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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving, by Grace
+Christie
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving
+
+
+Author: Grace Christie
+
+
+
+Release Date: January 16, 2007  [eBook #20386]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Susan Skinner and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/c/)
+
+
+
+Note: The reader is strongly advised to use Project Gutenberg's
+      HTML version of this book because it includes almost 200
+      illustrations which cannot be incorporated in this text
+      version.
+      See 20386-h.htm or 20386-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/3/0/20386/20386-h/20386-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/3/0/20386/20386-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+    _"Flowers, Plants and Fishes, Birds, Beasts, Flyes, and Bees,
+    Hils, Dales, Plaines, Pastures, Skies, Seas, Rivers, Trees,
+    There's nothing neere at hand, or farthest sought,
+    But with the needle may be shap'd and wrought."_
+
+        --JOHN TAYLOR ("The Praise of the Needle").
+
+
+The Artistic Crafts Series of Technical Handbooks
+Edited by W. R. Lethaby
+
+EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING
+
+A Practical Text-Book of
+Design and Workmanship
+
+by
+
+MRS. ARCHIBALD H. CHRISTIE
+
+With Drawings by the Author and Other Illustrations
+
+Second Edition Revised
+(A reprint of the First Edition, with various slight alterations in
+text)
+
+Third Edition Revised
+(A reprint of the Second Edition)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Published by John Hogg
+13 Paternoster Row
+London 1912
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece  See page 249._]
+
+
+
+Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.
+at the Ballantyne Press, Edinburgh
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+Needlework, which is still practised traditionally in every house, was
+once a splendid art, an art in which English workers were especially
+famous, so that, early in the XIIIth century, vestments embroidered in
+England were eagerly accepted in Rome, and the kind of work wrought here
+was known over Europe as "English Work." Embroideries _façon
+d'Angleterre_ often occupy the first place in foreign inventories.
+
+At Durham are preserved some beautiful fragments of embroidery worked in
+the Xth century, and many examples, belonging to the great period of the
+XIIIth and XIVth centuries, are preserved at the South Kensington
+Museum, which is particularly rich in specimens of this art. In order to
+judge of what were then its possibilities it is worth while to go and
+see there three notable copes, the blue cope, the Sion cope, and the
+rose-colour Jesse-tree cope, the last two of which are certainly
+English, and the former probably so. The Sion cope bears a remnant of an
+inscription which has unfortunately been cut down and otherwise injured,
+so that all that I have been able to read is as follows: DAVN PERS : DE
+: V ...; probably the name of the donor.
+
+In the XIIIth century the craft of embroidery was practised both by men
+and women.
+
+That great art patron, Henry the Third, chiefly employed for his
+embroideries, says Mr. Hudson Turner, "a certain Mabel of Bury St.
+Edmund's, whose skill as an embroideress seems to have been remarkable,
+and many interesting records of her curious performances might be
+collected." And I have found a record of an embroidered chasuble made
+for the king by "Mabilia" of St. Edmund's in 1242. The most splendid
+piece of embroidery produced for this king must have been the altar
+frontal of Westminster Abbey, completed about 1269. It was silk,
+garnished with pearls, jewels, and translucent enamels. Four
+embroideresses worked on it for three years and three-quarters, and it
+seems to have cost a sum equal to about £3000 of our money.
+
+"The London Broderers" did not receive a formal charter of incorporation
+until 1561, but they must have been a properly organised craft centuries
+before. In 2 Henry IV. it was reported to Parliament that divers persons
+of the "Craft of Brauderie" made unfit work of inferior materials,
+evading the search of "the Wardens of Brauderie" in the said City of
+London.
+
+In Paris, in the year 1295, there were ninety-three embroiderers and
+embroideresses registered as belonging to the trade. The term of
+apprenticeship to the craft was for eight years, and no employer might
+take more than one apprentice at a time. In the XVIth century the Guild
+was at the height of its power, and embroideries were so much in demand
+that the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was established to furnish
+flower-subjects for embroidery design. It was founded by the gardener,
+Jean Robin, and by Pierre Vallet, "brodeur" to Henry IV. In the XVIIIth
+century the company numbered 250 past-masters.
+
+To this craft the present volume forms, I believe, an admirable
+introduction and text-book, not only on the side of workmanship, but
+also on that difficult subject, "design"--difficult, that is, from its
+having been so much discussed in books, yet entirely simple when
+approached, as here, as a necessary part of workmanship. It is fortunate
+that we have not as yet learned to bother our cooks as to which part of
+their work is designing and which is merely mechanical. Of course the
+highest things of design, as well as of workmanship, come only after
+long practice and to the specially gifted, but none the less every human
+creature must in some sort be a designer, and it has caused immense harm
+to raise a cloud of what Morris called "sham technical twaddle" between
+the worker and what should be the spontaneous inspiration of his work.
+What such combination has produced in past times, may perhaps best be
+understood by some reading in old church inventories of the simply
+infinite store of magnificent embroidered vestments which once adorned
+our churches. In an inventory of Westminster Abbey I find mentioned
+such patterns as roses and birds, fleur-de-luces and lybardes, angels on
+branches of gold, roses and ships, eagles and angels of gold, castles
+and lions, white harts, swans, dogs, and antelopes.
+
+W. R. LETHABY.
+
+_September 1906._
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In the following pages the practical sides of Embroidery and Tapestry
+Weaving are discussed, their historical development being only
+incidentally touched upon.
+
+The drawings illustrating design and the practical application of
+stitches have been taken almost without exception from actual Embroidery
+or Tapestry; the exceptions, where it has been impossible to consult
+originals, from photographic representations obtained from various
+sources, among which the collection of M. Louis de Farcy should be
+mentioned.
+
+I have to thank Miss May Morris and Mrs. W. R. Lethaby for permission to
+reproduce pieces of their work, and Miss Killick, Colonel J. E.
+Butler-Bowdon, the Viscount Falkland, and the Reverend F. J. Brown of
+Steeple Aston for permission to reproduce work in their possession. Also
+I must thank the authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum for help
+in various ways, and Mr. J. H. Taylor, M.A. Oxf. and Cam., for his
+kindness in reading the proofs.
+
+GRACE CHRISTIE.
+
+_Ewell,
+September 1906._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+EDITOR'S PREFACE                                                      xi
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE                                                    xvii
+
+
+PART I
+
+EMBROIDERY
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                          27
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TOOLS, APPLIANCES, AND MATERIALS
+
+Needles--Scissors--Thimbles--Frames--Stand and Frame combined--Tambour
+Frame--Cord-making Appliance--Requisites for Transferring
+Patterns--Pricker--Knife--Spindle--Piercer--Materials suitable for
+Embroidering upon--Threads of all Kinds--Stones, Beads, &c.           34
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PATTERN DESIGNING
+
+The Difficulties of Pattern Making--A Stock-in-Trade--Some Principles
+upon which Patterns are Built Up--Spacing-Out--Nature and
+Convention--Shading--Figure Work--Limitations--Colour                 51
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+STITCHES
+
+Introduction--Chain Stitch--Zigzag Chain--Chequered Chain--Twisted
+Chain--Open Chain--Braid Stitch--Cable Chain--Knotted Chain--Split
+Stitch                                                                75
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+STITCHES--(_continued_)
+
+Satin Stitch--Long and Short Stitch--Stem Stitch--Overcast Stitch--Back
+Stitch--Buttonhole Stitch--Tailor's Buttonhole--Fancy Buttonhole
+Edgings--Flower in Open Buttonhole Stitch--Leaf in Close Buttonhole
+Stitches--Petal in Solid Buttonholing                                 95
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+STITCHES--(_continued_)
+
+Knots and Knot Stitches--Herring-bone Stitch--Feather Stitch--Basket
+Stitch--Fishbone Stitch--Cretan Stitch--Roumanian Stitch--Various
+Insertion Stitches--Picots                                           118
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CANVAS WORK AND STITCHES
+
+Introduction--Samplers--Petit Point Pictures--Cross Stitch--Tent
+Stitch--Gobelin Stitch--Irish Stitch--Plait Stitch--Two-sided Italian
+Stitch--Holbein Stitch--Rococo Stitch                                147
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+METHODS OF WORK
+
+Couching--Braid Work--Laid Work--Applied Work--Inlaid Work--Patch Work
+                                                                     164
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_)
+
+Quilting--Raised Work--Darning--Open Fillings--Darned Netting        189
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Methods of work--(_continued_)
+
+Drawn Thread Work--Hem Stitching--Simple Border Patterns--Darned Thread
+Patterns--Corners--Cut or Open Work--Various Methods of Refilling the
+Open Spaces                                                          213
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+EMBROIDERY WITH GOLD AND SILVER THREADS
+
+Introduction--Materials--Precautions for the Prevention of
+Tarnish--Ancient Method of Couching--Its various Good
+Points--Description of Working Diagram--Working a Raised Bar--Examples
+of Patterns Employed in Old Work--Illustrations upon Draped
+Figures--Usual Method of Couching--Couching Patterns--Outline
+Work--Raised Work--The Use of Purls, Bullions, &c.                   229
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+LETTERING, HERALDRY, AND EMBLEMS
+
+The Uses of Lettering--Marking--Monograms--Heraldry--Emblems         259
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE GARNITURE OF WORK
+
+Finishing off--Making up--Edges--Use of Cord-making Appliance--Cord
+Twisted by Hand--Knotted Cord--Fringes--Tassels--Knots               271
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS
+
+Transferring Patterns--Paste for Embroidery Purposes--Protection and
+Preservation of Work--Washing Embroidery--Prevention and Cure of
+Puckered Work--Points about the Thread--Dressing the Frame           292
+
+
+PART II
+
+TAPESTRY WEAVING
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                         307
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+NECESSARY APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS
+
+The Loom--Mirror--Bobbins and Needles--The Comb--Embroidery Frame
+treated as a Loom--Warp--Wools--Silk--Gold and Silver Thread         315
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PREPARATIONS FOR WORK
+
+Warping the Loom--Dressing the Coat-Stave--Tracing the Pattern upon the
+Threads                                                              328
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE TECHNIQUE OF WEAVING
+
+Weaving--Commencing and Fastening Off--The Interlocking Stitch--Fine
+Drawing--Shading--Added After-stitches                               339
+
+
+NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                        355
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                                 369
+
+INDEX                                                                402
+
+
+
+
+PART I--EMBROIDERY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In the practice of embroidery the needlewoman has an advantage not now
+shared by workers in any other craft, in that the technical processes
+are almost a matter of inherited skill. Every woman can sew, and it is
+with little more than the needle and thread, which she habitually
+employs, that the greatest masterpieces of the art have been stitched.
