of his gods, his skill
+and mastery over his material and his store of observation gave him a
+facility in giving this individuality a visible form which may not be so
+obvious at first sight as the individuality of a Florentine or of a
+modern head, but which is none the less there for those who have eyes to
+see it, and who can accustom themselves to the subtle atmosphere of
+ancient art, and to the moderation and restraint which are seldom, if
+ever, violated in its most characteristic productions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ANTHROPOMORPHISM
+
+
+We have already noticed the religious conceptions and impulses which led
+to the substitution of images in human shape for the rude stocks and
+stones of primitive worship. The beginning of the change seems to have
+taken place at an early stage in the development of Greek art. In
+pre-Hellenic times we find representation of gods and goddesses in human
+form upon gems and other small works of art, and also in statuettes that
+were either objects of worship or dedicated in shrines; but we have at
+present no evidence as to whether monumental images of the gods were
+made in human form, though some objects of worship, such as the
+double-axe, were certainly set up in regular shrines. We know too little
+about the religious beliefs and customs of this prehistoric age to be
+able to judge whether such objects were regarded merely as symbols of
+the deity or as having immanent in them some divine or superhuman power;
+but survivals, especially of an early tree and pillar cult, are probably
+to be traced in historic Greece, and even to the present day.
+
+The Homeric poems, on the other hand, supply us with little or no
+evidence as to the existence of any sculptural representation of the
+gods. Although temples are frequently mentioned, we are not informed
+that any of them contained a sacred image, with the apparent exception
+of the temple of Athena at Troy. There we are told that the Trojan
+matrons, in a time of stress, brought a robe to offer to the goddess,
+and that the priestess Theano placed it "upon the knees of
+beauteous-haired Athene." Unless, as is possible, this is a purely
+metaphorical expression, it would seem to imply a seated statue; but it
+is to be noted that the Palladium of Troy, the sacred image of Athena
+which was stolen by Ulysses and Diomed, and which was preserved,
+according to conflicting traditions, in one or another shrine in later
+Greece, was a standing statue of a primitive type. The inconsistency is
+not of great importance, except as showing that the supposed mention of
+the statue of Athena in the Iliad had little, if any, influence on later
+tradition; and in any case it is isolated, and does not refer to a
+Greek, but a foreign temple. On the other hand, we find frequent mention
+in later writers of primitive statues of the gods which were said to
+have been set up or dedicated by various persons in the heroic age. An
+example is offered by the Trojan Palladium already mentioned; another
+was the statue of Artemis carried off from Tauris by Iphigenia and
+Orestes; rival claimants to this identification existed at Sparta and at
+Brauron in Attica. The legends of dedication are of no historic value;
+the story of the Palladium itself was unknown to Homer, though it
+occurred in later epics. All that can be asserted of such images is that
+they were of unknown antiquity, and that local patriotism claimed for
+them a heroic origin. Much the same may be said of Daedalus. It need not
+be discussed here whether an actual artist of this name ever existed.
+The information we have as to Daedalus is of two kinds; on the one hand,
+we find tales of a mythical craftsman and magician, to whose invention
+many of the most typical improvements in early Greek sculpture are
+attributed; on the other hand, we have records of many statues of the
+gods, extant in historical times in various shrines of Greece, which
+were attributed to him. Such attributions are not really of greater
+historical value than the traditions of dedication in the heroic age
+which we find elsewhere. The name of Daedalus having once become famous
+in this connection, it was natural that many statues of primitive style
+and unrecorded origin should be attributed to him. More importance may
+be attached to the fact that the sculptors who actually made some of the
+early statues of the gods in Athens and in the Peloponnesus are
+described as the pupils or by some as the sons or companions of
+Daedalus. In this way his name is associated with some of the early
+schools that had the greatest influence in Greece, especially on the
+representation of the gods in sculpture. There are other traditions of
+early schools of sculptors, the marble workers of Chios, the bronze
+founders of Samos, who devoted themselves mainly to making statues of
+the gods, some of which survived throughout historical times. When we
+turn from tradition and consider the early examples of statues of gods
+that may still be seen or are recorded by extant copies, we find that
+these fall into two classes. On the one hand, there are more or less
+exact repetitions of the primitive stock or stone, the cylindrical
+tree-trunk or the rectangular block cut from the quarry, with the rudest
+indication of head and arms and feet, deviating as little as possible
+from the original shape of the block. When images of this sort were, as
+was often the case, of wood, they have, of course, disappeared; but we
+can sometimes recognise copies of them upon reliefs or in stone. On the
+other hand, we find another class of images which approximate more to
+the attainments of Daedalus as described by rationalising writers of
+later date. These images are completely in human form, and, if male, are
+usually nude. They have their legs separated in a short stride, the left
+foot being usually advanced; their arms are either set close to their
+sides, or one or both of them is raised from the elbow; their whole
+shape suggests a rigid system of proportions and a more or less
+conventionalised form. These images have no resemblance to the
+modifications of the primitive stocks and stones, and could not well be
+directly derived from them; they are found in great numbers upon many
+sites of early sanctity in Greece itself and in Greek settlements around
+the Levant, notably in Cyprus, Rhodes, and Naucratis in Egypt. Sometimes
+they seem to represent the god, sometimes the dedicator; but all alike
+show the attempt of the early Greek craftsman to imitate the products of
+more advanced and finished art which he saw around him. Many of them are
+derived from Egyptian types; others show the influence of Mesopotamian
+art, or of the hybrid craftsmanship of Phoenicia. The borrowing or
+imitation of such foreign types may at first sight appear to show even
+less promise of artistic progress than variations on the old native
+images; but it is not in its origins, but in its development and
+perfection that the chief excellence of Greek art is to be found.
+
+The types borrowed by sculpture from foreign art are almost exclusively
+of human form. The monstrous mixed forms in which the deities of Egypt
+or Mesopotamia often found the expression of their superhuman and
+mysterious powers do not seem to have appealed to the imagination of the
+Greeks. Such mixed forms were, indeed, frequently borrowed by early
+decorative art, and on "Orientalising" vases we constantly find
+human-headed and bird-headed quadrupeds, usually winged, and
+human-headed birds. The delight in winged figures generally, which was
+mainly decorative in early times, also finds its origin in Oriental
+woven stuffs. Greek sculpture adopted and translated into stone or
+bronze some of these mixed types--notably the human-headed bird and the
+human-headed winged lion; these it identified as the Siren and the
+Sphinx of Greek myth, and associated them with the mysteries of the
+tomb. To some other forms, that of the Centaur and the Satyr and the
+Triton, it also gave considerable scope. But all these, if not human,
+are hardly to be regarded as divine; they are mostly noxious, and, even
+if benignant, do not attain the rank of gods. Perhaps a nearer approach
+to divine character is to be found in the river-gods, who are often
+represented as bulls with human heads or as human with bull's horns; but
+here, too, we have only to deal with minor deities. No sculptor
+represented Dionysus in this way, even though he was called
+"bull-shaped" by poets; nor is the horse-god Posidon even represented as
+a Centaur. The horse-headed Demeter of Phigalia remains the strange and
+solitary exception, however we may explain her existence.
