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diff --git a/20386.txt b/20386.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1081a54 --- /dev/null +++ b/20386.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6222 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving, by Grace +Christie + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving + + +Author: Grace Christie + + + +Release Date: January 16, 2007 [eBook #20386] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING*** + + +E-text prepared by Susan Skinner and the Project Gutenberg Online +Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/c/) + + + +Note: The reader is strongly advised to use Project Gutenberg's + HTML version of this book because it includes almost 200 + illustrations which cannot be incorporated in this text + version. + See 20386-h.htm or 20386-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/3/0/20386/20386-h/20386-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/3/0/20386/20386-h.zip) + + + + + + _"Flowers, Plants and Fishes, Birds, Beasts, Flyes, and Bees, + Hils, Dales, Plaines, Pastures, Skies, Seas, Rivers, Trees, + There's nothing neere at hand, or farthest sought, + But with the needle may be shap'd and wrought."_ + + --JOHN TAYLOR ("The Praise of the Needle"). + + +The Artistic Crafts Series of Technical Handbooks +Edited by W. R. Lethaby + +EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING + +A Practical Text-Book of +Design and Workmanship + +by + +MRS. ARCHIBALD H. CHRISTIE + +With Drawings by the Author and Other Illustrations + +Second Edition Revised +(A reprint of the First Edition, with various slight alterations in +text) + +Third Edition Revised +(A reprint of the Second Edition) + + + + + + + +Published by John Hogg +13 Paternoster Row +London 1912 + + + +[Illustration: _Frontispiece See page 249._] + + + +Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson & Co. +at the Ballantyne Press, Edinburgh + + + + +EDITOR'S PREFACE + + +Needlework, which is still practised traditionally in every house, was +once a splendid art, an art in which English workers were especially +famous, so that, early in the XIIIth century, vestments embroidered in +England were eagerly accepted in Rome, and the kind of work wrought here +was known over Europe as "English Work." Embroideries _facon +d'Angleterre_ often occupy the first place in foreign inventories. + +At Durham are preserved some beautiful fragments of embroidery worked in +the Xth century, and many examples, belonging to the great period of the +XIIIth and XIVth centuries, are preserved at the South Kensington +Museum, which is particularly rich in specimens of this art. In order to +judge of what were then its possibilities it is worth while to go and +see there three notable copes, the blue cope, the Sion cope, and the +rose-colour Jesse-tree cope, the last two of which are certainly +English, and the former probably so. The Sion cope bears a remnant of an +inscription which has unfortunately been cut down and otherwise injured, +so that all that I have been able to read is as follows: DAVN PERS : DE +: V ...; probably the name of the donor. + +In the XIIIth century the craft of embroidery was practised both by men +and women. + +That great art patron, Henry the Third, chiefly employed for his +embroideries, says Mr. Hudson Turner, "a certain Mabel of Bury St. +Edmund's, whose skill as an embroideress seems to have been remarkable, +and many interesting records of her curious performances might be +collected." And I have found a record of an embroidered chasuble made +for the king by "Mabilia" of St. Edmund's in 1242. The most splendid +piece of embroidery produced for this king must have been the altar +frontal of Westminster Abbey, completed about 1269. It was silk, +garnished with pearls, jewels, and translucent enamels. Four +embroideresses worked on it for three years and three-quarters, and it +seems to have cost a sum equal to about L3000 of our money. + +"The London Broderers" did not receive a formal charter of incorporation +until 1561, but they must have been a properly organised craft centuries +before. In 2 Henry IV. it was reported to Parliament that divers persons +of the "Craft of Brauderie" made unfit work of inferior materials, +evading the search of "the Wardens of Brauderie" in the said City of +London. + +In Paris, in the year 1295, there were ninety-three embroiderers and +embroideresses registered as belonging to the trade. The term of +apprenticeship to the craft was for eight years, and no employer might +take more than one apprentice at a time. In the XVIth century the Guild +was at the height of its power, and embroideries were so much in demand +that the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was established to furnish +flower-subjects for embroidery design. It was founded by the gardener, +Jean Robin, and by Pierre Vallet, "brodeur" to Henry IV. In the XVIIIth +century the company numbered 250 past-masters. + +To this craft the present volume forms, I believe, an admirable +introduction and text-book, not only on the side of workmanship, but +also on that difficult subject, "design"--difficult, that is, from its +having been so much discussed in books, yet entirely simple when +approached, as here, as a necessary part of workmanship. It is fortunate +that we have not as yet learned to bother our cooks as to which part of +their work is designing and which is merely mechanical. Of course the +highest things of design, as well as of workmanship, come only after +long practice and to the specially gifted, but none the less every human +creature must in some sort be a designer, and it has caused immense harm +to raise a cloud of what Morris called "sham technical twaddle" between +the worker and what should be the spontaneous inspiration of his work. +What such combination has produced in past times, may perhaps best be +understood by some reading in old church inventories of the simply +infinite store of magnificent embroidered vestments which once adorned +our churches. In an inventory of Westminster Abbey I find mentioned +such patterns as roses and birds, fleur-de-luces and lybardes, angels on +branches of gold, roses and ships, eagles and angels of gold, castles +and lions, white harts, swans, dogs, and antelopes. + +W. R. LETHABY. + +_September 1906._ + + + + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE + + +In the following pages the practical sides of Embroidery and Tapestry +Weaving are discussed, their historical development being only +incidentally touched upon. + +The drawings illustrating design and the practical application of +stitches have been taken almost without exception from actual Embroidery +or Tapestry; the exceptions, where it has been impossible to consult +originals, from photographic representations obtained from various +sources, among which the collection of M. Louis de Farcy should be +mentioned. + +I have to thank Miss May Morris and Mrs. W. R. Lethaby for permission to +reproduce pieces of their work, and Miss Killick, Colonel J. E. +Butler-Bowdon, the Viscount Falkland, and the Reverend F. J. Brown of +Steeple Aston for permission to reproduce work in their possession. Also +I must thank the authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum for help +in various ways, and Mr. J. H. Taylor, M.A. Oxf. and Cam., for his +kindness in reading the proofs. + +GRACE CHRISTIE. + +_Ewell, +September 1906._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE +EDITOR'S PREFACE xi + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE xvii + + +PART I + +EMBROIDERY + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTION 27 + + +CHAPTER II + +TOOLS, APPLIANCES, AND MATERIALS + +Needles--Scissors--Thimbles--Frames--Stand and Frame combined--Tambour +Frame--Cord-making Appliance--Requisites for Transferring +Patterns--Pricker--Knife--Spindle--Piercer--Materials suitable for +Embroidering upon--Threads of all Kinds--Stones, Beads, &c. 34 + + +CHAPTER III + +PATTERN DESIGNING + +The Difficulties of Pattern Making--A Stock-in-Trade--Some Principles +upon which Patterns are Built Up--Spacing-Out--Nature and +Convention--Shading--Figure Work--Limitations--Colour 51 + + +CHAPTER IV + +STITCHES + +Introduction--Chain Stitch--Zigzag Chain--Chequered Chain--Twisted +Chain--Open Chain--Braid Stitch--Cable Chain--Knotted Chain--Split +Stitch 75 + + +CHAPTER V + +STITCHES--(_continued_) + +Satin Stitch--Long and Short Stitch--Stem Stitch--Overcast Stitch--Back +Stitch--Buttonhole Stitch--Tailor's Buttonhole--Fancy Buttonhole +Edgings--Flower in Open Buttonhole Stitch--Leaf in Close Buttonhole +Stitches--Petal in Solid Buttonholing 95 + + +CHAPTER VI + +STITCHES--(_continued_) + +Knots and Knot Stitches--Herring-bone Stitch--Feather Stitch--Basket +Stitch--Fishbone Stitch--Cretan Stitch--Roumanian Stitch--Various +Insertion Stitches--Picots 118 + + +CHAPTER VII + +CANVAS WORK AND STITCHES + +Introduction--Samplers--Petit Point Pictures--Cross Stitch--Tent +Stitch--Gobelin Stitch--Irish Stitch--Plait Stitch--Two-sided Italian +Stitch--Holbein Stitch--Rococo Stitch 147 + + +CHAPTER VIII + +METHODS OF WORK + +Couching--Braid Work--Laid Work--Applied Work--Inlaid Work--Patch Work + 164 + + +CHAPTER IX + +METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_) + +Quilting--Raised Work--Darning--Open Fillings--Darned Netting 189 + + +CHAPTER X + +Methods of work--(_continued_) + +Drawn Thread Work--Hem Stitching--Simple Border Patterns--Darned Thread +Patterns--Corners--Cut or Open Work--Various Methods of Refilling the +Open Spaces 213 + + +CHAPTER XI + +EMBROIDERY WITH GOLD AND SILVER THREADS + +Introduction--Materials--Precautions for the Prevention of +Tarnish--Ancient Method of Couching--Its various Good +Points--Description of Working Diagram--Working a Raised Bar--Examples +of Patterns Employed in Old Work--Illustrations upon Draped +Figures--Usual Method of Couching--Couching Patterns--Outline +Work--Raised Work--The Use of Purls, Bullions, &c. 229 + + +CHAPTER XII + +LETTERING, HERALDRY, AND EMBLEMS + +The Uses of Lettering--Marking--Monograms--Heraldry--Emblems 259 + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE GARNITURE OF WORK + +Finishing off--Making up--Edges--Use of Cord-making Appliance--Cord +Twisted by Hand--Knotted Cord--Fringes--Tassels--Knots 271 + + +CHAPTER XIV + +PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS + +Transferring Patterns--Paste for Embroidery Purposes--Protection and +Preservation of Work--Washing Embroidery--Prevention and Cure of +Puckered Work--Points about the Thread--Dressing the Frame 292 + + +PART II + +TAPESTRY WEAVING + + +CHAPTER XV + +INTRODUCTION 307 + + +CHAPTER XVI + +NECESSARY APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS + +The Loom--Mirror--Bobbins and Needles--The Comb--Embroidery Frame +treated as a Loom--Warp--Wools--Silk--Gold and Silver Thread 315 + + +CHAPTER XVII + +PREPARATIONS FOR WORK + +Warping the Loom--Dressing the Coat-Stave--Tracing the Pattern upon the +Threads 328 + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE TECHNIQUE OF WEAVING + +Weaving--Commencing and Fastening Off--The Interlocking Stitch--Fine +Drawing--Shading--Added After-stitches 339 + + +NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES 355 + +THE COLLOTYPE PLATES 369 + +INDEX 402 + + + + +PART I--EMBROIDERY + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTION + + +In the practice of embroidery the needlewoman has an advantage not now +shared by workers in any other craft, in that the technical processes +are almost a matter of inherited skill. Every woman can sew, and it is +with little more than the needle and thread, which she habitually +employs, that the greatest masterpieces of the art have been stitched. +The art of embroidery, however, is not merely an affair of stitches; +they are but the means by which ideas can be expressed in intelligible +form, and memories of all kinds of things be pictured on stuffs. + +To laboriously train the hand is scarcely worth while unless it is +capable of expressing something that is at least pretty. Nowadays much +embroidery is done with the evident intent of putting into it the +minimum expenditure of both thought and labour, and such work furnishes +but a poor ideal to fire the enthusiasm of the novice; happily, there +still exist many fine examples showing what splendid results may be +achieved; without some knowledge of this work we cannot obtain a just +idea of the possibilities of the art. + +It is obvious that much advantage can be gained from studying the +accumulated experience of the past in addition to that current in our +own day. To do this intelligently, the history of embroidery must be +followed in order that the periods richest in the various kinds of work +may be ascertained. Museums afford useful hunting-grounds for the study +of past work; other sources are private collections, churches, costume +in pictures or on engraved brasses, and manuscript inventories such as +those of cathedral treasuries, which sometimes contain interesting +detailed descriptions of their embroidered vestments and hangings. + +Blind copying of old work is not of much value; it is not possible or +desirable to imitate XIIIth century work now, but much can be learned +by examining fine examples in an appreciative and analytical spirit. In +what way the design has been built up can be discovered; the most +complicated result may often be resolved into quite elementary lines. +The student must find out wherein lie the attraction and interest, note +good schemes of colour, and learn about stitches and methods of work by +close examination of the embroidery, both front and back. + +Every one knows what embroidery is, and a formal definition seems +unnecessary. As a matter of fact, it would be a difficult task to give +one, since weaving, lace-making, and embroidery are but subtle +variations of the same art. + +This art may be of the highest or the most homely character, and the +latter is by no means to be despised. Simple unaffected work decorating +the things of every-day use can give a great deal of pleasure in its +way. This should surely be the accomplishment of every woman, for though +she may not have the skill to attain to the highest branches, it would +at least enable her to decorate her home with such things as the +counterpanes, curtains, and other objects that set such a personal +stamp upon the English domestic work of several centuries, and which +nowadays can hardly be found except stored up in museums. + +It is advisable as a general rule that the design be both made and +carried out by the same person. From the worker's own point of view the +interest must be much greater when working out her own ideas than when +merely acting as amanuensis to another. The idea is more likely to be +expressed with spirit; further there is the possibility of adding to or +altering, and thereby improving, the work as it progresses. The designer +must in any case be well acquainted with stitches and materials, for +they play an important part in achieving good results. The individuality +of the worker should be evident in her work; indeed it generally is, for +even plain hems by two people bear quite different characters; the +degree of individuality present, varies with each one, but in any case +it will be much more marked if the design and stitching bear the stamp +of the same personality. + +The difference between good and unsatisfactory results should be +carefully thought out, for it is often but a small matter. The best +kind of work is that which appeals to the intelligence as well as to the +eye, which is another way of saying there should be evidence of mind +upon the material. Work must be interesting in some way if it is to be +attractive; it had better almost be faulty and interesting than dull, +dry, and correct. It can interest by reminding us of pleasant things, +such as familiar flowers, shady woods, or green lawns; birds, beasts, +and so forth can be depicted in their characteristic attitudes, or a +story can be told; in fact, work can be made attractive in a hundred +different ways. It must not show signs of having wearied the worker in +the doing; variety and evidence of thought lavishly expended upon it +will prevent this, and enthusiasm will quicken it with life. + +The selection of the object to work comes at an early stage, and is a +matter to be well considered, for it is a pity to spend time and labour +upon unsuitable objects when there are many excellent ones to choose +from. In thinking over what to work it should be realised that it takes +no longer to execute one rather important piece than several of a less +ambitious character, and that the former is generally more worth the +doing. Whether the subject is a suitable one for embroidery or not +sometimes depends upon the method chosen for carrying it out; for +instance, anything that has to endure hard wear must be treated in such +a way as to stand it well. + +Dress is a fine subject for embroidery; but, for the decoration to be +satisfactory, the art of designing dress must be understood, and the +dress must also be well cut, or the embroidery will be quite wasted upon +it. What is termed "art dress," proverbially bad, well deserves its +reputation. There is a great difference in the quantity of work that may +be put into dress decoration; this may be simply an embroidered vest, +collar, and cuffs, or it may be actually an integral part of the +costume, which as a much bigger and more difficult undertaking is +correspondingly finer in effect when successfully carried out. + +Amongst larger objects that well repay the labour of embroidery, +hangings of various kinds, quilts, screens, furniture coverings, altar +frontals, church vestments, may be mentioned; amongst smaller, are bags, +boxes, book-covers, gloves or mittens, bell-pulls, cushions, mirror +frames, all kinds of household linen, infants' robes, and so on, and for +church use such things as alms-bags, book-markers, stoles, pulpit and +lectern frontals. Then a panel may be worked with the deliberate +intention of framing it to hang on a wall. There is no reason why the +painter should have the monopoly of all the available wall space, for +decorative work is undoubtedly in place there; a piece of embroidered +work might well fill a panel over a mantel-piece. There is no need to +discuss what not to do, but, if the attraction to embroider a tea-cosy +is too strong to resist, it should surely be of washable materials. + +Embroidery has distinct practical advantages over some other crafts +practised nowadays--no special studio need be devoted to its use, for +most work can be done in any well-lighted room, which indeed will be +rendered more attractive by the presence of an embroidery frame, for +this is in itself a characteristic and dainty piece of furniture. It +need but seldom interfere with one of our pleasant traditions, genial +converse with, and about, our neighbours, for it is a distinctly +sociable occupation. Work of this kind can be put down and taken up at +leisure; the necessary outlay in materials need not be extravagant, and +so on. Many other points might be thought of, but the claims of the art +do not demand any special pleading, for it is pleasant in the actual +working, and can produce an infinite variety of most interesting +results. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +TOOLS, APPLIANCES, AND MATERIALS + + Needles--Scissors--Thimbles--Frames--Stand and Frame + combined--Tambour Frame--Cord-making Appliance--Requisites for + Transferring Patterns--Pricker--Knife--Spindle--Piercer--Suitable + Materials for Embroidering upon--Threads of all Kinds--Stones, + Beads, &c. + + +Good workmanship takes a prominent, though not the first, place. +Technical excellence in needlework, as in all other artistic crafts, is +a question of the worker's perseverance and her ability in the use of +tools. In embroidery these are few and simple, and are as follows:-- + +_Needles._--For most purposes needles known as long-eyed sharps are +used. Tapestry needles, similar to these, but with blunt points, are +useful for canvas work and darned netting. For gold work a special +needle can be procured with sharp point and long wide eye. A bent needle +makes a crooked stitch; but needles if made of good steel should not +bend; they break if used unfairly. The eye should be cleanly cut, or it +roughens the thread. The needle must be just stout enough to prepare for +the thread an easy passage through the material. + +_Scissors._--Three pairs may be necessary; for ordinary work a small +pair with fine sharp points, for gold work small ones with strong points +similar to nail scissors, and for cutting-out purposes a large pair with +one rounded and one sharp point. + +_Thimbles._--Steel ones are said to be most serviceable, silver are most +usual; but whatever the material they must be neatly made in order not +to wear the thread. + +_Frames._--A common type of frame is shown at fig. 1. It is made in +various sizes; the one here represented measures 18 inches across. It +consists of four pieces of wood, two rollers for the top and base and +two side pieces. Each of the rollers has a piece of webbing securely +nailed along it, and its extremities are pierced with holes to receive +the side pieces. These are formed of two long wooden screws, fitted with +movable nuts, which adjust the width of the frame and the tautness of +the stretched work. The piece of material that is stretched between is +the link that keeps the frame together, for the screw ends fit just +loosely in the holes of the rollers. The side pieces are sometimes made +of flat laths of wood pierced with holes at regular intervals; in these +are inserted metal pins, by means of which the work is kept stretched. +Fig. 9 represents a frame of this type. If the frame is a very large one +it can have a strengthening bar fixed across the centre from roller to +roller. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +The frame is most convenient for work when fixed in a stand, although it +can be used leaning against a table or the back of a chair. A very large +frame would be supported upon trestles, but for ordinary purposes, a +stand, such as the one shown in fig. 2, is practical. It consists of two +upright wooden posts, a little over 2 feet in height, which are +connected near the base by a strengthening cross piece. Both this and +the uprights are adjustable; the centre part of the posts is arranged to +slide up and down, and can be fixed at any convenient height by the +insertion of a long metal pin; the width of the cross piece is regulated +in similar fashion, being made firm, by a screw, at the required width, +thus allowing various sized frames to be used in the same stand. The +frame is fixed in place by metal clamps, and a wooden pivot is arranged +so as to permit the stretched work to be inclined at any angle +convenient. Both stand and frame should be well made and of good wood, +for they must be able to stand strain and be perfectly firm and true +when fixed for work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +A small circular frame, such as is shown in fig. 3, is useful for +marking linen or for any small work. This, formed of two hoops fitting +closely one within the other, can be procured in wood, ivory, or bone, +of various sizes, the one illustrated being about 6 inches in diameter. +The material to be worked upon is stretched between these hoops like the +parchment on a drum. These tambour frames, as they are called, are +sometimes fixed into a small stand or fitted with a wooden clamp for +fastening to a table; this frees both hands for work. These tambours +cannot well be recommended; the material is apt to stretch unevenly, and +a worked part, if flattened between the hoops, is liable to be damaged. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +The illustration at fig. 4 shows a simple little instrument for making +a twisted cord. It is interesting to note that Etienne Binet, who wrote +on embroidery about 1620, when discussing some necessary equipment for +an embroideress mentions "_un rouet pour faire les cordons_." + +There is sometimes a difficulty in procuring the cord just right to suit +the finished work; the texture may be too coarse to put beside fine +embroidery, it may not be a good match, and, even if so at first, it may +fade quite differently from the worked silks. For these and other +reasons it is a safe method to make the cord one's self, possibly with +some materials of the kind already used in the embroidery. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +This appliance enables the worker to make any kind of twisted cord; it +is as simple as a toy to handle, and gives excellent results. It is a +metal instrument about 8 inches in height. The three small discs are +wheels, supported on the arms of an upright cross which has a heavy +circular base. These three wheels are connected by a cord with a larger +wheel below that has a handle attached to it. The cord runs in a groove +round the circumference of each wheel, and must be held taut in +position. By turning the handle of the large wheel the three small ones +are set in motion. Three hooks, attached to the axles of the small +wheels, are therefore rotated with them. One end of each ply of the cord +in making is looped on to one of these hooks, the other ends are +attached to three similar hooks fixed into a block of wood which, when +in use, is firmly clamped to the table. Further instruction in the +making of cords is given in Chapter XIII. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.] + +To trace the pattern on to the material the following articles may be +required: Indian ink, a small finely-pointed sable brush, a tube of oil +paint, flake white or light red, according to the colour of the ground +material, turpentine, powdered charcoal or white chalk for pounce, +tracing paper, drawing-pins, and a pricker. This last-mentioned tool is +shown in fig. 5. It is about 5 inches long, and is like a needle with +the blunt end fitted into a handle. For rubbing on the pounce some soft +clinging material rolled into a ball is necessary. A piece of old silk +hose tightly rolled up makes an excellent pad for the purpose. + +The knife shown in fig. 6 is useful for cutting out at times when the +use of scissors is not practical. It is used in an upright position, +with the point outwards. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.] + +A spindle for winding gold thread upon whilst working is shown in fig. +7. It is about 8 inches long. A soft padding of cotton thread is first +placed round (between A and B, fig. 7), and the gold thread wound upon +that. The end of the thread passes through the forked piece at the top +on its way to being worked into the material. The use of this or some +similar appliance enables the worker to avoid much touching of the metal +threads. + +A small tool called a piercer is represented by fig. 8; it is used in +gold work; the flat end assists in placing the gold in position, and +also in making the floss silk lie quite flat; the pointed end is used +for piercing holes in the material for passing coarse thread to the +back, and for other purposes. This little tool, made of steel, is about +5 inches in length. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.] + + +MATERIALS + +The surface is a matter of special interest in embroidery work. This +makes the choice of materials of great importance. Besides the question +of appearance, these must be suitable to the purpose, durable, and, if +possible, pleasant to work with and upon. The materials chosen should +be the best of their kind, for time and labour are too valuable to be +spent upon poor stuffs; occasionally a piece of old work is seen with +the ground material in shreds and the embroidery upon it in a good state +of preservation, which is a pity, for a newly applied ground of any kind +is never as satisfactory as the original one. Still another plea for the +use of good materials is the moral effect they may have upon the worker, +inciting her to put forth her best efforts in using them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.] + +The purpose to which the work is to be put usually decides the ground +material, besides governing pattern, stitches, and everything else. A +background is chosen, as a rule, to show to advantage and preserve what +is to be placed upon it, though sometimes it is the other way about, and +the pattern is planned to suit an already existing ground. + +A background must take its right place, and not be too much in evidence, +although if of the right kind it may be full of interest. There are, +roughly speaking, three ways of treating the ground, leaving the +material just as it is, covering part of it with stitching, or working +entirely over it. + +If there is no work upon the ground the choice of material becomes more +important. Texture, colour, tone, and possibly pattern, have all to be +considered, though the problem is often best solved by the selection of +a plain white linen. The question of texture is sometimes one of its +suitability for stitching upon; colour and tone may be of all kinds and +degrees from white to black; these two, as a rule, being particularly +happy ones. If the ground stuff is patterned, as in the case of a +damasked silk, it must be specially chosen to suit the work to be placed +upon it; small diaper patterns are frequently very good, since they +break up the surface pleasantly without being too evident. + +Linen, which well answers all the usual requirements, is, for this +reason, very frequently chosen for a ground material. It can be procured +in great variety, the handmade linens being the best of all. Of kinds +besides the ordinary are twilled linens, of which one named Kirriemuir +twill is similar to the material used in the fine old embroidered +curtains. Some damask linens look very well as backgrounds for +embroidery; the pattern is sometimes a slightly raised diaper, which +forms a pleasantly broken surface. Loosely woven linens can be obtained +specially suitable for drawn thread work. In any case, if there is +dressing in the new material, it must be well boiled before the +embroidery is commenced: this makes it much softer for stitching +through. Coloured linens are rarely satisfactory, a certain kind of blue +being almost the only exception. The safest plan is to keep to pure +white, or to the unbleached varieties that have a slightly grey or warm +tone about them. Wools, silks, and flax threads all look well upon a +linen ground; it is not usually in good taste to embroider with poor +thread upon a rich ground material, and, upon the other hand, gold +thread and floss demand silk or velvet rather than linen, though any +rule of this kind may on occasion be broken. + +Velvet and satin make excellent backgrounds for rich work; they should +not be used unless of good quality. The pile of the best velvet is +shorter than that of poorer kinds, and so is easier to manipulate, which +is a further reason for using the best. It is in any case a difficult +material, so much so that work is often carried out on linen and +afterwards applied to a velvet ground. The modern velvets, even the best +of them, are for quality or colour not comparable with the old ones. + +Silk of different kinds is largely employed, since it makes a suitable +ground for many kinds of embroidery. Twilled and damasked silks are much +used; in the last-named kind, patterns must be carefully chosen to suit +the particular purpose. A thick ribbed silk is rarely satisfactory for +embroidery purposes. + +For working with silk thread, an untwisted floss takes the first place, +but it needs some skill in manipulation. Filofloss is somewhat similar, +but it has a slight twist in it, making it easier to work, though +producing a less satisfactory result. Filosel is useful for some kinds +of work, but it is a poorer quality of silk. The purse silks, and what +is called embroidery silk, are all excellent; they are tightly twisted +varieties of fine quality. There are various others in use; a visit to a +good embroidery depot will probably be the best means of finding out +about these and about materials in general. + +Wools can be obtained in various thicknesses and twistings, each good in +their way. Some workers prefer a but slightly twisted wool; however, +examples of old wool work are to be found in which a finely twisted +variety is used with most satisfactory effect. + +Flax threads can be obtained in very good colours, and are to be highly +recommended. There are various cottons procurable, either coloured or +white, that are good for marking and other embroidery purposes where an +evenly twisted thread is desirable. + +Pearls and precious stones take their place in rich embroideries, also +various less expensive but pretty stones may often be made use of +effectively. + +Beads are a fascinating material to work with; all kinds of pretty +things can be done with them, either sewing them upon a ground, knitting +or crocheting, or making use of a small bead loom. A good deal of the +ready-made bought bead work, that only requires a monotonous ground to +be filled in around an already worked pattern of sorts, is not at all +suggestive of its possibilities. Beads of both paste and glass can be +obtained in much greater variety than is usually known, from the most +minute in size to large varieties of all kinds of shapes and patterns, +the colours of most of them being particularly good. The larger +ornamental beads are useful in many ways, sometimes taking the place of +tassels or fringes. + +Many kinds of most curious materials are at times brought into the +service of embroidery, but the above-mentioned ones are the most usual. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PATTERN DESIGNING + + The Difficulties of Pattern Making--A Stock-in-Trade--Some + Principles upon which Patterns are Built Up--Spacing-Out--Nature and + Convention--Shading--Figure Work--Limitations--Colour. + + +A beginner sometimes experiences difficulty in preparing her own +patterns. A designer needs a wide knowledge of many subjects, which +necessitates much time being given to study; also drawing ability is +necessary to enable the worker to set down her ideas upon paper. For +much simple and pretty work, however, a slight acquaintance with drawing +and design is sufficient, and any one who can master the requisite +stitches can also acquire some knowledge of these two subjects. + +The word design frightens some who do not know quite what it means or +entails. Perhaps they do not realise that the design has already been +begun when the object to be worked has been settled, and the material, +thread, and stitches have been decided upon--the rest comes in much the +same way, partly by a system of choice; as it is necessary to know what +materials there are which can be used, so must the chief varieties of +pattern be known from which choice can be made. All patterns are built +up on some fundamental plan, of which the number is comparatively small. +The ability to choose, plan, and arrange is in a greater or less degree +inherent in every one, so there should be, after all, no great +difficulty in the design. The necessary underlying qualities are--a nice +taste, freedom from affectation, an eye for colour and form, and, it +might be added, a fair share of common sense. + +A pattern maker requires some stock-in-trade, and it is wise to collect +together a store of some well-classified design material of ascertained +value, ready to be drawn upon when required. A good knowledge of plants +and flowers is very necessary. This is best acquired by making careful +drawings from nature. In choosing flowers for embroidery purposes, the +best-known ones, such as the daisy, rose, or carnation, give more +pleasure to the observer than rare unrecognisable varieties. Figures, +birds, beasts, and such things as inscriptions, monograms, shields of +arms and emblems, all demand study and drawing, both from miscellaneous +examples and from embroideries. + +The treatment of all these should be studied in old work, in order that +the curious conventions and all kinds of amusing and interesting ideas +that have gradually grown up in the past may still be made use of and +added to, instead of being cast aside in a wild endeavour after +something original. The student who collects a supply of the foregoing +materials will find she has considerably widened her knowledge during +the process, and is better prepared to make designs. + +In making a pattern the first thing to be decided upon is some main +idea, the detail that is to carry it out must then be considered. This +latter may be of various types, such as flowers, foliage, figures, +animals, geometrical forms, interlacing strapwork, quatrefoils, &c., +&c.; perhaps several of these _motifs_ may be combined together in the +same design. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.] + +One of the simplest plans upon which a pattern can be arranged is that +of some form recurring at regular intervals over the surface. The +principle involved is repetition; an example of it is shown at fig. 10. +The form that is used here is a sprig of flower, but the repeating +element admits of infinite variation, it may be anything from a dot to +an angel. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.] + +Copes and chasubles, bedspreads and curtains, are often to be seen +decorated with some repeating form. Fig. 11 shows in outline a +conventional sprig that is repeated in this fashion over the surface of +a famous cope in Ely Cathedral. Fig. 12 is an example of a sprig of +flower taken from a XVIIth century embroidered curtain; similar bunches, +but composed of different flowers, recur at intervals over this hanging. + +It may interest the practical worker to know what are the different +stitches used upon this figure. The petals of the top flower are in +chain stitch in gradated colouring, the centre is an open crossing of +chain surrounded by stamens in stem stitch in varied colour, the +outermost leaves are outlined in stem stitch with an open filling of +little crossed stitches. The petals of the lower flower are worked +similarly, and the centre is carried out in chain stitch and French +knots. The leaves are filled in with ingenious variations of these +stitches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.] + +The repeating element is perhaps a symbolical figure, a heraldic shield, +or it may be some geometrical form that supplies the motive. Fig. 13 is +a conventional sprig of hawthorn that ornaments in this way an altar +frontal at Zanthen. It is by no means necessary that the element which +repeats should be always identical; so long as it is similar in size, +form, and general character it will probably be the more interesting if +variety is introduced. + +The principle of repetition is again found in fig. 14, but with an +additional feature; a sprig of flower is used, with the further +introduction of diagonal lines, expressed by leaf sprays, which are +arranged so as to surround each flower and divide it from the adjoining +ones. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.] + +It is advisable to space out the required surface in some way before +commencing to draw out a pattern; for carrying out fig. 14 it would be +well to pencil out the surface as in fig. 15; a connection between these +two will be perceived at a glance. This spacing-out of the required +surface in one way or another is of great assistance, and may even prove +suggestive in the planning of the design. It helps the regularity of the +work, and order is essential in design as in most other things in life. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.] + +Another very usual expedient is that of introducing a main central form, +with others branching out on either side and symmetrically balancing +each other. An example of this is given in fig. 16. The symmetry may be +much more free than this; a tree is symmetrical taken as a whole, but +the two sides do not exactly repeat each other. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.] + +A plan very commonly employed is that of radiating main lines all +diverging from one central point. Fig. 17 shows a design following this +principle; there is infinite variety in the ways in which this may be +carried out. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.] + +Another method would be to plan a continuous flowing line with forms +branching out on one side or on both. Figs. 18 and 19 are border +designs, for which purpose this arrangement is often used, though it can +also well form an all-over pattern; sometimes these lines used over a +surface are made to cross each other, tartan wise, by running in two +directions, producing an apparently complicated design by very simple +means. + +[Illustration: Figs. 18 and 19.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.] + +Designs may be planned on the counterchange principle. This is a system +of mass designing that involves the problem of making a pattern out of +one shape, continually repeated, and fitting into itself in such a way +as to leave no interstices. The simplest example of this is to be found +in the chess board, and it will easily be seen that a great number of +shapes might be used instead of the square. Fig. 20 is an example of a +counterchange design carried out in inlay; for this method of work +counterchange is very suitable. On reference to the chapter upon this +work another example will be found (page 181). Fig. 21 illustrates the +same principle, further complicated by the repetition of the form in +three directions instead of in two only. + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.] + +A method of further enriching a straightforward pattern, covering a +plain surface, is to work a subsidiary pattern upon the background. This +is usually of a monotonous and formal character in order not to clash +with the primary decoration, though this relationship may sometimes be +found reversed. It has the appearance of being some decoration belonging +to the ground rather than to the primary pattern; in its simplest form +it appears as a mere repeating dot or a lattice (see fig. 22), but it +may be so elaborated as to cover with an intricate design every portion +of the exposed ground not decorated with the main pattern. + +Many other distinct kinds of work might be mentioned, such as needlework +pictures, the story-telling embroideries that can be made so +particularly attractive. Embroidered landscapes, formal gardens, +mysterious woods, views of towns and palaces, are, if rightly treated, +very fine. In order to learn the way to work such subjects we must go to +the XVIth and XVIIth century _petit point_ pictures, and to the detail +in fine tapestries. The wrong method of going to work is to imitate the +effect sought after by the painter. + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.] + +It is a mistake in embroidery design to be too naturalistic. In painting +it may be the especial aim to exactly imitate nature, but here are +wanted embroidery flowers, animals and figures, possessing the character +and likeness of the things represented, but in no way trying to make us +believe that they are real. The semblance of a bumble bee crawling upon +the tea cloth gives a hardly pleasant sensation and much savours of +the practical joke, which is seldom in good taste; the needle, however, +adds convention to almost anything, and will usually manage the bee all +right unless the worker goes out of the way to add a shadow and a high +light. Such things as perspective, light and shade or modelling of form, +should all be very much simplified if not avoided, for embroidery +conforms to the requirements of decoration and must not falsify the +surface that it ornaments. Shading is made use of in order to give more +variety to, and exhibit the beauty of, colour by means of gradation, to +explain more clearly the design, and so on; it is not employed for the +purpose of fixing the lighting of the composition from one point by +means of systematically adjusted light and shade, or of making a form +stand out so realistically as to almost project from the background. + +In avoiding too much resemblance to natural forms it is not necessary to +make things ugly; a conventional flower implies no unmeaning +straightness or impossible curve, it may keep all its interesting +characteristics, but it has to obey other requirements specially +necessary in the particular design. Another point to be noted is that, +since there is freedom of choice of flowers and other objects, only +those perfect and well-formed should be chosen; all accidents of growth +and disease may, happily, be omitted; if anything of this kind is put in +it helps to give the naturalistic look which is to be avoided. Both +sides of a leaf should match, though it may happen in nature, through +misfortune, that one is deformed and small. + +In figure work, which, though ambitious, is one of the most interesting +kinds of embroidery, the figures, like all other things, must be treated +with a certain amount of simplicity; very little attempt must be made to +obtain flesh tones, roundness of form, perspective, or foreshortening. +The work should be just sufficiently near to nature to be a good +embroidery rendering of it. However, without overstepping the limits +there is a great deal that may be expressed, such things as character, +gesture, grace, colour, and so on, matters which are after all of first +importance. Detail, if of the right kind, may be filled in, but it is +wrong to attempt what is to the craft very laborious to obtain, for +this would be misdirected energy, which is great waste. A right use of +the figure can be seen in the XIIIth century embroidery pictures, which, +covering mediaeval church vestments, often display episodes from the +lives of the saints. These are some of the masterpieces of the art of +embroidery; observation of nature is carried to a marvellous pitch, but +the execution never sinks into commonplace realism. + +Certain restrictions are always present, in making a design, that must +be conformed to, such as, the limit of space, the materials with which +the work is to be carried out, the use to which it will be put, and so +on. These, instead of being difficulties, can afford help in the way of +suggestion and limitation. A bad design may look as if it obeyed them +unwillingly--a form is perhaps cramped, perhaps stretched out in order +to fit its place, instead of looking as if it naturally fitted it +whether the confining lines were there or not. In the early herbals, +illustrated with woodcuts, examples can be found over and over again of +a flower filling a required space simply and well; fig. 23 is taken from +the herbal of Carolus Clusius, printed at Antwerp in 1601 by the great +house of Plantin. The draughtsman in this case had to draw a plant to +fit a standard-sized engraver's block, and he had a certain number of +facts to tell about it; he drew the plant as simply and +straightforwardly as possible, making good use of all the available +space, the result being a well-planned and balanced piece of work, with +no affectation or unnecessary lines about it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 23.] + +Fine colour is a quality appreciated at first sight, though often +unconsciously. It is a difficult subject to speak of very definitely; an +eye for colour is natural to some, but in any case the faculty can be +cultivated and developed. By way of studying the subject, we can go to +nature and learn as much as we are capable of appreciating; even such +things as butterflies, shells, and birds' eggs are suggestive. Again, +embroideries, illuminated manuscripts, pictures, painted decoration, may +be studied, and so on; in fact, colour is so universal that it is not +possible to get away from it. Unfortunately we are sometimes forced to +learn what to avoid as well as what to emulate. + +Colour is entirely relative, that is to say it depends upon its +immediate surroundings for what it appears to be. Also it has effects +varying with the material which it dyes; wool is of an absorbent nature, +whereas silk has powers of reflection. It is a safe plan to use true +colours, real blue, red or green, not slate, terra cotta, and olive. +Gold, silver, white and black, are valuable additions to the colour +palette; it should be remembered about the former that precious things +must be used with economy or they become cheap and perhaps vulgar. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24.] + +For getting satisfactory colour there is a useful method which can at +times be made use of; this is to stitch it down in alternate lines of +two different tints, which, seen together at a little distance, give the +desired effect. Backgrounds can be covered over with some small +geometrical pattern carried out in this way, such as is shown in fig. +24, perhaps using in alternation bright blue and black instead of a +single medium tint of blue all over. At a slight distance the tone may +be the same in either case, but this method gives a pleasantly varied +and refined effect, which avoids muddiness, and shows up the pattern +better. This same method is used for expressing form more clearly as +well as for colour; waves of hair, for instance, are much more clearly +expressed when worked in this way. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +STITCHES + + Introduction--Chain Stitch--Zigzag Chain--Chequered Chain--Twisted + Chain--Open Chain--Braid Stitch--Cable Chain--Knotted Chain--Split + Stitch. + + +It is necessary for every worker to have a certain amount of knowledge +of stitches, for they are, so to speak, the language of the art, and +though not of first importance, still there is a great deal in +stitchery. The needlewoman should be absolute master of her needle, for +there is a great charm in beautifully carried out stitching; also a good +design can be made mechanical and uninteresting by a wrong method of +execution. The simplest and most common stitches are the best, and are +all that are necessary for the doing of good work. Work carried out +entirely in one stitch has a certain unity and character that is very +pleasing. There are a great number of stitches in existence, that is, if +each slight variation has a different name assigned to it. The names +are sometimes misleading, for often the same stitch is known by several +different ones; descriptive names have where possible been chosen for +those discussed in the following pages. + +A worker may find it useful to keep by her a sampler with the most +characteristic stitches placed upon it; a glance at this will be +suggestive when she is in doubt as to which to use, for it is often +difficult to recollect just the right and most suitable one at a +moment's notice. It is necessary to learn only the main varieties, for +each individual worker can adapt, combine, and invent variations to suit +a special purpose. + +The direction of the stitch is important; tone, if not colour, can be +very much altered by change in direction; also growth and form can be +suggested by it; for instance, lines going across a stem are not usually +so satisfactory as those running the length of it; these suggesting +growth better. Folds of drapery are often explained by direction of the +lines of stitching quite as much as by gradation of colour. + +With reference to the stitches described in the following chapters, the +worker is advised to try to work them by simply examining the diagrams, +and, if in any difficulty, then to refer to the printed description, for +such directions are apt to be tedious. The simplest way to master these +is to let some one read them out step by step, and to work from +dictation. It should be remembered that the use of a particular thread +often makes or mars a stitch, some requiring soft silks to show them to +advantage, whilst others may need a stoutly twisted thread. + +Chain stitch is universal, and one of the most ancient of stitches. It +is the most commonly used of a group that might be described as linked +stitches. Much beautiful work has been carried out entirely in it, and +when a monotonous even line is required, this is a most suitable stitch +to employ. It is equally in request for outline and filling in, and its +chain-like adaptability makes it specially good for following out curved +forms or spiral lines. Tambour stitch is practically the same in result, +though worked in quite a different manner, for it is carried out in a +frame with a fine crochet hook, instead of with a needle. This makes it +quicker in execution, but more mechanical in appearance, so it is not to +be as much recommended. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25.] + +To work chain stitch (fig. 25) bring the needle through at the top of +the traced line, hold the working thread down towards the left with the +thumb, insert the needle at the point where the thread has just come +through and bring it up on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an +inch further along, draw the thread through over the held down thread. +It should show a neat line of back-stitching on the reverse side. The +chain can be made broader by inserting the needle a little to the right, +instead of at the exact point where the last thread came through. Care +must be taken in the working not to draw the thread too tightly, as this +stitch is inclined to pucker the material, especially when it is worked +in curved lines. + +A flower and leaf worked with a solid filling of chain stitch are shown +in fig. 26. The dark outline of the flower is in back stitch, the centre +a mass of French knots, and the stem in stem stitch. By working the +petals in curved lines in this way the shape is well suggested, and the +play of light on the curves is particularly happy, especially if the +thread used is silk or gold. Another slight variation from this would be +to work the lines of chain stitch in different shades of colour, and so +get each petal gradually either lighter or darker towards its base; this +gives a very pretty effect. Fig. 27 shows an oak leaf carried out in +this way, the lines upon it indicate the way in which the stitches +would be worked. The rule in solid fillings is to work from the outside +inwards where possible, and thus make sure of a good outline. + +[Illustration: Fig. 26.] + +In the Victoria and Albert Museum there is a white linen dress[1] +daintily embroidered in chain stitch. It is an excellent example of a +kind of design suitable to this stitch; the leaves and flowers are +carried out in lines of chain stitch following the outline, and in these +lines use is made of strongly contrasting colour to both show up the +form better, and also decorate it. The leaf in fig. 28 is in style +somewhat similar to this, and is intended to be carried out in two +distinct colours. + +[Illustration: Fig. 27.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 28.] + +Chain stitches can be worked singly; they are used in this way as a +powdering over a background. Sometimes they may be seen conventionally +suggesting the small feathers on the shoulder of a bird's wing by being +dotted over it at regular intervals. Fig. 29 shows how they might be +used to carry out a tiny flower, five separate stitches represent the +petals, and two more the leaves at the base; this is a simpler and more +satisfactory method than to attempt very minute forms with satin +stitches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 29.] + +The common chain makes a particularly neat border stitch taken in zigzag +fashion. To work this (fig. 30)--Trace two parallel lines on the +material and work the chain across from side to side at an angle of 45 deg. +to the traced lines. For further security it is well to catch down the +end of the stitch just completed with the needle as it commences the +following one. The line can be further decorated by placing a French +knot, perhaps in a contrasting colour, in each little triangular space +left by working the stitch. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 31.] + +There is an ingenious method of working ordinary chain stitch in a +chequering of two colours (fig. 31). It is quite simple to work. Thread +a needle with two different coloured threads, commence the chain stitch +in the usual way until the thread has to be placed under the point of +the needle for forming the loop. Place only one of the two threads +underneath, leaving the other on one side out of the way, then draw the +needle and thread through over the one held down. A chain stitch will +have been formed with the thread that was looped under the needle. For +the next stitch, the alternate thread is placed under, and so on, taking +each thread in turn. The thread not in use each time usually requires a +little adjustment to make it entirely disappear from the surface. + +Twisted chain is worked very similarly to the ordinary chain stitch. It +has not such a decidedly looped appearance, which is sometimes an +advantage. To work it (fig. 32)--Bring the thread through at the top of +the line, hold it down under the thumb to the left, and insert the +needle to the left of the traced line, slightly below the point where +the thread has come through. Bring it out again on the traced line, +about one-eighth of an inch lower down, and draw it through over the +held down thread. + +An entirely different effect can be obtained by working this stitch +much closer together, but in exactly the same way. It will then +resemble a satin stitch slightly raised on one side. This is known as +rope stitch and is at times very useful. + +[Illustration: Fig. 32.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 33.] + +Open chain stitch makes a good broad line; it looks best when worked +with a stout thread. To carry out the stitch (fig. 33)--Trace two +parallel lines upon the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart, +and bring the thread through at the top of the left-hand one. Hold the +thread down with the thumb and insert the needle exactly opposite on the +other line, bring it up one-eighth of an inch lower down and draw the +thread through over the held down part, leaving a rather slack loop upon +the material. Then insert the needle on the first line again, inside +the slack loop, and bring it out one-eighth of an inch below. Repeat +this on each side alternately. Fig. 34 is a drawing from a piece of +white linen work in which the open chain stitch is used in combination +with other stitches. This figure, with its open-work centre, is repeated +diagonally over a white linen cloth exhibited in the Victoria and Albert +Museum. + +[Illustration: Fig. 34.] + +Braid stitch rather resembles a fancy braid laid upon the material. It +looks best when carried out with a stoutly twisted thread. To work it +(fig. 35)--Trace two parallel lines upon the material about one-eighth +of an inch apart, and bring the thread through at the right-hand end of +the lower line. Throw the thread across to the left and hold it slackly +under the thumb. Place the needle pointing towards the worker under this +held thread, then twist it round towards the left and over the held +thread until it points in the opposite direction. It will now have the +thread twisted loosely over it. Next, insert the needle on the upper +line one-eighth of an inch from the starting-point, and bring it +through on the lower line exactly underneath. Place the thumb over the +stitch in process of making and draw the thread through as the diagram +shows. It can be worked openly or more closely as preferred. + +[Illustration: Fig. 35.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 36.] + +Cable chain is descriptively named, for, when worked with a stoutly +twisted thread, it has very much the appearance of a chain laid upon +the material, rather too much so perhaps to be a pretty embroidery +stitch. To work it (fig. 36)--Bring the needle through at the top of the +traced line, throw the thread round to the left and hold it down with +the thumb near where it has come through the material. Pass the needle +under the held down thread from left to right and draw it through until +there is only a small loop left. Insert the needle in the centre of this +loop, on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an inch below the +starting-point. Bring it out a quarter of an inch below and outside the +loop. Take the thread in the right hand and tighten the loop that has +now been formed, and then pass the thread under the point of the needle +towards the left (see diagram). Place the left thumb over the stitch in +process of making and draw the thread through; this will complete the +first two links of the chain; to continue, repeat from the beginning. + +Knotted chain is a pretty stitch; to look well it must be worked with a +stout thread. To carry it out (fig. 37)--Trace two parallel lines upon +the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart. Bring the thread +through at the right hand end in the centre between the two lines, then +insert the needle on the upper line one-sixteenth of an inch further +along, and bring it through on the lower line immediately below. Draw +the thread through and there will be a short slanting line left upon the +material. Throw the thread round to the left and hold it under the +thumb, then pass the needle and thread through the slanting line from +above downwards, leaving the thread a little slack. Place the thread +again under the thumb, then in the same way as before, from above +downwards, pass the needle and thread through this slack loop. This +makes the first two links of the chain; the last one will not be +properly fixed in place until the next stitch is taken. The dotted +vertical line on the diagram shows the piece of material taken up by the +needle upon commencing the next stitch. + +[Illustration: Fig. 37.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 38.] + +Split stitch is a most useful one for many purposes. It is difficult to +distinguish from a fine chain when done, but in the working it much more +resembles stem stitch. It can be carried out in the hand or in a frame. +This stitch, frequently seen upon ancient work, was much used for both +draperies and features; the lines of the stitching usually, by their +direction, expressing moulding of form or folds of drapery. To work it +(fig. 38)--Bring the thread through at the lower end of the traced line, +then insert the needle about one-eighth of an inch further along, and +bring it through on the line two or three threads nearer the +starting-point; whilst bringing it through take it also through the +centre of the working thread, which thus splits each stitch. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[1] No. 184, 1898. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +STITCHES--(_continued_) + + Satin Stitch--Long and Short Stitch--Stem Stitch--Overcast + Stitch--Back Stitch--Buttonhole Stitch--Tailor's Buttonhole--Fancy + Buttonhole Edgings--Flower in Open Buttonhole Stitch--Leaf in Close + Buttonhole Stitches--Petal in Solid Buttonholing. + + +SATIN AND SIMILAR STITCHES + +Satin stitch is perhaps the most commonly used of all stitches. It is +more quickly worked by hand, but for complicated work the help of a +frame is required. Floss silk thread is seen to greatest advantage in a +stitch of this kind, for it shows off the glossiness of silk +particularly well. It is straightforward in the working and needs no +further description than is given by the diagram (fig. 39). The stitches +may vary in length, they must neither be impracticably long nor, on the +other hand, too much cut up, lest the silky effect be partly lost. These +stitches lie close together and in parallel lines; the chief difference +between satin and several other closely allied stitches being that these +others may radiate or vary in direction according to the space to be +filled. The stitch is usually worked in oblique lines; stems, leaves, +and petals would be treated in this way; sometimes it is worked +regularly having regard to the warp and woof of the material; it would +be treated thus when used in conjunction with cross or stroke stitch. + +[Illustration: Fig. 39.] + +It will be seen that there is as much silk at the back as on the front +of the work. There is a method of carrying out the stitch by which this +waste of material at the back is avoided; the thread is returned to the +front close to where it went through instead of crossing over and coming +up on the other side. The effect on the right side, however, is not so +good, so this method cannot be recommended. + +One of the technical difficulties with satin stitch is to get a neat +firm line at the edges of the filled space; this is excellently attained +by the Chinese and Japanese, who use this satin stitch a great deal. +They frequently work each petal of a complicated flower separately, +leaving as a division, between each one and the next, a fine line of +material firmly and clearly drawn. + +[Illustration: Fig. 40.] + +The stitch is much used for raised work, and also lends itself well to +gradation of colour. Fig. 40 is an example of shading in satin stitch. +In this case each new row of stitches fits in just between those of the +last row; this is a bold but very effective method of expressing +gradation. A variation upon this is shown in fig. 42; the bands of +different colour are here necessarily worked in a chevron pattern which +makes the shading rather more gradual. An example of the same thing can +be seen in fig. 44 in the leaf upon which the squirrel sits. Apart from +gradation of colour, the surface to be covered by satin stitch has often +to be partitioned up in some way in order to make the satin stitches of +a practical length. + +[Illustration: Fig. 41.] + +Long and short stitch is a very slight variation, if any, from satin +stitch. The name describes the method of working, for it is carried out +by working alternately a long and a short stitch, the stitches being +picked up just as in satin stitch. It is useful for close fillings and +shaded work, and also as a solid outline for any kind of open filling. +The working of the stitch can be seen in fig. 41, where the band of +lightest colour on the upper part of the leaf is worked in long and +short stitch. The advantage of this way of working can be seen at once, +it makes a firm outline on the one edge and a nicely broken-up one on +the other, just ready for another shade to be worked in. In order to +carry out the rest of the shading on the leaf in the same way the +stitches can be all of the same length; this will always ensure a broken +line at the edge, which is a necessity for this method of gradation. +Long and short stitch used as an outline for a leaf with an open filling +can be seen on page 209. The _opus plumarium_ or feather stitch that we +read of in the descriptions of the old embroideries was a similar stitch +to this, and so called, some say, because it resembled the plumage of a +bird. + +[Illustration: Fig. 42.] + +Stem stitch, well known and frequently in use for various purposes, such +as for lines, outlines, gradated and flat fillings, and so on, is +usually done in the hand, and is quite simple; fig. 43 explains the +working. If a broad line is required the needle is put in more +obliquely, and a raised effect can be obtained by working over a laid +thread. The thread must be kept to the same side of the needle, either +to the left or to the right as better suits the purpose in hand; the +effect is more line-like when it is kept to the right. Occasionally, +when just a double line is to be worked, it is deliberately done in the +two ways, and then the line resembles a narrow plait. A solid filling +in stem stitch should be worked in lines as illustrated in the squirrel +in fig. 44. This little beast is taken from the curtain shown in Plate +VII., and is a good example of the life and interest that the +introduction of such things adds to embroideries. + +[Illustration: Fig. 43.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 44.] + +The stitches just described were largely used in crewel work. This is a +rather vague name that denotes a decorative kind of needlework carried +out with coloured wools upon a plain white linen ground. The design is +usually composed of conventionally treated leaves and flowers, often +growing from boldly curved stems. These were partly shaded in solid +stitches, partly worked with geometrical open fillings; ornamental birds +and beasts of all kinds were introduced, and the effect of the whole was +very beautiful. The work is characteristically English, and a great +deal of it was executed in the XVIIth century. Plates VII. and VIII. are +illustrative of the type of work, and fig. 45 represents a detail. The +various stitches which occur in this drawing are stem, herring-bone, +long and short, knot, basket, buttonhole, single chain and satin +stitches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 45.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 46.