+The art of embroidery, however, is not merely an affair of stitches;
+they are but the means by which ideas can be expressed in intelligible
+form, and memories of all kinds of things be pictured on stuffs.
+
+To laboriously train the hand is scarcely worth while unless it is
+capable of expressing something that is at least pretty. Nowadays much
+embroidery is done with the evident intent of putting into it the
+minimum expenditure of both thought and labour, and such work furnishes
+but a poor ideal to fire the enthusiasm of the novice; happily, there
+still exist many fine examples showing what splendid results may be
+achieved; without some knowledge of this work we cannot obtain a just
+idea of the possibilities of the art.
+
+It is obvious that much advantage can be gained from studying the
+accumulated experience of the past in addition to that current in our
+own day. To do this intelligently, the history of embroidery must be
+followed in order that the periods richest in the various kinds of work
+may be ascertained. Museums afford useful hunting-grounds for the study
+of past work; other sources are private collections, churches, costume
+in pictures or on engraved brasses, and manuscript inventories such as
+those of cathedral treasuries, which sometimes contain interesting
+detailed descriptions of their embroidered vestments and hangings.
+
+Blind copying of old work is not of much value; it is not possible or
+desirable to imitate XIIIth century work now, but much can be learned
+by examining fine examples in an appreciative and analytical spirit. In
+what way the design has been built up can be discovered; the most
+complicated result may often be resolved into quite elementary lines.
+The student must find out wherein lie the attraction and interest, note
+good schemes of colour, and learn about stitches and methods of work by
+close examination of the embroidery, both front and back.
+
+Every one knows what embroidery is, and a formal definition seems
+unnecessary. As a matter of fact, it would be a difficult task to give
+one, since weaving, lace-making, and embroidery are but subtle
+variations of the same art.
+
+This art may be of the highest or the most homely character, and the
+latter is by no means to be despised. Simple unaffected work decorating
+the things of every-day use can give a great deal of pleasure in its
+way. This should surely be the accomplishment of every woman, for though
+she may not have the skill to attain to the highest branches, it would
+at least enable her to decorate her home with such things as the
+counterpanes, curtains, and other objects that set such a personal
+stamp upon the English domestic work of several centuries, and which
+nowadays can hardly be found except stored up in museums.
+
+It is advisable as a general rule that the design be both made and
+carried out by the same person. From the worker's own point of view the
+interest must be much greater when working out her own ideas than when
+merely acting as amanuensis to another. The idea is more likely to be
+expressed with spirit; further there is the possibility of adding to or
+altering, and thereby improving, the work as it progresses. The designer
+must in any case be well acquainted with stitches and materials, for
+they play an important part in achieving good results. The individuality
+of the worker should be evident in her work; indeed it generally is, for
+even plain hems by two people bear quite different characters; the
+degree of individuality present, varies with each one, but in any case
+it will be much more marked if the design and stitching bear the stamp
+of the same personality.
+
+The difference between good and unsatisfactory results should be
+carefully thought out, for it is often but a small matter. The best
+kind of work is that which appeals to the intelligence as well as to the
+eye, which is another way of saying there should be evidence of mind
+upon the material. Work must be interesting in some way if it is to be
+attractive; it had better almost be faulty and interesting than dull,
+dry, and correct. It can interest by reminding us of pleasant things,
+such as familiar flowers, shady woods, or green lawns; birds, beasts,
+and so forth can be depicted in their characteristic attitudes, or a
+story can be told; in fact, work can be made attractive in a hundred
+different ways. It must not show signs of having wearied the worker in
+the doing; variety and evidence of thought lavishly expended upon it
+will prevent this, and enthusiasm will quicken it with life.
+
+The selection of the object to work comes at an early stage, and is a
+matter to be well considered, for it is a pity to spend time and labour
+upon unsuitable objects when there are many excellent ones to choose
+from. In thinking over what to work it should be realised that it takes
+no longer to execute one rather important piece than several of a less
+ambitious character, and that the former is generally more worth the
+doing. Whether the subject is a suitable one for embroidery or not
+sometimes depends upon the method chosen for carrying it out; for
+instance, anything that has to endure hard wear must be treated in such
+a way as to stand it well.
+
+Dress is a fine subject for embroidery; but, for the decoration to be
+satisfactory, the art of designing dress must be understood, and the
+dress must also be well cut, or the embroidery will be quite wasted upon
+it. What is termed "art dress," proverbially bad, well deserves its
+reputation. There is a great difference in the quantity of work that may
+be put into dress decoration; this may be simply an embroidered vest,
+collar, and cuffs, or it may be actually an integral part of the
+costume, which as a much bigger and more difficult undertaking is
+correspondingly finer in effect when successfully carried out.
+
+Amongst larger objects that well repay the labour of embroidery,
+hangings of various kinds, quilts, screens, furniture coverings, altar
+frontals, church vestments, may be mentioned; amongst smaller, are bags,
+boxes, book-covers, gloves or mittens, bell-pulls, cushions, mirror
+frames, all kinds of household linen, infants' robes, and so on, and for
+church use such things as alms-bags, book-markers, stoles, pulpit and
+lectern frontals. Then a panel may be worked with the deliberate
+intention of framing it to hang on a wall. There is no reason why the
+painter should have the monopoly of all the available wall space, for
+decorative work is undoubtedly in place there; a piece of embroidered
+work might well fill a panel over a mantel-piece. There is no need to
+discuss what not to do, but, if the attraction to embroider a tea-cosy
+is too strong to resist, it should surely be of washable materials.
+
+Embroidery has distinct practical advantages over some other crafts
+practised nowadays--no special studio need be devoted to its use, for
+most work can be done in any well-lighted room, which indeed will be
+rendered more attractive by the presence of an embroidery frame, for
+this is in itself a characteristic and dainty piece of furniture. It
+need but seldom interfere with one of our pleasant traditions, genial
+converse with, and about, our neighbours, for it is a distinctly
+sociable occupation. Work of this kind can be put down and taken up at
+leisure; the necessary outlay in materials need not be extravagant, and
+so on. Many other points might be thought of, but the claims of the art
+do not demand any special pleading, for it is pleasant in the actual
+working, and can produce an infinite variety of most interesting
+results.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TOOLS, APPLIANCES, AND MATERIALS
+
+  Needles--Scissors--Thimbles--Frames--Stand and Frame
+  combined--Tambour Frame--Cord-making Appliance--Requisites for
+  Transferring Patterns--Pricker--Knife--Spindle--Piercer--Suitable
+  Materials for Embroidering upon--Threads of all Kinds--Stones,
+  Beads, &c.
+
+
+Good workmanship takes a prominent, though not the first, place.
+Technical excellence in needlework, as in all other artistic crafts, is
+a question of the worker's perseverance and her ability in the use of
+tools. In embroidery these are few and simple, and are as follows:--
+
+_Needles._--For most purposes needles known as long-eyed sharps are
+used. Tapestry needles, similar to these, but with blunt points, are
+useful for canvas work and darned netting. For gold work a special
+needle can be procured with sharp point and long wide eye. A bent needle
+makes a crooked stitch; but needles if made of good steel should not
+bend; they break if used unfairly. The eye should be cleanly cut, or it
+roughens the thread. The needle must be just stout enough to prepare for
+the thread an easy passage through the material.
+
+_Scissors._--Three pairs may be necessary; for ordinary work a small
+pair with fine sharp points, for gold work small ones with strong points
+similar to nail scissors, and for cutting-out purposes a large pair with
+one rounded and one sharp point.
+
+_Thimbles._--Steel ones are said to be most serviceable, silver are most
+usual; but whatever the material they must be neatly made in order not
+to wear the thread.
+
+_Frames._--A common type of frame is shown at fig. 1. It is made in
+various sizes; the one here represented measures 18 inches across. It
+consists of four pieces of wood, two rollers for the top and base and
+two side pieces. Each of the rollers has a piece of webbing securely
+nailed along it, and its extremities are pierced with holes to receive
+the side pieces. These are formed of two long wooden screws, fitted with
+movable nuts, which adjust the width of the frame and the tautness of
+the stretched work. The piece of material that is stretched between is
+the link that keeps the frame together, for the screw ends fit just
+loosely in the holes of the rollers. The side pieces are sometimes made
+of flat laths of wood pierced with holes at regular intervals; in these
+are inserted metal pins, by means of which the work is kept stretched.
+Fig. 9 represents a frame of this type. If the frame is a very large one
+it can have a strengthening bar fixed across the centre from roller to
+roller.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+The frame is most convenient for work when fixed in a stand, although it
+can be used leaning against a table or the back of a chair. A very large
+frame would be supported upon trestles, but for ordinary purposes, a
+stand, such as the one shown in fig. 2, is practical. It consists of two
+upright wooden posts, a little over 2 feet in height, which are
+connected near the base by a strengthening cross piece. Both this and
+the uprights are adjustable; the centre part of the posts is arranged to
+slide up and down, and can be fixed at any convenient height by the
+insertion of a long metal pin; the width of the cross piece is regulated
+in similar fashion, being made firm, by a screw, at the required width,
+thus allowing various sized frames to be used in the same stand. The
+frame is fixed in place by metal clamps, and a wooden pivot is arranged
+so as to permit the stretched work to be inclined at any angle
+convenient. Both stand and frame should be well made and of good wood,
+for they must be able to stand strain and be perfectly firm and true
+when fixed for work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+A small circular frame, such as is shown in fig. 3, is useful for
+marking linen or for any small work. This, formed of two hoops fitting
+closely one within the other, can be procured in wood, ivory, or bone,
+of various sizes, the one illustrated being about 6 inches in diameter.