+
+The process by which the early human types were gradually improved and
+made more life-like, by a continuous struggle with technical
+difficulties, by constant and direct observation of nature, and by the
+building up of an artistic tradition in different schools and families,
+is a question that concerns the history of art rather than our present
+study. But it is impossible to distinguish rigidly between the two,
+because these types, whether of the nude standing male figure, of the
+draped female, or of the seated figure, are all of them used alike to
+represent human and divine personages; and, apart from inscriptions of
+dedication or conditions of discovery or distinctive attributes, it
+would often be impossible to tell whether any particular statue was
+meant to represent, for example, the image of a god or a conventional
+portrait of a man. These nude male statues, commonly known by the name
+of "Apollo," were certainly, some of them, made to commemorate athletes,
+whose images were set up either in the place where they won their
+victories or in their native town; others were placed over graves as
+memorials of the dead; and even in a sacred precinct it is sometimes
+uncertain whether the god himself is represented or the worshipper who
+dedicates this record of his devotion.
+
+At this early period, therefore, Mr. Ruskin's strictures as to the
+impossibility of distinguishing the individuality of the different gods
+must be admitted, and even supplemented by an admission of the
+impossibility of distinguishing gods and goddesses from human beings.
+The explanation is obvious enough. During this age of early progress the
+constant aim of the sculptor is to attain to complete mastery over the
+material and to perfection of bodily form. In religious art, what
+corresponds to this is the struggle towards anthropomorphism--first to
+represent the gods in human form, and then to make that form the most
+perfect that human art can devise. During this stage of artistic and
+religious development the type and the ideal cannot be distinguished. It
+was only when a type or a varying series of types had been brought to
+perfection in the fifth century, so as to satisfy the demand for a
+harmonious system of bodily proportions, for beauty of outline and
+dignity of countenance, that these types could be used as a means of
+expression for the religious ideals of the nation. In developing the
+type the accidental has to be discarded, and with it much of the feeling
+of individuality; works of early archaic art, for all their defects,
+often show more sign of individual character than the more perfect works
+of the earlier part of the fifth century. The attainment of the type is
+followed by an infusion of character and individuality, drawn from the
+artist's trained memory and observation with clear artistic intention,
+not from the mere caprice of an accidental recollection or a casual
+peculiarity of a model. The character and individuality thus expressed
+must be considered in subsequent chapters; it is only necessary here to
+distinguish it from the suggestion of an individual, almost of a
+caricature, which we find sometimes in archaic art, and which is
+certainly to be seen occasionally in works of Florentine sculpture.
+During the period of the rise of Greek sculpture the various schools
+were advancing each in its own way towards what has been called
+naturalism in art, as opposed to realism on the one side and idealism on
+the other. That is to say, they were striving by constant study of the
+athletic form, of proportions and muscles, of drapery and hair, to
+attain to a series of types both in harmony with themselves and in
+accordance with nature; and they were too much absorbed in this attempt
+to go far beyond their predecessors in rendering the character of the
+gods according to the form consecrated by tradition. Even in the
+expression of the face the same process is to be traced. In early works
+we find sometimes no expression at all, or an apparent stolidity which
+is really the absence of expression; in the archaic smile we see an
+attempt to enliven the face, and possibly also, as we have noticed, to
+express and even to induce the benignity of the deity. But this attempt,
+made with inadequate artistic resources, tends to result in a mere
+grimace; and as we approach the transitional age before the greatest
+period of sculpture, we often find a reaction against any such
+exaggeration of expression in a severity and dignity that may have a
+certain grace of their own, but that are in some sense a retrograde
+movement so far as the expression of character is concerned.
+
+It follows that the statues of the gods dating from this early period,
+however interesting they might be for the history of sculpture, would
+not, even if we possessed many more of them than we do possess, throw
+very much light upon the development of the ideas of the Greeks
+concerning their deities. They would probably conform to a limited
+number of clearly defined types. The most familiar of all, the standing
+nude male figure, would, if beardless, usually represent Apollo, with a
+bow or a branch of bay, or sometimes other attributes. A similar type,
+bearded, would stand for Zeus or Posidon or Hermes, if provided with
+thunderbolt or eagle, with trident or fish, or with a caduceus. Similar
+figures might also be draped, and still represent gods; or, if female,
+would serve for Hera, Artemis, Aphrodite, and sometimes for Athena, if
+she was represented without her arms and aegis. Then, too, there was the
+seated type, usually enveloped in full drapery, which might readily be
+adapted to a statue of any of the chief gods. In all of these there is
+no question of distinguishing the gods from one another in character and
+individuality; apart from attributes, there is hardly any attempt to
+distinguish gods from men.
+
+Perhaps the earliest class of statues in which we find any attempt to
+give artistic expression to superhuman power is that in which we see the
+god in vigorous action, often striking with his characteristic weapon:
+Zeus with his thunderbolt in his raised right hand, Posidon with his
+trident, or Athena advancing rapidly with brandished spear and shield
+advanced. But even these figures, apart from their divine attributes,
+show no essential distinction from human combatants. It is a significant
+fact that it is still a matter of dispute[6] whether one of the most
+famous statues of the early fifth century, "the Choiseul-Gouffier
+Apollo," represents a god or an athlete. This is neither because the
+Greeks at this time idealised their athletes nor because they humanised
+their gods, but because they typified them both; that is to say, they
+represented them by a type which was the most perfect rendering within
+their power either of man or of an anthropomorphic deity. Here we have
+the material form provided by means of which the ideals of the
+succeeding period were to find their artistic expression--such a typical
+or normal human form is, in fact, the logical expression of
+anthropomorphism in its most literal sense--the making of gods after
+man's image. But those who believed rather that man was made after God's
+image would look to find in the prototype something more and higher than
+can be seen in its earthly copy. This notion, even if not formulated by
+philosophy until a later age, certainly underlies the idealistic art of
+the fifth century.