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 47.] + +Overcast stitch in embroidery is practically a very short raised satin +stitch. It requires neat workmanship, and then makes a bold clear line +or outline. To work it (fig. 46)--Run or couch down a thread on the +traced line, then with fine thread cover this over with close upright +stitches, picking up as little material as possible each time in order +to make the line clear and round. The stitch is worked most perfectly in +a frame. + +Back stitch sometimes makes a good line or outline. To work it (fig. +47)--Bring the needle through one-sixteenth of an inch from the end of +the traced line, insert it at the commencement and bring it through +again one-sixteenth of an inch beyond where it first came out. Each +stitch, it will be seen, commences at the point where the last one +finished. + + +BUTTONHOLE STITCH AND ITS APPLICATION + +Buttonhole stitch, which is well known in plain needlework, is very +useful also in embroidery, besides being an important stitch in +needlepoint lace. Owing to its construction it is well suited for the +covering of raw edges, but it is also adaptable to a variety of other +purposes, such as are open or close fillings of leaves and flowers, cut +work, and the outlining of applied work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 48.] + +There are two ways of forming the stitch, the common buttonhole and what +is called tailor's buttonhole. + +To work the ordinary buttonhole stitch (fig. 48)--Bring the needle +through at the left-hand end of the traced line, hold the thread down +to the left with the thumb and insert the needle as shown in the +diagram, draw it through over the held thread to complete the stitch. It +is worked openly in the diagram, but it may, as required, be either more +or less open or quite closed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 49.] + +The tailor's buttonhole is for some purposes more satisfactory; the +stitch is firmer than the other kind owing to the heading having an +extra knot in it; this makes it also more ornamental. To work it (fig. +49)--Commence in the same way as the last stitch until the needle and +thread are in the position shown in fig. 48 then, with the right hand +take hold of the thread near the eye of the needle, bring it down and +loop it under the point from right to left, draw the needle and thread +through over these two loops, and the first stitch is made. + +[Illustration: Fig. 50.] + +Buttonhole stitch can be varied in many ways, dependent mainly upon the +spacing of the stitch and the direction that the needle takes when +picking up the material. Fig. 50 shows four simple varieties; the first +is the open buttonhole spaced slightly irregularly and with a thread +slipped underneath it; any variety of spacing can be arranged, and the +thread shown running underneath, which sometimes forms a pretty +addition, is usually of a contrasting colour or material. The second +shows the stitches taken slanting-wise, so that they cross each other. +In the third the stitches are at different angles and of unequal length. +The fourth example shows two lines of spaced buttonhole stitch fitting +neatly the one into the other and forming a solid line. One row is +worked first, leaving just sufficient space between each stitch for the +second row to fill up, which can be carried out by reversing the +position of the material and exactly repeating the first line in the +same or in a different colour. + +[Illustration: Fig. 51.] + +A flower filled in with open buttonhole stitch is shown at fig. 51. The +centre consists of a mass of French knots, and the outside line is in +satin stitch. The innermost circle of buttonholing is worked first, the +next row is worked over the heading of the first row as well as into the +material; the succeeding rows are worked in the same way until the +outside limit is reached, and there the satin stitch just covers the +heading of the last row of buttonhole stitching. Gradation of colour can +easily be introduced by using a different shade for each circle of +stitches, and this produces a very pretty effect. An open method of +filling a space, whether flower, leaf, drapery, or background, is +sometimes preferable to a solid filling, and the two methods can very +well be used together as each shows off the other. These light fillings +give opportunity for further variety and ingenuity in the stitching, and +prevent the work from looking heavy. A butterfly, carried out partly in +open stitches, is illustrated in fig. 52. + +[Illustration: Fig. 52.] + +Fig. 53 is, in the original, a gay little flower carried out in orange +and yellow. The stitch employed here is a close buttonhole. + +[Illustration: Fig. 53.] + +Another example of the use of close buttonhole is shown in the ivy leaf +in fig. 54. The stitch is worked in two rows, back to back, in each lobe +of the leaf, and the resulting ridge down the centre rather happily +suggests the veining. This method of filling in might be just reversed +for a rose leaf; the heading of the stitch would then suggest the +serrated edge, and the meeting of the two rows down the centre the line +of the vein. + +[Illustration: Fig. 54.] + +A cluster of berries can be very prettily worked in buttonhole stitch in +the way shown in fig. 55. The stitches are so arranged that the heading +outlines each berry, and the needle enters the material at the same +point, always in the centre. A bullion stitch in a darker colour marks +the eye of the berry. + +[Illustration: Fig. 55.] + +A good method of filling a space with solid buttonhole stitching is +shown in fig. 56. Each row is worked into the heading of the preceding +row, and the stitches do not pierce the material except in the first row +and at the extremities of succeeding rows. They are placed rather close +together in order to completely cover the ground. The stitch is worked, +first, from left to right, then for the next row from right to left; +this is quite easy and enables the work to be continuously carried out. +Sometimes, when the first row is done, the thread is thrown across to +the side where the row began, and there made fast; then the second row +is worked with stitches which take up the thrown thread as well as the +heading of the first row. By using a more open buttonhole and thus +partly exposing the laid thread, a filling, both quick and effective, is +obtained. This is a useful method to employ when the work is done over a +padding of threads, for there is no necessity to pierce the material +except at the edges. + +[Illustration: Fig. 56.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +STITCHES--(_continued_) + + Knots and Knot Stitches--Herring-bone Stitch--Feather Stitch--Basket + Stitch--Fishbone Stitch--Cretan Stitch--Roumanian Stitch--Various + Insertion Stitches--Picots. + + +KNOTS AND KNOT STITCHES + +It would be difficult to go far in embroidery without requiring knots +for one purpose or another. They are useful in all sorts of ways, and +make a pleasant contrast to the other stitches. For the enrichment of +border lines and various parts of the work, both pattern and background, +they are most serviceable, and also for solid fillings; for such places +as centres of flowers or parts of leaves, they are again valuable. They +have been used to form a continuous outline, but owing to their tendency +to make a weak line, not frequently; indeed they usually show to better +advantage when slightly separated. + +Examples are to be seen of English knotted line work in which the +knotting was executed in the thread previously to embroidering with it. +The knotting of thread was a pastime with ladies in the XVIIth century. +The thread, usually a linen one and as a rule home spun, was wound upon +a netting-needle, and by the aid of this a close series of knots was +made upon it; when finished it somewhat resembled a string of beads. +Balls of this prepared knotted thread may still be found, treasured up +in old work receptacles. When prepared it was couched on to the material +with fine thread, like a cord or braid, and made to follow out some +prearranged pattern. In white linen work it was used for carrying out +ornamental borderings on infants' robes and other dainty articles. + +[Illustration: Fig. 57.] + +French knots can be worked in the hand or in a frame. They are easier to +manage in the latter, and to look well they must be neatly and firmly +made. Completed they should resemble beads lying end upwards on the +material. To work the French knot (fig. 57)--Bring the thread through +the material at the required point, take hold of it with the left finger +and thumb near the starting-point (A on plan), then let the point of the +needle encircle the held thread twice, twist the needle round and insert +it at point B on plan, draw the thread through to the back, not letting +go the held thread until necessary. Fig. 58 shows some French knots +decorating a leaf spray, and various other examples of their use can be +found in the book. + +[Illustration: Fig. 58.] + +Bullion knots resemble tight curls of thread laid on the material. They +can be used as a variation from French knots, and even for the +representation of petals and small leaves. To be satisfactory they must +be firm, stout, and tightly coiled; some knack is required to make them +properly. To work the bullion knot (fig. 59)--Bring the thread through +at the required place, insert the needle one-eighth of an inch from this +point and bring it through again exactly at it. Take hold of the thread +about two inches from where it came through and twist it several times +round the point of the needle, the number of times being dependent on +the required length of the knot. Place the left thumb upon the tight +coil on the needle, in order to keep it in place, and draw the needle +and thread through it, then pass the thread through to the back at the +point where the needle was last inserted (point A on plan). The thumb +must not be removed until it is in the way. Fig. 60 represents a flower, +of which the centre is formed of bullion together with French knots. + +[Illustration: Fig. 59.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 60.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 61.] + +Fig. 61 shows a knotted stitch that is similar in result to the knotted +threads discussed earlier in the chapter. In this case the knotting of +the thread and the fixing to the material is done at the same time. It +is a useful stitch when a jagged line is wanted, and can be seen used, +for instance, for the branching veins in open work leaves, as in fig. +62. The diagram explains the working of the stitch; at point A on the +plan the left thumb holds the thread down whilst the stitch is in +progress. + +[Illustration: Fig. 62.] + + +MISCELLANEOUS STITCHES + +[Illustration: Fig. 63.] + +The stitch illustrated at fig. 63 is very similar to the common +herring-bone. The only practical difference is that in the plain +needlework stitch there is usually a smaller piece of material picked up +by the needle each time. To work it as in the diagram--Trace two +parallel lines on the material and bring the thread through at the +commencement of the lower line, insert it on the opposite line rather +farther along and there pick up a stitch, as the needle is doing in the +figure. Then on the opposite line pick up a similar stitch a little in +advance of the one just finished. After this work the stitches on either +line alternately, commencing each one at the point where the last one +ended; this forms on the underside a double row of back stitches. It is +quite easy to work this stitch with the back stitches on the working +side, and when they are required to be on the surface it is advisable to +do it in that way. When embroidering upon a semi-transparent material +this stitch is a satisfactory one to use, the back stitching follows out +the outline on either side of the form, and the crossing of the threads +on the under side shows through prettily. This stitch sometimes goes by +the name of double back stitch. It is useful in many ways, making a +light stitch for stems, leaves, or flowers; it can be sometimes found in +Eastern work used for an entire embroidery. When used for flowers or +leaves the width and the closeness of the stitch are varied to suit the +shape to be filled. An example of its use as a flower filling is shown +in the carnation at fig. 64, which is carried out in four shades of +colour. Considerable use is made of this stitch in embroidered curtain +shown in Plate VII.; it is there employed for all the stems and various +flowers upon the hanging. + +[Illustration: Fig. 64.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 65.] + +The feather stitch, often used to decorate plain needlework, is now to +be discussed; although similar in name it must not be confused with the +feather or plumage stitch that has already been mentioned. The stitch is +so simple and so much in use as hardly to need description; fig. 65 +explains the working. There can be many slight variations of the stitch, +the worker perhaps devising them needle in hand. Two are shown in fig. +66. The one to the left is worked very like the ordinary stitch; the +needle picks up the material in a straight line instead of slightly +obliquely, and each stitch touches the one immediately above; it is +here made use of as a couching stitch, a bunch of threads of a +contrasting colour is laid on the material, and the stitch worked over +it from side to side. The right-hand example shows the ordinary feather +stitch worked more closely and in a broader line; carried out in this +way, it can be used for a leaf filling. + +[Illustration: Fig. 66.] + +Basket stitch, useful for a solid line, shows up very clearly when +worked with a stout twisted thread. This stitch would be appropriately +used when applied to some representation of basket work. To carry out +the diagram (fig. 67)--Trace two parallel lines on the material, and to +commence, bring the thread through on the left-hand line, then insert +the needle on the right-hand line about one-eighth of an inch lower down +and bring it through on the left-hand line exactly opposite (see needle +in fig.); the next stitch is worked by inserting the needle on the +right-hand line but above the last stitch, that is at point A on +diagram, and bringing it through at B. To continue, repeat from the +beginning. + +[Illustration: Fig. 67.] + +A particularly good line for a border is made by fishbone stitch. It can +be worked in one colour, or as easily in a chequering of two or three, +as shown in the diagram (fig. 68); to carry it out in this way the +worker must have two threads in use, bringing through each as required. +For such purposes as the fillings of small leaves, this stitch is very +useful (see fig. 58). The meeting of the stitches in the centre suggest +the veining line, also the change in direction of the thread gives, to +the two sides of the leaf, pleasant variation in tone. To work +it--Trace three parallel lines upon the material and bring the thread +through on the upper line at the left-hand end. Insert the needle and +bring it through as in process in the diagram, then repeat the same +stitch on the other side the reverse way, that is, insert the needle +just over the central line and bring it through on the upper one close +to the last stitch. Care must be taken that the stitches cross well over +each other at the centre, or the material will show through. + +[Illustration: Fig. 68.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 69.] + +The stitch shown in fig. 69, known as plait or Cretan, is commonly seen +on Cretan and other Eastern embroideries. It can be used as a solid +border stitch or as a filling, varying in width as required. To work +it--Bring the thread through on the lower central line, then insert the +needle on the uppermost line and bring it through on the next below as +in process in the diagram; then, still keeping the thread to the right, +insert the needle immediately underneath on the lowest line and bring it +through on the line next above, in fashion similar to the last stitch, +but in reverse direction. To continue, work the stitch alternately on +one side and the other, always keeping the thread to the right of the +needle. In order to make the central plait broader take up rather less +material with the needle; this will decrease the outer and increase the +inner lines. Fig. 70 is taken from a Cretan embroidery, in which this +stitch is mainly used. + +[Illustration: Fig. 70.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 71.] + +Another similar but more simple stitch, often seen in Eastern work, is +shown in fig. 71. It can also frequently be found employed on XVIIth +century English wool work hangings. It is sometimes called Roumanian +stitch, and is composed of one long stitch crossed by a short one in the +centre. To work it--Trace two parallel lines on the material and bring +the thread through on the left-hand line at the top. Insert the needle +on the opposite line and bring it through near the centre, as shown in +process in the diagram. For the next half of the stitch the needle +enters the material at point A on plan, and is brought through again on +the left-hand line close to the last stitch, and so in position to +commence again. An illustration of this stitch in use as a filling can +be seen at fig. 72. It is worked in four shades of green wool, and each +line of stitches is so arranged as to encroach slightly on the line +before by means of setting each stitch just between two of the last row. +This method of working has two advantages; the shading is thus made +more gradual, and a pleasant undulating effect is given to the surface +of the leaf. This can be most easily understood by a practical trial of +the stitch and method. + +[Illustration: Fig. 72.] + + +INSERTION STITCHES + +There is occasion sometimes in embroidery to join edges together +visibly. This gives an opportunity for some additional pretty +stitching--the addition of something like this, that is perhaps not +absolutely necessary, has extra value from the evidence it gives of the +worker's interest and delight in her work, a quality always appreciated; +on the other hand, work done from the motive of getting a result with as +little labour as possible is valued at just its worth. + +These insertion stitches are useful for joining together edges of +cushion covers, bags, detached bands, also for the ornamentation of +dress, and for embroideries upon which drawn thread work is not +possible. A stout thread is usually suitable for the purpose. The raw +edges must first be turned in and flattened, and the parts to be joined +can if necessary be tacked in place on a temporary ground such as +_toile ciree_. + +Fig. 73 illustrates a twisted insertion stitch that is quickly executed +and very frequently used. The diagram sufficiently explains the working +without further description. + +[Illustration: Fig. 73.] + +Buttonhole stitch can be turned to account for this purpose. Fig. 74 +shows the tailor's buttonhole used as an insertion stitch; for this +purpose it is the better of the two kinds of buttonhole. The stitches +could be arranged in various ways; in the present example three are +worked closely together on either side in turn. The only difficulty with +this buttonhole insertion is that on one side the stitch has to be +worked in direction contrary to that usual, that is from right to left +instead of from left to right. In the diagram the needle is shown +working in this reverse way. + +[Illustration: Fig. 74.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 75.] + +Fig. 75 is a knotted insertion stitch; the knot at each side makes the +stitch a very rigid one. To work it--Bring the thread through at the +lower left-hand side, insert the needle on the upper side a little +towards the right, draw the thread through, and then tie the knot on it +as in process in the diagram. + +[Illustration: Fig. 76.] + +A rather more complicated joining stitch is shown in fig. 76. It could +be carried out with different coloured threads. The two sides must be +first worked with the edging, which is practically the braid stitch +described on page 88. Commence the stitch in exactly the same way as +when carrying out braid stitch, but work on the edge of the material as +in buttonholing, the working edge in this case being away from the +worker. Let the worker, having reached the point of pulling the thread +through to complete the stitch, draw it out in the direction away from +her. This will draw the stitch towards the edge, where it will form a +knot. In the diagram one of the stitches has been partly undone in order +to show the working more clearly. When the two sides are bound with the +stitch, they can be laced together with another thread as in the +illustration. + + +PICOTS + +Picots are commonly in use in lace work and they are sometimes required +for embroidery purposes, especially in the kinds of work nearly allied +to lace, such as cut work, or for an added ornament to an edging stitch. + +[Illustration: Fig. 77.] + +Fig. 77 shows too small picots added to a buttonhole bar, and on the +lower bar is shown the method of working the left-hand picot. The pin +that passes into the material behind the bar can be fixed in the bar +itself if there happens to be no material underneath. After reaching +the point illustrated in the diagram, the needle draws the thread +through, thus making a firm knot round the loop. This completes the +picot, the bar is then buttonholed to the end. The second picot is made +in much the same way; instead, however, of putting the needle as the +diagram shows, bring the thread up through the centre of the loop, then +round under the pin from left to right, and it will be in position to +make three buttonhole stitches along the loop, which completes the +second example. + +[Illustration: Fig. 78.] + +The upper bar on fig. 78 shows a buttonholed picot. The bar must be +worked to the left-hand end of the required picot; the thread is then +from there taken back about one-eighth of an inch and threaded through +the edge of the buttonhole. This is repeated to and fro until there is a +loop composed of three threads ready to be buttonholed over. Upon this +being done, the thread will have arrived at the right point to continue +the bar. + +Bullion stitch makes another simple picot--Work the bar to the point +where the picot is required, then, instead of taking the next stitch, +insert the point of the needle in the heading of the last stitch. Leave +the needle in this position, and twist the thread six or eight times +round the point of it, just as for the bullion knot (fig. 59). Place the +left thumb over the tight coil thus formed, and pull the needle and +thread through tightly in order to make the stitch double up into a +tight semi-circle, then continue the buttonholing to the end of the +bar. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +CANVAS WORK AND STITCHES + + Introduction--Samplers--Petit Point Pictures--Cross Stitch--Tent + Stitch--Gobelin Stitch--Irish Stitch--Plait Stitch--Two-sided + Italian Stitch--Holbein Stitch--Rococo Stitch. + + +Canvas work, known in the XIIIth century as _opus pulvinarium_ or +cushion work, is of great antiquity, and seems to have had an +independent origin in several countries. It is sometimes given the +misleading name of tapestry, perhaps owing to hangings of all kinds +being called tapestries, whether loom-woven, worked with the needle, or +painted. Large wall hangings with designs similar to those of woven +tapestries have been most successfully carried out on canvas in cross or +tent stitch; as a rule, however, smaller objects are worked, such as +furniture coverings, screens or cushions, whence it is obvious canvas +work received its ancient and descriptive Latin name. Many Eastern +carpets are worked upon a strong canvas in a kind of tent stitch, and +so come under the heading of canvas work. It is a particularly durable +method of embroidering, and this makes it suitable for use upon anything +subjected to hard wear. + +The work has usually a very decided and attractive character of its own. +A familiar example of this can be seen in the XVIIIth century samplers. +Its peculiar character is perhaps due to the fact that it cannot break +away from a certain conventionality due to constant use of the same +stitch, and its dependence upon the web of the fabric. This regularity +prevents the work from showing certain faults of design that other +methods may exaggerate. It is hardly possible to copy a natural spray of +flowers in cross stitch and keep it very naturalistic. The stitch being +square and alike all over gives a formality of treatment to every part +of the design, also, some detail is perforce omitted owing to the +impossibility of putting it in; all of this tends to a right method of +treatment, which renders the sampler an admirable lesson not only in +workmanship but also in design. + +The XVIth and XVIIth century pictorial subjects worked upon fine canvas +in cross or tent stitch afford instances of most interesting work in +canvas stitches. Some of these, though, as a rule, very much smaller in +size, equal, in their way, the finest tapestries. Most of them, if +judged from a painter's standpoint, would be pronounced failures, but +this effect is not what is sought after; the method of treatment belongs +rather to the great traditions of the tapestry weaver, and is not +governed by the canons of the painter. Plate VI. shows a detail of +foliage from a particularly fine example of this work lately added to +the Victoria and Albert Museum collection.[2] + +In what went by the name of Berlin wool work, popular in the early XIXth +century, we have before us a degenerate offshoot of this fine and poetic +kind of work in which all its possibilities are missed, with a result +that is prosaic in the extreme. Some of the canvas-work seat covers +decorated with geometrical designs, seen on Chippendale chairs, were a +pleasant and satisfactory variation in their way, but in most of the +work after that period, the attempt at impossible naturalistic effect +gave such unsatisfactory results as to almost deal a death blow to all +canvas embroidery. It is, however, a method too good and useful to die +out; it must always be more or less in vogue. + +Patterns carried out in canvas stitches are sometimes to be seen worked +apparently upon velvet or similar ground materials. This is done by +first laying the canvas upon the velvet and stitching through both +materials; this would have to be carried out in a frame. The threads of +the canvas are afterwards either withdrawn or closely cut off. In the +former case, the stitches must be drawn tight, or the finished work will +not look well. This method has the advantage of saving the labour of +working the background, and sometimes it suits the pattern to have a +contrast in the ground material. In old embroideries, heraldic devices +may be seen successfully treated in this way. + +The usual canvas stitches can be worked upon other fabrics that have an +even and square mesh, such as various kinds of linen; also other +embroidery stitches, such as stem, satin, or chain, can be used upon +canvas; they are then always worked with a certain regularity, following +the web of the material. + +Canvas work can be done in the hand or in a frame, but the technique is +often better in work done in a frame. In all-over work it is important +that not even a suggestion of the ground fabric should be allowed to +show through; for this reason work in light colours should be done on +white canvas, and _vice versa_, as far as possible, also the thread used +must suit in thickness the mesh of the canvas. To work a plain ground +well is less easy than to work the pattern, though it may sound more +simple. The back of the work, though not necessarily similar to the +front, must be alike in stitch all over, for the direction the stitch +takes at the back affects the regularity of appearance of the front. The +stitch must not be commenced in exactly the same place in each row, lest +a ridge should appear upon the surface; this can be avoided by using +threads of different lengths. A ground is usually commenced at the lower +left-hand corner, and a pattern, if a complicated one, from the centre +outwards. These technical points are of importance, but they are of +little value unless the stitches are at the same time expressing an +interesting and suitable design. + +The stitches used are exceedingly numerous; those described in the +following pages are the varieties most commonly seen. + +Cross stitch, the best known in this group, can be worked in slightly +different ways, according to the purpose for which it is required. On +the surface it is always the same, but it can vary at the back. For +instance, when used for marking purposes it should form on the reverse +side either a cross or a square, to do either of which demands some +ingenuity on the part of the worker. For ordinary work the really +correct method is to complete each stitch before going on to the next, +though grounding is frequently done by working the first half of the +stitch along an entire line, and completing the cross upon a return +journey. In any case, the crossing must always be worked in the same +direction. + +Cross stitch is a double stitch worked diagonally over two threads of +the canvas each way. It can, however, be taken over more or fewer +threads if required larger or smaller. To work it (fig. 79)--Bring the +needle through on the upper left side of the threads to be covered, and +take it back again on the lower right, then bring it through on the +upper right side and return it to the back on the lower left, which +completes the first stitch. + +[Illustration: Fig. 79.] + +Tent stitch (fig. 80) is the finest canvas stitch, and is therefore +suitable for work involving much detail. Pictorial and heraldic subjects +are frequently carried out in it. It is worked diagonally over a +perpendicular and horizontal thread of the canvas. The diagram shows +the method of working both back and front. It will be noticed that +though the line goes alternately from left to right and from right to +left, the stitch is always the same at the back as well as the same upon +the front; if this were not so, alternate rows would have a different +appearance upon the right side. The diagram does not show the connection +between the first and the second row, but it is evident that it must be +a short upright line. + +[Illustration: Fig. 80.] + +Gobelin stitch is a useful variety; it lends itself to shading better +than cross stitch. It is most often worked upon a fine single canvas, +and it can be used as a raised stitch. Fig. 81 represents the stitch; it +is worked similarly to tent stitch but over two threads in height and +one in width, no matter whether the single or double thread canvas is +used. In order to work it as a raised stitch, a line of some kind of +padding is thrown across the canvas, and the stitch taken over it. This +line can be arranged to show in part, in which case the material must be +one presentable, such as a gold cord or narrow braid. The padding would +be covered with stitching to form the background, and left exposed for +the pattern, which would probably be a simple repeating form of some +kind. Gobelin stitch is sometimes worked quite perpendicularly just over +two threads in height. + +[Illustration: Fig. 81.] + +Irish stitch is pretty and quickly worked. It is usually taken +perpendicularly over four threads of the canvas (fig. 82), though the +number over which it is taken may vary. It is worked in such a way as to +make the stitches of each succeeding row fit between those of the last +row, and can be carried out either diagonally or in horizontal lines. +What is known as Florentine work is carried out in a stitch of this +kind. The pattern in this kind of work is taken horizontally across the +ground in a succession of shaded zigzag lines. + +[Illustration: Fig. 82.] + +Plait stitch is often used for grounding. It resembles a simple plait +laid in close rows to and fro on the ground. It can frequently be seen +used upon the Italian XVIth century linen work, that in which the +pattern is left in plain linen, and the ground worked in some colour. +The diagram in fig. 83 shows the method of working the stitch. If +carried out correctly, the back of the material should show a row of +short perpendicular lines, each composed of two threads. + +[Illustration: Fig. 83.] + +Two-sided Italian stitch is descriptively named, for it is alike on both +sides. This is frequently seen on XVIth and XVIIth century Italian linen +work, similar to that mentioned above. A loosely woven linen makes a +suitable ground material, for in the working the stitches must be pulled +firmly, so as to draw the threads of the fabric together; this gives +over the ground a squared open-work effect, which is very pretty. Fig. +84 explains the working of the stitch; it is shown in four stages, and +is quite simple; the final result is a cross surrounded by a square. The +lowest figure in the diagram shows the last stage, for the upper side of +the square is filled in when the row above is worked. The drawing +together of the web is not shown, but at a trial it should be done, for +in that lies the special character of the stitch. The silk used must be +just thick enough to well cover the linen, but not too thick, for then +the work would be clumsy. + +[Illustration: Fig. 84.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 85.] + +Holbein stitch (fig. 85), also known as stroke or line stitch, is alike +on both sides, and is often used in conjunction with cross and satin +stitch, as well as alone. Very intricate and interesting patterns can be +devised to be carried out with these three stitches, worked always with +regard to the web of the linen. Squared paper could be used for +planning the design, as the stitches would all be practically of the +same length, and the pattern must be one that can be easily carried out +alike on both sides. The stitch is worked as follows: An even running +stitch, picking up as much material as it leaves, is taken all round the +pattern. This does half the work on either side; the gaps are then +filled up by the running stitch being taken in a contrary direction, +which completes the pattern. Occasionally stitches go off at an angle +from the running pattern; these are completed on the first journey by a +satin stitch being made at the necessary point. The present diagram is a +zigzag line, with one of these stitches going off at each angle. Fig. 86 +is an example of a border design carried out in Holbein stitch. + +[Illustration: Fig. 86.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 87.] + +The stitch illustrated in fig. 87 is known as rococo stitch. It is a +useful one for carrying out a conventional design, such as, to give a +simple illustration, a flower sprig repeating in the spaces formed by a +trellis pattern. The effect of the stitch when worked cannot be judged +from this diagram; to see this properly a piece of canvas must be worked +entirely over with it. The pattern chosen is usually one that lends +itself to being worked in diagonal lines, as this stitch is best worked +in that way. It entirely hides the canvas background, and is carried out +very similarly to the oriental stitch in fig. 71. By the help of that +diagram and description and the present one, which gives various steps, +the worker will easily master the stitch, which is quite simple. The +ordinary carrying out of the stitch is shown where the needle is at +work, and in another part the diagram, by some loosened stitches, +illustrates how to pass from one cluster to the next. + +Some fine examples of canvas work design, introducing a variety of +stitches, may be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. These are large +panels filled with foliage and flowers growing about architectural +columns.[3] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[2] No. 879, 1904. + +[3] No. 517-522, 1896. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +METHODS OF WORK + + Couching--Braid Work--Laid Work--Applied Work--Inlaid Work--Patch + Work. + + +COUCHING + +Couching is the name given to a method of embroidery in which one thread +is attached to the material by another one. Sometimes not only one +thread but a number of threads are couched down together; or it may be +cord, braid, or metal thread that is attached to the material in this +way. Fig. 88 shows some couching in progress. The method probably arose +through the difficulty experienced in passing either coarse or very +delicate threads through a material. Couching is constantly in use with +gold thread embroidery, and it is further discussed in the chapter upon +that subject, where also is described an entirely different method, +which is to be recommended for couching other as well as for gold +threads. + +[Illustration: Fig. 88.] + +Couching is useful in a variety of ways, _e.g._ for carrying out work in +line or for outlining other embroidery, applied work for instance, which +is frequently finished off by means of a couched thread; in the case of +a difficult ground material, it is one of the most manageable methods of +working. The geometrical open fillings of leaves and backgrounds are +often composed of lines of thread thrown across and couched down at +regular intervals. Fig. 89 is an example of a favourite filling of this +kind. Embroidery stitches can be made use of for couching down other +threads; a bunch of threads may be laid upon the material, and an open +chain, buttonhole, or feather stitch worked over in order to fix it in +place. + +[Illustration: Fig. 89.] + +Braid work is quickly and easily executed; it needs only a suitable +pattern and a pretty braid for couching down to be most successful. +There are a few points to be observed about the technique--the cut edge +of a braid is awkward to manage, for it must, with a special needle, be +taken through to the back of the material and there made secure and +flat; for this reason the design should be so planned as to have as few +breaks as possible. Interlacing strap work designs, of which a simple +example is given in fig. 90, are very suitable for braid work. The +thread that couches down the braid may be quite invisible, or, on the +other hand, it may be made use of to further decorate the braid by being +placed visibly across it, perhaps forming a chequering or other simple +pattern, as shown in fig. 91. Ravellings of the braid may be used as +invisible couching threads for stitching it down. Curves and sharp +corners need special attention by way of extra stitches. The completed +work is much improved by several hours' pressure under a weight. + +[Illustration: Fig. 90.] + + +LAID WORK + +[Illustration: Fig. 91.] + +Laid work might be described as couching on a more extended scale--a +given space is covered with threads taken from side to side in parallel +lines close together, fixed at either extremity by entering the +material. Further security is usually given by small couching stitches +dotted down at intervals over the laid threads, or by throwing single +lines of thread across in a contrary direction and tying these down at +intervals with couching stitches. Yet another way is, to work a split or +stem stitch over the laid threads, and thus fix them down. Fig. 92 shows +a flower carried out in laid work. The tying-down threads can often be +made use of in one way or another to further decorate, or to explain +form, by means of contrasting colour, change in direction, and so on. +The laid stitches in this flower are taken from the centre outwards and +fixed in place by couched circular lines of thread. The centre of the +flower has a geometrical filling, composed of a couched lattice pattern +with French knots between. Conventional centres of this and like kinds +are very pretty for embroidery flowers; such patterns as those shown in +fig. 93 can often be seen in use, and they need only a trial to be +frequently adopted. + +[Illustration: Fig. 92.