+The material to be worked upon is stretched between these hoops like the
+parchment on a drum. These tambour frames, as they are called, are
+sometimes fixed into a small stand or fitted with a wooden clamp for
+fastening to a table; this frees both hands for work. These tambours
+cannot well be recommended; the material is apt to stretch unevenly, and
+a worked part, if flattened between the hoops, is liable to be damaged.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+The illustration at fig. 4 shows a simple little instrument for making
+a twisted cord. It is interesting to note that Etienne Binet, who wrote
+on embroidery about 1620, when discussing some necessary equipment for
+an embroideress mentions "_un rouet pour faire les cordons_."
+
+There is sometimes a difficulty in procuring the cord just right to suit
+the finished work; the texture may be too coarse to put beside fine
+embroidery, it may not be a good match, and, even if so at first, it may
+fade quite differently from the worked silks. For these and other
+reasons it is a safe method to make the cord one's self, possibly with
+some materials of the kind already used in the embroidery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+This appliance enables the worker to make any kind of twisted cord; it
+is as simple as a toy to handle, and gives excellent results. It is a
+metal instrument about 8 inches in height. The three small discs are
+wheels, supported on the arms of an upright cross which has a heavy
+circular base. These three wheels are connected by a cord with a larger
+wheel below that has a handle attached to it. The cord runs in a groove
+round the circumference of each wheel, and must be held taut in
+position. By turning the handle of the large wheel the three small ones
+are set in motion. Three hooks, attached to the axles of the small
+wheels, are therefore rotated with them. One end of each ply of the cord
+in making is looped on to one of these hooks, the other ends are
+attached to three similar hooks fixed into a block of wood which, when
+in use, is firmly clamped to the table. Further instruction in the
+making of cords is given in Chapter XIII.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+To trace the pattern on to the material the following articles may be
+required: Indian ink, a small finely-pointed sable brush, a tube of oil
+paint, flake white or light red, according to the colour of the ground
+material, turpentine, powdered charcoal or white chalk for pounce,
+tracing paper, drawing-pins, and a pricker. This last-mentioned tool is
+shown in fig. 5. It is about 5 inches long, and is like a needle with
+the blunt end fitted into a handle. For rubbing on the pounce some soft
+clinging material rolled into a ball is necessary. A piece of old silk
+hose tightly rolled up makes an excellent pad for the purpose.
+
+The knife shown in fig. 6 is useful for cutting out at times when the
+use of scissors is not practical. It is used in an upright position,
+with the point outwards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+A spindle for winding gold thread upon whilst working is shown in fig.
+7. It is about 8 inches long. A soft padding of cotton thread is first
+placed round (between A and B, fig. 7), and the gold thread wound upon
+that. The end of the thread passes through the forked piece at the top
+on its way to being worked into the material. The use of this or some
+similar appliance enables the worker to avoid much touching of the metal
+threads.
+
+A small tool called a piercer is represented by fig. 8; it is used in
+gold work; the flat end assists in placing the gold in position, and
+also in making the floss silk lie quite flat; the pointed end is used
+for piercing holes in the material for passing coarse thread to the
+back, and for other purposes. This little tool, made of steel, is about
+5 inches in length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+
+MATERIALS
+
+The surface is a matter of special interest in embroidery work. This
+makes the choice of materials of great importance. Besides the question
+of appearance, these must be suitable to the purpose, durable, and, if
+possible, pleasant to work with and upon. The materials chosen should
+be the best of their kind, for time and labour are too valuable to be
+spent upon poor stuffs; occasionally a piece of old work is seen with
+the ground material in shreds and the embroidery upon it in a good state
+of preservation, which is a pity, for a newly applied ground of any kind
+is never as satisfactory as the original one. Still another plea for the
+use of good materials is the moral effect they may have upon the worker,
+inciting her to put forth her best efforts in using them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+The purpose to which the work is to be put usually decides the ground
+material, besides governing pattern, stitches, and everything else. A
+background is chosen, as a rule, to show to advantage and preserve what
+is to be placed upon it, though sometimes it is the other way about, and
+the pattern is planned to suit an already existing ground.
+
+A background must take its right place, and not be too much in evidence,
+although if of the right kind it may be full of interest. There are,
+roughly speaking, three ways of treating the ground, leaving the
+material just as it is, covering part of it with stitching, or working
+entirely over it.
+
+If there is no work upon the ground the choice of material becomes more
+important. Texture, colour, tone, and possibly pattern, have all to be
+considered, though the problem is often best solved by the selection of
+a plain white linen. The question of texture is sometimes one of its
+suitability for stitching upon; colour and tone may be of all kinds and
+degrees from white to black; these two, as a rule, being particularly
+happy ones. If the ground stuff is patterned, as in the case of a
+damasked silk, it must be specially chosen to suit the work to be placed
+upon it; small diaper patterns are frequently very good, since they
+break up the surface pleasantly without being too evident.
+
+Linen, which well answers all the usual requirements, is, for this
+reason, very frequently chosen for a ground material. It can be procured
+in great variety, the handmade linens being the best of all. Of kinds
+besides the ordinary are twilled linens, of which one named Kirriemuir
+twill is similar to the material used in the fine old embroidered
+curtains. Some damask linens look very well as backgrounds for
+embroidery; the pattern is sometimes a slightly raised diaper, which
+forms a pleasantly broken surface. Loosely woven linens can be obtained
+specially suitable for drawn thread work. In any case, if there is
+dressing in the new material, it must be well boiled before the
+embroidery is commenced: this makes it much softer for stitching
+through. Coloured linens are rarely satisfactory, a certain kind of blue
+being almost the only exception. The safest plan is to keep to pure
+white, or to the unbleached varieties that have a slightly grey or warm
+tone about them. Wools, silks, and flax threads all look well upon a
+linen ground; it is not usually in good taste to embroider with poor
+thread upon a rich ground material, and, upon the other hand, gold
+thread and floss demand silk or velvet rather than linen, though any
+rule of this kind may on occasion be broken.
+
+Velvet and satin make excellent backgrounds for rich work; they should
+not be used unless of good quality. The pile of the best velvet is
+shorter than that of poorer kinds, and so is easier to manipulate, which
+is a further reason for using the best. It is in any case a difficult
+material, so much so that work is often carried out on linen and
+afterwards applied to a velvet ground. The modern velvets, even the best
+of them, are for quality or colour not comparable with the old ones.
+
+Silk of different kinds is largely employed, since it makes a suitable
+ground for many kinds of embroidery. Twilled and damasked silks are much
+used; in the last-named kind, patterns must be carefully chosen to suit
+the particular purpose. A thick ribbed silk is rarely satisfactory for
+embroidery purposes.
+
+For working with silk thread, an untwisted floss takes the first place,
+but it needs some skill in manipulation. Filofloss is somewhat similar,
+but it has a slight twist in it, making it easier to work, though
+producing a less satisfactory result. Filosel is useful for some kinds
+of work, but it is a poorer quality of silk. The purse silks, and what
+is called embroidery silk, are all excellent; they are tightly twisted
+varieties of fine quality. There are various others in use; a visit to a
+good embroidery depôt will probably be the best means of finding out
+about these and about materials in general.
+
+Wools can be obtained in various thicknesses and twistings, each good in
+their way. Some workers prefer a but slightly twisted wool; however,
+examples of old wool work are to be found in which a finely twisted
+variety is used with most satisfactory effect.
+
+Flax threads can be obtained in very good colours, and are to be highly
+recommended. There are various cottons procurable, either coloured or
+white, that are good for marking and other embroidery purposes where an
+evenly twisted thread is desirable.
+
+Pearls and precious stones take their place in rich embroideries, also
+various less expensive but pretty stones may often be made use of
+effectively.
+
+Beads are a fascinating material to work with; all kinds of pretty
+things can be done with them, either sewing them upon a ground, knitting
+or crocheting, or making use of a small bead loom. A good deal of the
+ready-made bought bead work, that only requires a monotonous ground to
+be filled in around an already worked pattern of sorts, is not at all
+suggestive of its possibilities. Beads of both paste and glass can be
+obtained in much greater variety than is usually known, from the most
+minute in size to large varieties of all kinds of shapes and patterns,
+the colours of most of them being particularly good. The larger
+ornamental beads are useful in many ways, sometimes taking the place of
+tassels or fringes.
+
+Many kinds of most curious materials are at times brought into the
+service of embroidery, but the above-mentioned ones are the most usual.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PATTERN DESIGNING
+
+  The Difficulties of Pattern Making--A Stock-in-Trade--Some
+  Principles upon which Patterns are Built Up--Spacing-Out--Nature and
+  Convention--Shading--Figure Work--Limitations--Colour.
+
+
+A beginner sometimes experiences difficulty in preparing her own
+patterns. A designer needs a wide knowledge of many subjects, which
+necessitates much time being given to study; also drawing ability is
+necessary to enable the worker to set down her ideas upon paper. For
+much simple and pretty work, however, a slight acquaintance with drawing
+and design is sufficient, and any one who can master the requisite
+stitches can also acquire some knowledge of these two subjects.
+
+The word design frightens some who do not know quite what it means or
+entails. Perhaps they do not realise that the design has already been
+begun when the object to be worked has been settled, and the material,
+thread, and stitches have been decided upon--the rest comes in much the
+same way, partly by a system of choice; as it is necessary to know what
+materials there are which can be used, so must the chief varieties of
+pattern be known from which choice can be made. All patterns are built
+up on some fundamental plan, of which the number is comparatively small.
+The ability to choose, plan, and arrange is in a greater or less degree
+inherent in every one, so there should be, after all, no great
+difficulty in the design. The necessary underlying qualities are--a nice
+taste, freedom from affectation, an eye for colour and form, and, it
+might be added, a fair share of common sense.