+
+[Footnote 6: Even if this dispute be regarded as now settled by weight
+of evidence, the fact that such a dispute is possible retains its
+significance.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+IDEALISM
+
+
+The age which followed the great Persian Wars was the time of the
+highest political, literary, and intellectual development in Greece. Nor
+was it unfavourable to strength and depth of religious feeling among the
+people. If the more thoughtful among them were inclined to doubt whether
+some of the stories told about the gods were either probable or
+edifying, these were the very men who, on the other hand, were most
+capable of appreciating the higher and nobler conceptions of the gods
+which we find in contemporary poets. And the great delivery from the
+Persians not only gave the Greeks a confidence in themselves which
+justly increased their national pride and thereby strengthened their
+national ideals, but it also gave occasion to a confidence in the gods
+and a gratitude to them which found expression in numerous buildings and
+offerings. All this religious activity could not fail to have
+considerable influence upon the common people; and in some cases, as at
+Athens, there was the necessity of replacing the temples and statues
+that had been destroyed or carried off by the Persian invader. At the
+time when a demand occurred for new statues of the gods, the rapid
+progress of the art of sculpture made it inevitable that these new
+statues should not be mere reproductions or reminiscences of the ones
+they replaced, but fresh and original conceptions, worthy of the
+increased skill of the artist and of the nobler ideals of the people.
+And by one of those coincidences which we meet so often both in the
+history of art and in that of literature, just at the time when the
+material conditions, the spirit of the people, and the rapid advance of
+art gave the utmost scope for artistic creation, there arose the man of
+transcendent genius to give full expression to the religious and
+artistic aspirations of the time. The age of Pericles was also the age
+of Phidias. It is true that there was an interval between the defeat of
+the Persians and the period of highest attainment in Greece; and during
+this interval many temples were built or rebuilt, and many statues were
+set up as objects of worship or as dedications to the gods. Some of
+these may have anticipated to a certain extent the work of Phidias;
+several of them were of colossal size, like his chief masterpieces, and
+thus, even from the technical point of view, may have prepared the way
+before him; one, the Apollo by Calamis at Apollonia, was about
+forty-five feet high, and so actually rivalled the Zeus and Athena of
+Phidias in size. But of these statues we know little or nothing. As to
+the two most famous works of Phidias himself, the Athena Parthenos
+within the Parthenon at Athens and the Zeus at Olympia, we are better
+informed, so far as elaborate descriptions and the somewhat rhetorical
+appreciations of later writers are concerned; and we possess some extant
+copies which tell us something of their pose and attributes. But any
+notion we may form as to their true artistic and religious character
+must be mainly dependent upon our imagination; and even for their
+relation to the religious ideals of the people we are dependent for the
+most part upon indirect evidence. Though the art of sculpture was so
+closely bound up with the life of the people in Greece, we find very few
+references to its greatest works; it is evident that the Athenians, for
+example, took the greatest pride in the buildings that adorned their
+Acropolis and in the sculptures they contained; yet when Pericles, as
+reported by Thucydides, speaks of the statue of the Athena Parthenos, it
+is only to reckon the gold of her drapery as part of the possible
+resources of the state. We know that in the eyes of Pericles and of his
+hearers the preciousness of the material was only an incident in the
+artistic character of the work; but what is felt most deeply is often
+the least spoken about. Later descriptions, such as that of Pausanias,
+lay emphasis on the details and accessories of the statue, the
+ornamentation of helmet and shield and sandals; they lay themselves open
+to the stricture of Lucian on "such as can neither see nor praise the
+whole beauty of the Olympian Zeus, great and noble as it is, nor
+describe it to others that do not know it, but admire the accurate work
+and fine polish of his footstool and the good proportions of the basis,
+enumerating all such details with the utmost care." At the same time
+even such information as they give us is welcome, since it aids our
+imagination to reconstruct the appearance of the whole. These great
+chryselephantine statues were placed within the cella of a temple,
+lighted only through the door and by some infiltration through the
+marble roof, and their effect was calculated for these conditions. The
+rich tone and subtle reflections of the ivory and the gold, mingled with
+coloured inlays of enamel or precious stones, and tempered and
+harmonised by a "dim religious light," must have been most impressive;
+and the grandeur of the figures was enhanced by their colossal size. But
+in all this we are still dealing only with conditions and accessories,
+not with the art itself and the religious ideals which it expressed.
+These are perhaps easier for us to appreciate in the case of the Zeus
+than of the Athena, though we are better provided with copies of the
+latter. We are accustomed in our own religious art to the attempt to
+express divinity in the form of a mature man of unspeakable majesty and
+benignity. To the Greeks, indeed, the human figure of Zeus was not
+merely an incarnation, but the actual form of the god himself; the god
+was not thought of as having taken upon himself the sorrows and the
+weaknesses of our mortal nature, but as sharing only its ideal
+perfection. Yet that the effect was not altogether dissimilar is shown
+by such a passage as that we find in Dion Chrysostom: "A man whose soul
+is utterly immersed in toil, who has suffered many disasters and
+sorrows, and cannot even enjoy sweet sleep, even such an one, I think,
+if he stood face to face with this statue, would forget all the dangers
+and difficulties of this mortal life: such the vision you, Phidias, have
+invented and devised, a sight 'to lull all pain and anger, and bring
+forgetfulness of every sorrow.'"
+
+The same writer elsewhere puts into the mouth of Phidias an explanation
+of how he had attempted to embody in his statue the current conception
+of the god, and even the epithets that belonged to his worship. "My
+Zeus," says the sculptor, "is peaceful and altogether gentle, as the
+guardian of a Hellas free from factions and of one mind with itself.
+Him, taking counsel with my art, and with the wise and noble Elean
+state, I set up in his temple, mild and majestic in a form free from all
+sorrow, as the giver of life and livelihood and all good things, the
+common father of men, their saviour and their guardian, so far as it is
+possible for a mortal man to conceive and to copy his divine and
+inexpressible nature. And consider whether you will not find the image
+according with all the epithets of the god; Zeus alone is called the
+father of gods and their only king, and also god of the city and of
+friendship and society, and of suppliants too and strangers, the giver
+of harvest, and by innumerable other titles. And for one whose aim it
+was to display all these qualities without speaking, is not my art
+successful? The strength of the form and its imposing proportions show
+the power to rule and the king; the gentle and amiable character shows
+the father and his care; the majesty and severity show the god of the
+city and of law; and of the kinship of men and gods the similarity of
+their shape serves as a symbol. His protective friendship of suppliants
+and strangers and fugitives and such like is seen in his kindliness and
+his evident gentleness and goodness. And an image of the giver of
+possessions and harvest is seen in the simplicity and magnanimity
+displayed in his form; he seems just like one who would give and be
+generous of good things. All this, in short, I imitated as far as
+possible, being unable to express it in speech." This description is, of
+course, the work of a late and rhetorical author, but it is the work of
+a man who was familiar with these great statues that are now lost to us,
+and was capable of appreciating them. His criticism may not be so
+thorough and subtle as the analysis of the Greek type of Zeus made by
+Brunn in his _Gotteridealen_; but it is based on similar principles, the
+observation of the physical type and the spiritual expression which
+serves best to embody the majesty and benignity of the god. After all,
+we come back perhaps to the saying of Phidias himself, and his quotation
+from Homer; here, too, it is the brow of the god that is emphasised, and
+the nod that shook Olympus while it granted a prayer. It is in such
+effects rather than in any detailed description that it is possible to
+realise the nature of a great work of art.