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 93.] + +Laid work shows off the gloss and texture of silk to great advantage, +which is due to the thread being laid upon the material without being +cut up into small stitches. Floss silk is much used for the work; it +must not be at all twisted in the laying down, since this mars the +effect. The work is carried out in a frame; it is quickly executed and +economical, the thread being practically all upon the surface. Owing to +the length of the stitches, this is not a very durable method, so it +should not be subjected to hard wear. The work has sometimes a flimsy, +unsatisfactory appearance, probably because of these long stitches. It +will be seen that the silk passing through to the back, and then +immediately to the front again, takes up very little of the material. A +method in use for giving greater strength in this way is to lay the silk +first in alternate lines and to fill up the gaps thus left upon a +second journey across the form. For added strength, use might be made of +a linen thread at the back, as in the _point couche rentre ou retire_ +method that is discussed later. + +[Illustration: Fig. 94.] + +A gold thread outline gives a nice finish to laid work. If there is +nothing in the way of an outline, and the pattern and ground are both +covered with laid threads, the edges of the pattern are likely to look +weak. Fig. 94 shows a leaf filled in with rather loosely laid threads +and outlined and veined with gold passing, the veining answering the +double purpose of fixing down the laid threads and veining the leaf at +the same time. + +In this work, the colouring is frequently in flat tones, but if +necessary it is quite easy to introduce gradation. Further variety can +be obtained by a contrast in colour in the tying-down threads. + + +APPLIED WORK + +The ancient Latin term _opus consutum_, and the modern French one +_applique_, which is perhaps the name most commonly in use, both refer +to the same kind of work; what is now called cut work is quite +different from this, and is described elsewhere. Under the heading of +applied work comes anything that, cut out of one material, is applied to +another; it may have been previously embroidered, or it may be just the +plain stuff. Both kinds can, as has been proved, be carried out with +excellent effect, but much unsuitable and badly designed work has been +done by this method, with the result that the very name has fallen into +disrepute. + +The simplest kind of applied work is that in which the design, traced +upon one material, then cut out along the outline of the pattern, is +applied to another material, the junction of the two materials being +hidden by a cord or suitable stitch. The applied work is most often +flat, but it can be in slight or in strong relief. The texture of the +materials employed may be an important factor in the result, for a +contrast in material as well as in colour is often wanted; sometimes the +former alone is sufficient. The choice of material depends very much +upon the use to which the finished work will be put, but this simple +form of applied work often relies for part of its effect upon an +intrinsic interest in the material, so it is usually carried out with +such materials as velvet, satin, or silk, either plain or figured. + +The design for this kind of work should be of a bold conventional type, +such as large foliage with the character of the heraldic mantling; any +naturalistic flowers, figures, or animals easily become grotesque. A +simple outline to the forms is necessary, both because of the technical +difficulties and for the effect of the finished work. This kind of work +is hardly suitable for expressing fine detail; oftentimes it is seen +from a distance, and many indentations on an outline sometimes tend to +weaken it. Heraldry can be well expressed by this method. Fig. 95 is an +example from a piece of XIIIth century work, a fragment of the surcoat +of William de Fortibus, third Earl of Albemarle, who lived in the reign +of Henry III.; the example can be seen in the British Museum. This +method of work is also particularly suitable for such purposes as the +decoration of wall surfaces, for hangings of various kinds, or banners; +it can, however, be used for many other purposes, provided the design +and the materials are well chosen. + +[Illustration: Fig. 95.] + +Owing to the difficulty of working upon some ground stuffs, the method +has arisen of carrying out the embroidery upon an easily worked ground, +such as linen; cutting it out, when finished, along the outline and +applying it to the proper ground, the junction of the two materials +being hidden by a cord or some equivalent. It is usually further +completed by light sprays or some other kind of finishing touches being +placed around the applied part, these worked directly on to the proper +ground. This prevents the embroidery from looking too bald and detached +from its surroundings, of which there is always a danger when it is +carried out separately and then attached; if at all possible it is +always more satisfactory to work directly on to the right ground. + +As a matter of fact it is almost always possible to do this; the workers +of the XIIIth century, the period at which the art of embroidery was at +its height, carried out the most exquisitely fine stitching and design +on such grounds as velvet that had almost as long a pile as some +varieties of plush. The famous cope of English work known as the Bowden +cope, of which a detail is given in Plate I., is an excellent +illustration of this point. Upon careful examination of the work it is +apparent that between the stitching and the velvet there is a layer of +material, composed either of fine linen or silk. This would be of great +help in the carrying out of the stitching. It is exceedingly probable +that this layer of fine material was at the commencement of the work +laid completely over the velvet background of the cope; for one thing, +the design, with its finely drawn detail, could easily be perfectly +traced upon a surface of this kind and only imperfectly upon velvet; +another advantage of this method would be, that the background would be +kept quite free from dust and from getting soiled by the hands during +the lengthy process of the work. The stitching would be carried through +all the surfaces, and when finished, the fine surface layer would be cut +away close round the edges of the design, which would be quite easily +done. This method of working upon a difficult ground is well worth +trying in place of the applied method. + +To return to the discussion of applied embroidery--let us suppose the +embroidered piece to be just completed on its linen ground, still +stretched in the frame in which it was worked. In another frame, stretch +the background material and trace upon it the exact outline of the piece +to be applied. Cut out the embroidered piece carefully round the edge, +allowing about one-sixteenth of an inch margin outside the worked part, +leaving, if necessary, little connecting ties of material here and +there for temporary support. With fine steel pins or needles fix the +cut-out work exactly over the tracing already made on the ground +material, then make it secure round the edge with rather close stitches +of silk placed at right-angles to the outline; with fine materials the +raw edge of the applied part can be neatly tucked under and fixed in +place by this overcast stitch. A cord is next sewn on to hide the fixing +and give a finish to the edge. The colour of this cord is important, +since its colour may increase the expanse of either the applied part or +the ground. Sometimes a double cord is put round, and in this case the +inner one is attached to the embroidery before it is cut out of the +frame, and the second attached afterwards. The inner one is often of a +colour predominating in the embroidery, and the outer one of the colour +of the ground. Gold cord is very usual; if a coloured silk one is used +it must be a perfect match. The ordinary twisted cord looks best +attached invisibly; to do this, slightly untwist it whilst stitching, +and insert the needle in the opening thus formed. Some kinds of flat +braids look well with the fixing stitches taken deliberately over them +and forming part of the ornamentation (see fig. 91). Bunches of silk are +sometimes couched round with a buttonhole or other stitch, but whatever +the outline may consist of, it should be a firm bold line. + +The work must be perfectly flat when completed. Puckering may occur +through want of care in the preliminary straining or in the fixing on of +the applied parts. Some materials are more easy to manage than others. +The difficult ones can if necessary have a preliminary backing applied, +which is useful also if the material is inclined to fray. The backing +may consist of a thin coating of embroidery paste, or of tissue paper or +fine holland pasted over the part to be applied. The more all this kind +of thing can be avoided, the better the work, for pasting of any kind is +apt to give a stiff mechanical look; also, if the work is intended to +hang in folds any stiffness would be most impracticable. + +Even more than simpler work applied embroidery needs the finish of some +light work upon the ground. Gold threads and spangles, arranged in +fashion similar to the sprays in fig. 112, are very often used. +Sometimes, instead of this, some small pattern in outline is run all +over the ground in order to enrich it. + + +INLAID WORK + +Inlaid work is in effect similar to the applied, and it is used for the +same purposes. The difference with this is that both background and +pattern are cut out and fitted into each other, instead of only one of +them being cut out and laid on an entire ground. The method of work is +economical, for there need be very little waste of material. What is +left from cutting out the pattern and background for one piece can be +used as ground and pattern for another and possibly companion piece. +There is in Perugia a church which possesses a complete set of draperies +of this description, that were made at a good period for this work, +early XVIth century, and evidently were designed for the position they +occupy. On festivals, the piers, pulpit, and parts of the wall are hung +with these rose and gold-coloured hangings of inlaid work. The design is +a conventional scroll-work pattern, and the various hangings have +alternately the rose ground with gold pattern, and gold ground with rose +pattern, the whole forming a rich and harmonious interchange of colour. + +[Illustration: Fig. 96.] + +Fig. 96 is an example of inlaid work. It is a XVth century tabard said +to have belonged to Charles the Bold, and now in the Musee Historique at +Berne. The pattern, it will be noticed, is planned on the counterchange +principle, which is particularly well suited for this method of work. + +A very ancient piece of the same kind of inlaid work is the funeral tent +of Queen Isi-em-Keb, dated about 980 B.C., which is in the Boulak +Museum, Cairo. It is composed of thousands of pieces of gazelle hide +dyed in various colours and stitched together so as to form a wonderful +design.[4] + +To carry out the work--Stitch in a frame some holland to use as a +background; this may be only temporary, being removed when the work is +completed, or it may be left for additional strength. The materials for +both background and pattern must first be carefully cut out. It is a +good plan, where possible, to cut the two together so as to ensure exact +similarity, for they have to fit together afterwards like the parts of a +puzzle. The cut edges cannot be allowed to fray, so if there is any +danger of this, precautions must be taken to prevent it, though the +better way is to choose in the first place more suitable material. +Leather is a particularly good example of one. Any pasting or backing +which might be used for prevention of fraying would prevent also that +possibility of exposing both sides of the work, which in inlay is +sometimes a valuable quality; also, the stiffening which unavoidably +results from pasting is rarely an improvement. When materials of +different thicknesses are used together, the thinner one can be lined +with fine holland so as to make it nearer equal in strength. After the +materials are cut out the next process is to lay them in position on the +prepared holland and tack them to it. Then, with an overcast stitch that +must not be allowed to pierce the under surface, join all the edges +together, and cover the stitches with a finishing cord or braid. The +backing can now be removed if need be. + + +PATCHWORK + +Patchwork can hardly attain to a high position amongst the various +branches of embroidery. The main object of doing patchwork frequently is +to make good use of valuable scraps of waste material. Unless, however, +the product shows evidence of well thought out colour and arrangement, +it cannot come under the heading of embroidery. Interesting results, +however, of many kinds can be produced from this paint-box of brightly +coloured scraps of material by ingenious mixing and shaping of them. +Patchwork infers a rather more mosaic-like design than inlaid work, to +which it is in some respects similar. The geometrically planned mosaic +and inlay pavements that are to be seen so commonly in Italy and the +East suggest great variety of patterns that could be applied to +patchwork. The illustration at fig. 97 is a simple example taken from +this source. Too often the results are only "alarming," as the Countess +of Wilton expressively puts it, thinking, probably, of the patterns +frequently seen upon cushions, patterns more resembling bright-coloured +bricks set in cornerwise than anything else. They are the most unrestful +looking things imaginable. The important elements of the work lie in the +colour, shape, and texture of the pieces used, for upon the right +selection the result wholly depends. The shapes chosen must be simple +owing to the necessity of fitting and stitching them together, but there +is plenty of variety obtainable with simplicity. The design may consist +of one shape repeated or several. If only one, it is limited to a few +geometrical figures, such as the square, hexagon, or shell shape; if +more than one, there can be greater variety of pattern. Fig. 98 is an +example in which four shapes are made use of, a large and small circle, +an octagon, and an S-like twist. Four of these twists together make the +figure that interlaces over the surface. Embroidery stitching can be +added to patchwork; for instance, this example might have a neat border +pattern worked on all the S-shapes, as suggested in the diagram, which +would probably considerably increase its interest. Fig. 99 shows flowers +springing from the base of the shell-form in use upon it. The embroidery +could be simply carried out in one colour, or if a more gorgeous result +were required, variety could be introduced in this way as well as in the +ground, and a marvellous combination of intricate colour could be thus +produced. + +[Illustration: Fig. 97.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 98.] + +For the work to be made up satisfactorily it is necessary that the +shapes be accurately cut out. To ensure this, a metal plate is cut and +all the shapes are taken from it; sometimes, in lieu of this, a pattern +is cut out in stiff cardboard. Lay this pattern-shape on the wrong side +of the material and pencil it round, then carefully cut out the stuff, +leaving about a quarter of an inch for turning in. Next lay the +pattern-shape upon a piece of stiff paper or thin card-board and again +trace off the shape, this time cutting it out exactly to the pattern, +tack the material to the paper, and stitch down the raw edges at the +back. Lay the prepared patches on a table and put them in place by +referring to the design, and then commence sewing the edges together +with an overcast stitch on the wrong side. When all are sewn, remove the +papers and flatten the seams with an iron. Any braid or stitch that may +be required to mask the join is next put on; this may be made ornamental +by interlacing knots at the corners, or by any other device that happens +to suit the work. The last thing to be done is to put a neat lining upon +the back to cover and protect the numerous raw edges. + +[Illustration: Fig. 99.] + +FOOTNOTE: + +[4] For further information see "The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen," +by Villiers Stuart. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_) + + Quilting--Raised Work--Darning--Open Fillings--Darned Netting. + + +Quilting is a method of working by which three materials are fixed +together by more or less all-over stitching. It probably developed +through the necessity of keeping the three layers in place. For +practical purposes only, the sewing machine does the work excellently, +but by making the stitching follow out some prearranged design, it is +raised to the level of art. Plate III. is an interesting example showing +what can be done in the way of design with the stitching over the +surface. Embroidery may be added to the quilting, and this is often an +improvement. The Eastern nations carry out marvellously intricate +designs in quilting, and English XVIIIth century work of this kind shows +Eastern influence strongly. A good example of this is a very interesting +piece in the Victoria and Albert Museum.[5] + +The first aim in quilting was evidently warmth, and the name denotes one +of the chief uses to which it is put. It is made use of also for +curtains, infants' caps or gloves (see fig. 100), all these things +requiring the three layers for warmth. The materials usually consist of +a surface one, which can be silk, fine linen or anything else; an +interlining of some softer material having a certain amount of spring in +it, such as flannel, cotton wadding, or wool; and for the third, an +underneath lining of some kind. A cord is sometimes inserted instead of +the inner layer of stuff, the lines of stitching running along either +side to keep it in place. Occasionally there are only the top and the +under layer, with no intervening material. The stitch usually employed +is a running, back, or chain stitch, and it can be of the colour of +the surface, or a contrast to it. Gold silk is often seen upon a white +linen ground. The chief interest in the work lies in the choice of +pattern, such things as colour, variety of stitching, interest in +material, are not made much of. In planning the pattern, use is made of +the knowledge that the closely stitched parts will lie more flatly, so +it frequently happens that the ground has a small diaper running over +it, and the pattern part, being less worked upon, perhaps only outlined, +stands out more and forms an effective contrast. + +[Illustration: Fig. 100.] + + +RAISED WORK + +In the XIVth century raised work was commonly done, but few examples are +known of date earlier than this. The raised effect is obtained by an +interposed layer of padding, which is a good method of getting a certain +kind of effect. It is perhaps wise to err on the side of too little +rather than too much relief. An example of too much and also of a wrong +kind is the English stump work that was popular in the XVIIth century, +when figures were stuffed like dolls, the clothes made separately and +attached, even to the shoes and stockings. Germain de St. Aubin, writing +in 1769, describes with much admiration a kind of _broderie en ronde +bosse_, apparently much the same thing and in equally doubtful taste, +though the skill required to carry it out must have been considerable. + +The work, usually done in a frame, must be well carried out technically; +the padding should be quite perfect in the form required before the +final surface layer is worked over it, for this one will not make any +deficiency right, but will only serve to show it up the more. Another +point to be careful about is to make the padding stop well within the +traced line of the pattern, otherwise the finished design will turn out +much larger than was originally intended. The outline is sometimes +worked round at the commencement, whereby its correctness is ensured. + +[Illustration: Fig. 101.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 102.] + +Many different materials are brought into use for padding purposes. One +of the simplest and most durable is a running of thread as illustrated +in fig. 101. The thread can be arranged so as to be thicker in the +centre than at the edges by laying some extra stitches over that part. +If a quite flat padding is required, the shape, cut out in cloth, felt, +or parchment, is attached by stitches to the material as shown in fig. +102; the surface stitching would be taken across it. Cardboard, +sometimes pasted on to the ground, is used for this purpose, but it is +unsatisfactory in several ways; for instance, cardboard letters are +procurable for embroidering initials upon linen, but they are not at all +practical for anything that goes through the wash; moreover, the letters +are sometimes of bad design. Cotton wool is used as a stuffing, its +surface being usually covered over with muslin, but this again would +not stand much wear of any kind, and so could only be used under certain +conditions. + +[Illustration: Fig. 103.] + +Another good method is to couch down a hank of threads of fine cotton or +perhaps wool as illustrated in fig. 103. For raised lines there is a +special kind of string procurable that can be couched to the ground +material at the required places. The padding, whatever it may be +composed of, should be as nearly as possible of the same colour as the +surface layer, in view of any after wear and tear misplacing the +threads. + +[Illustration: Fig. 104.] + +The top layer of underlay must lie in direction contrary to the surface +embroidery stitching, which is very often some form of satin stitch +taken from side to side over the padding. Instead of going through the +material it can be fixed on each side with a couching stitch, as in +fig. 104. A stronger way than these would be that shown in fig. 129. +Buttonhole is a good stitch for working over a padding; it would be +worked solidly in the manner described and illustrated on page 117, but +taken, as there shown, over a padding instead of over a flat surface. + + +DARNING + +There is a most practical sound about darning; it can, however, be made +good use of in embroidery as well as in plain needlework. There are two +rather different kinds in use; in both the stitch is a running one and +done in much the same way that a thin place would be darned in mending. + +One kind of darning is rather popular at the present moment, and +examples of it may be familiar; it is a large, bold kind of work, often +carried out with a coarse twisted silk. Upon the background, the lines +of stitching usually run straight across or up and down, in the pattern, +they radiate according to the shape of the form to be filled. The entire +material is covered one way or another by the running stitches, and +just one thread of the ground fabric is picked up where necessary at +irregular intervals; a loosely woven linen is often chosen for working +upon, one in which it is easy to pick up the single thread. Gradation of +colour can easily be introduced; the design chosen is most frequently +some kind of conventional flower and leafy scroll. This method of +embroidery is seen to best advantage when used upon large surfaces. + +The second kind is called pattern darning; in it the stitches are picked +up in some regular order, so that they form various geometrical patterns +over the surface. It is worked by counting the threads of the fine linen +ground and picking up a single thread or more in some regular sequence. +The threads are run in parallel lines close together, either +horizontally or vertically, so as to take advantage of the web of the +fabric. The work is particularly pretty and not difficult, requiring +only patience and good eyesight. Fig. 105 gives some simple examples of +the work--The first is a chevron pattern, formed by picking up one +thread and leaving about five each time; each succeeding row moves a +step forward or backward as required to carry out the pattern. In the +second example the darning is taken two ways of the material; in the +centre, where it meets and crosses, it entirely covers the ground. A +different colour might be used for each direction, which would look very +well at the crossing in the centre. The four corners are filled up with +a chequer darn; this each time picks up as much material as it leaves. +The third example shows the darning stitch forming a diamond pattern. +Samplers, dated early XIXth century, may be seen entirely filled with +these pattern darns; they are covered with most intricate and beautiful +sample squares showing various patterns in darning, and were possibly +done in order to learn how to repair damask table linen. In a collection +of early Egyptian work in the Victoria and Albert Museum, there is some +pattern darning, dated VIth to IXth century, A.D., which proves it to be +a very early method of embroidering. + +[Illustration: Fig. 105.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 106.] + +This pattern darning, however, is so pretty that it is often possible to +make use of it in embroidery work for all kinds of purposes. It makes a +very good background if there is sufficient space to show the pattern, +if there is not, the irregular darning might be used instead, for it +would in that case be just as good and much quicker to work. To +pattern-darn the ground with the ornament upon it left in the plain +material, perhaps not worked upon at all, is a very effective method of +carrying out a design, see fig. 106 for example. Again it might very +well be used for the conventional carrying out of draperies in the same +way as in _point couche rentre ou retire_.[6] The draperies on the +figure in the frontispiece could easily be carried out with silk thread +in the darning stitch, in fact this method of decoration more closely +resembles the early couching than any other; it is not quite as +satisfactory because the single threads of the background that are +picked up prevent the ground showing nothing but silk. Bands of this +work may be seen ornamenting needle books or work cases; it shows to +best advantage when worked finely with floss or filosel silk, the coarse +twisted silks are too thick for the purpose. + + +OPEN WORK FILLINGS + +[Illustration: Fig. 107.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 108.] + +Patterns can be carried out in line, they can be worked quite solidly, +and there is a method that lies between these two known as open filling. +The open and solid fillings are often used together in the same piece of +work; examples of this can be seen on the XVIIth century wool-work +curtains, the large scrolling leaves are sometimes partly worked openly +and a portion, possibly reflexed, filled in with solid stitches in +gradating colour; see for an example Plate VIII. This has a very good +effect, it prevents the work looking too heavy, shows up the form more +clearly, and allows of more variety in the stitching. With open fillings +the outline surrounding them must always be some firm decided line, such +as is made by a band of satin or long and short stitch, or, in the case +of larger forms, by several rows of different line stitches worked +closely together, one inside the other, most likely in different shades +of colour. A filling of open work can be carried out in a variety of +ways; it may be a decorated trellis, a regular dotting of some kind, or +some geometrical pattern in outline, or some light stitch such as an +open buttonhole (see fig. 107), which would be treated each as a +diapering over the form to be filled. It does not much matter what the +filling is as long as it is dispersed pretty regularly over the space, +giving the effect at a little distance of a light pervading tone, and +when examined closely exhibiting an interesting small pattern. The open +filling method can be used entirely throughout a design with very pretty +effect; an example of this may be seen on an embroidered coverlet and +pillow case in the Victoria and Albert Museum.[7] The pattern, composed +of vine leaves and grapes, is carried out in dark brown silk on a linen +ground, the leaves being all outlined with satin stitch. There is +wonderful variety in the patterns, no two alike, which form the open +fillings of the leaves; this makes them most interesting to examine, and +is evidence of enthusiasm in their designing. Fig. 108, a leaf taken +from this specimen, shows one method of filling a form with open +work.[8] Fig. 109 shows a collection of patterns taken from the same +piece of embroidery. It will be observed that small stitches of the same +length compose the pattern, which can be designed upon squared paper and +easily copied on to the linen ground by always picking up the same +number of threads. To look well these little forms must be accurately +worked, and they or similar kinds can be used upon flowers, leaves, +beasts, draperies, or anything else quite indiscriminately. Fig. 110, +from a cap in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a drawing showing the +same kind of open filling in use upon a bird.[9] + +[Illustration: Fig. 109.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 110.] + +A quicker way of carrying out these geometrical fillings is by using +such forms as a lattice and throwing the lines from side to side +across the shape to be filled, fixing them down, where they cross each +other, with couching stitches; the interstices left between the threads +can be filled in with little stars, crosses, or dots (see fig. 111). +Buttonhole stitch, if made use of as an open filling, would be taken in +lines straight across a form, the stitches being worked possibly two or +three closely together and then a space, and so on. + +[Illustration: Fig. 111.] + +Fig. 112 suggests another method of lightly filling a leaf with a +conventional veining and dotting. There is no limit to the variety which +can be obtained in this method of working. + +[Illustration: Fig. 112.] + +Open fillings are effective for use upon any work that is intended to be +seen with a light at the back; they make very decorative the various +forms they fill, in such things as muslin window blinds, curtains, fire +screens, whether hand screens or the larger type. For articles of this +kind the patterns should be rather more solid and less lined in +character; fig. 113, taken from a window blind exhibited in the Victoria +and Albert Museum, exemplifies what is meant; most of the patterns +illustrated in fig. 100 could be treated in a more solid manner if +necessary, and would look equally well that way. When working upon +transparent grounds special care must be taken with the reverse side as +well as with the surface, for the work to be practically alike upon both +sides; there must be no threads running from one form to another nor any +visible fastening off of ends. + +[Illustration: Fig. 113.] + + +DARNED NETTING + +[Illustration: Fig. 114.] + +Darned netting, or _lacis_, as it is sometimes called, might almost come +under the heading of either lace or embroidery. It is used effectively +with other kinds of white linen work, bands or squares of it being let +into the linen; the contrast of the solid with the more open work gives +a pretty effect. Fig. 114 is an example of this work. The darning is +done on a plain netted ground which can be prepared by the worker if +acquainted with netting, if not, the squares can be obtained ready for +working upon. The pattern must be designed upon squared paper as for +cross stitch work, then it is simply a question of following out the +pattern upon the square net ground. Every square of the patterned part +must be crossed in each direction by two lines of darning, which should +about fill it up. The various lines are run in and out as continuously +as possible, so as to avoid unnecessary fastening off or passing from +one part to another. When a fresh thread is required, join it with a +knot to the end of the last one (see figs. 165 and 166), and darn the +ends in neatly with the other threads. These knots are often used in +embroidery, for they are both strong and small. Detached stitches and +parts must be worked by themselves; the thread should not be carried +from one to the other. The work must be done in a frame and carried out +with a blunt-pointed needle. The same thread is used for the netted +ground and for the darned pattern. A method of work that the French call +_dessein reserve_ is, in result, rather similar to this, but it is +worked in just the reverse way. The pattern, whatever it may be, is +left in the plain linen, and the background has certain threads in each +direction withdrawn at regular intervals, whereby the effect of the +squared net ground is obtained. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[5] No. 1564, 1902. + +[6] For description of this method, see page 238. + +[7] A piece belonging to Lord Falkland. + +[8] Fig. 18 is a drawing from the border of the same example. + +[9] No. 308, 1902. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_) + + Drawn Thread Work--Hem Stitching--Simple Border Patterns--Darned + Thread Patterns--Corners--Cut or Open Work--Various Methods of + Refilling the Open Spaces. + + +This method of work is the acknowledged link between embroidery and +lace, and was possibly the origin of the latter. Drawn work is that in +which the threads of either the warp or the weft of the material are +withdrawn and those remaining worked into a pattern, by either +clustering together or working over them in some fashion. The cut or +open work, as it is sometimes called, is that in which both warp and +weft are in places cut away, and the open spaces thus formed are partly +refilled with a device of one kind or another. + +The work is most often carried out in white thread on white linen, but +coloured threads may occasionally be introduced with advantage. It is a +durable method of work, and particularly suitable for the decoration of +various house-linens, things that must undergo daily wear and wash; its +rather unobtrusive character too makes it the more suitable for this +purpose. The work is used in conjunction with other kinds of embroidery, +perhaps making a neat finish to an edge, or lightening what would +otherwise be too heavy in appearance. + +Drawn thread and cut work can be carried out with such detail and +fineness as to really become most delicate lace. In this chapter, +however, it is intended to be treated rather as an adjunct to other +embroidery, therefore only elementary work will be discussed. More +attention might with advantage be paid to the design of this kind of +work, for more might be done with it than sometimes is. For one thing, +there is very little variety in the patterns, and the result often seems +a spidery mass of incomprehensible threads with no very perceivable +plan; perhaps if more attention were paid to the proportion and massing +of the solid and open parts, a better result might be attained. Neatness +and simplicity are good qualities in the pattern, the method of work not +being suited to the expression of the various larger and bolder types of +design. + + +DRAWN THREAD WORK + +In drawn work the question is how to treat the remaining warp threads +after the weft has been withdrawn. They can be clustered in bunches in +different ways with ornamental stitches added, or be entirely covered +over with darning or overcast stitches in such a way as to form a +pattern. + +The beginning of most drawn thread work is hem stitching, the two edges +marking the limit of the withdrawn threads have usually to be hem +stitched before any pattern can be carried out. One method of doing this +is in progress in fig. 115. In order to work it, draw out three or four +threads of the warp and tack the hem down to the top edge of the line +thus made. The diagram explains the remainder of the working. + +[Illustration: Fig. 115.] + +Fig. 116 shows in the first example clusters of four threads drawn +together at each edge by hem stitching in such a way as to form a +ladder-like pattern. This and the one below are the ornamentations of a +plain hem that are most commonly seen. The variation in pattern in the +lower one is obtained by drawing together on the lower edge two threads +from two consecutive bunches in the upper row instead of just repeating +over again the same divisioning as before. These two examples are drawn +to show the reverse, not the working side. + +[Illustration: Fig. 116.] + +Another way of disposing of the undrawn threads is to cover them with a +kind of darning stitch, as illustrated in fig. 117. This kind of work is +more solid than the other, and is for that reason very durable. This +example is commenced at the right-hand corner, where the threads are +drawn loosely in order to explain the working. The needle, which should +have a blunt point, takes the thread to and fro alternately over and +under two clusters of warp thread, drawing them together a little +during the process; half-way down, the needle leaves the first set of +threads and continues working with the second and a new set (see needle +in diagram). When this is worked down to the base the needle takes the +thread invisibly up the centre of the worked part to the point where it +is required for the continuation of the pattern. The working of this +simple pattern explains the principle upon which all kinds of pretty and +more complicated designs can be carried out. The darning thread may be +coloured; in a more intricate design two or three different colours +might be introduced. + +[Illustration: Fig. 117.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 118.] + +Fig. 118 shows another pattern in the same kind of work. The darning +stitch begins by working to and fro over and under four clusters of warp +threads, part way down it continues over the two central ones only, +leaving the outside clusters alone for the present. It finishes up, as +at the beginning, to and fro over the four. The threads that were left +are next covered with an overcast stitch, the adjoining ones in each +case are caught together in the centre in order to form the X shape that +recurs along the pattern. This darning kind of work is very closely +allied to weaving, and especially the kind often seen in Coptic work, in +which bands of the woof threads are purposely omitted in places, whilst +the fabric is being made, in order that a pattern may be hand-woven in +afterwards to take their place. Many beautiful examples of this work are +on view in the Victoria and Albert Museum. + +[Illustration: Fig. 119.] + +In working a drawn thread border round a square shape, at each corner +there comes an open space that requires a filling. Fig. 119 shows two +wheels that are commonly used to ornament such places. The square in the +first one has a preliminary groundwork of threads thrown across from +corner to corner and from side to side, all meeting and crossing in the +centre. The working thread is brought through at this point and the +wheel commenced by taking a kind of back stitch over a bar and bringing +the needle up beyond the next bar. It then takes the thread a step back +and over the same bar and brings it up beyond the next; this goes on +until the circle is of sufficient size, the stitches growing a little +longer in each succeeding row. In the diagram the thread is loosened at +the end to explain the working. The lower example is a commonly used +wheel, which is made by the thread running round alternately over and +under a bar until the wheel is completed. It should be as solid as the +upper one, but is purposely left loose in the diagram. Either of the +wheels could have a line of buttonhole stitching worked round the edge +as a finish. This figure shows also the two usual ways of making firm +the raw edges in cut work--the square shape is bound by an overcast +stitch, and the round one by buttonholing. + + +CUT OR OPEN WORK + +Cut work can be most interesting both to look at and to carry out. In +the XVIIth century Italy was famous for its _punto tagliato_ or cut +work. John Taylor mentions "rare Italian cutworke" in "The Praise of +the Needle." This poem may perhaps be of interest to some; it was +prefixed to a book of embroidery patterns of cut work named "The +Needle's Excellency." It ran through twelve editions, the first of which +was printed in 1621, and sold at "the signe of the Marigold in Paules +Churchyard." Copies may be seen in the British Museum Library; in the +Bodleian, Oxford, in the Ryland's Library, Manchester, and occasionally +elsewhere. Fig. 120 shows a pattern taken from this book. + +There are several distinct varieties of cut work, for instance, that +known as renaissance embroidery, which is usually composed of an +arabesque design from which the background is cut away, leaving the +pattern in the linen; the cut edges are outlined and protected by an +overcast stitch. The pattern has to be specially planned with the idea +of holding strongly together, but, if necessary, buttonholed bars can be +added to form strengthening ties in any weak part. + +Another kind of cut work is that known as _broderie anglaise_, and +sometimes as Madeira work, over which our grandmothers spent much time, +perhaps without adequate result. The pattern is followed out by round +holes pierced in the linen with a stiletto and then overcast round the +edges. At the present day the work is done mostly by machinery, though +hand work also is procurable. + +[Illustration: Fig. 120.] + +Perhaps the prettiest kind of cut work is that in which various-shaped +spaces are cut out of the linen, and these filled in, in part, with +some design built up with stitches. There are various methods of +refilling the spaces cut out, one of the simplest is a diapering formed +by some lace stitch, such as an open buttonhole. As a rule, the +decoration of the open spaces is based upon bars of thread that are +either composed of warp or woof threads left, instead of being cut away, +or else upon fresh threads thrown across in various directions. The +pattern is planned on and about these strengthening ties, and where +necessary receiving support from them. An ingenious worker will soon +devise ways of refilling the spaces by all kinds of interesting +patterns, which can be geometrical or floral, or any kinds of objects +that can be attractively represented in conventional fashion, such as +figures, birds, insects, ships in full sail, or anything else. It must, +however, be remembered that the various forms filling the spaces are for +use in the way of strength as well as for ornament, and that the work is +often put upon objects that have to endure daily wear. + +Open work is frequently mixed with other, and especially with white +embroidery, and such things as counterpanes may be seen arranged with a +chequering of alternate squares of embroidered linen and open work. + +Fig. 121 shows in progress a simple method of filling a space, mainly +making use of the strengthening threads that have been left at regular +intervals over the cut part. The threads are covered with an overcast +stitch, and alternate squares of those that recur over the space are +decorated with a cross. This is made by the working thread, after +reaching the right point at the centre of an overcast line, being thrown +across the space and then twisted back over itself to the +starting-point, where it is in the right position for continuing the +overcast line. The crosses being put in at the same time as the +overcasting of the bars renders some forethought necessary to get each +in at just the right time and place. + +[Illustration: Fig. 121.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 122.] + +Another kind of filling can be seen in progress in fig. 122. The +stitches used in it are overcast and buttonhole. With the help of this +last-mentioned stitch patterns of all kinds can be carried out, for each +succeeding row of the stitch can be worked into the heading of the last +row, and in this way it is possible to build up any required shape. This +figure is a working diagram of a piece of cut work of which the +completed square with its surrounding decoration can be seen in fig. 34. +After overcasting the raw edges a diagonal thread is thrown across (E D +on plan), upon which the pattern shall be built up; the thread is taken +once to and fro and then twisted back again for a third crossing. +Commence by overcasting the threads from point D, and upon reaching the +part where the pattern is widened out, change the stitch to an open +buttonholing (as shown on line B). It is worked openly in this way in +order to leave space for another row of the same kind of stitching to be +fitted in from the opposite side, which is the next thing to be done. +Then an outer row of buttonhole stitch is worked on each side of the +central bar and into the heading of the first row of stitching; this is +shown in progress where the needle is at work. The entire pattern is +carried out in this way, first laying down foundation threads in the +necessary places and then covering them up with either overcasting or +buttonhole stitch as required. It is easily possible to carry out +flowers and all kinds of other things sufficiently well to make them +pleasantly recognisable. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +EMBROIDERY WITH GOLD AND SILVER THREADS + + Introduction--Materials--Precautions for the Prevention of + Tarnish--Ancient Method of Couching--Its various Good + Points--Description of Working Diagram--Working a Raised + Bar--Examples of Patterns Employed in Old Work--Illustrations upon + Draped Figures--Usual Method of Couching--Couching Patterns--Outline + Work--Raised Work--The Use of Purls, Bullions, &c. + + +Gold and silver threads have always played an important part in +embroidered work, and are a most valuable addition to the worker's stock +of materials, for they give a splendour and richness that is not +obtainable in any other way. They have been utilised from the earliest +times in both embroidery and weaving; in scripture and other ancient +historical writings there is abundant proof of this fact. + +The earliest form of gold thread in use was the pure metal beaten into +thin plates and then cut into long narrow strips; that it was sometimes +rounded into wire form is very probable. The first wire-drawing machine +is said to have been invented by a workman at Nuremberg, but it was not +until two centuries later that the drawing-mills were introduced into +England. + +Gold thread, similar to that we now use, entwined about a silk one, is +mentioned in a XIVth century Latin poem; also, it is known that in the +XIIIth century our English ladies prepared their own gold thread before +working it in, and it was of the same type as ours, the gold being +spirally twisted round a thread of silk or flax.[10] + +To be a skilled worker with gold thread needs considerable application +and practice. There is much variety in the work, some branches of it +being more simple to manipulate than others. It is desirable for all +workers to understand something of gold work, for it is frequently +employed in conjunction with other embroidery, as well as alone. Fig. +123 shows a couched line of gold thread outlining some silk embroidery, +which gives a pretty jewel-like effect of something precious in a +setting of gold. + +[Illustration: Fig. 123.] + +Gold embroidery may be divided roughly into three main classes, outline +work, solid flat work, and raised work. Outline work is, as far as +technique is concerned, one of the simplest forms of gold embroidery. +The pattern is followed round with a gold cord or double thread of +passing, fixed either visibly or invisibly with a couching stitch; the +work needs but an interesting design and suitable background to be most +successful. Fig. 124 illustrates a portion of a design, carried out with +gold cord upon a velvet ground, which has been further enriched by the +addition of little applied white flowers. The raised work, and that +which introduces the use of purls and bullions, is at once more +complicated, and perhaps hardly as pleasing as the simpler flat work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 124.] + +The method of applying the gold to the material is usually by couching +of one form or another, for most of the threads are too inflexible to +be stitched through. The ground, if it shows at all, is usually a rich +stuff, such as velvet, satin, or silk, in order to be in keeping with +the valuable thread. If the ground chosen is difficult to work upon, the +embroidery is carried out upon linen, and the finished work afterwards +applied to the ground. If both background and pattern are solidly +embroidered, linen can be used as the permanent ground. It is usual to +have two layers of material for working upon, for gold threads are heavy +and require the support of the double ground. There are several +advantages in this double material, as the old workers knew, for we find +they commonly used two. The under-layer can be a strong linen, and the +surface one silk, satin, or a fine linen, as required. + + +MATERIALS + +A variety of metal threads are manufactured for embroidery purposes, and +they are all obtainable in gold, silver, or imitations of these; +aluminium thread has been made lately, and has the advantage of being +untarnishable, but its colour and quality do not seem quite +satisfactory, and it is not popular. The imitation threads are never +worth the using; they tarnish to a worse colour, and are more difficult +in manipulation; what goes by the name of real gold, is silver or +copper, plated with the more valuable metal. The pure gold thread is +said not to be so practical as this, being too brittle; but somehow or +other it was more successfully manufactured in the past than nowadays, +for some gold work six centuries old exhibits beautifully bright +threads. + +The following list comprises the chief threads used in this work:-- + +_Passing._--This is a bright smooth thread, resembling in appearance a +gold wire; it consists of a narrow flat strip of gold spirally twisted +round a silken thread. It can be obtained in different sizes, the finest +qualities going by the name of tambour. Most passing has to be couched +on to the material, but it is possible to stitch in the tambour like +ordinary thread. + +_Purl._--This resembles a smooth round hollow tube of metal, very +pliable and elastic; when pulled lengthways it is found to be +constructed like a closely coiled spiral spring. It is manufactured in +lengths of about one yard, and for use it is cut into small sections of +any required size with scissors or a knife. There are several varieties +of purl, namely, the smooth, rough, check, and wire check. The smooth +has a bright polished appearance, which is obtained by a flat gold wire +being spun spirally round; the rough has a duller and more yellow +appearance, which is owing to the wire having been rounded; the check is +bright and sparkling, and consists of the flattened wire spun in a +different way, so that parts of it catch the light and sparkle; the wire +check is the same thing, but duller and of a deeper yellow, owing again +to its being made of the round wire. + +_Bullion._--This is the name given to the larger sizes of purl. + +_Pearl Purl._--This is manufactured in the same spiral tube-like fashion +as the other purl, but the gold wire is previously hollowed out in this +[inverted U] shape, the convex side being the one exposed. This, when +spun round, has the appearance of a string of tiny gold beads. It is +frequently used as an outlining thread. + +Various gold twists and cords can be obtained; they are composed of +several threads twisted up in the usual cord fashion, each ply +consisting of gold spun round a silk thread. + +_Plate_ is a flat strip of metal commonly about one-sixteenth of an inch +wide; it can be obtained in different widths. + +_Spangles._--These are small variously shaped pieces of thin metal, +usually pierced with a hole in the centre for fixing on to the material. +They are frequently circular in shape, and either flat or slightly +concave; the latter are the prettier. Many fancy shapes also are +obtainable, but they are inclined to look tawdry, and suggestive of the +pantomime. + +_Cloth of Gold and Silver._--This is a fabric manufactured of silk, with +gold or silver thread inwoven in the making. It is not now so much used +as formerly, when it was in great request for robes of kings and other +high dignitaries of church or state. + +A special make of silk for couching down gold thread is obtainable in +various colours. It is called horsetail or sewings, and is both fine and +strong. + +Padding for use in raised gold work is usually yellow, and for silver, +white or grey. Yellow soft cotton, linen thread, or silk, are all used +for the purpose. + +Various precautions can and must be taken to keep the gold thread +bright, for under unfavourable circumstances it rapidly assumes a bad +colour; the silver thread is even more liable to tarnish than the gold, +and it turns a worse colour, going black. There is a special paper +manufactured to wrap threads in, and the stock supply should be kept in +a tin or air-tight bottle; this is in order to protect the metal from +damp, which is most injurious; to do this is a difficult matter in the +English climate. Linen used for working upon, or as backing, is best +unbleached, for sometimes the chemicals used in the bleaching process +have a deleterious effect upon the gold; a piece of gold embroidery +wrapped up in cotton wool for preservation has been found completely +spoiled by some chemical in this wool, which proved more disastrous than +exposure to air would have been. Gas, strong scents, handling +(especially with hot hands), all have an evil effect, and so should be +avoided as much as possible. Work even whilst in progress should be kept +covered as much as is practicable, and should not be allowed to hang +about; the quicker it is done the better. A piece of finished work can +be polished up with a leather pad or a brush, similar to a housemaid's +brush for silver-cleaning purposes; this of course, must be used with +care. + + +ANCIENT METHOD OF COUCHING + +Gold thread can be couched on to the material in two distinct ways, one +of them in use at the present day, the other one that was commonly +practised in the XIIIth and XIVth centuries. About the second half of +the last-named century the earlier method was supplanted by the present +one. Almost every example of early gold thread work exhibits this +obsolete and ingenious method of couching. The Syon cope and the Jesse +cope in the Victoria and Albert Museum may be mentioned as famous +examples. M. Louis de Farcy[11] draws especial attention to this +beautiful method of working, to which he gives the name _point couche +rentre ou retire_, and strongly urges its revival; he points out many +distinct advantages it has over the method now in use. + +The durability is very great, owing to the couching thread being upon +the reverse side, where it is protected from wear and tear, and being +out of sight can be made strong and durable. If a thread is accidentally +broken it does not necessarily give way along an entire line, as may +easily happen in the present method. A proof of this point can be seen +upon the beautiful Ascoli cope lately in the Victoria and Albert Museum, +about which there has been so much discussion of late as to in what +country it originated, and who was the rightful owner. The early +couching worked entirely over the background of the cope is in a state +of perfect preservation; portions of the gold thread drapery have here +and there been couched by the other method, the tying down threads have, +in those parts, mostly disappeared, and the gold hangs loose and ragged +upon the surface. + +By the way in which it is worked, there results a particularly pleasing +and even surface, agreeably varied by play of light and shade. Another +advantage of the ancient method is that the completed work is very +flexible; this point will appeal to those who have experienced the +extreme stiffness of a large surface of ordinarily couched metal +threads. Flexibility is an invaluable quality for any work destined, +like copes and curtains, to hang in folds. + +Representations of draperies upon figures are well expressed, for by the +way in which they are worked there comes an indentation along the lines +marking the folds; this emphasises them rather happily, and also breaks +up the surface in a satisfactory manner. + +Fig. 125 is a diagram that will aid in explaining the working, it gives +both the front and the reverse side. This has been found to be the +simplest and the most practical method of obtaining a result similar to +the early examples; there is, however, no means other than examination +of result whereby to get at this obsolete method. To all appearance +there is upon the surface a kind of satin stitch worked in gold passing, +the stitches carrying out some geometrical pattern, such as a chevron or +lattice; but at the back a linen thread is seen running to and fro in +close parallel lines in the same direction as the surface thread, and at +regular intervals encircled by the gold passing, just as if this was +intended to couch down the linen thread. + +[Illustration: Fig. 125. Front. Back.] + +The ingenuity and satisfactoriness of the method must be admitted by all +who give it a trial, and it is interesting to conjecture how it may have +arisen. Possibly weaving suggested it to the embroiderers, for, take +away the intervening material, and it is not unlike woven work, and +these two arts would very likely be the accomplishment of the same +person. Perhaps the commonly used method of taking a coarse thread +through to the back (see fig. 167) suggested it, for this is briefly the +whole process. + +In order to try the couching, a two-fold ground material must be firmly +stretched in an embroidery frame, a strong linen underneath and a +thinner closely woven one upon the upper side. Some fine gold passing +and some strong linen thread, well waxed, are required to work with, +also an embroidery needle with long eye and sharp point, the size, which +is important, depending upon the threads in use; the needle has to +pierce the two-fold ground material, making a hole only just large +enough for the passage of a double gold thread. + +If the linen has a regular even thread the drawn pattern shown in the +diagram can be worked by counting the threads of the ground fabric, but +if this is difficult or impossible, as in the case say of a twilled +surface, a careful tracing must be made upon the linen; a beginner may +find this the easier way in any case. + +The end of the gold thread, which by now, in readiness for working, +will be wound upon the bobbin or spindle, must be passed through to the +back at the starting-point, the top left-hand corner in the diagram. The +linen thread secures it at the back and then comes through to the front +upon the traced line exactly beneath (see arrow on plan). It now +encircles the gold thread which the left hand draws out rather tautly, +and then returns by the same hole to the back, pulling the metal thread +through with it. There is knack in taking the gold thread only just +through and leaving the completed stitch straight and flat upon the +surface. The process is now repeated, the linen thread coming through to +the front again upon the next traced line, and so on. When the base of +the pattern is reached the gold thread is taken through once upon that +line, and then commences a like journey upwards. + +This practically explains the couching; variety is obtained by change of +pattern, but the method of carrying it out is always the same. Figs. +126, 127, and 128 show three patterns taken from old examples of this +couching. + +[Illustration: Fig. 126.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 127.] + +The difficulties in technique are easily overcome; an important aid in +this matter is the use of materials exactly right; this means needles +and threads of the correct size, the ground composed of suitable +fabrics, and properly strained in a frame. The aim in the working is to +get each stitch perfectly flat and straight in its correct place in +spite of the obstinacy of the metal thread; to avoid making the +perforation larger than necessary, for this makes the work clumsy; to +make each succeeding line lie closely beside the last one, for the +surface must be of solid gold, and if the ground showed through in +places it would impoverish the effect. + +[Illustration: Fig. 128.] + +The direction of the couched thread is usually either vertical or +horizontal, and it may be both of these in the same piece of work. The +reason of this may be because it is worked by counting the threads of +the fabric, or because the pattern is always treated as a diaper and +placed upon the surface without regard to contour. The exception to this +rule of direction is when the couching is taken along a stem or the +narrow hem of a robe to form the border, or along a girdle, it then +follows the direction of the band, this being evidently the most +straightforward and satisfactory method to use for the purpose. + +[Illustration: Fig. 129. Front. Back.] + +The _point couche rentre ou retire_ is an excellent method to use for +working a raised bar. Fig. 129 shows the front and reverse sides of a +bar worked by it. The gold thread comes cleanly through from the back of +the material instead of being clumsily doubled upon the surface, and the +durability is evidently great. The linen thread, it will be seen, runs +to and fro at the back, at each turn securing the gold thread. + +[Illustration: Fig. 130.] + +In fig. 130 this couching is to be seen in use upon drapery. It is taken +entirely over the exterior surface of the cloak, and upon the crown, +sceptre, and model of the church. The lines expressing the folds of +drapery are in this case shown by the couching at these places being +taken in a different direction. Fine gold passing is used for the +couched thread, much finer than can possibly be shown in the drawing, +and the pattern chosen for the couching down is a chevron. The other +parts of the work are done with silk thread in a fine chain or split +stitch. The play of light upon the varied surface of the golden cloak is +very beautiful; the drawing of the figure is perhaps primitive, and, +regarded from the draughtsman's point of view, somewhat ludicrous; it is +however sufficiently good to express all that its author intended, and +there is something very human in this dignified little king who would +not have you forget that he founded a church. The king who is +personified here is Edward the Confessor, so the church is Westminster +Abbey, of which he was the founder. + +[Illustration: Fig. 131.] + +The Madonna and child forming the frontispiece of the work is another +example of this couching. The method of expressing the folds of drapery +is slightly different from that employed upon the king's robes. All +drapery carried out in this stitch is worked in somewhat the same +fashion, that is, the couching running to and fro between the lines +marks each fold as roughly shown at fig. 131. This method leaves an +indented line to express the drapery, which is a more satisfactory way +than a simple line of dark colour worked over the gold, as in more +modern work. The indented line is often further emphasised by a line of +dark silk stitched along it, which is done in this case. The figures +are taken from the Jesse cope in the Victoria and Albert Museum;[12] +this vestment, with its red silk background and its finely coloured and +drawn ancestors of Christ posed amongst encircling vine branches, is a +most beautiful, though sadly mutilated, example of XIIIth century design +and workmanship. + + +MODERN METHOD OF COUCHING + +In the usual form of couching the gold thread is attached to the +material by fine strong silk. The thread is fastened down as a rule +two-fold, sometimes even three-fold; this method is both quicker and +more effective than couching each thread separately. As the couching +thread is necessarily in evidence, decorative use is often made of it as +well as practical; the stitches, for instance, may be planned so as to +carry out some pattern (see fig. 132) instead of being put down at +random. There is no limit to the variety of the patterns that can be +devised in this way. + +Decorative use can be made of the colour of the couching thread; a hot +colour warms the tone of the gold and a cool one does the reverse; and +the more contrasting the colour the more it is in evidence. + +[Illustration: Fig. 132.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 133.] + +The gold thread may be couched solidly in straight lines, as the above +figure shows, or it may be arranged in wavy lines either close or open, +as in fig. 133. The thread is waved by bending it round the pointed end +of a piercer just before fixing down. This waving line is particularly +suitable for the gold thread, since the slight change in direction +allows the light to play upon the metal very prettily. For this reason +gold is often couched solidly in circular or shell form over a ground. +In gold embroidery, therefore, the direction of the thread is a +specially important matter. + +[Illustration: Fig. 134.] + +At the end of a line a technical difficulty sometimes arises in the +turning of the thread, which is apt to be clumsy. This difficulty is +overcome in various ways; the most usual is to return the doubled thread +as neatly as possible and continue the next line; another is to cut the +thread sharp off, secure it close to the end with a double stitch, and +recommence in like fashion; the thread can sometimes be passed through +to the back and brought up in position for working the next line. The +fine point of a leaf may present difficulties in the same way; sometimes +one of the two threads is temporarily let slip and the point completed +with the single one, the left thread being picked up upon the return +(see fig. 134). For such occasions as this it is more practical to wind +the two threads of passing upon separate bobbins, and bring them +together at the working. Another way of overcoming the point difficulty +is shown at fig. 135. + + +RAISED WORK + +The couched gold threads may be raised in parts by means of some kind of +padding interposed between it and the ground. They are very effective so +treated, since the raised metal catches and reflects the light in a +pleasing manner. This raising of the thread, however, has been carried +to such extremes as to resemble goldsmith's work rather than embroidery, +and it is then hardly in good taste. + +[Illustration: Fig. 135.] + +A simple method of raising the gold is to lay down lines of string at +stated intervals over the ground. The well-known form called basket +stitch is done in this way; fig. 136 illustrates this stitch, a part of +the square is left unworked in order to expose the under-layer of +string. To carry out the diagram--First couch down the lines of string +at regular intervals over the surface, then commence laying on the gold +by carrying a doubled thread of passing over two bars of string, and +there fixing it down to the material, then over two more and fixing it +down again, and so on to the end of the line. This is exactly repeated +for a second line of passing, then, for the next two lines, commence by +carrying the passing for the first stitch over one bar only, and for the +remainder of the line over the two as before. This process repeated +makes the wicker-like pattern so frequently seen in gold work. It can be +used as a filling or as a border. It is evident that with the same +arrangement of strings many other patterns could be carried out by +varying the points of couching down. + +[Illustration: Fig. 136.] + +Another way in which string is used for padding the gold is illustrated +in fig. 137. The pattern, which in the first part is two diamond shapes +and a border line, is laid down in string. The doubled gold thread is +then taken horizontally to and fro in close parallel lines over the part +to be worked, and fixed by couching stitches at necessary intervals; +wherever else these stitches may be put, one must always be placed upon +each side of a raised line to make it sharp and clear. Other kinds of +padding are used in this method of work; for instance, a lozenge shape +may be stuffed with layers of soft cotton, as shown in the second part +of this same diagram. Sometimes most complicated patterns are laid down +in string and covered with gold thread in this way, _e.g._:--fig. 138 +shows an interlacing pattern taken from the border of an orphrey upon a +XVth century chasuble. + +[Illustration: Fig. 137.] + + +THE USE OF FANCY GOLD THREADS + +A cursory glance must be given to the use of purls and other fancy +threads, but these are mostly used nowadays for badges on uniforms, or +for masonic purposes, and are carried out by the trade. These threads, +when tarnished, are very difficult to clean, they easily turn a bad +colour and catch the dust, and for real embroidery purposes are not as +satisfactory as the plainer threads. + +[Illustration: Fig. 138.] + +Purl and bullion must be cut very accurately into pieces of the required +size, and attached to the material as a bead would be. The metal must be +as little as possible touched with the fingers; the cut pieces can be +placed upon a tray lined with some soft springy substance, such as felt, +in order to be easily picked up with the point of the needle, and they +can be adjusted to their right position upon the work by the aid of the +flat end of the piercer; unnecessary handling may be avoided in this +way. + +These threads, laid over padding either straight across or at an angle, +may be used for the stems or petals of conventional flowers. The various +kinds, dull, bright, and check, may perhaps be used in succession. + +Plate is frequently taken to and fro over the same kind of forms over a +prepared padding, being caught down by a stitch on each side by a method +the French call _le guipe_. It needs skill and practice to do this well. +Crinkled plate used to be couched on to work, but now is not much used +in this way. + +Pearl purl is most often seen outlining a form filled in with the other +threads; an enlarged example of this thread lies vertically down the +centre of fig. 139, the end of it is pulled out, in order to show the +formation of the thread. + +[Illustration: Fig. 139.] + +Spangles are usually sewn down separately; they may be attached by +stitches from the centre outwards or by the thread being passed through +a piece of purl and then returning to the back through the hole in the +centre of the spangle. Fig. 139 illustrates another way of using these +spangles to form a long tail shape. Here again they are attached with +the help of pieces of purl. In the same figure are given some +illustrations of the use of the fancy threads; to learn more about them +the student should examine XVIth to XVIIIth century gold work during +which period they were in popular use. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[10] See Dr. Rock's "Textile Fabrics." + +[11] In _La Broderie du Onzieme Siecle jusqu'a Nos Jours_. + +[12] No. 175, 1889. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +LETTERING, HERALDRY, AND EMBLEMS + + The Uses of Lettering--Marking--Monograms--Heraldry--Emblems. + + +Lettering of one kind or another is frequently in request. It is useful +for inscriptions, verses, names attached to figures, the signing and +dating of work, and for the more ordinary purposes of marking linen and +so forth. Signed and dated work has peculiar attractiveness: it can be +placed amidst definite historical associations: an authenticated piece +of embroidery, say of the reign of King Richard Coeur de Lion, Queen +Anne, or George III., would be an historical document and a standard to +gauge the period of any uninscribed examples. Although few of us are +likely to possess treasures of the XIIIth century, signed and dated +pieces of our great-grandmothers' embroideries are interesting personal +landmarks in family history, so for this reason, amongst others, +unostentatious marks of identification are by no means out of place. +Descriptive names or verses are also a means of amplifying the story and +so enlivening our curiosity. + +[Illustration: Fig. 140.] + +Lettering can answer a further purpose still; it can enrich the design, +for, if rightly chosen and employed, letters are very decorative. They +may be seen forming a border to a piece of work. The three letters in +fig. 140 were taken from an XIth century embroidered cope, which has a +fine inscription running round the entire lower margin.[13] The names of +the saints and martyrs standing in rows in the columned arcades, +affected at certain periods, are sometimes inscribed in the mouldings of +the arches above them or along the base; kneeling donors can be seen +naively presenting a little scroll inscribed with prayers, and many +other interesting uses of lettering might be recalled. The names St. +Luke and St. John, shown in fig. 141, are taken from a beautiful +embroidered example of Gothic lettering. + +[Illustration: Fig. 141.] + +Illuminated manuscripts supply fine examples of initial letters and +writing. A visit to the show-cases in the King's Library at the British +Museum will be of great interest to the student; the illustrations also +to be seen there, the beautifully composed and coloured figure-subjects, +would be equally suitable for carrying out in embroidery; indeed it is +very probable that many of the figure compositions on the old copes and +chasubles were derived from such a source. Fig. 142 gives as an example +of an alphabet one taken from a Benedictionale of late XVth century +date. + +[Illustration: Fig. 142.] + +A practical purpose to which lettering is often put is the marking of +linen. To learn how to do this used to be a recognised part of a girl's +education, and was one of the objects of the sampler. Marking can be +anything from a simple cross-stitch initial to an elaborately worked +monogram. For simple work the corner to be marked can be tacked upon +_toile ciree_, a material not unlike American cloth. Tambour frames +also are useful for this purpose. + +Fig. 143 shows the stitches most used for working simple letters such as +those seen upon the old samplers. The first is cross stitch, which for +marking purposes should be worked so as to be alike on both sides. To do +this requires some forethought whilst the work progresses, and +necessitates an occasional doubling of one of the crossed stitches, in +order to reach the point for commencing the next one and at the same +time preserving a cross on each side. + +[Illustration: Fig. 143.] + +The second stitch in the diagram shows a square on one side and is a +cross upon the reverse. This makes a good stitch for the purpose, is +quite simple to manipulate, and is easier to manage than the cross on +both sides. + +The third example is made use of when a larger letter is required. It is +known as blanket stitch, and is used for the marking of such things. It +may be further completed by a neat back stitch just fitting along the +outside edges of the other stitches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 144.] + +Many embroidery stitches are suitable for marking purposes, such as +satin, chain, stem, back, rope, basket, and others. The Oriental stitch +which carries out the letter in fig. 144 is a good one when both sides +can be seen, for though these are quite different, it is presentable +upon either. The diagram shows the appearance of the stitch on the front +and on the back. + +A simple initial letter may be made interesting by enriching the ground +behind it with some form of diaper patterning. An example of this is +shown in fig. 145. The letter could be worked in a plain satin stitch +over a padding of threads, and the pattern on the ground in a darning +stitch and French knots, or in any other suitable way. + +[Illustration: Fig. 145.] + +A monogram carried out in embroidery can be a very pretty thing; there +is scope in it for ingenuity both of design and of stitching. The +letters may be decorated and tied up with a floral spray, strap work or +a combination of several _motifs_. Fig. 146 shows a monogram composed of +the letters I. G. ornamented and bound together by a ribbon-like +interlacing band. The letters are worked in a raised satin stitch, and a +running stitch in another colour threads in and out down the centre of +each letter. The outline is stem stitch in a darker colour. The band is +outlined on both sides with an overcast stitch, which always makes a +particularly neat edging for anything of this sort. The centre is filled +with a row of French knots, the tassels are worked in close lines of +stem stitch, and the petals of the small flowers in satin stitch, +finished off with a French knot at the centre. + +[Illustration: Fig. 146.] + +Another mark of proprietorship and origin was the shield of arms of the +owner, which introduces the subject of heraldry. A shield executed with +the needle is often seen, and looks particularly rich. Heraldry is an +intricate science, full of pitfalls for the unwary, and demands an +earnest study of its complex rules and regulations. Every one should +know at least some fine examples of great national shields such as the +Lions of England, the Fleur de Lys of France, and the Imperial Eagle. +Examples of shields surmounted by helmets and crests with quaint and +flowing mantling are to be seen in all kinds of art work. + +Various stitches and methods specially lend themselves to the expression +of heraldry. Those which, like cross stitch, impose a certain +simplicity, are very good. Another suitable medium is applied work, of +which an illustration can be seen on page 95. Gold and silver thread are +very useful here, and look exceptionally rich when couched in the XIIIth +century method. Fig. 147 is an embroidered coat of arms dated the first +half of the XIVth century. It is executed almost entirely in the _point +couche rentre ou retire_. The arms are those of the Clinton and +Leyburne families--_argent, 6 cross crosslets fitchee 3, 2 and 1 on a +chief azure, two mullets or_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 147.] + +In designing heraldic work care must be taken to introduce no debased +forms such as were current after the XVth century. The XIIIth and XIVth +centuries are the periods considered best for the study of this subject. +Heraldry sometimes adds historic interest to embroideries; owners or +donors may be traced by their coat of arms appearing upon some part of +the work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 148.] + +Allied to heraldry and marking are a number of decorative objects that +have acquired peculiar traditional significance of an emblematic or +symbolical nature, hard to define. The Cross of Christianity may be +instanced, the olive branch of peace, the mirror of truth, and the snake +of eternity. The name of a saint is frequently declared by an emblem +accompanying the figure. In appropriate surroundings emblems may often +be used effectively. For knowledge about these things the student must +go to various books that deal with the special subject. Fig. 148 is an +illustration of the well-known emblem, the Pelican in her piety. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[13] This cope is full of interest in every detail. See M. Louis de +Farcy, _La Broderie du Onzieme Siecle jusqu'a Nos Jours_. Plate II. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE GARNITURE OF WORK + + Finishing off--Making up--Edges--Use of Cord-making Appliance--Cord + Twisted by Hand--Knotted Cord--Fringes--Tassels--Knots. + + +When the embroidery is completed, the making up, the addition of +tasteful finishing touches, and such things as fringes, tassels, and +linings, must all be considered. These will, if judiciously made use of, +give a distinction and character to the work that might be missed if due +care and thought were not expended upon such details. This part of the +work might be compared to the garnishing of a boiled fowl with lemon and +parsley, a minor detail, but a very effective one. + +It is possible, by the help of such expedients, to emphasise certain +colours and bring out points of the design, as well as to give +completeness and finish. Such things as fringes, cords, and tassels are +often more satisfactory when made by the worker and with materials like +those used in the embroidery, for such will be more likely to be in +keeping with the character of the rest, and to be more interesting in +detail. In the finishing off the same taste and neatness of execution is +required as in the embroidery. Good work can be very much marred in the +making up; on the other hand, a little extra interest added on a part +not often seen renders it doubly valuable. + +The mounting of certain things should not be attempted at home; boxes +should be handed over to the cabinetmaker, books to the bookbinder, and +so on, for it is not possible for any one not an expert to do these +things properly, and even good work can look poor if badly set. + +The question how to appropriately finish off an edge often arises; let +it be hem stitched rather than plain hemmed; or a narrow line of drawn +thread work may be inserted, for an open-work border is frequently a +set-off to the rest of the embroidery. If a binding is placed over the +edge this can be fixed with a pretty stitch, or the stitch alone can +bind the edge, one such as buttonhole, overcast, or that shown in fig. +76. With some stitches the edge of the material can be rolled over a +piping cord and the stitch worked over the thus emphasised margin. + +The difficulty of procuring cord suitable for use with embroidered work +makes the appliance illustrated at fig. 149 a useful possession.[14] The +cords made upon this wheel can be of any thickness, according to the +number of plies and the substance in each. Different colours and +materials can be twisted up together, such as a gold and silk thread. + +[Illustration: Fig. 149.] + +To make a three-plied cord, cut three equal lengths of thread rather +longer than the required cord is to be, as it shortens in the +twisting. Make a loop at each end of the thread, or, better still, +attach tiny metal rings at the ends. Hook the threads in position as +shown in the diagram, and place the instrument far enough from the +clamped block of wood to make the threads that are stretched between +quite taut. Now commence the twisting by turning the large wheel quickly +with an even motion in the direction that continues to twist up the +threads, keeping the left hand on the instrument to steady it, for it +gradually slides towards the block as the twisting continues. When +corkscrew-like knots begin to come in the threads, stop revolving the +wheel, unhook the two outer threads and place them both on the central +hooks together with the third thread, keeping them taut during the +process. Revolve the large wheel again, in the direction opposite to +that in which it has been working, and continue turning until the cord +is tightly twisted up. It is now made, and can be removed from the +machine. The second twisting had better be over-done rather than not +sufficiently, since if over-twisted the cord rights itself upon being +removed from the machine. A two-ply cord is made in like manner, by +using first the two outer hooks only, and then placing both threads +together on the central hooks. + +There is a simple way of making this cord without the help of any +instrument, but it is not possible to get the perfect result that the +machine gives. It is most easily carried out by two persons, though one +can do it. In order to make a two-plied cord, by hand, take a thread +rather more than twice the length of the required cord. Let each worker +take an end of the thread in the right hand and commence to twist it +between the thumb and finger, each working in direction opposite to the +other and keeping the thread at tension. When twisted as much as +possible without getting corkscrew-like knots in the thread, the cord +must be doubled in half by holding it at the centre and bringing +together the two ends, which are then knotted. During the entire process +the thread must be kept under tension. If one end of the cord is now let +go it should immediately twist itself up tight, and remain in that +position. If any small knots form during the process run the cord +sharply through the fingers once or twice to straighten it out. + +[Illustration: Fig. 150.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 151.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 152.] + +Another pretty kind of cord is a knotted one. It is made in the hand in +most primitive fashion by using the two first fingers as crochet hooks. +The thread used for making it should be stout and firm. To commence +making the cord, knot two pieces of thread together and place the +threads in position as shown in fig. 150. The next step is shown in fig. +151, which is the index finger of the left hand bringing the darker +thread through the loop. Fig. 152 shows this thread looped on the +finger, the cord held in the left hand instead of the right, and the +right hand in process of drawing the lighter thread, which was the last +loop, tight. The next move, fig. 153, shows the right-hand first finger +making the new loop with the lighter thread, and fig. 154 shows the +loop on the finger, the cord passed over to be held in the right hand +again, and the left hand this time pulling the last loop tight. Continue +making the cord by following out the last four positions consecutively. + +[Illustration: Fig. 153.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 154.] + +A very usual finish to an edge is a fringe. This can be made either by +fraying out the material or by adding a detached fringe, either knotting +it in or attaching it in some other way. If the fringe is to be a +frayed-out one, the best way to do it is to first draw out a few warp +threads where the head of the fringe is to come, then hem stitch the +upper edge of this, see the right-hand end of fig. 155; this makes the +heading of the fringe secure, after which the remainder of the warp +threads can be withdrawn. When fringing a square in this fashion, it is +well to save some of the frayings out to knot in at the four corners +where otherwise there would be gaps. + +[Illustration: Fig. 155.] + +To knot an added fringe into the border is a very simple matter. Begin +by cutting the threads that are to compose it all to one length, about +double that of the required fringe. Take a few together to form a bunch +and double it in half. With a stiletto make a hole near the edge of the +material; then bring from the back a crochet hook through this hole, and +draw the loop formed by the doubling of the bunch a little way through, +then take the ends of the bunch through the loop and draw them tight in +order to make the knotting firm. + +[Illustration: Fig. 156.] + +There are many ways of patterning a plain fringe, sometimes a change of +colour in the knotted-in threads is sufficient, as shown in fig. 156. +Another very usual way is to divide the bunches and refasten them +together in some way to form a pattern. Fig. 157 is an example of this; +they may be either knotted together, as in the first half of the +diagram, or bound with thread as in the second half, the needle reaching +the required places by running in zigzag fashion up the thread and down +again. + +[Illustration: Fig. 157.] + +A simple fringe can be made of strands twisted together, as in the first +half of fig. 158. This is made upon the same principle as the twisted +cord already described. About three threads of the fringe are twisted up +tight, and an adjoining three treated in the same fashion. These threes +are then twisted together in the direction opposite to that which has +just been used, and thus are securely locked together. The ends of the +completed fringe may require a little trimming off to make all of an +equal length. The second half of the diagram shows a durable and simple +fringe made by a close series of knots down the thread. + +[Illustration: Fig. 158.] + +Fig. 159 suggests two methods by which a stitching of coloured thread +near the margin can help to decorate a plain fringed edge. + +[Illustration: Fig. 159.] + +A row of tassels makes a pretty finish to various things. Complicated +tassel-making requires a professional hand; even a simple tassel +requires making properly. The first proceeding is to wind some thread +round a piece of cardboard, which should be a little wider than the +tassel is to be long; then double a piece of the same thread and thread +the two ends into a needle, thus leaving a loop at the usual knot end. +Slip the needle through the centre of the wound thread close to the +cardboard, then through the loop and draw the thread tight; this will +bind the threads securely at that point. They can then be cut exactly +opposite this on the other side, which will release the cardboard. Give +the binding thread another tightening pull, and then take the needle and +thread straight through the centre, as shown in fig. 160, and fasten it +off with a good knot. This knot will be in the ball part of the tassel +and will help to make it round. Next, double the tassel into shape ready +for the collar. Thread the needle as before and make the thread encircle +the tassel, as shown in the second figure in the diagram, drawing the +thread quite tight, and, if necessary, winding it several times round +the neck of the tassel until the collar is of sufficient width, then +take the needle and thread straight through the centre, bringing it out +at the top, where it can be made use of to fix the tassel in its place +upon the work. With sharp scissors trim the edge of the tassel which +now is complete. The ball part can be further decorated by covering it +with an open network of stitches in some contrasting colour; buttonhole +and various lace stitches can be used for the purpose. + +[Illustration: Fig. 160.] + + +KNOTS + +Knots, which can be very pretty, are at times required in embroidery; +anything that requires a fastening may give an opportunity for some +pretty interlacing strap work or knotting. Also knots may be practically +useful in both weaving and embroidery, for sometimes a finishing thread +must be knotted on to a new one, since there may be no opportunity of +making a firm commencement with the aid of the material. + +The knot shown in fig. 161 is called the girdle knot; it might be made +use of in many other ways. To carry it out, make a loop with one end of +the cord and hold it between the left finger and thumb, the looped part +being towards the right, and the end that points downwards to the left +passing over the other end. Take up the other piece of cord, pass it +diagonally across the surface of the loop, commencing from the +right-hand lower side, then round under one end and over the other, then +up into the loop from underneath, over its own end that crosses the loop +there, and then out under the loop at the top right-hand corner. + +[Illustration: Fig. 161.] + +The Chinese knot, which is used for a sailor's collar, is shown in fig. +162. The looped end can be left as large as necessary. To work it the +first part of the knot is laid in position on the table, commencing at +point A; for the latter part (from point C) the thread is interlaced +through to the finish. It can then be pulled tight, taking care in the +drawing-together process that the various loops are adjusted in right +position. + +[Illustration: Fig. 162.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 163.] + +Another ornamental knot is shown at fig. 163. To make it--Form a loop +and hold it between the left thumb and finger, the loop pointing to the +right, the longer end pointing upwards and passing over the end that +points downwards. Take hold of the end pointing upwards, pass it +perpendicularly downwards across the surface of the loop, then round +under the other end, up over its own end, under the side of the loop, +over its own end that lies across the loop, and out under the loop at +the right-hand end. Pull as tight as required. All these knots may be +made of double cord by running a second through, following the lead of +the first, just before tightening up the knot. The one last described +may be made of doubled cord from the commencement, the looped end being +used as the working end: the knot will then finish off with a loop at +one end, which can be used as a loop or cut if required. + +[Illustration: Fig. 164.] + +Fig. 164 is an example of a pretty piece of interlacing strap work +attached to a fastening. + +The weavers' knot (fig. 165) is useful for practical purposes in both +weaving and embroidery; this knot is universally employed by the cotton +weavers when the warp breaks. It is made as follows--Place the two ends +that are to be knotted together between the thumb and first finger of +the left hand in such a way that they cross each other at right angles, +the end that points towards the left passing under the one pointing +towards the right. Pass the long end of thread that hangs down towards +the right, and which is the newly attaching piece, over the thumb, round +the back of the end pointing to the left in front of the other end, and +let it hang down again towards the right, holding the loop thus made +between the thumb and finger; then pass the end pointing towards the +right down through this loop and out on the opposite side. To draw the +knot tight, pull the end which hangs down towards the right, which will +tighten the loop and so complete the knot. + +[Illustration: Fig. 165.] + +The reef knot (fig. 166) is another useful one, and it has this +advantage over the weaver's knot, that both short ends return parallel +to the long ones instead of going off at an angle; this makes it neater +for some purposes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 166.] + +FOOTNOTE: + +[14] This will be found described in detail in Chapter II. There is an +interesting drawing of a neat little machine, similar to this, but +worked by cogwheels, in _L'Art du Brodeur_, by Germain de St. Aubin +(1770). + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS + + Transferring Patterns--Paste for Embroidery Purposes--Protection and + Preservation of Work--Washing Embroidery--Prevention and Cure of + Puckered Work--Points about the Thread--Dressing the Frame. + + +The best method of getting the pattern on to the material is to draw it +on directly with a brush; since this, however, is not always possible, +other ways of doing it can be employed. + +The pattern can be transferred to the background by a process called +pouncing. To do this fix some tracing-paper over the design and +carefully take the outline; a good margin of plain paper should be left +round the outside in order to prevent any of the pounce getting +accidentally rubbed on to the embroidery. The next process is the +perforation of the pattern. Lay the tracing upon some substance of the +nature of thick felt, then with a pricker or a needle, held in an +upright position, pierce tiny holes all round the outline of the +pattern, very close together. This completed, attach the perforated +tracing securely to the material, the smooth side of the perforations +towards the stuff. Both material and tracing paper may be fixed to a +board with drawing pins. Next, rub the pounce, which consists of finely +powdered charcoal or of white chalk, lightly over the perforated parts +with a soft pad, keeping the rubbing always in the same direction; once +or twice at the most over the surface is quite sufficient, often too +much is rubbed through, which afterwards is only in the way. The pad, +first dipped into the pounce, is rubbed preparatorily upon some paper to +remove the superfluous powder, and then upon the actual work. Carefully +remove the tracing-paper; there should now be visible upon the surface +of the material, in charcoal dust, a perfectly clear reproduction of the +pattern. Should, however, the impression be blurred, it is quite easy to +flick everything away with a duster and repeat the process. The causes +of failure would most probably be that the perforations were too large +or too far apart, or that there was some movement of either paper or +material during the process. It is necessary for the pattern to be +permanently fixed upon the ground material; blow lightly to remove any +superfluous powder, then, with a brush dipped in light red oil-paint +moistened with turpentine, trace a fine clear line over the powdered +pattern. When this is dry, what is left of the charcoal can be lightly +dusted away. Red is in most cases a good colour to use for tracing +purposes, for if by chance any tracing should show or come off on the +thread it will be a clean-looking colour, and one comparatively easily +removed in any after cleaning. + +Red or blue carbonised paper is used for tracing patterns; it is not a +good medium though it may be an expeditious one. If it is used, an after +painting over the outline will make the marking permanent. + +When pouncing or painting is difficult, a method of indicating the +pattern upon the stuff is to trace the design on tissue paper, and tack +it to the ground material with cotton, the stitching of which should +follow the outline of the design, and be kept as much as possible upon +the front. The thin paper is then torn away, and there will be some +suggestion of pattern left upon the material. + +Transparent ground stuffs need only be laid upon the pattern; then the +tracing can be taken directly on the stuff. + +Paste is sometimes in request for embroidery purposes; the following is +a good recipe--Pour rather less than half a pint of cold water into a +saucepan, add to this a piece of carpenter's glue about the size of a +small filbert and place it on the fire to heat. Put three teaspoonfuls +of flour into a basin, and with cold water mix to a smooth paste; when +the water in the saucepan boils add it to the paste, stirring well all +the time; then place the mixture in the saucepan and boil for about two +minutes. When cold it is ready for use. It may be required as a +preservative; for instance, canvas work when finished can have a thin +coating of paste rubbed over the back in order to preserve the stitches +from giving or running; when the work is to be used for such things as +furniture coverings this may be a good thing to do. Applied work is +sometimes pasted on to its new ground, and a backing may be fixed to the +surface material by paste. The more all this can be avoided the better, +for its tendency is to give a stiff mechanical look to work; +professional people, however, are rather fond of the paste pot. Paste, +if used, must be of the right kind, or it will do more harm than good. +It should be very fresh, and have no acid in its ingredients, of which +gum arabic must not be one if any after stitching has to take place +through the stuff, for gum makes it hard and less penetrable. The paste +must be applied and allowed to dry thoroughly before the work is removed +from the frame. A finger makes a good brush for the purpose. The paste +should be put on as thinly and evenly as possible, care being taken not +to rub on the cross of the material, since this might stretch it +unevenly. + +Shoemakers' paste is easily procured, and can be used for embroidery +purposes. This is made from rye flour, and is very strong. It is +harmless if perfectly fresh. + +A good many things go to the keeping of work fresh and orderly, which is +a very important matter. The work must be kept carefully covered up when +not in use; finished parts can sometimes be covered whilst the work is +going on, for the covering is easily raised when comparison with the +part in progress is necessary. The work should have some protection if +the hand rests on it; the worker should wear a white apron with sleeves. +The worker's hand should be cool, dry, and smooth; hot hands should +frequently be washed. The use of pumice stone cures slight roughness, +but fine work cannot be attempted if the fingers are for any reason +constantly rough. Wools and silks need a case to keep them orderly and +clean. The best way to preserve valuable embroidery is to frame it, +which, of course, is not always practicable, but it is a sure safeguard +against moth and dust. + +For washing embroidery special soap should be procured. It is not well +to use any ordinary soap, for this may contain alkali, which would +injure the colours in the work. Dissolve the soap in boiling water, and +add cold to make it just warm and of the required strength. Immerse the +embroidery in the lather thus made, and work it about gently, avoiding +any friction. When clean, rinse first in warm water, afterwards in cold, +to which a little salt may be added. The water must be squeezed out +carefully and the material quickly dried. If ironing is necessary it +must be done on the wrong side, but if the work can be pinned out on a +board to dry, and in this way stretched and smoothed without any +ironing, so much the better, for the embroidery will not be flattened at +all. Another way of ironing embroidery that is not harmful is to do it +from underneath while some one holds out the material. + +It is easy to prevent the puckering of work when it is carried out in +the frame; there is, however, no necessity for it to occur in hand work. +Certain stitches are more inclined to draw up the material than others, +and extra care has to be taken in working upon the cross of the fabric. +The work should be held in convex fashion over the fingers of the left +hand. Weights are occasionally attached to the corners of the work to +prevent any unconscious drawing of it up. + +There are remedies for the cure of slightly puckered work. Place on a +drawing-board some clean blotting-paper, damp it evenly over with a wet +handkerchief, and then lay the work, right side up, upon it. Fix the +work down to the board with drawing-pins, inserted at regular short +intervals round the edge, endeavouring during the process to stretch the +material to its original shape. This needs doing carefully, for it is +quite possible to stretch it to a wrong shape, and it will remain as now +pinned out. Next, lay some white paper or a handkerchief upon the +surface of the work, and then place upon it a flat weight that presses +equally on every part of the embroidery. Leave it undisturbed for a +night, and the puckering will probably be cured. Work, if not puckered, +may be improved by going through this process, which practically amounts +to a mild ironing, but without any injurious effects. + +[Illustration: Fig. 167.] + +There are various points about the thread that should be known. To +commence a new thread run a few stitches in the material upon the right +side upon a part that will afterwards be covered by the working. This is +a better way than a fastening on the wrong side, for it is both neater +and more secure. A knot made at the beginning is fairly safe, but it is +undesirable for several reasons. The needleful should not be lengthy +lest it gets worn before it is all worked in. With some threads it is +important to thread only the proper end into the eye of the needle, +since one way they will work in roughly and the other way smoothly. An +end of a coarse thread can be taken through to the back of the material +by the help of a fine one; the fine thread is brought through from the +back by the needle, it then encircles the coarse one, and returns to the +back by the same hole, pulling the coarse thread with it, as in process +in fig. 167. Taking it through by the aid of a thick needle would make +too large a hole. Thread can be knotted into the eye of the needle if +for any reason it is required to be quite safe from accidental +unthreading. The neatest way of doing this is to pass the needle +through the centre of the thread and draw it tight; this is a useful +trick for any unskilled worker with needles and thread, for re-threading +also may be a difficulty. When work has to be unpicked it is better to +cut the threads rather than do any drawing out, for they are in any case +unfit for further use, and this method wears the material less; a +beginner must not shirk unpicking if first-rate results are to be +obtained. + + +FRAME WORK + +Certain stitches and methods of work cannot be carried out except with +the help of a frame, others are hand stitches, and some few can be +worked either way. Work done in a frame takes longer than that done by +hand, and is rather more fatiguing. Each method has its advantages; in +the frame it is perhaps easier to get good technique, for difficulties +such as puckering the material, irregular stitching, and so on, are more +easily avoided, also it is more possible to see the effect of the whole +whilst the part progresses. In frame work a thimble is required for each +hand, for one pushes the needle through from