+
+A pattern maker requires some stock-in-trade, and it is wise to collect
+together a store of some well-classified design material of ascertained
+value, ready to be drawn upon when required. A good knowledge of plants
+and flowers is very necessary. This is best acquired by making careful
+drawings from nature. In choosing flowers for embroidery purposes, the
+best-known ones, such as the daisy, rose, or carnation, give more
+pleasure to the observer than rare unrecognisable varieties. Figures,
+birds, beasts, and such things as inscriptions, monograms, shields of
+arms and emblems, all demand study and drawing, both from miscellaneous
+examples and from embroideries.
+
+The treatment of all these should be studied in old work, in order that
+the curious conventions and all kinds of amusing and interesting ideas
+that have gradually grown up in the past may still be made use of and
+added to, instead of being cast aside in a wild endeavour after
+something original. The student who collects a supply of the foregoing
+materials will find she has considerably widened her knowledge during
+the process, and is better prepared to make designs.
+
+In making a pattern the first thing to be decided upon is some main
+idea, the detail that is to carry it out must then be considered. This
+latter may be of various types, such as flowers, foliage, figures,
+animals, geometrical forms, interlacing strapwork, quatrefoils, &c.,
+&c.; perhaps several of these _motifs_ may be combined together in the
+same design.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+One of the simplest plans upon which a pattern can be arranged is that
+of some form recurring at regular intervals over the surface. The
+principle involved is repetition; an example of it is shown at fig. 10.
+The form that is used here is a sprig of flower, but the repeating
+element admits of infinite variation, it may be anything from a dot to
+an angel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+Copes and chasubles, bedspreads and curtains, are often to be seen
+decorated with some repeating form. Fig. 11 shows in outline a
+conventional sprig that is repeated in this fashion over the surface of
+a famous cope in Ely Cathedral. Fig. 12 is an example of a sprig of
+flower taken from a XVIIth century embroidered curtain; similar bunches,
+but composed of different flowers, recur at intervals over this hanging.
+
+It may interest the practical worker to know what are the different
+stitches used upon this figure. The petals of the top flower are in
+chain stitch in gradated colouring, the centre is an open crossing of
+chain surrounded by stamens in stem stitch in varied colour, the
+outermost leaves are outlined in stem stitch with an open filling of
+little crossed stitches. The petals of the lower flower are worked
+similarly, and the centre is carried out in chain stitch and French
+knots. The leaves are filled in with ingenious variations of these
+stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+The repeating element is perhaps a symbolical figure, a heraldic shield,
+or it may be some geometrical form that supplies the motive. Fig. 13 is
+a conventional sprig of hawthorn that ornaments in this way an altar
+frontal at Zanthen. It is by no means necessary that the element which
+repeats should be always identical; so long as it is similar in size,
+form, and general character it will probably be the more interesting if
+variety is introduced.
+
+The principle of repetition is again found in fig. 14, but with an
+additional feature; a sprig of flower is used, with the further
+introduction of diagonal lines, expressed by leaf sprays, which are
+arranged so as to surround each flower and divide it from the adjoining
+ones.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+It is advisable to space out the required surface in some way before
+commencing to draw out a pattern; for carrying out fig. 14 it would be
+well to pencil out the surface as in fig. 15; a connection between these
+two will be perceived at a glance. This spacing-out of the required
+surface in one way or another is of great assistance, and may even prove
+suggestive in the planning of the design. It helps the regularity of the
+work, and order is essential in design as in most other things in life.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+Another very usual expedient is that of introducing a main central form,
+with others branching out on either side and symmetrically balancing
+each other. An example of this is given in fig. 16. The symmetry may be
+much more free than this; a tree is symmetrical taken as a whole, but
+the two sides do not exactly repeat each other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+A plan very commonly employed is that of radiating main lines all
+diverging from one central point. Fig. 17 shows a design following this
+principle; there is infinite variety in the ways in which this may be
+carried out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+Another method would be to plan a continuous flowing line with forms
+branching out on one side or on both. Figs. 18 and 19 are border
+designs, for which purpose this arrangement is often used, though it can
+also well form an all-over pattern; sometimes these lines used over a
+surface are made to cross each other, tartan wise, by running in two
+directions, producing an apparently complicated design by very simple
+means.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 18 and 19.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+Designs may be planned on the counterchange principle. This is a system
+of mass designing that involves the problem of making a pattern out of
+one shape, continually repeated, and fitting into itself in such a way
+as to leave no interstices. The simplest example of this is to be found
+in the chess board, and it will easily be seen that a great number of
+shapes might be used instead of the square. Fig. 20 is an example of a
+counterchange design carried out in inlay; for this method of work
+counterchange is very suitable. On reference to the chapter upon this
+work another example will be found (page 181). Fig. 21 illustrates the
+same principle, further complicated by the repetition of the form in
+three directions instead of in two only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+A method of further enriching a straightforward pattern, covering a
+plain surface, is to work a subsidiary pattern upon the background. This
+is usually of a monotonous and formal character in order not to clash
+with the primary decoration, though this relationship may sometimes be
+found reversed. It has the appearance of being some decoration belonging
+to the ground rather than to the primary pattern; in its simplest form
+it appears as a mere repeating dot or a lattice (see fig. 22), but it
+may be so elaborated as to cover with an intricate design every portion
+of the exposed ground not decorated with the main pattern.
+
+Many other distinct kinds of work might be mentioned, such as needlework
+pictures, the story-telling embroideries that can be made so
+particularly attractive. Embroidered landscapes, formal gardens,
+mysterious woods, views of towns and palaces, are, if rightly treated,
+very fine. In order to learn the way to work such subjects we must go to
+the XVIth and XVIIth century _petit point_ pictures, and to the detail
+in fine tapestries. The wrong method of going to work is to imitate the
+effect sought after by the painter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+It is a mistake in embroidery design to be too naturalistic. In painting
+it may be the especial aim to exactly imitate nature, but here are
+wanted embroidery flowers, animals and figures, possessing the character
+and likeness of the things represented, but in no way trying to make us
+believe that they are real. The semblance of a bumble bee crawling upon
+the tea cloth gives a hardly pleasant sensation and much savours of
+the practical joke, which is seldom in good taste; the needle, however,
+adds convention to almost anything, and will usually manage the bee all
+right unless the worker goes out of the way to add a shadow and a high
+light. Such things as perspective, light and shade or modelling of form,
+should all be very much simplified if not avoided, for embroidery
+conforms to the requirements of decoration and must not falsify the
+surface that it ornaments. Shading is made use of in order to give more
+variety to, and exhibit the beauty of, colour by means of gradation, to
+explain more clearly the design, and so on; it is not employed for the
+purpose of fixing the lighting of the composition from one point by
+means of systematically adjusted light and shade, or of making a form
+stand out so realistically as to almost project from the background.
+
+In avoiding too much resemblance to natural forms it is not necessary to
+make things ugly; a conventional flower implies no unmeaning
+straightness or impossible curve, it may keep all its interesting
+characteristics, but it has to obey other requirements specially
+necessary in the particular design. Another point to be noted is that,
+since there is freedom of choice of flowers and other objects, only
+those perfect and well-formed should be chosen; all accidents of growth
+and disease may, happily, be omitted; if anything of this kind is put in
+it helps to give the naturalistic look which is to be avoided. Both
+sides of a leaf should match, though it may happen in nature, through
+misfortune, that one is deformed and small.
+
+In figure work, which, though ambitious, is one of the most interesting
+kinds of embroidery, the figures, like all other things, must be treated
+with a certain amount of simplicity; very little attempt must be made to
+obtain flesh tones, roundness of form, perspective, or foreshortening.
+The work should be just sufficiently near to nature to be a good
+embroidery rendering of it. However, without overstepping the limits
+there is a great deal that may be expressed, such things as character,
+gesture, grace, colour, and so on, matters which are after all of first
+importance. Detail, if of the right kind, may be filled in, but it is
+wrong to attempt what is to the craft very laborious to obtain, for
+this would be misdirected energy, which is great waste. A right use of
+the figure can be seen in the XIIIth century embroidery pictures, which,
+covering mediĉval church vestments, often display episodes from the
+lives of the saints. These are some of the masterpieces of the art of
+embroidery; observation of nature is carried to a marvellous pitch, but
+the execution never sinks into commonplace realism.
+
+Certain restrictions are always present, in making a design, that must
+be conformed to, such as, the limit of space, the materials with which
+the work is to be carried out, the use to which it will be put, and so
+on. These, instead of being difficulties, can afford help in the way of
+suggestion and limitation. A bad design may look as if it obeyed them
+unwillingly--a form is perhaps cramped, perhaps stretched out in order
+to fit its place, instead of looking as if it naturally fitted it
+whether the confining lines were there or not. In the early herbals,
+illustrated with woodcuts, examples can be found over and over again of
+a flower filling a required space simply and well; fig. 23 is taken from
+the herbal of Carolus Clusius, printed at Antwerp in 1601 by the great
+house of Plantin. The draughtsman in this case had to draw a plant to
+fit a standard-sized engraver's block, and he had a certain number of
+facts to tell about it; he drew the plant as simply and
+straightforwardly as possible, making good use of all the available
+space, the result being a well-planned and balanced piece of work, with
+no affectation or unnecessary lines about it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+Fine colour is a quality appreciated at first sight, though often
+unconsciously. It is a difficult subject to speak of very definitely; an
+eye for colour is natural to some, but in any case the faculty can be
+cultivated and developed. By way of studying the subject, we can go to
+nature and learn as much as we are capable of appreciating; even such
+things as butterflies, shells, and birds' eggs are suggestive. Again,
+embroideries, illuminated manuscripts, pictures, painted decoration, may
+be studied, and so on; in fact, colour is so universal that it is not
+possible to get away from it. Unfortunately we are sometimes forced to
+learn what to avoid as well as what to emulate.