+
+What success in the attainment of its aim was here reached by the art of
+the sculptor may perhaps best be estimated from the often quoted
+sentence of Quintilian, perhaps the noblest praise ever accorded to an
+artist by a critic: "The beauty of the statue even made some addition to
+the received religion; the majesty of the work was equal to the god." We
+might indeed, without irreverence, impute to Phidias the words uttered
+in a very different sense by one who later gave a new and higher
+interpretation to a formula of "the received religion" in Greece: "Whom
+therefore ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you."
+
+The other great Phidian ideal, that of Athena, was represented by
+several statues, both in Athens and in other cities. As to these we have
+a certain amount of information, and even a certain number of copies,
+which show us the pose and the accessories of the various statues; some
+of the better ones even suffice to give us some notion of the beauty of
+their original. We have also descriptions by ancient writers, which tell
+us, as in the case of the Olympian Zeus, much about the decoration of
+the statue; but we have not in this case any appreciations of the effect
+upon those who saw it. The ideal of Athena is in some ways more
+difficult for us to comprehend than that of Zeus, partly because it is
+less universally human, and more peculiarly characteristic of Greece and
+even of Athens. The notion of the mother goddess is common to most
+religions; that of the "queen and huntress, chaste and fair" is at least
+familiar to us in literature, and readily commends itself to the
+imagination. But Athena, though she has something of both these
+characters, has a nature different from both. It is impossible to derive
+her varied mythological functions from any one origin; but here it is
+not the origin of her worship that concerns us, rather its meaning and
+influence as these affected the people of her chosen city. Just as Zeus
+was the ideal of all that was best in the Hellenic conception of manhood
+and the god of a united Hellas, so Athena is especially the goddess of
+Athens, the giver and fosterer of all those qualities that made the
+Athenians what they were, the creatress of that ideal city sketched in
+the wonderful speeches of Pericles. Her gifts are the arts of war and
+peace, and all artistic and intellectual activity, as well as the olive
+and other characteristic products of Attic soil, and the clear and
+luminous air and stimulating climate which Attic writers are never tired
+of extolling, and of associating with the peculiar genius of the
+Athenian race. One can imagine how Dion Chrysostom might have recognised
+the expression of these various qualities in the broad and majestic, yet
+keenly intellectual brow, in the wide and clear eyes, and in other
+features; but the extant copies of the Athena Parthenos cannot do more
+than assist our imagination in realising how the sculptor represented
+the goddess of Athens. Here, too, as in the case of the Zeus, it is
+difficult for us to avoid the error of regarding the statue as a mere
+philosophical abstraction, an impersonation of the qualities it
+represents. Athena in later art, as set up in libraries and museums, was
+doubtless such an impersonation, just as she is in modern art unreal and
+comparatively uninteresting. But the Athenian believed intensely in the
+existence of his goddess. He believed that the ceremonies connected with
+her ancient image were necessary to the continuance of her favour to her
+city and people, and that the new temples and statues set up in her
+honour would still further delight her and ensure her protection and her
+abode among her grateful worshippers. The statue by Phidias within the
+Parthenon offered not merely that form in which she would choose to
+appear if she showed herself to mortal eyes, but actually showed her
+form as she had revealed it to the sculptor. To look upon such an image
+helped the worshipper as much as--perhaps more than--any service or
+ritual to bring himself into communion with the goddess, and to fit
+himself, as a citizen of her chosen city, to carry out her will in
+contributing his best efforts to its supremacy in politics, in
+literature, and in art. If a work of art could have this actual
+influence upon religious emotion, and through it upon practical life, it
+may be said to have attained the utmost that any human effort can
+achieve in the service of God.
+
+The religious influence of art in the fifth century is, as we have seen,
+closely associated with the state; the Athena Parthenos and the Olympian
+Zeus appealed to their worshippers as citizens of Athens and as members
+of the privileged Hellenic race. It would be easy to trace a similar
+character in almost all the great statues of gods that are recorded as
+belonging to this period. Thus the Dionysus of Alcamenes is not the
+dreamy god of wine and pleasure that we find at a later age, but an
+august figure, bearded and enthroned, the giver of the riches of the
+earth and the wine, the god in whose honour all the great Dionysian
+festivals were held; the same sculptor's Hermes is the guardian of ways
+and gates, the giver of increase to flocks, not the youthful and
+athletic messenger of the gods. Hephaestus, too, especially when
+associated with Athena, is the patron and teacher of all handicrafts,
+himself the ideal artisan, practical and genial, but with none of his
+godhead lost in a too human individuality; even his
+lameness--characteristic of the smith in all folk-lore--is lightly
+indicated, not dwelt on as an interesting motive. Various statues of
+particular gods may, of course, emphasise one side or another of their
+functions. Athena may be worshipped and represented as goddess of
+Victory or of Health; but here, too, it is usually some recognised state
+cult that underlies the representation. Outside Athens we find the same
+conditions. To take only one instance, the colossal gold and ivory Hera
+of Argos, made by the chief Argive master Polyclitus, is the great
+goddess of the city, just as Athena is of Athens. She was represented as
+the bride of Zeus, who annually renewed her maidenhood at the great
+Argive festival of the divine marriage; and we cannot doubt that
+Polyclitus expressed in this statue, which was hardly less famous than
+the masterpieces of Phidias, all the essential features of the great
+religious ideals that underlay this primitive rite. His Hera had neither
+the warlike nor the intellectual and spiritual characteristics of the
+Attic Athena; but she was the goddess of womanly grace and beauty in the
+bride, and embodied that perfection of physical form which Argive art
+sought also in its athletic figures, and which was in a sense a part of
+the religion that found expression in the great athletic games. Some
+gods--Apollo, for example--seem in fifth-century statues to have a more
+individual character. Just as in earlier times the name Apollo serves to
+cover a multitude of statues of which some may be meant to represent
+individual men, so even in the age of Phidias we sometimes meet with a
+figure of athletic type or of youthful beauty as to which it is possible
+to doubt whether it is an Apollo; this may be partly the result of the
+great popularity of the type in all ages of Greek sculpture which led to
+its more rapid development and earlier individualisation. But the Apollo
+of this period is never the mere dreamy youth of later time; it has been
+well said that he is the god who, in the mythical athletic contest,
+could surpass Hermes in the foot-race and Ares in boxing; the embodiment
+of all-round physical and intellectual excellence, the combination of
+music and gymnastic, which again brings us back to a national Hellenic
+ideal. Throughout the representations of the gods in the art of the
+fifth century we find the same essential character. They embody in
+themselves the expression, by means of the most perfect physical forms,
+of the qualities attributed to the god himself, or given by him to his
+worshippers. They are no impersonal abstraction of these qualities, but
+are real and living beings, in whom these qualities exist to a degree