above and one from below. +It is a rest to be able to reverse the hands, so both should be equally +dexterous in either position. + +To dress the frame correctly is an important preliminary, for unless +done well the effect of much after labour may be spoiled. In the chapter +upon tools and appliances in fig. 9 is shown a piece of linen stretched +in the frame ready for commencing work. + +The square of material that is seen to be inserted in the centre of the +stretched linen is to show how a very small piece or a portion of a +large surface could be stretched in the same sized frame. A corner may +require marking or a small detail of embroidery carrying out upon it. A +portion is cut out of the centre of the stretched linen, and the piece +or part of the material to be worked stitched securely to it, as +illustrated in the diagram. The remainder of the material, if there is +any, can be folded up and pinned out of the way over the rollers. + +To return to the dressing of the frame--the linen to be stretched, +before being fixed in place, must be hemmed or herring-boned down at the +top and base and then sewn with overcast stitches to the webbings, +inclining during the process to pucker the webbing rather than the +material. The side pieces can now be put through the holes at the ends +of the rollers and the metal pins inserted, or nuts adjusted, as the +case may be, in order to stretch the material to the right tension. The +raw edges at the sides must now be turned in or bound with tape, and a +string securely attached at intervals along the edge; this is for lacing +the string through that now braces the material to the sides of the +frame (see fig. 1). The screw-sided frame has an advantage over the side +pieces shown in fig. 9, in that in the former an extra turn can, at this +point, be given to the nuts to still further stretch the material; on +the other hand, some workers prefer the flat side pieces, thinking that +they make the frame more rigid. + +If the material, when fixed to the two webbings, is too long for the +frame, it must be wound round one of the rollers until of the correct +size. This must be done carefully, for a delicate fabric might get +damaged in the process; the roller can be padded with soft paper, and an +interlining of tissue paper can be inserted and wound up with the +material. It may not always be desirable to do this winding round the +rollers; in that case fine glazed holland can be stretched in the frame, +and the part to be first embroidered fixed to it. When the first part of +the work is completed, the holland is cut out of the frame and fresh +pieces substituted as the work goes on. If it is not wished that the +stitches should be taken through both surfaces, as would here be the +case, it would be possible to cut the linen partly away underneath, and +use it only as a kind of inner frame for stretching the material on, in +a way somewhat like that already described (see fig. 9). + +A backing to the material, however, is often a necessity--perhaps heavy +work may be put on it or the stuff itself is fragile; in such cases +there must be a backing of some kind. This usually consists of fine +holland or linen, which is first stretched in the frame and then has the +surface material securely stitched to it with overcast stitches, care +being taken that both materials are equally strained. + +To frame velvet, sew it to the webbing by the selvedges or that way of +the material, since the pile with that arrangement is more manageable +when the embroidery is in progress. + +[Illustration: Fig. 168.] + + + + +PART II + +TAPESTRY WEAVING + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +INTRODUCTION + + +Weaving, a most ancient art, naturally precedes embroidery, for this +necessitates an already existing ground stuff, which is generally some +kind of woven material. All varieties of weaving are done by one +little-varied method, that of the weft passing to and fro in and out of +the warp, and thus binding the whole into a fabric or web. + +The kind of weaving which demands from the worker the greatest artistic +skill is that which produced the great masterpieces of Flanders, once +known as Arras, from the town of that name, and now commonly called +Gobelins tapestry, so named from the _Manufacture des Gobelins_ in +Paris, at which establishment, founded over three hundred years ago, it +is still produced. + +It is this kind of weaving that is now to be discussed, but without the +least suggestion that the pupil should work upon a scale so large as is +usually followed, though there is no reason against doing so if it is +practicable. Tapestry weaving is so constantly associated with objects +of large size, such as wall hangings, that it is scarcely realised as an +art in this smaller way and as an alternative to embroidery. Yet it can +be work of a most interesting kind even when produced in pieces only six +inches square, as is well shown by existing specimens of the work of the +weavers in Egypt who flourished in the early centuries of the Christian +era. Examples of this work can be seen in many museums; they consist +frequently of decorative panels of tapestry work inlaid in linen tunics +and stuffs that have been used as grave clothes. These early Coptic +examples are, like all tapestry, built up by interweaving various +threads upon warp-strings stretched in close parallel lines. By varying +the colour of the threads that are thus manipulated upon the warp, +patterns of any degree of complexity can be built up directly by hand, +and without the assistance of any further mechanical contrivance. The +peculiarity of this ancient weaving is that the patterns are frequently +woven upon the warp-threads of some fabric, from which the weft either +has been removed, or, what is perhaps more probable, been purposely left +out when the material was made, to leave space for this decorative +pattern weaving to be added to it. + +The Latin name for the workman who in this way wove in the ornamental +patterns was _Plumarius_, which is a name known to be applied to an +embroiderer also. This weaving of small subjects is certainly very +little removed from embroidery; it may fairly be called needlework, for +it is as often carried out with needles as with bobbins, the former +being frequently better suited to the size of the work. + +In execution weaving is not more difficult than embroidered work; it can +be done in an ordinary room and upon a simple loom that is not more +cumbersome than an embroidery frame; in fact an embroidery frame can +sometimes be used in the place of a loom. + +Weaving takes about as long in doing as finely stitched solid +needlework, for in weaving the entire fabric is made, both pattern and +ground. The speed with which the work can be done of course varies +considerably, being mainly dependent upon the design that is being +carried out. Also the quality of the materials used affects the rate of +working; for instance, the thickness of the warp-strings and the placing +of them nearer together or further apart. Moreover the weft may be +composed of one strand or of several strands together. + +In weaving, unless the materials used are very fine, it is impossible to +get minute detail in drawing; fortunately it is seldom necessary to +attempt much of this. The simpler and more direct work is as good as, +and sometimes better than, that with finely gradated colour, shading, +and form. On the other hand, work, small in scale, even though simply +treated, does not look well when carried out with very coarse materials, +for they seem out of proportion to the size of it. + +The main difficulty in the technique of the work lies in the attainment +of good draughtsmanship, which of course includes light and shade as +well as outline. It is naturally more difficult to draw by means of +bobbin and thread, in horizontal lines, than to work unrestrictedly with +a pencil, or even with an embroidery needle. + +There is a great deal in the preparation of the design; as in all other +crafts this must be suited to the method of work; otherwise the +difficulties of execution will be greatly increased and the result will +be less satisfactory. This is even more important in weaving than in +embroidery, for in the latter the stitch and method may possibly be +chosen to suit the design, but in weaving no variation of stitch is +possible; all must be carried out in the same way. + +Tapestry weaving, whether for wall hangings or for small objects, has +the same technical difficulties, and certain restrictions govern all +work of the kind. One point to be observed is, the main lines of the +design should go as little as possible in the same direction as the warp +threads. This is because with each change of colour in the weft that +occurs in the direction of the warp, there comes an inevitable +separation in the woven material, which, oft repeated, would materially +impair the strength of the fabric. The less frequently this occurs, of +course, the better, since it entails additional labour, either a +joining-together stitch at the time of working or an after-sewing up +from the back. Long lines made by change of colour going straight or at +a slight angle across the warp-threads, are perfectly simple to manage, +and the hatching lines of shading, as well as the outline, should be +taken as much as possible in this direction. + +It will be noticed that most tapestries have the ribbed lines of warp +going horizontally across; in the loom these lines are perpendicular, so +this means that the design has been placed and carried out sideways upon +it. This is for the reason just under discussion, for the long lines of +a design are most frequently perpendicular, take, for instance, lines of +figures, draperies, or architecture, and so by placing the design +sideways in the loom, most of the important lines will come in the +direction most easy for the working of them. + +With small pieces it frequently does not matter which way it is carried +out, but it is useful to know when making the design that there is the +alternative of placing it either way upon the warp-threads. If this +matter were not considered and arranged, there might come a good deal of +twisting round one or two warp-threads which would be most +unsatisfactory in working and in appearance. A band of plain colour +framing a square piece of work will be found to be completely detached +from the centre part upon each side of the square, although working in +very straightforwardly at the top and base; if, instead of being a +straight band, the inner edge was vandyked, the work would be well +knitted together upon all sides (see fig. 169). In such ways as this the +technical pitfalls can be somewhat avoided by a designer who understands +the method of the work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 169.] + +To lay down definite rules for designing is practically impossible; +right and wrong depend upon so many circumstances. The study of fine +tapestries of the best periods is one of the most satisfactory ways of +learning what one may or may not attempt; the beautifully flowered +grounds in many of these show what excellent motives flowers make, and +how they should be treated. It is not usually a good plan to introduce +in any part of the work much plain ground, for it is inclined to look +poor; this is very likely the reason why the grass in tapestry-land is +often covered with such profusion of flowers. Tapestry calls for +beautiful colour, richness, and plenty of interesting detail; it is +essentially decorative work, and must be treated as such. The +arrangement of colours and tones need to be sharply defined; if by +chance a dark leaf comes against another dark one, a line of light +colour is sometimes deliberately run between, perhaps shading or +outlining one of the forms; a flower may even change its colour as it +passes over different backgrounds; what is more remarkable is that this +change, unless sought for, is imperceptible. + +The work may be applied to all kinds of uses, such as coverings for +furniture, mats, curtains, bell-pulls, book-covers, bags, boxes, and so +forth. Anything that hangs upon a wall is particularly suitable for +working in tapestry, for at a little distance this kind of work shows up +more effectively than embroidered work does. A great many articles, such +as alms-bags, frontals of all kinds, stoles and book-markers, for use in +churches could most excellently be carried out in tapestry. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +NECESSARY APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS + + The Loom--Mirror--Bobbins and Needles--The Comb--Embroidery Frame + treated as a Loom--Warp--Wools--Silk--Gold and Silver Thread. + + +TOOLS AND APPLIANCES + +The chief requisite for weaving is the loom; this can be made by a +carpenter from a working drawing. In the Victoria and Albert Museum +there is a model of a small tapestry loom, presented by William Morris, +which a novice will do well to examine. It is quite possible to carry +out a small piece of weaving upon an embroidery frame, but to work in a +loom which has all the proper appliances is always quicker, better, and +absolutely necessary with work of any size. + +There are two main varieties of tapestry loom, one in which the +warp-threads are horizontal, and another in which they are vertical. The +latter kind is considered to give the best results, mainly owing to the +possibility of the worker's seeing the right side of the work whilst it +is in progress. This is a great advantage, for tapestry is woven with +the reverse side towards the worker, and progresses by such gradual +steps that the weaver is prone to lose sight of the whole whilst paying +attention to the part in progress, and it will be easily understood that +to be able to go round and view the entire piece is of immense help. A +detail may perhaps be corrected during the progress of the work, but +afterwards this would be an awkward matter. It is one of the +difficulties of weaving to have to finish completely each step as it +comes up. Working from the wrong side is not so hard as it might seem, +for both sides are practically alike; the side towards the worker, +however, shows ends of thread and thread passing from one place to +another, which make it somewhat unpresentable. + +[Illustration: Fig. 170.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 171.] + +Fig. 170 shows a drawing of a small loom with some warp stretched upon +it in readiness for commencing work. It stands upon the ground, and is +about 4 feet high by 2-1/2 feet wide. It is made of beechwood; a hard +wood like this is best, for there must be no possibility of the rollers +bending with the strain of the warp. The loom consists of two uprights +standing upon heavy feet; these uprights are joined together at the top +and base by strengthening cross bars. Two wooden rollers are fixed into +the uprights (see A and B in fig. 170) and in the surface of each of +these a narrow groove is hollowed out lengthwise (see fig. 171); this is +for the purpose of holding a long metal pin, by means of which the +warp-threads are kept in place. The rollers are fitted at one extremity +with a handle for turning them round, and at the other with a ratchet +and toothed wheel to prevent unwinding. The purpose of the upper roller +is to hold the supply of warp-thread and unwind it as required; the +lower one is for winding up the web as the work progresses, so that upon +a loom of this size a piece of work of considerable length can easily be +carried out. + +[Illustration: Fig. 172.] + +The warp soon after it passes from the top roller is divided into two +leaves by a cylindrical wooden bar about one inch in diameter, called +the cross stave (see fig. 172). The cross stave may be oval or round in +section; if it is oval the warp-threads may be moved more widely apart +when required by turning the stave round, but this is not often +necessary. The upper part of the cross stave can be seen in position in +the loom diagram, which shows also how the stave divides the threads, +which pass alternately one in front and one behind the bar. After this +the threads are passed through a comb-like instrument, having about +fourteen divisions to the inch (see fig. 173). This extends from side to +side of the loom, and lies in a groove made in the bar that fixes the +coat-stave (C in fig. 170) in position at either extremity. It can be +taken out and exchanged for another with a different divisioning, if +necessary; without doing this, however, it is quite possible to put at +intervals two threads through one division, or to pass over one +occasionally if need be. The threads are next fixed in the lower roller. + +[Illustration: Fig. 173.] + +The coat-stave can be seen projecting from near the top of the loom. A +number of looped threads called coats are fixed to it, and each one of +these encircles a thread of the warp. They are attached only to those +threads that were passed behind the cross stave and form the back leaf +of the warp, and they are for the purpose of pulling these forward when +required. + +Underneath the lower roller is fixed a wooden tray, which is useful for +holding bobbins, comb, or scissors. + +On the loom is hung a small mirror facing the right side of the work +(see fig. 170). This enables the weaver to glance now and then through +the warp-strings at any detail that is in progress. + +Smaller looms can be made, suitable for placing upon a table; these, +standing about two feet in height, must in some way be firmly fixed to +the table, in order to be properly rigid for work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 174.] + +The thread composing the woof is wound upon a wooden bobbin or shuttle, +such as that shown in fig. 174. The chief point about this is, that it +may not have sharp angles that might catch in the warp whilst passing to +and fro. The pointed end is sometimes made use of to poke between the +warp-threads and press down the weft. A fresh bobbin is employed for +each colour, and the wool is wound upon it two or three strands +together, just as may happen to be required for the work. Large +blunt-pointed needles about three inches long (fig. 175) are often used +in place of bobbins, for with small pieces of work sometimes so little +of a colour is required as to make it unnecessary to wind a quantity on +a bobbin, which is, after all, only a needle with an extra long thread. + +[Illustration: Fig. 175.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 176.] + +A comb is necessary for pressing down the weft whilst the work is in +progress. Combs vary in size and shape; fig. 176 shows one suitable for +this type of work; it is 1-1/2 inches square, slightly wedge-shaped, and +about one-eighth of an inch thick. Boxwood is the most suitable wood to +make them from, since it is particularly hard and fine in the grain. +They are sometimes made of metal, ivory, or bone; for large work, metal +combs of a heavier type are used. + +[Illustration: Fig. 177.] + +An embroidery frame, which has been already mentioned as a possible +substitute for the loom, is oftentimes an article more easily procured. +Fig. 177 illustrates how a frame of this kind may be prepared with +warp-threads for weaving. One with the screw side pieces is the best, +for these enable the tension of the warp to be slightly adjusted if the +working shows any tendency to slacken the thread. + +To prepare the frame for weaving--Place the parts together at the +required distance from each other; secure the end of some warp-thread to +some part of the frame, and then commence to wind it round and round +over the two rollers, placing the threads at approximately the right +distance apart, taking into account when doing this that the two leaves +thus formed will eventually be brought into the same plane. When the +required width of warp-thread is wound upon the rollers, secure the end +of the string and proceed to bring the front and back leaves together by +darning a knitting-needle or some similar article in and out of the +threads at the centre. Then slide it up close to the top roller and +secure it by tying it with string at each end (see diagram). The same +process is gone through with a second pin, which is tied to the lower +roller. + +The warp-threads can now be adjusted to their proper distance apart, as +they will probably be a little irregularly spaced. The next process is +to weave two or three courses of warp-thread close to the knitting-pins +at either end; this brings the warp still nearer to being in the one +plane, and enables the threads to be arranged in perfect order by the +aid of the point of the bobbin or a needle, and they will remain as now +placed. + +The frame is now ready for work. A piece of plain web, about half an +inch in width, is usually woven before the actual design is begun; this +serves as a selvedge for turning in when the completed work is mounted, +and also gets the warp into condition much better for working upon. + +A thick knitting-needle can be passed between the alternate threads of +the warp and placed towards the top of the frame, as shown in the +diagram. This takes the place of the cross-stave in the loom, and, by +thus dividing the warp into two leaves, is of assistance when the +shuttle goes in one direction. Coats cannot easily be applied to an +embroidery frame. + +It is quite possible upon a frame of this kind to weave a long narrow +band of any kind. The warp must be wound on and arranged in position at +the necessary length by separating the rollers and temporarily fixing +them apart at the distance required for the band. The surplus warp is +then wound up on the upper roller until the side pieces will fit into +the ends. As it gets worked upon, the completed part is wound upon the +lower roller. A piece both long and wide would be impracticable, +especially if any winding on and off the rollers were necessary. + + +MATERIALS + +There are very few materials required for tapestry weaving; they consist +of, string for warp, wools, silks, and maybe gold and silver thread for +the weft. + +The warp is usually composed of a smooth, strong, evenly twisted thread, +specially made for the purpose. It can be procured of various +thicknesses. It happens sometimes that in parts the warp shows, as a +fringe or in some other way; in this case it could be made of a strong +silk thread, such as purse silk, though for edges of mats, the ordinary +string warp fringed out is quite suitable. Occasionally weaving is +carried out in such a way as to expose the warp in various parts of the +work, the pattern being woven, but the ground left altogether unworked. +In a case of this kind the colour and composition of the warp is +naturally important, and must be considered. In a show-case in the +British Museum there can be seen a small book with an interesting woven +binding carried out after this manner. The warp is composed of gold +passing, and the effect of this with a pattern carried out in brightly +coloured silks is very pretty indeed, the gold adding a rich glow to the +whole. + +Wool and silk are the chief materials used for the woof. It is well to +choose those of fine texture, for several strands can then be wound +together upon one bobbin, which, with coarse materials, would be too +clumsy a method. When working in this way there is more opportunity of +varying colour and texture, for three shades may be wound upon the +bobbin together to get a required colour, and this has often a prettier +effect than the use of an unblended colour; also, silk and wool are very +satisfactory wound and worked in together, each texture showing the +other to advantage. + +Fine gold or silver threads are frequently used in tapestry weaving. +They can be woven in alone, which gives a metallic look, or they may be +mixed with strands of silk. Both ways are very good, and the use of the +metal thread adds great richness to the work. These threads make fine +backgrounds, and they can be used in many ways upon the design; it is a +common practice to carry out the lighting of draperies and of other +parts in real gold, just as they are treated in illuminated manuscripts. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +PREPARATIONS FOR WORK + + Warping the Loom--Dressing the Coat-Stave--Tracing the Pattern upon + the Threads. + + +Upon commencing the warping of the loom the first matter to be decided +is the length of the threads. Some extra length must be measured off +besides that actually used for weaving, to allow for what is taken up +in fixing the threads and winding them round the rollers, and as it is +not convenient to work more than about half-way up the loom, this also +has to be allowed for in the length. The threads must all be cut to one +size, and since they have to be doubled in halves when placed on the +loom, this should be twice the required length. + +Another question for early decision is the number of warp-threads that +may be allowed per inch. This varies with the coarseness of the strings +and the thickness of the weft that will have to pass to and fro between +them; what governs both of these points is the design, whether there is +much detail or not, for if the drawing is complicated the warp-strings +must be fine in order to be able to carry it out; this point will be +better understood after some experience of working. Fourteen to sixteen +threads to the inch is a very usual number. + +The fixing of the threads in the upper roller is a very simple matter. +It is done by doubling each in halves and placing the loop thus formed +over the metal pin, which for this purpose may be temporarily suspended +by string to the frame of the top of the loom just above the roller. It +can be dropped into its place in the groove when all the threads are +looped upon it, and made secure there for the moment by tying some +string round the extremities of the roller. + +Each thread is now taken separately through the comb-like instrument. +The cross-stave is laid upon this, so it is well to put it in place now, +and carry the threads alternately in front and behind it, whilst passing +them through the comb. The threading of the strings through the comb +decides the number there will be to the inch, so they must be put +through at the required distance apart. + +The upper roller is next given a complete turn, which will make the +metal pin and the threads that are round it secure in the groove. The +winding up must be continued until only about three inches of the +warp-string hang below the lower roller. Some kind of tension must be +applied to the threads whilst this winding is going on, or it will be +done irregularly; a hand, or several hands, holding it, answers the +purpose well enough. + +The next process is to fix the threads securely in the lower roller. The +difficulty here lies in getting the placing and tension of the threads +between the two rollers exactly regular and even. If some were slack and +others tight it would be very awkward to correct afterwards, and +impossible to weave upon properly if incorrect. + +[Illustration: Fig. 178.] + +Fig. 178 shows a practical method by which the warp may be fixed in the +lower roller, but any contrivance will do that gains the required +result. To carry out the fixing as in the diagram, the roller must be +turned so that the groove comes just at the centre in the front. Four +lines of warp-thread are then fixed from end to end of the roller, two +above and two below the groove. Each warp-string in turn is now threaded +in and out of these cross lines, as shown in the diagram. This places +them in regular order, at the correct distance apart, and keeps them at +very nearly the same tension throughout. The metal pin is now placed in +the groove and pushes the threads before it. It must be temporarily made +firm there by string tied round the roller at intervals. + +The next process is to tie the warp-threads in knots, either two or four +together, just where they emerge below the pin. This prevents any giving +way, and if the threads are pulled just equally tight immediately before +the knotting, the tension of the entire warp will be the same. The lower +roller is next turned round until the metal pin is made quite firm in +its place by the warp-threads passing across the face of the groove. +The warp will now be fixed in the loom as shown in the drawing in fig. +170. + +The placing of the coats upon the coat-stave is the next part of the +preparatory work. Commence by fixing a line of warp-thread along the +exterior side of the coat-stave, making it secure to the bar at both +ends. The coats, encircling the stave and a thread of warp, are fixed to +this string by a kind of buttonhole stitch (see fig. 179). It is +important that each loop should be of exactly the same size; this can be +ensured by temporarily fixing a rod across the loom at the point where +the loops will encircle the warp-thread, and then taking the loop round +this bar as well as round the thread. + +[Illustration: Fig. 179.] + +To commence making the coats, take a long needleful of warp-thread and +secure the end of it to the string at the right-hand end, and then make +about three small looped stitches upon it (see needle in progress in the +diagram); next, instead of making another of the same stitches, take the +thread down below the stave, let it encircle the first thread of the +back leaf and then be brought up over the coat-stave and string and be +looped under the thread to complete the stitch (see B). Usually a long +and a short stitch are taken alternately, but the number of short ones +may be varied. This process is continued until all the threads of the +back leaf are encircled each by a loop. + +A new length of thread must be knotted on to the last one as it gets +used up. The weavers' knot, which is shown on p. 291, might be used for +the purpose. It would be made use of also if by chance the warp-thread +were broken, for it is a knot specially good for the purpose. + +When the coats are completed there are still one or two preparations to +be made before actually commencing to weave. Either a metal rod or a +long narrow piece of wood must now be threaded in and out of the +warp-strings and placed in position at the base. This rod can be seen +properly placed in position in fig. 179 in front of the lower cylinder. +This is put there to keep the lines of the woof horizontal when they are +being beaten down by the comb. + +Next wind on a bobbin some warp-thread similar to that already on the +loom, or, if that happens to be very coarse, let this be a little finer. +Now weave two courses with this warp-thread and beat it down with the +comb, leaving the woof during the process rather loose. The technique of +weaving with all its difficulties is discussed in Chapter XVIII. When +two of the warp-thread courses are complete, insert either the pointed +end of the bobbin or a blunt needle between the warp-threads below the +woven portion, and if necessary move the warp-strings a little to or fro +until they are equally separated each from the other all along the line. +Next weave about four more courses of the woof; these will serve to keep +the arranged warp-threads still more firmly in place. Then with a red +pencil rule a horizontal line straight across the warp-strings about +one-third of an inch above the woven portion. Wind on another bobbin +some wool and weave it to and fro until the space between the woven +portion and the red line is filled in. Between each course the comb must +beat the woof-threads firmly down. It is often necessary to weave over +some portions of the surface more than over others as the threads pack +down tighter in some parts. The loom should be now in perfect order for +commencing work. The preparatory weaving that has been done is often +useful afterwards as a selvedge. + +It is necessary to have a coloured drawing of the design for frequent +reference whilst the work is in progress; also a tracing of the outline +must be marked upon the warp-threads for the worker's further guidance. +The tracing upon the threads must be a reflection of the pattern owing +to the fact that the work is done from the back. It does not affect the +matter if the design is a symmetrical one, but to find the lions of +England facing the wrong way in some completed piece of heraldic work +would be most annoying. In order to get a tracing of the design upon the +threads, a sheet of paper, with a distinct outline of the pattern upon +it, must be attached, possibly by pinning, to the further side of the +warp-threads, exactly where the weaving is to take place. The outline +will be clearly perceivable through the threads, and the next process is +to take pen and Indian ink and make a dot upon each warp-thread in +sequence round the outline of the pattern. When this is completed, the +tracing-paper can be removed, and the dots upon the warp must be taken +all round each thread instead of marking one side only. The marking +round is done by holding a warp-thread between the finger and thumb, +placing the side of the nib against one of the dots, and then twisting +the thread to and fro against it. All the marks upon the first thread +are treated in succession in this way, then the next thread is taken up +and treated in similar fashion, and so on until all are done. Fig. 180 +shows a leaf marked upon the warp-threads in readiness for working. +This marking should be clear, sharp, and decided, all the lines being +taken horizontally round, as in fig. 180; if the pattern seems to run up +a thread, a mark just half-way up is sufficient guide. In a piece of +work of any size the tracing must be done, a part at a time, for the +threads moving slightly when the warp is unwound and the web wound up +may displace the marks and make the guiding lines incorrect. + +[Illustration: Fig. 180.