+
+Colour is entirely relative, that is to say it depends upon its
+immediate surroundings for what it appears to be. Also it has effects
+varying with the material which it dyes; wool is of an absorbent nature,
+whereas silk has powers of reflection. It is a safe plan to use true
+colours, real blue, red or green, not slate, terra cotta, and olive.
+Gold, silver, white and black, are valuable additions to the colour
+palette; it should be remembered about the former that precious things
+must be used with economy or they become cheap and perhaps vulgar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+For getting satisfactory colour there is a useful method which can at
+times be made use of; this is to stitch it down in alternate lines of
+two different tints, which, seen together at a little distance, give the
+desired effect. Backgrounds can be covered over with some small
+geometrical pattern carried out in this way, such as is shown in fig.
+24, perhaps using in alternation bright blue and black instead of a
+single medium tint of blue all over. At a slight distance the tone may
+be the same in either case, but this method gives a pleasantly varied
+and refined effect, which avoids muddiness, and shows up the pattern
+better. This same method is used for expressing form more clearly as
+well as for colour; waves of hair, for instance, are much more clearly
+expressed when worked in this way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+STITCHES
+
+  Introduction--Chain Stitch--Zigzag Chain--Chequered Chain--Twisted
+  Chain--Open Chain--Braid Stitch--Cable Chain--Knotted Chain--Split
+  Stitch.
+
+
+It is necessary for every worker to have a certain amount of knowledge
+of stitches, for they are, so to speak, the language of the art, and
+though not of first importance, still there is a great deal in
+stitchery. The needlewoman should be absolute master of her needle, for
+there is a great charm in beautifully carried out stitching; also a good
+design can be made mechanical and uninteresting by a wrong method of
+execution. The simplest and most common stitches are the best, and are
+all that are necessary for the doing of good work. Work carried out
+entirely in one stitch has a certain unity and character that is very
+pleasing. There are a great number of stitches in existence, that is, if
+each slight variation has a different name assigned to it. The names
+are sometimes misleading, for often the same stitch is known by several
+different ones; descriptive names have where possible been chosen for
+those discussed in the following pages.
+
+A worker may find it useful to keep by her a sampler with the most
+characteristic stitches placed upon it; a glance at this will be
+suggestive when she is in doubt as to which to use, for it is often
+difficult to recollect just the right and most suitable one at a
+moment's notice. It is necessary to learn only the main varieties, for
+each individual worker can adapt, combine, and invent variations to suit
+a special purpose.
+
+The direction of the stitch is important; tone, if not colour, can be
+very much altered by change in direction; also growth and form can be
+suggested by it; for instance, lines going across a stem are not usually
+so satisfactory as those running the length of it; these suggesting
+growth better. Folds of drapery are often explained by direction of the
+lines of stitching quite as much as by gradation of colour.
+
+With reference to the stitches described in the following chapters, the
+worker is advised to try to work them by simply examining the diagrams,
+and, if in any difficulty, then to refer to the printed description, for
+such directions are apt to be tedious. The simplest way to master these
+is to let some one read them out step by step, and to work from
+dictation. It should be remembered that the use of a particular thread
+often makes or mars a stitch, some requiring soft silks to show them to
+advantage, whilst others may need a stoutly twisted thread.
+
+Chain stitch is universal, and one of the most ancient of stitches. It
+is the most commonly used of a group that might be described as linked
+stitches. Much beautiful work has been carried out entirely in it, and
+when a monotonous even line is required, this is a most suitable stitch
+to employ. It is equally in request for outline and filling in, and its
+chain-like adaptability makes it specially good for following out curved
+forms or spiral lines. Tambour stitch is practically the same in result,
+though worked in quite a different manner, for it is carried out in a
+frame with a fine crochet hook, instead of with a needle. This makes it
+quicker in execution, but more mechanical in appearance, so it is not to
+be as much recommended.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+To work chain stitch (fig. 25) bring the needle through at the top of
+the traced line, hold the working thread down towards the left with the
+thumb, insert the needle at the point where the thread has just come
+through and bring it up on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an
+inch further along, draw the thread through over the held down thread.
+It should show a neat line of back-stitching on the reverse side. The
+chain can be made broader by inserting the needle a little to the right,
+instead of at the exact point where the last thread came through. Care
+must be taken in the working not to draw the thread too tightly, as this
+stitch is inclined to pucker the material, especially when it is worked
+in curved lines.
+
+A flower and leaf worked with a solid filling of chain stitch are shown
+in fig. 26. The dark outline of the flower is in back stitch, the centre
+a mass of French knots, and the stem in stem stitch. By working the
+petals in curved lines in this way the shape is well suggested, and the
+play of light on the curves is particularly happy, especially if the
+thread used is silk or gold. Another slight variation from this would be
+to work the lines of chain stitch in different shades of colour, and so
+get each petal gradually either lighter or darker towards its base; this
+gives a very pretty effect. Fig. 27 shows an oak leaf carried out in
+this way, the lines upon it indicate the way in which the stitches
+would be worked. The rule in solid fillings is to work from the outside
+inwards where possible, and thus make sure of a good outline.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+In the Victoria and Albert Museum there is a white linen dress[1]
+daintily embroidered in chain stitch. It is an excellent example of a
+kind of design suitable to this stitch; the leaves and flowers are
+carried out in lines of chain stitch following the outline, and in these
+lines use is made of strongly contrasting colour to both show up the
+form better, and also decorate it. The leaf in fig. 28 is in style
+somewhat similar to this, and is intended to be carried out in two
+distinct colours.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+Chain stitches can be worked singly; they are used in this way as a
+powdering over a background. Sometimes they may be seen conventionally
+suggesting the small feathers on the shoulder of a bird's wing by being
+dotted over it at regular intervals. Fig. 29 shows how they might be
+used to carry out a tiny flower, five separate stitches represent the
+petals, and two more the leaves at the base; this is a simpler and more
+satisfactory method than to attempt very minute forms with satin
+stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+The common chain makes a particularly neat border stitch taken in zigzag
+fashion. To work this (fig. 30)--Trace two parallel lines on the
+material and work the chain across from side to side at an angle of 45°
+to the traced lines. For further security it is well to catch down the
+end of the stitch just completed with the needle as it commences the
+following one. The line can be further decorated by placing a French
+knot, perhaps in a contrasting colour, in each little triangular space
+left by working the stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+There is an ingenious method of working ordinary chain stitch in a
+chequering of two colours (fig. 31). It is quite simple to work. Thread
+a needle with two different coloured threads, commence the chain stitch
+in the usual way until the thread has to be placed under the point of
+the needle for forming the loop. Place only one of the two threads
+underneath, leaving the other on one side out of the way, then draw the
+needle and thread through over the one held down. A chain stitch will
+have been formed with the thread that was looped under the needle. For
+the next stitch, the alternate thread is placed under, and so on, taking
+each thread in turn. The thread not in use each time usually requires a
+little adjustment to make it entirely disappear from the surface.
+
+Twisted chain is worked very similarly to the ordinary chain stitch. It
+has not such a decidedly looped appearance, which is sometimes an
+advantage. To work it (fig. 32)--Bring the thread through at the top of
+the line, hold it down under the thumb to the left, and insert the
+needle to the left of the traced line, slightly below the point where
+the thread has come through. Bring it out again on the traced line,
+about one-eighth of an inch lower down, and draw it through over the
+held down thread.
+
+An entirely different effect can be obtained by working this stitch
+much closer together, but in exactly the same way. It will then
+resemble a satin stitch slightly raised on one side. This is known as
+rope stitch and is at times very useful.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+Open chain stitch makes a good broad line; it looks best when worked
+with a stout thread. To carry out the stitch (fig. 33)--Trace two
+parallel lines upon the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart,
+and bring the thread through at the top of the left-hand one. Hold the
+thread down with the thumb and insert the needle exactly opposite on the
+other line, bring it up one-eighth of an inch lower down and draw the
+thread through over the held down part, leaving a rather slack loop upon
+the material. Then insert the needle on the first line again, inside
+the slack loop, and bring it out one-eighth of an inch below. Repeat
+this on each side alternately. Fig. 34 is a drawing from a piece of
+white linen work in which the open chain stitch is used in combination
+with other stitches. This figure, with its open-work centre, is repeated
+diagonally over a white linen cloth exhibited in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+Braid stitch rather resembles a fancy braid laid upon the material. It
+looks best when carried out with a stoutly twisted thread. To work it
+(fig. 35)--Trace two parallel lines upon the material about one-eighth
+of an inch apart, and bring the thread through at the right-hand end of
+the lower line. Throw the thread across to the left and hold it slackly
+under the thumb. Place the needle pointing towards the worker under this
+held thread, then twist it round towards the left and over the held
+thread until it points in the opposite direction. It will now have the
+thread twisted loosely over it. Next, insert the needle on the upper
+line one-eighth of an inch from the starting-point, and bring it
+through on the lower line exactly underneath. Place the thumb over the
+stitch in process of making and draw the thread through as the diagram
+shows. It can be worked openly or more closely as preferred.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+Cable chain is descriptively named, for, when worked with a stoutly
+twisted thread, it has very much the appearance of a chain laid upon
+the material, rather too much so perhaps to be a pretty embroidery
+stitch. To work it (fig. 36)--Bring the needle through at the top of the
+traced line, throw the thread round to the left and hold it down with
+the thumb near where it has come through the material. Pass the needle
+under the held down thread from left to right and draw it through until
+there is only a small loop left. Insert the needle in the centre of this
+loop, on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an inch below the
+starting-point. Bring it out a quarter of an inch below and outside the
+loop. Take the thread in the right hand and tighten the loop that has
+now been formed, and then pass the thread under the point of the needle
+towards the left (see diagram). Place the left thumb over the stitch in
+process of making and draw the thread through; this will complete the
+first two links of the chain; to continue, repeat from the beginning.