+impossible for a mere mortal. But, on the other hand, they have nothing
+of the passions and emotions, the weaknesses and imperfections of mortal
+nature. In this they are inconsistent, perhaps, with that Homeric
+presentment of the gods which the greatest artists consciously set
+before themselves. But we cannot wonder that an age of such clear and
+lofty intellectual and moral perceptions should have rejected what it
+felt to be unworthy in the current notions of the gods, and should have
+selected only what it felt to be truly divine. Art did not, however,
+remain very long upon its highest level of religious feeling; but in
+Greece, by a fortunate coincidence, the age of the greatest religious
+ideals was also that of the highest perfection of physical type in art
+as well as of technical skill in execution. We do not therefore find in
+this age that the sculptor lacks the power to express his ideas, or that
+his ideas are too strong for the forms in which they are expressed;
+there is rather that perfect harmony between the two that, here as
+elsewhere, is characteristic of Hellenic art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+INDIVIDUALISM
+
+
+The great religious ideals of the fifth century were, as we have seen,
+closely bound up with the subordination of the individual to the State;
+and their expression in sculpture was also due in almost every case to
+the employment of the artist by the community. In the fourth century, on
+the other hand, we find on every side a stronger assertion of
+individuality. It was a commonplace among Attic orators in the fourth
+century to contrast the private luxury and ostentation of their own day
+with the simplicity of life among the great men of the earlier age,
+whose houses could not be distinguished from those of the common people,
+though their public buildings and the temples they raised to the gods
+were of unparalleled splendour. In religion, and above all in religious
+art, we find something of the same tendency. There are few if any
+records of the dedication during the fourth century of those great
+statues of the chief gods which were looked back to by all subsequent
+generations as the embodiment of a national ideal. But there were,
+perhaps, more statues of the gods made in the fourth century which were
+the objects not merely of artistic admiration, but of intense and
+sometimes morbid personal devotion. The mere list of the gods preferred
+for representation is an indication in itself; while in the fifth
+century, Zeus and Athena and Hera, the great gods of the State or of the
+Hellenic race, are the subjects of the most famous statues, in the
+fourth century it is rather Aphrodite and Dionysus and Asclepius, those
+whose gifts contribute to individual happiness or enjoyment, that offer
+most scope to the powers of the artist.
+
+And the sculptors themselves, in the fourth century, show more
+individuality of style. In the latter part of the fifth century the
+genius of Phidias had so dominated religious art that the works of his
+successors, men like Alcamenes and Agoracritus, could hardly be
+distinguished from his. But the great sculptors of the fourth century,
+Scopas and Praxiteles and Lysippus, not to mention others of less note,
+devoted themselves not so much to the expression through perfect
+physical form of great religious ideals, but to a realisation of the
+character and, so to speak, the personality of the gods whom they
+portrayed. And they did this by the same means by which they expressed
+in their art the characters and passions of heroes or of men, thereby
+removing the gods from the sphere of passionless benignity and power
+which is assigned to them by the art of the fifth century. Such a
+treatment evidently gave more scope for variety in the styles of the
+sculptors; and although we can sometimes trace the influence of one upon
+another, yet each clearly shows his own characteristics. We are
+expressly told of Praxiteles that he showed the most admirable skill in
+infusing into his marble works the passions and emotions of the soul;
+and the extant remains of the statues made by Scopas and Lysippus show
+that they also, each in his own way, attained the same results.
+
+If the sculpture of the fifth century was ethical, expressing noble
+ideals of character whether in gods or men, that of the fourth century
+may be called psychological. It is not content with character; it
+expresses also mood and even passion, and thereby gives more prominence
+to individuality. At first sight it is not easy to realise how this
+change came to affect the representations of the gods. The gods of Homer
+are, indeed, full of individual character; but we have seen how in the
+fifth century, though the greatest sculptors declared it was the gods of
+Homer that they represented, these representations were idealised and
+raised above those human touches in which the individuality is most
+conspicuous. There was, in the Homeric hymns and in the lyric poets, a
+delight in details of incident and in personal peculiarities and even in
+romantic tales about the gods; and in the fourth century, when the high
+idealisation of the preceding age is no longer so strong in its
+influence, we find a similar tendency in art as well. While the great
+statues of the gods in the fifth century are almost all represented as
+either enthroned or standing, not employed in any particular action or
+function, the most characteristic examples of the statues of gods made
+in the fourth century have almost all some definite motive. We may take
+as an example what was perhaps the most famous statue of antiquity, the
+Aphrodite by Praxiteles at Cnidus. The goddess is represented as nude;
+and it is often said that goddesses would not have been so represented
+in the fifth century. It is true that full drapery seems more consistent
+with the dignified and august figures of Phidian art. But if the
+religious type had required that Phidias should make a nude goddess, we
+may be sure he would have made her naked and unashamed, with no more
+self-consciousness than a nude Apollo; above all, he would not have
+thought it necessary to provide a motive for her nudity. With Praxiteles
+it is otherwise. He represents the goddess as preparing for the bath,
+and just letting her last garment slip from her hand on to a vase that
+stands beside her; and, in addition to this provision of a motive--an
+excuse, one might almost say--for representing her without her clothes,
+he hints, from the instinctive gesture of her other hand which she holds
+before her body, at a half-conscious shrinking from exposure, a feeling
+of modesty which, however suitable to a woman, is by no means consistent
+with a high ideal of the goddess. The face and figure are of
+extraordinary physical beauty of type, of a breadth and nobility which
+contrast with the smaller, prettier, and less dignified forms of later
+art; the gesture, too, has not the conscious coquetry which we see in
+such a work as the Venus de' Medici. But, on the other hand, we must
+recognise that the statue represents the goddess under a human rather
+than a divine aspect, that even her mood and feeling of timidity are
+portrayed in a manner which, however charming in itself, is totally
+inconsistent with her worship as a great goddess. We are not surprised
+to hear that this statue inspired a personal passion; she is the goddess
+of love, and is represented as not beyond the reach of human attraction;
+but she is brought down to the level of mortals, rather than capable of
+raising mortals to a higher sphere by her contemplation. It is the same,
+though perhaps to a less degree, with other statues of the gods made in
+the fourth century. The motives with which the later Greeks went to
+visit the great statues of the Phidian age were, as we have seen, to a
+great extent religious, and their contemplation was regarded to some
+extent as a service; here we have "idolatry" in its highest form. But
+those who went to see the Aphrodite of Cnidus went chiefly to enjoy the
+beauty of the statue; and although this may be the best thing from the
+artistic point of view, it certainly has not the same religious import.