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE TECHNIQUE OF WEAVING + + Weaving--Commencing and Fastening Off--The Interlocking Stitch--Fine + Drawing--Shading--Added After-stitches. + + +The way in which the woof threading in and out of the warp makes the web +is shown at C, fig. 179. Here the woof has been taken once to and fro; a +movement called a weft or a course, one way only, goes by the name of a +half pass or a shoot. By the use of the cross stave for one direction, +and of the coats for the other, the tediousness of the process of +darning in and out and so picking up the right threads is avoided. It is +not always practical to make use of these appliances; for instance, in +working over only two or three threads it may not be worth while, but +when they can be made use of the work is done twice as rapidly by their +help. + +The bobbin enters the loom rather high up, for there the division of +threads is greatest. One hand starts the bobbin upon its journey, the +other hand, entering between the divided warp-threads, takes it on and +out as required. Sometimes the bobbin has to go the entire way between +the leaves, and at others it may be only over two or three threads, this +depending upon the pattern. To enable the bobbin to make the return +passage, the warp must be redivided, the threads that are at the back +must be brought to the front; this is managed by the help of the +coats--a bunch of them is taken in the hand in order to pull forward the +threads to which they are attached. This can be done by sections all +along the line, or just in one part of it if it be so required. + +The weft is almost always taken in horizontal lines to and fro. The +exceptions to this rule occur when it is very evident that to run up +and down a narrow slanting line from end to end is far simpler than to +work up in a horizontal zigzag fashion along it. + +About an inch of thread is left at the end and at the commencement of +each length of weft; these are secured by the tight packing down of the +threads above them, so there is as a rule no need for any knot or +fastening off, which would be necessary only in the case of commencing +or ending off round a single thread, but it is important for the future +durability of the work to see that the ends are secured. Sometimes a +commencement or a finish is made just where a natural division of the +fabric occurs; in this case, the end of thread would not be secure, for +it might work loose or appear upon the right side. This can usually be +avoided by commencing a little further along the line. The few times +that fastening off or on is necessary, the thread can be run into the +part already woven with a smaller needle, or else be knotted on to a +loose end of wool. + +The bobbins not actually in use hang down fixed as in lace work by a +half-hitch. Fig. 181 shows this in process of making; the loop is passed +from the finger on to the bobbin; it will unwind as wanted and yet hold +firm whilst hanging down. The thread is always carried, if practicable, +from one place to where it is next required, in order to avoid +unnecessary breaking off. Tapestry is sometimes woven with both sides +alike, which means only that all the ends must be cut close off. It is +said that work so treated is quite durable. + +[Illustration: Fig. 181.] + +Special care must be taken that the weft is turned neatly round at the +margins, because if it is at all loose there the work has a ragged, +untidy appearance. This applies also to any turnings that may occur in +other parts due to the carrying out of the pattern; if in these places +the thread is too loose upon the warp, the fabric will be uneven and +pushed out of place; if on the other hand the thread there is too tight, +the slits will gape, and if these are afterwards closed by stitching, +the entire material will be drawn in. A new thread is never commenced +actually at the margin, for it would then be seen upon the right side; +it is quite easy to avoid this happening by commencing an inch further +in. This may entail beginning in a direction which is apparently wrong +for picking up the proper threads, that is, those not picked up in the +row below; but this must happen at times, and the work packs down and +quite prevents the warp showing, as it might be inclined to do in such a +case. It is sometimes at the margin a good plan to pick up two +warp-threads together, for this emphasises the edge rather pleasantly; +this might be advisable in carrying out a long ribbon-like border of any +kind. + +After each shoot, the point of the bobbin, the comb, or maybe the +fingers, should press down the woof to make it lie close upon the row +before, and so entirely cover up the warp. Fig. 182 shows the comb in +action, and also the bobbins hanging. The weft must be left a little +slack along the line for this purpose, and some experience is required +in order to leave just the right slackness. The turn at the edge is +arranged first, and then the thread eased evenly along its length in +readiness for being pressed down; it must have the appearance not of +running straight across the warp-strings, but of lying loosely round +them. For packing down a long line, much more play of weft is required +than for a short one. + +[Illustration: Fig. 182.] + +The usual fault with beginners is to draw the web too tight here and +there. This is a fault to be specially avoided, for it causes the fabric +to be drawn in, and to vary in width, spoiling its appearance and making +the threads difficult to work upon; also the packing down of the weft +could not be properly done, which would cause the warp-threads to be +exposed in parts. + +The thoroughness of this packing down of the weft is for several reasons +very important. The durability of the work is much affected by it, both +for the securing of the ends of wool already mentioned, and for the +making of a strong, well-knit piece of fabric. Another reason is, that +the drawing of the various forms in the design may be made incorrect, in +this way: suppose an apple were woven in, apparently correctly, but the +wefts were not pressed down thoroughly, the weaving and packing down of +the wefts above it would be sure to press the part underneath closer +together, and the effect of this would be to make the round apple assume +a flattened oval shape, and cause similar changes throughout the work. + +It has already been mentioned that wherever a change of colour occurs +vertically, that is, in the direction of the warp-threads, there results +of necessity a division or slit in the web; the slit, which may be of +any length, if noticeable, must be closed. This can be done whilst the +weaving is in progress by a method of interlocking the two wefts as they +meet, or else by stitching up at the back when the work is finished. The +latter way is called fine drawing, and must be very carefully done, +especially with large tapestries. + +Both methods are used; the first takes longer, but is the most durable. +Old and worn tapestries will usually be seen to have given way where +this stitching up at the back has taken place. In small pieces of work, +however, there is not much likelihood of strain, so the oversewing at +the back answers fairly well. The two ways can be used in conjunction. +Supposing a border, owing to its being of a different colour, had to be +joined the entire length of the work, the interlocking stitches might be +made at intervals of about half an inch, and when the work was finished +the oversewing at the back might be taken the entire length. + +[Illustration: Fig. 183.] + +Fig. 183 is a diagram illustrating the way in which the wefts may be +interlocked whilst the weaving goes on. Examination of the drawing will +probably be sufficient explanation; however, interlocking is effected +thus: Commencing at the base, run a weft of the darker wool to and fro, +leaving it slack at the turning point. A half pass of the +lighter-coloured woof is then run through, it is threaded in an upward +direction through the slack loop of the darker wool, waits there whilst +another weft of the darker colour is worked, and then is threaded down +through the second loop that has been formed, and returns to the +starting-point. It then comes back again and is threaded upwards through +this same loop, and waits, as before, for another to be formed, and +returns back through it--and so on. If this is done properly, no change +is visible on the right side. The joined weft will last as long as any +other part of the weaving. + +The process of stitching up at the back is simply an oversewing with +silk or other strong thread. The stitches must be rather close, drawing +the edges just sufficiently together, and they must not show through to +the right side. The stitching together should be done while the work is +on the loom, since the web would then be in less danger of pulling out +of shape. + +[Illustration: Fig. 184.] + +Shading in tapestry weaving is carried out by a hatching process which +is most simply explained by a diagram (fig. 184). The difficulty is not +in the working, but in getting the form of the shadow or light correctly +expressed. There is no need for fine gradation of colour and tone, for +the shading looks best when carried out simply and boldly, but the +drawing of it should be decided and good. The above figure gives but one +intermediary tone in shading from one colour to another, which is the +ancient method of working; at the present day the weavers in the +_Manufacture des Gobelins_ employ several other intermediary tones, thus +allowing of finer gradation; possibly however these fine gradations are +not of such great importance, and so need not have an unnecessary amount +of attention and time devoted to their accomplishment. + +The student will do well to examine fine examples and make careful +drawings from them, since this will teach the right way of going to work +better than anything else can. Fig. 185 is simply a shaded leaf taken at +random from a piece of weaving; the same leaf was shown in outline in +fig. 180, so the two show the commencement and completion of the same +piece. It will be noticed upon studying tapestry that usually all the +light parts of a work are hatched with the same colour, often a buff +shade, those of rich tapestries with gold thread. This sameness of +colour throughout gives unity to the work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 185.] + +Sometimes after the weaving is completed a few finishing touches can be +satisfactorily put in by means of single stitches taken through the +fabric with a sharp-pointed embroidery needle. The dots representing the +seeds upon a strawberry could be stitched in afterwards in this way, for +to insert them while the work is going on would be very tedious. This +kind of thing must not be overdone, however, for the stitches are apt, +unless very deftly treated, to have a laid-on look, and care must be +taken not to mar the evenly ribbed effect, which is one of the +characteristics of tapestry. + +[Illustration: Fig. 186.] + +This weaving is a most fascinating kind of work, as will be found upon a +trial. The simplest patterns look very interesting when woven, and, on +the other hand, the work can be carried to any degree of complexity that +the worker desires. For a first trial a piece might be done with no +attempt at shading; even one such as that illustrated at fig. 186 would +be suitable. This example happens to be a form particularly easy for +carrying out in weaving. The worker should begin at the lower right-hand +corner and work the successive flights of steps diagonally, as shown by +the unfinished portion of the diagram. + +In the way of actual technique there is in the art of tapestry weaving +not nearly as much to be learnt as there is in embroidery, for there are +no varieties of methods and of stitch to be acquired; still for a person +to become a skilled weaver, capable of carrying out large wall hangings, +is a thing very difficult of attainment--indeed it is said that it takes +as long as fifteen years of constant application to acquire the +necessary knowledge and skill. To carry out designs of less magnitude +and intricacy is a very different matter; success in this smaller way is +far more easily attained, and is well within the reach of unprofessional +people. + + + + +NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES + + +PLATE I.--_A Detail from a XIVth Century English Cope._--The figure of +Christ which is shown in this plate is taken from a central group, +representing the coronation of the Virgin, in a famous cope in the +possession of Colonel J. E. Butler-Bowdon. The ground is of rich red +silk velvet; the face, hands, and linings of the draperies are worked in +silk in split stitch; the drapery, crown, and surrounding architectural +decoration are in gold thread couched by the early method. The twisted +column with oak leaves and the five lobed arch are both characteristic +of English work of this period. Note the use of pearls in the lion's +head and in the acorns, also the charmingly drawn bird. An interesting +technical point displayed in this example is that the work is done +directly on to the velvet ground, instead of being first worked upon +linen and afterwards as a completed piece of embroidery applied to the +velvet. The method in use here, if at all possible, is always the most +satisfactory. + +Size of detail, about eleven inches by six. + + +PLATE II.--_Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope preserved at +Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire._--The cope is not now in its original state, +for it has been divided into two parts and used for the decoration of +the altar. The background is composed of a thin greyish white silk +backed with a stronger material. The white may have been originally some +other colour; it is, however, in its present state, very beautiful and +harmonious. The drawing of the features in this cope is remarkably +refined and true to nature (the reproduction does not do full justice to +the original). The ancient method, of working the faces in split stitch +commencing with the middle of the cheek and continuing spirally round, +then afterwards pressing the centre down by some mechanical means, is +plainly to be observed here. The effective drawing of the tresses of +hair in alternate lines of two colours is well seen in the left-hand +example. The gold thread which is freely made use of all over the cope, +upon the draperies, nimbi, and surrounding foliage, is marvellously +bright and sparkling, although nearly six hundred years old. The +manufacture of untarnishable gold for embroidery purposes seems beyond +present day enterprise. + +Width of nimbus, two and a half inches. + + +PLATE III.--_A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet, probably of Sicilian +work. Date about 1400._--In this interesting example of quilting, which +is exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum, the ground is composed +of a buff-coloured linen. The raised effect is obtained by an +interpadding of wool. The background is run over irregularly with white +thread, in order to keep it more or less flat, and the design, which is +in fairly high relief, is outlined with brown thread. The entire +coverlet is embroidered with scenes from the life of Tristan. Tristan +frequently engaged in battle against King Languis, the oppressor of his +country. This detail represents "How King Languis (of Ireland) sent to +Cornwall for the tribute." + +Size of detail, two feet by three. + + +PLATE IV.--_A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered in coloured +silk threads upon a white linen ground._--This is a piece of German XVth +century work exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is +embroidered almost entirely in one stitch, which might be described as a +variety of herring-bone. The design is made up of two motives which +repeat alternately along the band--a square shaped tree and a circle, +the latter decorated with floral sprays and, in the centre of it, a +group of emblems. Down the middle of the design runs a series of names +in fine Gothic lettering--"Ursula" and "Augustinus" being the two that +occur in this plate. + +Width of embroidered band, four and a half inches. + + +PLATE V.--_A portion of a late XVth century Orphrey, embroidered with +the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham._--The ground is of red +velvet, and is embroidered with gold thread and coloured silks. The two +shields here represented bear the arms of the families of de Bohun and +Fitzwalter. Each shield has for supporters two swans, and is surrounded +by floral sprays. The Stafford knot unites the sprays between the +shields. The chasuble upon which this orphrey is placed is made of a +lovely brocaded silk decorated with falcons, peahens, and roses. + +Width of embroidered orphrey, about eight inches. + + +PLATE VI.--_A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth century +Embroidered Picture representing the story of Daphne._--The picture is +worked in coloured wools and silks in cross stitch upon canvas, and is +an admirable example of this kind of work, and this particular detail is +a good illustration of a very satisfactory treatment of foliage. The +whole panel measures about seven feet by two, and is exhibited in the +Victoria and Albert Museum. + +Height of detail, ten and a half inches. + + +PLATE VII.--_An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth century Wool-work +Curtain._--This curtain, the property of Miss Killick, is a pretty +example of a small crewel-work hanging. The design is of a type that was +often used upon hangings of that period. It is embroidered with brightly +coloured wools upon a white linen ground, and is in a good state of +preservation. Much ingenuity as well as variety of stitching are shown +in the execution of the work. + +Size of curtain, about five feet by three. + + +PLATE VIII.--_A portion of a large XVIIth century Linen Hanging +embroidered with coloured wools._--In both design and execution this +curtain is remarkably fine. The entire hanging is about eighteen feet in +width by seven in height. It is embroidered with a conventional +representation of a forest; in the branches of the trees lodge all kinds +of birds and beasts. The type of design shown in this plate and in the +last is derived from Eastern work; its introduction into England was due +to the increase of trade with oriental nations, which developed about +this time. + +Size of detail, about six feet by four. + + +PLATE IX.--_Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth century English +Sampler._--The letters and surrounding decoration shown in this example +of cut or open work are built up on a square network of warp and weft +threads that were left at regular intervals throughout the space, when +the unnecessary threads were withdrawn, and then covered with a kind of +darning stitch. The letters are worked in buttonhole stitch, each fresh +line being taken into the heading of the last one. The other parts of +the work are carried out in either buttonhole or overcast stitch. The +complete sampler is a long narrow strip of linen, across which run +specimen bands of various kinds of work. It is exhibited in the Victoria +and Albert Museum. + +Width of cutwork detail, six inches. + + +PLATE X.--_An Embroidered Sampler._--The work is carried out in coloured +silks in minute cross-stitch and occasional rows of satin stitch, upon a +ground of fine single-thread canvas. It is dated 1798, and was worked by +Alice Knight, the author's great-grandmother. The birds, trees, and +flowers, the charming little border patterns, and the comical cats +standing on either hillocks or housetops, are all characteristic of +sampler work. Working the sampler was once the regular introduction to +mending, marking, and embroidery, and one was done by almost every +XVIIIth century child as a part of education, indeed the practice of +working samplers was continued some decades into the XIXth century. + +Actual size of original, eighteen inches by twelve. + + +PLATE XI.--_An Example of Persian Embroidery._--Formerly in the +collection of Lord Leighton, and now in that of the London County +Council's Central School of Arts and Crafts. The embroidery is carried +out almost entirely in chain stitch with brilliantly coloured silks, +upon a fine semi-transparent ground. The flowers that appear dark in the +reproduction are worked in a bright rosy red, others are yellow and +orange, and the leaves are in pale grey green outlined with a dark +myrtle shade of the same. + +Size of panel, about five feet by four. + + +PLATE XII.--_A Detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth._--The entire +surface of this fine white linen cloth is strewn with a profusion of +beautiful flowers, worked in floss silk in bright colours. The flowers +were all drawn directly from nature by the worker, Mrs. W. R. Lethaby. + + +PLATE XIII.--_An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by Miss May Morris, +designed by Mr. Philip Webb._--The work is carried out with floss silk +in bright colours and gold thread, both background and pattern being +embroidered. The five crosses, that are placed at regular intervals +between the vine leaves, are couched in gold passing upon a silvery silk +ground. + + +PLATE XIV.--_Two Pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from Tombs in +Egypt._--These are exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The +upper example is about five inches square, dated IIIrd to VIIth century, +Egypto-Roman work, and is said to have decorated a child's tunic. It is +woven in coloured silks upon a green ground; the colours are still +wonderfully fresh and bright. Weavers may see various interesting +technical as well as other points in this early work. For instance, how +the difficulty of the narrow detached vertical lines, necessitated by +change of colour in the weft, has been overcome by using surface +stitching instead, the easier horizontal lines being woven in the usual +way. A good deal of this surface stitching can be seen in the ancient +weaving; sometimes an entire pattern is picked out by this method, the +ground having been first woven all over in some plain colour. + +The lower border pattern is a band of weaving about two inches in width, +Saracenic work. It is woven in coloured silks and linen thread upon the +actual warp threads of the garment that it decorates. The weft threads +were probably omitted for the space of one and a half inches when the +fabric was being made in order that some ornamentation might be put in, +in this way. Some of the weft threads have perished, leaving the warp +exposed to sight; this enables the student to understand better the +manner in which it was carried out. + + +PLATE XV.--_An Example of a Tapestry Field strewn with Flowers._--This +kind of decoration is characteristic of many tapestry grounds, for the +style is particularly suited to the method of work, and very happy in +result. The detail shown in this plate is taken from a piece of late +XVIth century Flemish work; it carries on, however, a much earlier +tradition. The ground is of a dark blue colour, and the flowers varied +as in nature. + + +PLATE XVI.--_A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and gold thread by +the Author._--The ground is woven with black silk, decorated with gold +at the top and base. The centre panel is carried out in brightly +coloured silks and gold thread. The various compartments are filled with +representations of flowers, birds, and fishes, upon an alternating +purple and blue background. The dividing lines are of gold thread. + +Size of bag, ten inches by six. + + + + +THE COLLOTYPE PLATES + +[Illustration: Plate I.--A detail from a XIVth Century English Cope.] + +[Illustration: Plate II.--Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope +preserved at Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire.] + +[Illustration: Plate III.--A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet, +probably of Sicilian work. Date about 1400.] + +[Illustration: Plate IV.--A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered +in coloured silk threads upon a white linen ground.] + +[Illustration: Plate V.--A portion of a late XVth Century Orphrey, +embroidered with the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham.] + +[Illustration: Plate VI.--A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth +Century Embroidered Picture, representing the story of Daphne.] + +[Illustration: Plate VII.--An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth Century +Wool-work Curtain.] + +[Illustration: Plate VIII.--A portion of a large XVIIth Century Linen +Hanging, embroidered with coloured wools.] + +[Illustration: Plate IX.--Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth Century +English Sampler.] + +[Illustration: Plate X.--An Embroidered Sampler.] + +[Illustration: Plate XI.--An example of Persian Embroidery.] + +[Illustration: Plate XII.--A detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth. +Designed and executed by Mrs. W. R. Lethaby.] + +[Illustration: Plate XIII.--An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by +Miss May Morris, designed by Mr. Philip Webb.] + +[Illustration: Plate XIV.--Two pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from +Tombs in Egypt.] + +[Illustration: Plate XV.--An example of a Tapestry Field strewn with +Flowers.] + +[Illustration: Plate XVI.--A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and +gold thread by the Author.] + + + + +INDEX + + +Altar-cloth band (Plate IV.) + +Altar frontal (Plate XIII.) + +Appliances, 34 + +Appliances and materials for tapestry weaving, 315 + +Applied embroidery, 174 + +Applied work, 172 + + +Background, the, 46 + +Bag, tapestry (Plate XVI.) + +Beads, 50 + +Bobbins, 321 + +Braid work, 166 + +_Broderie anglaise_, 222 + +Bullions, 235, 256 + + +Canvas work, 147 + +Coat-stave, 333 + +Collotypes, descriptive notes on, 356 + +Colour, 72 + +Comb, 322, 344 + +Cope at Steeple Aston (Plate II.), 357 + +Cope, detail from XIVth century English (Plate I.), 356 + +Cord, 40, 271 + +Cord-making appliance, 39, 273 + +Cotton, 49 + +Couching, 164 + +Couching gold, ancient method of, 238 + +Couching gold, usual method, 250 + +Coverlet, quilted Sicilian (Plate III.), 358 + +Crewel work, 103 + +Curtain, XVIIth century (Plate VIII.), 361 + +Curtain, XVIIth century wool-work (Plate VII.), 361 + +Cutwork, 213, 221 + + +Darned netting, 210 + +Darning, 196 + +Darning, pattern, 197 + +Design, 30, 51 + +Design for tapestry, 311 + +Designing, pattern, 51 + +Directions, practical, 292 + +Drawn thread work, 213 + +Dressing the coat-stave, 333 + + +Egyptian weaving (Plate XIV.), 364 + +Emblems, 270 + +Embroidery frame used as a loom, 323 + +Embroidery, washing, 297 + +Embroidery with gold and silver threads, 229 + + +Figure work, 69 + +Fine drawing, 346 + +Flax threads, 49 + +Foliage, detail of (Plate VI.), 360 + +Frames, embroidery, 35 + +Frame work, 301 + +Fringes, 280 + + +Garniture of work, the, 271 + +Gold and silver threads, embroidery with, 229 + +Gold thread embroidery, 229 + + +Heraldry, 268 + + +Inlaid work, 180 + +Interlocking stitch, 347 + + +Knife, 43 + +Knots, 118, 286 + +Knotted cord, 277 + +Knotted thread, 119 + + +Laid work, 168 + +Lettering, 259 + +Lettering, cutwork, XVIIth century (Plate IX.), 362 + +Linen, 47 + +Loom, 315 + + +Madeira work, 222 + +Marking, 262 + +Materials, 44 + +Materials and appliances for tapestry weaving, 315 + +Materials for gold work, 233 + +Methods of work, 164 + +Monograms, 259 + + +Needles, 35, 322 + + +Objects to work, 31, 314 + +Open-work fillings, 201 + +_Opus plumarium_, 101 + +Orphrey, XVth century (Plate V.), 359 + + +Past work, study of, 28, 53 + +Paste, embroidery, 295 + +Patch work, 183 + +Pattern darning, 197 + +Pattern designing, 51 + +Pattern tracing, 328 + +Patterns, transference of, 42, 292 + +Persian embroidery (Plate XI.), 363 + +_Petit point_ pictures, 149 + +Picots, 143 + +Piercer, 43 + +Practical directions, 292 + +Precious stones, 50 + +Pricker, 42 + +Puckered work, cure of, 298 + +Purls, 256 + + +Quilting, 189 + + +Raised gold work, 253 + +Raised work, 192 + + +Sampler, embroidered (Plate X.), 362 + +Samplers, 148 + +Satin, 48 + +Scissors, 35 + +Shading, 68, 348 + +Silk, 48, 327 + +Silk threads, 49 + +Silver and gold threads, embroidery with, 229 + +Spindle, 43 + +Stands, embroidery frame, 37 + +Stitches, 75 + +Stitch, back, 107 + +Stitch, basket, 131 + +Stitch, braid, 88 + +Stitch, bullion, 121 + +Stitch, buttonhole, 107 + +Stitch, cable chain, 90 + +Stitch, chain, 77 + +Stitch, chequered chain, 84 + +Stitch, Cretan, 134 + +Stitch, cross, 152 + +Stitch, double back stitch, 127 + +Stitch, feather stitch, 129 + +Stitch, fishbone, 131 + +Stitch, French knot, 120 + +Stitch, Gobelin, 154 + +Stitch, herring-bone, 126 + +Stitch, Holbein, 159 + +Stitch, insertion, various, 139 + +Stitch, interlocking, 347 + +Stitch, Irish, 155 + +Stitch, knot, 124 + +Stitch, knotted chain, 92 + +Stitch, long and short, 99 + +Stitch, open chain, 86 + +Stitch, overcast, 106 + +Stitch, plait, 156 + +Stitch, rococo, 162 + +Stitch, rope, 86 + +Stitch, Roumanian, 136 + +Stitch, satin, 95 + +Stitch, split, 94 + +Stitch, stem, 101 + +Stitch, stroke, 159 + +Stitch, tailor's buttonhole, 109 + +Stitch, tambour, 77 + +Stitch, tent, 153 + +Stitch, twisted chain, 85 + +Stitch, two-sided Italian, 156 + +Stitch, zigzag chain, 83 + + +Tablecloth, embroidered (Plate XII.), 364 + +Tambour frame, 39 + +Tapestry bag (Plate XVI.), 365 + +Tapestry, example (Plate XV.), 366 + +Tapestry weaving, introduction to, 307 + +Tassels, 283 + +Tarnish of gold and silver threads, 237 + +Thimbles, 35 + +Threads, 49, 299, 327 + +Threads, gold and silver, 229 + +Tools, 34 + +Tools for tapestry weaving, 315 + +Tracing patterns, 42, 328 + +Tracing patterns on warp, 336 + +Transferring patterns, methods of, 292 + +Transferring patterns, requisites for, 42 + + +Velvet, 48 + + +Warp, 326 + +Warping the loom, 328 + +Washing embroidery, 297 + +Weaving, 339 + +Weaving, Egyptian (Plate XIV.), 364 + +Weaving, tapestry, 305 + +Work, garniture of, 271 + +Work, methods of, 164 + +Work, preparations for, 328 + +Work, protection and preservation of, 292 + +Wools, 49, 327 + + +Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. +Edinburgh & London + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +EMBROIDERY MATERIALS + +GEORGE KENNING & SON, GOLDSMITHS, GOLD LACEMEN, AND EMBROIDERERS, are +the actual manufacturers of all materials that are best for Embroidery +of any and every description. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +The following are a few articles from the great variety they +manufacture: Threads, Tambours, Braids, Laces, and Cords in Gold, +Silver, Tinsel, and Aluminium; also Spangles, Sequins, Ornaments, and +Beads of every possible variety. + +Please insist on your Draper or Fancy Warehouseman supplying only +materials manufactured by GEORGE KENNING & SON. + +MANUFACTORY: 1/4 LITTLE BRITAIN, E.C. + +_And at Liverpool, Glasgow, and Manchester._ + +RIBBON WEAVING FACTORY, COVENTRY + + + * * * * * + + +J. MAYGROVE & CO. LTD. + +_MILLS_-- _WAREHOUSE_-- +ST. ALBANS. 51 ALDERSGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C. + +_Manufacturers of Silks for Weaving and Embroidery._ + +_For REALLY RELIABLE BOILING and UNFADING DYES._ + +MAYGROVE'S DUCHESSE FLOSS. + + MAYGROVE'S TWISTED EMBROIDERY. + + MAYGROVE'S FILOSELLE, &c. + +UNEQUALLED FOR LUSTRE, PERMANENCE, AND ARTISTIC GRADUATIONS OF COLOUR. + +READY FOR USE. + + +FOR WEAVING. + +CHINA TRAM 1000 Shades. +TUSSAH TRAM AND ORGANZINE 500 Shades. +ORIENTAL FLOCHE 500 Shades. +WORSTED YARNS--COTTON YARNS. + + +_STOCKED READY FOR DYEING._ + +Organzines, Sewings, Flosses, Twists, and SPUN SILKS. +WORSTED Cords, Genappes, Mohairs, &c. &c. + + + * * * * * + + +PLASTER CASTS + +LETTERING FOR LETTER CUTTERS BY A. E. R. GILL + +Plaster Casts of the Stones shown on the Collotype Plates, numbers 13, +14, and 15, in the Portfolio, "Manuscript and Inscription Letters," by +Edward Johnston, price 3s. 6d. net, are obtainable from the Publisher, +or direct from Messrs. C. SMITH & SONS, Moulders, 15 Kentish Town Road, +London, N.W., at the following prices:-- + +_Roman Capital Letters (Incised)._ } +_"Lower-case" Italics, &c. (Incised)._ } 12s. _net per set of three._ +_"Raised" Letters, Capitals, &c._ } + +PACKED--DELIVERED FREE IN LONDON--CARRIAGE FORWARD FOR COUNTRY + +These Casts being facsimiles of the actual stones make the best kind of +models for Letter Cutters and Sculptors, and all who have to do with +Inscriptions. Being small, they are easily handled. + +The Portfolio, "Manuscript and Inscription Letters," by Edward Johnston, +is intended as a working supplement to his handbook, "Writing and +Illuminating, and Lettering," price 6s. 6d. net. It contains 16 plates +in all, measuring 9-7/8 x 12-3/8 inches, with full descriptions and +notes. + +JOHN HOGG, _Publisher_, 13 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, E.C. + + + * * * * * + + +ROBERT S. RONALD + +Decorator and Upholsterer + +[Illustration] + +Loom Maker to the Royal School of Art, South Kensington + +Table or Pedestal Looms to Order + +Prices on Application + +Office and Works-- +ST. ANN'S HILL, WANDSWORTH, +LONDON, S.W. + + + * * * * * + + +THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES + + +BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. Third Edition. +122 Drawings by NOEL ROOKE. 8 Pages Collotype Reproductions. 352 pp. 5s. +net. + +EXTRACT FROM _The Times_. + + "... A capital proof of the reasoned thoroughness in workmanship, + which is the first article in the creed of those who ... are + attempting to carry into practice the industrial teaching of Ruskin + and William Morris." + + +SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY. By H. WILSON. Second Edition. 280 Diagrams by +the Author. 32 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 500 pp. 6s. 6d. net. + +Containing special chapters, fully illustrated, based on demonstrations +and with notes by Professor UNNO BISEI and Professor T. KOBAYASHI, +of the Imperial Fine Art College at Tokyo, giving the traditional method +of Casting, Damascening, Incrustation, Inlaying, Engraving, and +Metal Colouring still practised in Japan, also on Niello, the Making +of Boxes and Card Cases, with chapters on Egyptian and Oriental +methods of work. + + +WOODCARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. 79 Drawings by the +Author. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 320 pp. 5s. net. + +EXTRACT FROM _The Builders' Journal_. + + "Undoubtedly the best guide to Woodcarving extant.... A practical + work, written with clearness and literary power by a practical man + ... of great artistic talent.... The illustrations are excellent." + + +STAINED GLASS WORK. By C. W. WHALL. 73 Diagrams by Two of His +Apprentices. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 392 pp. 5s. net. + +EXTRACT FROM _The Scotsman_. + + "It provides an exposition at once instructive and interesting of + the workshop practice of the craft ... of Stained Glass, animated + throughout by an encouraging and cheerful sense of the dignity and + the elevating influence of such an occupation." + + +EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING. By Mrs. A. H. CHRISTIE. 178 Diagrams +and Illustrations by the Author. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. +320 pp. 6s. net. (_Third Edition._) + +EXTRACT FROM _The Pall Mall Gazette_. + + "Mrs. Christie has performed her task to admiration, ... and her + lucid explanations of various kinds of stitches ... should be of + value to all workers at embroidery or tapestry weaving and to + novices anxious to learn." + + +WRITING AND ILLUMINATING, AND LETTERING. By EDWARD JOHNSTON. 227 +Illustrations and Diagrams by the Author and NOEL ROOKE. 8 Pages of +Examples in Red and Black. 24 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 512 pp. +(_Fifth Edition._) + +EXTRACT FROM _The Athenaeum_. + + "... This book belongs to that extremely rare class in which every + line bears the impress of complete mastery of the subject. We + congratulate Mr. Johnston on having produced a work at once original + and complete." + + +HAND-LOOM WEAVING. By LUTHER HOOPER. 125 Drawings by the Author and NOEL +ROOKE. Coloured and Collotype Reproductions. 368 pp. 6s. net. + +EXTRACT FROM _The Morning Post_. + + "... Every phase and process in weaving is described with so clear + and careful an exactitude, that, helped as the text is by the + Author's sketches and diagrams, the reader should have no difficulty + in conquering with its aid the rudiments of the craft." + + +PORTFOLIOS (in the Series) already issued. + +SCHOOL COPIES AND EXAMPLES. Selected by W. R. LETHABY and A. H. +CHRISTIE. 12 Drawing Copies (1 in colours), with Descriptive +Letterpress. 3s. 6d. net. + +MANUSCRIPT AND INSCRIPTION LETTERS. For Schools and Classes and the Use +of Craftsmen. By EDWARD JOHNSTON. With 5 Plates by A. E. R. GILL, 16 +Plates in all. Full Notes and Descriptions by the Author. 3s. 6d. net. +(_Second Edition._) + + +NEW VOLUME IN THE PRESS + +HERALDRY FOR CRAFTSMEN AND DESIGNERS + +BY + +W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A. + +_Further Volumes and Portfolios in preparation._ + + +ON WORKMANSHIP + +A LECTURE BY H. WILSON + +AUTHOR OF "SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY" + +1s. 6d. net + + +JOHN HOGG, +13 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING*** + + +******* This file should be named 20386.txt or 20386.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/3/8/20386 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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