+
+Knotted chain is a pretty stitch; to look well it must be worked with a
+stout thread. To carry it out (fig. 37)--Trace two parallel lines upon
+the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart. Bring the thread
+through at the right hand end in the centre between the two lines, then
+insert the needle on the upper line one-sixteenth of an inch further
+along, and bring it through on the lower line immediately below. Draw
+the thread through and there will be a short slanting line left upon the
+material. Throw the thread round to the left and hold it under the
+thumb, then pass the needle and thread through the slanting line from
+above downwards, leaving the thread a little slack. Place the thread
+again under the thumb, then in the same way as before, from above
+downwards, pass the needle and thread through this slack loop. This
+makes the first two links of the chain; the last one will not be
+properly fixed in place until the next stitch is taken. The dotted
+vertical line on the diagram shows the piece of material taken up by the
+needle upon commencing the next stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+Split stitch is a most useful one for many purposes. It is difficult to
+distinguish from a fine chain when done, but in the working it much more
+resembles stem stitch. It can be carried out in the hand or in a frame.
+This stitch, frequently seen upon ancient work, was much used for both
+draperies and features; the lines of the stitching usually, by their
+direction, expressing moulding of form or folds of drapery. To work it
+(fig. 38)--Bring the thread through at the lower end of the traced line,
+then insert the needle about one-eighth of an inch further along, and
+bring it through on the line two or three threads nearer the
+starting-point; whilst bringing it through take it also through the
+centre of the working thread, which thus splits each stitch.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] No. 184, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+STITCHES--(_continued_)
+
+  Satin Stitch--Long and Short Stitch--Stem Stitch--Overcast
+  Stitch--Back Stitch--Buttonhole Stitch--Tailor's Buttonhole--Fancy
+  Buttonhole Edgings--Flower in Open Buttonhole Stitch--Leaf in Close
+  Buttonhole Stitches--Petal in Solid Buttonholing.
+
+
+SATIN AND SIMILAR STITCHES
+
+Satin stitch is perhaps the most commonly used of all stitches. It is
+more quickly worked by hand, but for complicated work the help of a
+frame is required. Floss silk thread is seen to greatest advantage in a
+stitch of this kind, for it shows off the glossiness of silk
+particularly well. It is straightforward in the working and needs no
+further description than is given by the diagram (fig. 39). The stitches
+may vary in length, they must neither be impracticably long nor, on the
+other hand, too much cut up, lest the silky effect be partly lost. These
+stitches lie close together and in parallel lines; the chief difference
+between satin and several other closely allied stitches being that these
+others may radiate or vary in direction according to the space to be
+filled. The stitch is usually worked in oblique lines; stems, leaves,
+and petals would be treated in this way; sometimes it is worked
+regularly having regard to the warp and woof of the material; it would
+be treated thus when used in conjunction with cross or stroke stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+It will be seen that there is as much silk at the back as on the front
+of the work. There is a method of carrying out the stitch by which this
+waste of material at the back is avoided; the thread is returned to the
+front close to where it went through instead of crossing over and coming
+up on the other side. The effect on the right side, however, is not so
+good, so this method cannot be recommended.
+
+One of the technical difficulties with satin stitch is to get a neat
+firm line at the edges of the filled space; this is excellently attained
+by the Chinese and Japanese, who use this satin stitch a great deal.
+They frequently work each petal of a complicated flower separately,
+leaving as a division, between each one and the next, a fine line of
+material firmly and clearly drawn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+The stitch is much used for raised work, and also lends itself well to
+gradation of colour. Fig. 40 is an example of shading in satin stitch.
+In this case each new row of stitches fits in just between those of the
+last row; this is a bold but very effective method of expressing
+gradation. A variation upon this is shown in fig. 42; the bands of
+different colour are here necessarily worked in a chevron pattern which
+makes the shading rather more gradual. An example of the same thing can
+be seen in fig. 44 in the leaf upon which the squirrel sits. Apart from
+gradation of colour, the surface to be covered by satin stitch has often
+to be partitioned up in some way in order to make the satin stitches of
+a practical length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Long and short stitch is a very slight variation, if any, from satin
+stitch. The name describes the method of working, for it is carried out
+by working alternately a long and a short stitch, the stitches being
+picked up just as in satin stitch. It is useful for close fillings and
+shaded work, and also as a solid outline for any kind of open filling.
+The working of the stitch can be seen in fig. 41, where the band of
+lightest colour on the upper part of the leaf is worked in long and
+short stitch. The advantage of this way of working can be seen at once,
+it makes a firm outline on the one edge and a nicely broken-up one on
+the other, just ready for another shade to be worked in. In order to
+carry out the rest of the shading on the leaf in the same way the
+stitches can be all of the same length; this will always ensure a broken
+line at the edge, which is a necessity for this method of gradation.
+Long and short stitch used as an outline for a leaf with an open filling
+can be seen on page 209. The _opus plumarium_ or feather stitch that we
+read of in the descriptions of the old embroideries was a similar stitch
+to this, and so called, some say, because it resembled the plumage of a
+bird.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+Stem stitch, well known and frequently in use for various purposes, such
+as for lines, outlines, gradated and flat fillings, and so on, is
+usually done in the hand, and is quite simple; fig. 43 explains the
+working. If a broad line is required the needle is put in more
+obliquely, and a raised effect can be obtained by working over a laid
+thread. The thread must be kept to the same side of the needle, either
+to the left or to the right as better suits the purpose in hand; the
+effect is more line-like when it is kept to the right. Occasionally,
+when just a double line is to be worked, it is deliberately done in the
+two ways, and then the line resembles a narrow plait. A solid filling
+in stem stitch should be worked in lines as illustrated in the squirrel
+in fig. 44. This little beast is taken from the curtain shown in Plate
+VII., and is a good example of the life and interest that the
+introduction of such things adds to embroideries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+The stitches just described were largely used in crewel work. This is a
+rather vague name that denotes a decorative kind of needlework carried
+out with coloured wools upon a plain white linen ground. The design is
+usually composed of conventionally treated leaves and flowers, often
+growing from boldly curved stems. These were partly shaded in solid
+stitches, partly worked with geometrical open fillings; ornamental birds
+and beasts of all kinds were introduced, and the effect of the whole was
+very beautiful. The work is characteristically English, and a great
+deal of it was executed in the XVIIth century. Plates VII. and VIII. are
+illustrative of the type of work, and fig. 45 represents a detail. The
+various stitches which occur in this drawing are stem, herring-bone,
+long and short, knot, basket, buttonhole, single chain and satin
+stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+Overcast stitch in embroidery is practically a very short raised satin
+stitch. It requires neat workmanship, and then makes a bold clear line
+or outline. To work it (fig. 46)--Run or couch down a thread on the
+traced line, then with fine thread cover this over with close upright
+stitches, picking up as little material as possible each time in order
+to make the line clear and round. The stitch is worked most perfectly in
+a frame.
+
+Back stitch sometimes makes a good line or outline. To work it (fig.
+47)--Bring the needle through one-sixteenth of an inch from the end of
+the traced line, insert it at the commencement and bring it through
+again one-sixteenth of an inch beyond where it first came out. Each
+stitch, it will be seen, commences at the point where the last one
+finished.
+
+
+BUTTONHOLE STITCH AND ITS APPLICATION
+
+Buttonhole stitch, which is well known in plain needlework, is very
+useful also in embroidery, besides being an important stitch in
+needlepoint lace. Owing to its construction it is well suited for the
+covering of raw edges, but it is also adaptable to a variety of other
+purposes, such as are open or close fillings of leaves and flowers, cut
+work, and the outlining of applied work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+There are two ways of forming the stitch, the common buttonhole and what
+is called tailor's buttonhole.
+
+To work the ordinary buttonhole stitch (fig. 48)--Bring the needle
+through at the left-hand end of the traced line, hold the thread down
+to the left with the thumb and insert the needle as shown in the
+diagram, draw it through over the held thread to complete the stitch. It
+is worked openly in the diagram, but it may, as required, be either more
+or less open or quite closed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+The tailor's buttonhole is for some purposes more satisfactory; the
+stitch is firmer than the other kind owing to the heading having an
+extra knot in it; this makes it also more ornamental. To work it (fig.
+49)--Commence in the same way as the last stitch until the needle and
+thread are in the position shown in fig. 48 then, with the right hand
+take hold of the thread near the eye of the needle, bring it down and
+loop it under the point from right to left, draw the needle and thread
+through over these two loops, and the first stitch is made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+Buttonhole stitch can be varied in many ways, dependent mainly upon the
+spacing of the stitch and the direction that the needle takes when
+picking up the material. Fig. 50 shows four simple varieties; the first
+is the open buttonhole spaced slightly irregularly and with a thread
+slipped underneath it; any variety of spacing can be arranged, and the
+thread shown running underneath, which sometimes forms a pretty
+addition, is usually of a contrasting colour or material. The second
+shows the stitches taken slanting-wise, so that they cross each other.
+In the third the stitches are at different angles and of unequal length.
+The fourth example shows two lines of spaced buttonhole stitch fitting
+neatly the one into the other and forming a solid line. One row is
+worked first, leaving just sufficient space between each stitch for the
+second row to fill up, which can be carried out by reversing the
+position of the material and exactly repeating the first line in the
+same or in a different colour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
+
+A flower filled in with open buttonhole stitch is shown at fig. 51. The
+centre consists of a mass of French knots, and the outside line is in
+satin stitch. The innermost circle of buttonholing is worked first, the
+next row is worked over the heading of the first row as well as into the
+material; the succeeding rows are worked in the same way until the
+outside limit is reached, and there the satin stitch just covers the
+heading of the last row of buttonhole stitching. Gradation of colour can
+easily be introduced by using a different shade for each circle of
+stitches, and this produces a very pretty effect. An open method of
+filling a space, whether flower, leaf, drapery, or background, is
+sometimes preferable to a solid filling, and the two methods can very
+well be used together as each shows off the other. These light fillings
+give opportunity for further variety and ingenuity in the stitching, and
+prevent the work from looking heavy. A butterfly, carried out partly in
+open stitches, is illustrated in fig. 52.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
+
+Fig. 53 is, in the original, a gay little flower carried out in orange
+and yellow. The stitch employed here is a close buttonhole.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
+
+Another example of the use of close buttonhole is shown in the ivy leaf
+in fig. 54. The stitch is worked in two rows, back to back, in each lobe
+of the leaf, and the resulting ridge down the centre rather happily
+suggests the veining. This method of filling in might be just reversed
+for a rose leaf; the heading of the stitch would then suggest the
+serrated edge, and the meeting of the two rows down the centre the line
+of the vein.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
+
+A cluster of berries can be very prettily worked in buttonhole stitch in
+the way shown in fig. 55. The stitches are so arranged that the heading
+outlines each berry, and the needle enters the material at the same
+point, always in the centre. A bullion stitch in a darker colour marks
+the eye of the berry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
+
+A good method of filling a space with solid buttonhole stitching is
+shown in fig. 56. Each row is worked into the heading of the preceding
+row, and the stitches do not pierce the material except in the first row
+and at the extremities of succeeding rows. They are placed rather close
+together in order to completely cover the ground. The stitch is worked,
+first, from left to right, then for the next row from right to left;
+this is quite easy and enables the work to be continuously carried out.