+
+There is another element in the individuality of fourth-century statues
+which may appeal to modern artists, and which certainly did appeal--in
+an inverted manner--to early Christian writers of invectives against
+pagan idolatry. It was said that Phryne had posed as a model for the
+Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles; and the character of the goddess was
+inferred from that of her votary. It is clear that a Greek artist could
+not have, in the case of a nude female statue, the same choice of types
+constantly present to his observation and his memory as he had in the
+case of male statues; and the individuality of the model, however
+beautiful, would thus tend to assert itself against the type. Thus
+personality and individual character, "the ultimate condition of
+beauty," to use Mr. Ruskin's words, in modern as in Tuscan art, comes
+much nearer to expression in the fourth century than in the fifth. But a
+study of such a statue as the Cnidian Aphrodite shows us nevertheless
+that in the beauty of the type and the avoidance of the accidental, the
+art of Praxiteles was as far removed from realism as it was from the
+vague generalisation of Graeco-Roman and modern pseudo-classical art. It
+is full of life and individuality, but it is the individuality of a
+character realised within his mind by the artist, not merely copied from
+the human model he set before him.
+
+Another method by which the motive becomes prominent in the art of the
+fourth century is to be seen in the interpretation of mythological
+conceptions. These are realised and embodied in statues; but the statues
+offer a new, sometimes, it seems, almost an accidental and trifling
+version of a solemn religious conception; it appears as if the artist
+were playing with a mythological subject. Thus in the statue made by
+Praxiteles of Apollo Sauroktonos, "the lizard-slayer," the god stands
+with an arrow in his hand, as if trying to catch with it a lizard who
+runs up a tree; it suggests a boyish game rather than the epithet of a
+god. Again, the worship of Artemis Brauronia at Athens was one of the
+oldest and most sacred cults in the city, and women at marriage and at
+other critical times of their life used to offer her their garments,
+thereby bringing themselves into close contact with the goddess and
+claiming her special protection, the garments being actually placed on
+the old image. If, as is probable, the Artemis of Gabii is a copy of the
+statue substituted by Praxiteles for this old image, we see there the
+goddess, as a graceful girlish figure, fastening a cloak upon her
+shoulder. This may be taken as symbolical of the earlier custom of
+placing the garments on the statue; but we have evidence that the
+worshippers were not content with such a symbolic contact, but had the
+actual garments placed on the new statue as they had been on the old.
+Here we have probably a case of unsuccessful substitution; the artistic
+representation did not suffice to replace the actual rite. But the
+representation itself is doubtless intended in a way which, however
+graceful, does not represent any deep religious feeling; one feels that
+the artist found the subject a convenient one as an artistic motive,
+rather than that he had any deep religious idea to express.
+
+We must not, however, go too far in denying religious ideals to the
+fourth century altogether. Some of the gods, who came very near to the
+life of man, but who were nevertheless worshipped with a real belief in
+their power and benevolence, found at this time their fullest expression
+in art. An example may be seen in the Demeter of Cnidus, the mother
+sorrowing for her daughter, whose suffering brings her into close
+sympathy with human weakness, and whose mysteries, perhaps more than any
+other Hellenic service, brought men and women into personal communion
+with the gods. We may take as another instance the head of Asclepius
+from Melos in the British Museum. Here, as Brunn has pointed out in his
+admirable analysis of its forms, we may recognise not so much the god as
+the half-human, half-divine physician, a genial and friendly spirit who
+persuades rather than commands. The expression is not only intellectual,
+but has also an infinite gentleness, as of one not himself unacquainted
+with mortal pain and sorrow; and such a conception, as we know from
+Christian art, often appeals to those who find the majesty of Zeus too
+distant, the idea of his godhead too abstract. In such almost human
+ideals the individuality of the fourth century finds its full scope, as
+in other half-human creations of the artist's imagination. Apollo as the
+inspired musician or--if we accept the derivation of the Apollo
+Belvedere from a fourth-century original--as the disdainful archer,
+Hermes, the protector and playmate of his little brother Dionysus, and
+many other such representations of the gods in their personal moods and
+characteristic actions, seem in many ways less divine, less full of
+religious feeling than such an Asclepius; if the great gods are brought
+too near to human passions and weaknesses, they cannot but lose much of
+their divinity.
+
+One might easily multiply examples of similar motives in the statues of
+the gods made in the fourth century; but we should find the same
+underlying principles in all cases. The gods are indeed more clearly
+realised as having personal character and individuality, and for this
+reason they may sometimes inspire keener personal feelings of worship or
+even of romantic devotion. But the older and higher conceptions of the
+gods, as an essential part of the State religion, and as embodying the
+ideals of the race or of the city, are no longer to be found, except in
+a somewhat lifeless continuance of the fifth-century tradition. The
+intensity of expression which we find in human heroes is, indeed,
+expressed also in such types as that of Apollo the musician or of
+Dionysus the god of inspired enthusiasm. But this tendency is not fully
+developed until a later age. The subtle distinctions of character
+between the different gods are, on the other hand, now most keenly
+observed and most skilfully rendered. But in spite of this, one does not
+feel that the artist has the same belief in the gods and in their power
+as we can see in the Phidian age. If his artistic attainment is possibly
+more skilful, the religious import of his work is certainly less.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+PERSONIFICATION, CONVENTION, AND SYMBOLISM
+
+
+In the Hellenistic age we find the Greek types of the gods adapting
+themselves to new conditions and new meanings. With the conquests of
+Alexander, Greek language and civilisation spread over the Eastern
+world; and with them went the artistic forms of the Greek pantheon,
+though often to be modified by local beliefs or influences. Similarly,
+when at a later time the Roman conquest of Greece spread Hellenic
+influence to the West, there also the types of the Greek deities came to
+be adopted or adapted to new mythological meanings. Greek art
+practically became cosmopolitan; its influence was broadened; but at the
+same time its essential nature, in its harmony with the imagination of
+the Hellenic race, was lost or obscured. It becomes more intelligible to
+us for this very reason, but at the same time less instructive in its
+relation to religious conceptions.