+Sometimes, when the first row is done, the thread is thrown across to
+the side where the row began, and there made fast; then the second row
+is worked with stitches which take up the thrown thread as well as the
+heading of the first row. By using a more open buttonhole and thus
+partly exposing the laid thread, a filling, both quick and effective, is
+obtained. This is a useful method to employ when the work is done over a
+padding of threads, for there is no necessity to pierce the material
+except at the edges.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+STITCHES--(_continued_)
+
+  Knots and Knot Stitches--Herring-bone Stitch--Feather Stitch--Basket
+  Stitch--Fishbone Stitch--Cretan Stitch--Roumanian Stitch--Various
+  Insertion Stitches--Picots.
+
+
+KNOTS AND KNOT STITCHES
+
+It would be difficult to go far in embroidery without requiring knots
+for one purpose or another. They are useful in all sorts of ways, and
+make a pleasant contrast to the other stitches. For the enrichment of
+border lines and various parts of the work, both pattern and background,
+they are most serviceable, and also for solid fillings; for such places
+as centres of flowers or parts of leaves, they are again valuable. They
+have been used to form a continuous outline, but owing to their tendency
+to make a weak line, not frequently; indeed they usually show to better
+advantage when slightly separated.
+
+Examples are to be seen of English knotted line work in which the
+knotting was executed in the thread previously to embroidering with it.
+The knotting of thread was a pastime with ladies in the XVIIth century.
+The thread, usually a linen one and as a rule home spun, was wound upon
+a netting-needle, and by the aid of this a close series of knots was
+made upon it; when finished it somewhat resembled a string of beads.
+Balls of this prepared knotted thread may still be found, treasured up
+in old work receptacles. When prepared it was couched on to the material
+with fine thread, like a cord or braid, and made to follow out some
+prearranged pattern. In white linen work it was used for carrying out
+ornamental borderings on infants' robes and other dainty articles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.]
+
+French knots can be worked in the hand or in a frame. They are easier to
+manage in the latter, and to look well they must be neatly and firmly
+made. Completed they should resemble beads lying end upwards on the
+material. To work the French knot (fig. 57)--Bring the thread through
+the material at the required point, take hold of it with the left finger
+and thumb near the starting-point (A on plan), then let the point of the
+needle encircle the held thread twice, twist the needle round and insert
+it at point B on plan, draw the thread through to the back, not letting
+go the held thread until necessary. Fig. 58 shows some French knots
+decorating a leaf spray, and various other examples of their use can be
+found in the book.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.]
+
+Bullion knots resemble tight curls of thread laid on the material. They
+can be used as a variation from French knots, and even for the
+representation of petals and small leaves. To be satisfactory they must
+be firm, stout, and tightly coiled; some knack is required to make them
+properly. To work the bullion knot (fig. 59)--Bring the thread through
+at the required place, insert the needle one-eighth of an inch from this
+point and bring it through again exactly at it. Take hold of the thread
+about two inches from where it came through and twist it several times
+round the point of the needle, the number of times being dependent on
+the required length of the knot. Place the left thumb upon the tight
+coil on the needle, in order to keep it in place, and draw the needle
+and thread through it, then pass the thread through to the back at the
+point where the needle was last inserted (point A on plan). The thumb
+must not be removed until it is in the way. Fig. 60 represents a flower,
+of which the centre is formed of bullion together with French knots.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.]
+
+Fig. 61 shows a knotted stitch that is similar in result to the knotted
+threads discussed earlier in the chapter. In this case the knotting of
+the thread and the fixing to the material is done at the same time. It
+is a useful stitch when a jagged line is wanted, and can be seen used,
+for instance, for the branching veins in open work leaves, as in fig.
+62. The diagram explains the working of the stitch; at point A on the
+plan the left thumb holds the thread down whilst the stitch is in
+progress.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS STITCHES
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+The stitch illustrated at fig. 63 is very similar to the common
+herring-bone. The only practical difference is that in the plain
+needlework stitch there is usually a smaller piece of material picked up
+by the needle each time. To work it as in the diagram--Trace two
+parallel lines on the material and bring the thread through at the
+commencement of the lower line, insert it on the opposite line rather
+farther along and there pick up a stitch, as the needle is doing in the
+figure. Then on the opposite line pick up a similar stitch a little in
+advance of the one just finished. After this work the stitches on either
+line alternately, commencing each one at the point where the last one
+ended; this forms on the underside a double row of back stitches. It is
+quite easy to work this stitch with the back stitches on the working
+side, and when they are required to be on the surface it is advisable to
+do it in that way. When embroidering upon a semi-transparent material
+this stitch is a satisfactory one to use, the back stitching follows out
+the outline on either side of the form, and the crossing of the threads
+on the under side shows through prettily. This stitch sometimes goes by
+the name of double back stitch. It is useful in many ways, making a
+light stitch for stems, leaves, or flowers; it can be sometimes found in
+Eastern work used for an entire embroidery. When used for flowers or
+leaves the width and the closeness of the stitch are varied to suit the
+shape to be filled. An example of its use as a flower filling is shown
+in the carnation at fig. 64, which is carried out in four shades of
+colour. Considerable use is made of this stitch in embroidered curtain
+shown in Plate VII.; it is there employed for all the stems and various
+flowers upon the hanging.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
+
+The feather stitch, often used to decorate plain needlework, is now to
+be discussed; although similar in name it must not be confused with the
+feather or plumage stitch that has already been mentioned. The stitch is
+so simple and so much in use as hardly to need description; fig. 65
+explains the working. There can be many slight variations of the stitch,
+the worker perhaps devising them needle in hand. Two are shown in fig.
+66. The one to the left is worked very like the ordinary stitch; the
+needle picks up the material in a straight line instead of slightly
+obliquely, and each stitch touches the one immediately above; it is
+here made use of as a couching stitch, a bunch of threads of a
+contrasting colour is laid on the material, and the stitch worked over
+it from side to side. The right-hand example shows the ordinary feather
+stitch worked more closely and in a broader line; carried out in this
+way, it can be used for a leaf filling.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
+
+Basket stitch, useful for a solid line, shows up very clearly when
+worked with a stout twisted thread. This stitch would be appropriately
+used when applied to some representation of basket work. To carry out
+the diagram (fig. 67)--Trace two parallel lines on the material, and to
+commence, bring the thread through on the left-hand line, then insert
+the needle on the right-hand line about one-eighth of an inch lower down
+and bring it through on the left-hand line exactly opposite (see needle
+in fig.); the next stitch is worked by inserting the needle on the
+right-hand line but above the last stitch, that is at point A on
+diagram, and bringing it through at B. To continue, repeat from the
+beginning.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
+
+A particularly good line for a border is made by fishbone stitch. It can
+be worked in one colour, or as easily in a chequering of two or three,
+as shown in the diagram (fig. 68); to carry it out in this way the
+worker must have two threads in use, bringing through each as required.
+For such purposes as the fillings of small leaves, this stitch is very
+useful (see fig. 58). The meeting of the stitches in the centre suggest
+the veining line, also the change in direction of the thread gives, to
+the two sides of the leaf, pleasant variation in tone. To work
+it--Trace three parallel lines upon the material and bring the thread
+through on the upper line at the left-hand end. Insert the needle and
+bring it through as in process in the diagram, then repeat the same
+stitch on the other side the reverse way, that is, insert the needle
+just over the central line and bring it through on the upper one close
+to the last stitch. Care must be taken that the stitches cross well over
+each other at the centre, or the material will show through.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
+
+The stitch shown in fig. 69, known as plait or Cretan, is commonly seen
+on Cretan and other Eastern embroideries. It can be used as a solid
+border stitch or as a filling, varying in width as required. To work
+it--Bring the thread through on the lower central line, then insert the
+needle on the uppermost line and bring it through on the next below as
+in process in the diagram; then, still keeping the thread to the right,
+insert the needle immediately underneath on the lowest line and bring it
+through on the line next above, in fashion similar to the last stitch,
+but in reverse direction. To continue, work the stitch alternately on
+one side and the other, always keeping the thread to the right of the
+needle. In order to make the central plait broader take up rather less
+material with the needle; this will decrease the outer and increase the
+inner lines. Fig. 70 is taken from a Cretan embroidery, in which this
+stitch is mainly used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.]
+
+Another similar but more simple stitch, often seen in Eastern work, is
+shown in fig. 71. It can also frequently be found employed on XVIIth
+century English wool work hangings. It is sometimes called Roumanian
+stitch, and is composed of one long stitch crossed by a short one in the
+centre. To work it--Trace two parallel lines on the material and bring
+the thread through on the left-hand line at the top. Insert the needle
+on the opposite line and bring it through near the centre, as shown in
+process in the diagram. For the next half of the stitch the needle
+enters the material at point A on plan, and is brought through again on
+the left-hand line close to the last stitch, and so in position to
+commence again. An illustration of this stitch in use as a filling can
+be seen at fig. 72. It is worked in four shades of green wool, and each
+line of stitches is so arranged as to encroach slightly on the line
+before by means of setting each stitch just between two of the last row.