+
+In the art of the Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman age we find two main
+tendencies, the one towards academic generalisation, and the other
+towards excessive realism, often coupled with a theatrical or
+sensational treatment. This latter is the more interesting to us, partly
+because it is in itself more original, partly because it is more in
+accordance with modern artistic practice. The two tendencies are by no
+means rigidly distinguished; for example, we often find a theatrical
+treatment combined with academic work; and throughout are to be seen
+traces of eclecticism--that is to say, of the habit of imitating or
+reproducing, often in an unintelligent manner, the devices and even the
+style of earlier art. It does not follow that no great works of art were
+made in the Hellenistic age; the fine traditions of the fifth and fourth
+centuries were not easily lost. But the inspiration of the subject, so
+far as it still exists, comes from new and different sources.
+
+If we consider first the statues of the older gods of Greece, we often
+find in them the individualistic tendencies of the fourth century
+carried to a further pitch--sometimes to an extreme--in the sentimental
+or passionate works of the Hellenistic age; there is often something
+affected or dramatic about them, as if they were not merely realised as
+expressing their individual character in their mood or action, but
+acting their part as the representative of such a character; in fact,
+they tend to embody impersonations rather than to express personalities.
+One might almost repeat here much that has been said about the gods in
+the fourth century, but that there is often, in this case, a touch of
+exaggeration which is avoided by the finer artistic instinct and
+appreciation of harmony that mark the work of earlier sculptors; and
+joined with this we often find a love of display and a seeking after
+effect which imply that the artist thinks more of his skill than of the
+idea he is striving to express.
+
+We can trace in the Hellenistic age not only the traditions of earlier
+art, but the direct influence of the masters of the fourth century, the
+Praxitelean cult of beauty for its own sake, the passion and dramatic
+force of Scopas, and the preference for allegorical subjects and for
+statues of colossal size which we may see, as well as many higher
+qualities, in the art of Lysippus. We have already noticed how in the
+Apollo Belvedere there is an impression of theatrical posing which was
+probably either introduced by the copyist or at any rate much
+exaggerated by him in imitating an earlier type; and how in the Venus
+de' Medici we find a crude insistence on a gesture of mock modesty which
+is a mere travesty of the hint at half-conscious shrinking from exposure
+which we see in the Cnidian Aphrodite. Even in a statue which, like the
+Aphrodite of Melos, shows an endeavour to return to the nobler ideals
+and more dignified and simple forms of an earlier age, there is
+something artificial and conventional about both figure and drapery; and
+one feels that the sculptor, though both his aims and his attainments
+are of the highest, is trying rather to reflect the best influences of
+his predecessors than to embody a present religious conception.
+
+The influence upon art of religious personifications is perhaps stronger
+than any other during this period. There had, indeed, been such
+personifications at an earlier time, such as the statue by Cephisodotus
+of Peace nursing the infant Wealth. The most interesting example of such
+personification may be seen in the figures of cities, or, to speak more
+accurately, of the Fortunes of cities, such as the Antioch of
+Eutychides. The influence of the city or state upon religious art was
+conspicuous in the fifth century; but here we find the city itself or
+its presiding genius represented in a statue which seems at first sight
+a mere allegory of its situation. The way in which the figure is seated,
+half turned on herself, and with her feet resting upon the shoulder of
+the river that swims below her, seems to suggest an artificially
+invented symbolism; yet we are expressly told that this statue received
+great veneration from the natives of the district. In the decay of the
+belief in the gods, there seems to have been a craving for nearer and
+more real objects of worship.
+
+We can see the same tendency in a more extreme form in the deification
+of human beings. Though some examples of this occur earlier, especially
+in the case of the heroes or founders of cities, these are not placed on
+a level with the gods; but the worship of Alexander, and in imitation of
+him, of his successors, placed him in a distinctly divine rank. It is
+difficult to say how far this was due to non-Hellenic influences. In the
+case of Alexander, with his marvellous, almost superhuman achievements,
+and his final solution of the great drama of the contest of East and
+West, such idealisation is easy to understand; and we find not only that
+Alexander is himself represented as a god, but that his expression and
+cast of features come to affect the sculpture of his age, even in the
+representations of the gods themselves. On coins, too, his head occurs;
+an honour that before his time was not given to mere mortals. In other
+cases this worship of men reached a pitch which was a matter of shame to
+the later Greeks; thus Demetrius Poliorcetes, when he gave Athens back
+her freedom, was welcomed at the city with divine honours. Even hymns
+were composed in his honour, of which we find specimens preserved.[7]
+After welcoming his advent at the same time as that of Demeter, the poet
+addresses him thus:--"Other gods are either far away, or they have no
+ears, or they exist not, or have no care for us. But we see thee, a
+present deity, not of wood or stone, but real; therefore we pray to
+thee." It is true that such materialistic and atheistic expressions were
+probably reprobated by many at the time, as well as by later writers;
+but the mere possibility of their public enunciation shows how far the
+Athenians had gone from their old religious beliefs.
+
+[Footnote 7: Athen., VI, 63.]
+
+Allegorical impersonations, such as that of Antioch, are religious
+conceptions of a high order compared to this. Nevertheless, one feels
+that such impersonations can have no separate divine existence apart
+from the city or the people whom they represent. They are on a different
+plane of religious belief from Athena, for example, as the goddess of
+the city. The goddess was, indeed, in some ways representative of what
+was best in her chosen people; but she was not a mere symbol of its
+character and its greatness. She existed before it, and would continue
+though it should disappear from the earth, unlike the Fortune of
+Antioch, whose very existence was bound up with that of the city she
+represented.
+
+Another example of personification may be seen in the recumbent figures
+of river-gods--notably that of the Nile, with his sixteen cubits, as
+babies, playing around him. River-gods were indeed an object of worship
+from early times in Greece, and so appear on coins and elsewhere; but
+this figure of the Nile, a product of Alexandrian art, is not like the
+earlier gods, who were looked upon as the givers of increase and
+fertility; it is a mere allegorical impersonation of the river, such as
+might be made by a modern artist who made no pretence to believe in the
+existence of such an anthropomorphic river-god. It cannot be counted as
+religious art at all. And the attributes and accessories of such a
+figure, the crocodile and hippopotamus, the sphinx and corn and horn of
+plenty, are all of them symbolic allusions such as are suitable to such
+a frigid personification. The art of Alexandria is full of such devices;
+that of Pergamon is more vigorous and dramatic; but in both alike we
+find the influence of a learned study of mythology, full of quaint and
+far-fetched allusions and symbols. The culmination of this learned
+mythology is to be seen in the great altar of Pergamon, on which the
+gods who are in combat with the giants include not only all figures,
+appropriate and inappropriate, from the Hellenic pantheon, but many
+other deities whose right of admission to that pantheon is more than
+doubtful. The figures of the gods no longer correspond to the belief in
+any real divinities, but are either mere artistic types, repeated again
+and again in accordance with convention, or else they are regarded as
+symbols representing different aspects of divine power.
+
+Symbolism of this kind is a common symptom of the decay of religious
+faith. The more thoughtful or educated classes, who follow the
+speculations of philosophers as to the nature of the deity, find it
+possible to reconcile these speculations with the forms of popular
+religion by accepting the forms in a symbolic sense. The common people,
+on the other hand, finding the old forms inadequate to satisfy their
+religious aspirations, import new and strange divinities, whose cult is
+often mixed with magic or mystic rites. Here, too, the symbols have a
+meaning other than what appears to the uninitiated eye, and the province
+of art, which approaches the mind through the senses, is closely
+circumscribed. A statue or other work of art which needs explanation of
+its allusions, which does not express an ideal that appeals directly to
+the imagination of the people, has lost touch with religion, and cannot
+to any appreciable extent influence it or be influenced by it. The age
+of idolatry in the higher sense, of a religious imagination that enables
+the artist to bring the people nearer to their gods, or even the gods
+nearer to the heart of the people, has passed away, and in its place we
+find either a superstitious clinging to the magic power of the early
+objects of worship, or a mere acceptance, as conventional symbols, of
+forms that bear no direct relation to anything that is believed in as
+real.
+
+Our brief historical survey has shown us how the Greeks, starting from a
+belief, such as is common to many primitive religions, in the superhuman
+powers or sanctity of certain objects, were enabled by their vivid
+anthropomorphic imagination first to think of the gods as in like form
+to themselves, and then to make their images in human shape. And as
+their art progressed towards the power of making a physical type of
+perfect beauty to serve as the means of expression of this "human form
+divine," and also to skill in expressing character by means of human
+features and figures, it became possible for them to embody in their
+great statues the various ideals of divinity which belonged to their
+chief gods. Here the skill of the artist would have availed little or
+nothing if he had not shared with the people for whom he worked a belief
+in the reality of these ideals, not merely as philosophic aspects of the
+divine nature, but as real beings who were able to help and to inspire,
+and to manifest themselves to their worshippers in this human form. The
+next step is towards an even more vivid realisation of the personality
+of the gods; but by bringing them nearer to human level it made the
+worship of their images less easy to accept in a literal sense to the
+more thoughtful, while such worship tended, with the common people, to
+enter upon a more material and less exalted phase. The result was a
+tendency towards symbolism in which the symbol itself was regarded as a
+mere convention, and the inspiration and actual communion with men,
+vouchsafed by the gods through their ideal images, was no longer sought
+after. When any means of communion between god and man, whether by means
+of a solemn service or by means of an image which the god himself
+accepts as his earthly representative, ceases to be felt as anything
+more than a human device, its religious power must fail. When, on the
+other hand, we find a union of religion and art to provide a means for
+this divine intercourse, we may recognise idolatry in its highest form,
+the use of images not merely as accessories of religious service, but as
+providing in themselves a channel of worship and inspiration.
+
+
+
+
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+CRETE, THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE
+BY
+C. H. Hawes, M.A. & Harriet B. Hawes, M.A.
+_With Map, Plans, etc._
+Preface by Arthur J. Evans, D.Litt., F.R.S., Etc.
+
+"Mr. and Mrs. Hawes have a fascinating story to tell--the story of the
+unfolding of a great civilisation which flourished in Crete before
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+of the inhabitants when the ships of the sea-rovers hove in sight. Here
+a carpenter's kit lies concealed in a cranny; there a carefully mended
+anvil stands at the door of the village smithy. In the palace at Knossos
+the system of drainage is superior to any known in Europe between that
+day and the last century. Most wonderful of all is the art; two small
+ivory figures of youths leaping, display a life and freedom nothing
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+
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+Harper's Library of Living Thought
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+_Now Ready_
+
+Algernon Charles Swinburne
+  THREE PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE
+
+Leo Tolstoy
+  THE TEACHING OF JESUS
+
+W. M. Flinders Petrie
+  PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE CHRISTIANITY
+
+Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.
+  THE ETHER OF SPACE. _Illustrated_
+
+Prof. William Wrede (University of Breslau)
+  THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
+
+Prof. C. H. Becker (Colonial Institute, Hamburg)
+  CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM
+
+Prof. Svante Arrhenius (Nobel Institute, Stockholm)
+  THE LIFE OF THE UNIVERSE. 2 vols. _Illustrated_
+
+Prof. Arnold Meyer (University of Zurich)
+  JESUS OR PAUL?
+
+Prof. D. A. Bertholet (University of Basle)
+  THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS
+
+Prof. Reinhold Seeberg (University of Berlin)
+  REVELATION AND INSPIRATION
+
+Prof. Johannes Weiss (University of Heidelberg)
+  PAUL AND JESUS
+
+Prof. Rudolf Eucken (University of Jena)
+  CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW IDEALISM
+
+Prof. P. Vinogradoff (Oxford University)
+  ROMAN LAW IN MEDIAEVAL EUROPE
+
+Sir William Crookes, LL.D., F.R.S.
+  DIAMONDS. _Illustrated_
+
+C. H. Hawes, M.A., and Harriet Boyd Hawes, M.A.
+  CRETE, THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE
+
+Sir William A. Tilden. F.R.S.
+  THE ELEMENTS: SPECULATIONS AS TO THEIR NATURE AND ORIGIN
+
+Prof. Ernest A. Gardner (University of London)
+  RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE
+
+_Other volumes will be duly announced_
+_Please write for a prospectus_
+
+_June, 1910_.
+HARPER & BROTHERS
+45 Albemarle Street, London. W. : : Franklin Square. New York.
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Religion and Art in Ancient Greece, by 
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