+This method of working has two advantages; the shading is thus made
+more gradual, and a pleasant undulating effect is given to the surface
+of the leaf. This can be most easily understood by a practical trial of
+the stitch and method.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+
+INSERTION STITCHES
+
+There is occasion sometimes in embroidery to join edges together
+visibly. This gives an opportunity for some additional pretty
+stitching--the addition of something like this, that is perhaps not
+absolutely necessary, has extra value from the evidence it gives of the
+worker's interest and delight in her work, a quality always appreciated;
+on the other hand, work done from the motive of getting a result with as
+little labour as possible is valued at just its worth.
+
+These insertion stitches are useful for joining together edges of
+cushion covers, bags, detached bands, also for the ornamentation of
+dress, and for embroideries upon which drawn thread work is not
+possible. A stout thread is usually suitable for the purpose. The raw
+edges must first be turned in and flattened, and the parts to be joined
+can if necessary be tacked in place on a temporary ground such as
+_toile cirée_.
+
+Fig. 73 illustrates a twisted insertion stitch that is quickly executed
+and very frequently used. The diagram sufficiently explains the working
+without further description.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
+
+Buttonhole stitch can be turned to account for this purpose. Fig. 74
+shows the tailor's buttonhole used as an insertion stitch; for this
+purpose it is the better of the two kinds of buttonhole. The stitches
+could be arranged in various ways; in the present example three are
+worked closely together on either side in turn. The only difficulty with
+this buttonhole insertion is that on one side the stitch has to be
+worked in direction contrary to that usual, that is from right to left
+instead of from left to right. In the diagram the needle is shown
+working in this reverse way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
+
+Fig. 75 is a knotted insertion stitch; the knot at each side makes the
+stitch a very rigid one. To work it--Bring the thread through at the
+lower left-hand side, insert the needle on the upper side a little
+towards the right, draw the thread through, and then tie the knot on it
+as in process in the diagram.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
+
+A rather more complicated joining stitch is shown in fig. 76. It could
+be carried out with different coloured threads. The two sides must be
+first worked with the edging, which is practically the braid stitch
+described on page 88. Commence the stitch in exactly the same way as
+when carrying out braid stitch, but work on the edge of the material as
+in buttonholing, the working edge in this case being away from the
+worker. Let the worker, having reached the point of pulling the thread
+through to complete the stitch, draw it out in the direction away from
+her. This will draw the stitch towards the edge, where it will form a
+knot. In the diagram one of the stitches has been partly undone in order
+to show the working more clearly. When the two sides are bound with the
+stitch, they can be laced together with another thread as in the
+illustration.
+
+
+PICOTS
+
+Picots are commonly in use in lace work and they are sometimes required
+for embroidery purposes, especially in the kinds of work nearly allied
+to lace, such as cut work, or for an added ornament to an edging stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
+
+Fig. 77 shows too small picots added to a buttonhole bar, and on the
+lower bar is shown the method of working the left-hand picot. The pin
+that passes into the material behind the bar can be fixed in the bar
+itself if there happens to be no material underneath. After reaching
+the point illustrated in the diagram, the needle draws the thread
+through, thus making a firm knot round the loop. This completes the
+picot, the bar is then buttonholed to the end. The second picot is made
+in much the same way; instead, however, of putting the needle as the
+diagram shows, bring the thread up through the centre of the loop, then
+round under the pin from left to right, and it will be in position to
+make three buttonhole stitches along the loop, which completes the
+second example.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
+
+The upper bar on fig. 78 shows a buttonholed picot. The bar must be
+worked to the left-hand end of the required picot; the thread is then
+from there taken back about one-eighth of an inch and threaded through
+the edge of the buttonhole. This is repeated to and fro until there is a
+loop composed of three threads ready to be buttonholed over. Upon this
+being done, the thread will have arrived at the right point to continue
+the bar.
+
+Bullion stitch makes another simple picot--Work the bar to the point
+where the picot is required, then, instead of taking the next stitch,
+insert the point of the needle in the heading of the last stitch. Leave
+the needle in this position, and twist the thread six or eight times
+round the point of it, just as for the bullion knot (fig. 59). Place the
+left thumb over the tight coil thus formed, and pull the needle and
+thread through tightly in order to make the stitch double up into a
+tight semi-circle, then continue the buttonholing to the end of the
+bar.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CANVAS WORK AND STITCHES
+
+  Introduction--Samplers--Petit Point Pictures--Cross Stitch--Tent
+  Stitch--Gobelin Stitch--Irish Stitch--Plait Stitch--Two-sided
+  Italian Stitch--Holbein Stitch--Rococo Stitch.
+
+
+Canvas work, known in the XIIIth century as _opus pulvinarium_ or
+cushion work, is of great antiquity, and seems to have had an
+independent origin in several countries. It is sometimes given the
+misleading name of tapestry, perhaps owing to hangings of all kinds
+being called tapestries, whether loom-woven, worked with the needle, or
+painted. Large wall hangings with designs similar to those of woven
+tapestries have been most successfully carried out on canvas in cross or
+tent stitch; as a rule, however, smaller objects are worked, such as
+furniture coverings, screens or cushions, whence it is obvious canvas
+work received its ancient and descriptive Latin name. Many Eastern
+carpets are worked upon a strong canvas in a kind of tent stitch, and
+so come under the heading of canvas work. It is a particularly durable
+method of embroidering, and this makes it suitable for use upon anything
+subjected to hard wear.
+
+The work has usually a very decided and attractive character of its own.
+A familiar example of this can be seen in the XVIIIth century samplers.
+Its peculiar character is perhaps due to the fact that it cannot break
+away from a certain conventionality due to constant use of the same
+stitch, and its dependence upon the web of the fabric. This regularity
+prevents the work from showing certain faults of design that other
+methods may exaggerate. It is hardly possible to copy a natural spray of
+flowers in cross stitch and keep it very naturalistic. The stitch being
+square and alike all over gives a formality of treatment to every part
+of the design, also, some detail is perforce omitted owing to the
+impossibility of putting it in; all of this tends to a right method of
+treatment, which renders the sampler an admirable lesson not only in
+workmanship but also in design.
+
+The XVIth and XVIIth century pictorial subjects worked upon fine canvas
+in cross or tent stitch afford instances of most interesting work in
+canvas stitches. Some of these, though, as a rule, very much smaller in
+size, equal, in their way, the finest tapestries. Most of them, if
+judged from a painter's standpoint, would be pronounced failures, but
+this effect is not what is sought after; the method of treatment belongs
+rather to the great traditions of the tapestry weaver, and is not
+governed by the canons of the painter. Plate VI. shows a detail of
+foliage from a particularly fine example of this work lately added to
+the Victoria and Albert Museum collection.[2]
+
+In what went by the name of Berlin wool work, popular in the early XIXth
+century, we have before us a degenerate offshoot of this fine and poetic
+kind of work in which all its possibilities are missed, with a result
+that is prosaic in the extreme. Some of the canvas-work seat covers
+decorated with geometrical designs, seen on Chippendale chairs, were a
+pleasant and satisfactory variation in their way, but in most of the
+work after that period, the attempt at impossible naturalistic effect
+gave such unsatisfactory results as to almost deal a death blow to all
+canvas embroidery. It is, however, a method too good and useful to die
+out; it must always be more or less in vogue.
+
+Patterns carried out in canvas stitches are sometimes to be seen worked
+apparently upon velvet or similar ground materials. This is done by
+first laying the canvas upon the velvet and stitching through both
+materials; this would have to be carried out in a frame. The threads of
+the canvas are afterwards either withdrawn or closely cut off. In the
+former case, the stitches must be drawn tight, or the finished work will
+not look well. This method has the advantage of saving the labour of
+working the background, and sometimes it suits the pattern to have a
+contrast in the ground material. In old embroideries, heraldic devices
+may be seen successfully treated in this way.
+
+The usual canvas stitches can be worked upon other fabrics that have an
+even and square mesh, such as various kinds of linen; also other
+embroidery stitches, such as stem, satin, or chain, can be used upon
+canvas; they are then always worked with a certain regularity, following
+the web of the material.
+
+Canvas work can be done in the hand or in a frame, but the technique is
+often better in work done in a frame. In all-over work it is important
+that not even a suggestion of the ground fabric should be allowed to
+show through; for this reason work in light colours should be done on
+white canvas, and _vice versâ_, as far as possible, also the thread used
+must suit in thickness the mesh of the canvas. To work a plain ground
+well is less easy than to work the pattern, though it may sound more
+simple. The back of the work, though not necessarily similar to the
+front, must be alike in stitch all over, for the direction the stitch
+takes at the back affects the regularity of appearance of the front. The
+stitch must not be commenced in exactly the same place in each row, lest
+a ridge should appear upon the surface; this can be avoided by using
+threads of different lengths. A ground is usually commenced at the lower
+left-hand corner, and a pattern, if a complicated one, from the centre
+outwards. These technical points are of importance, but they are of
+little value unless the stitches are at the same time expressing an
+interesting and suitable design.
+
+The stitches used are exceedingly numerous; those described in the
+following pages are the varieties most commonly seen.
+
+Cross stitch, the best known in this group, can be worked in slightly
+different ways, according to the purpose for which it is required. On
+the surface it is always the same, but it can vary at the back. For
+instance, when used for marking purposes it should form on the reverse
+side either a cross or a square, to do either of which demands some
+ingenuity on the part of the worker. For ordinary work the really
+correct method is to complete each stitch before going on to the next,
+though grounding is frequently done by working the first half of the
+stitch along an entire line, and completing the cross upon a return
+journey. In any case, the crossing must always be worked in the same
+direction.
+
+Cross stitch is a double stitch worked diagonally over two threads of
+the canvas each way. It can, however, be taken over more or fewer
+threads if required larger or smaller. To work it (fig. 79)--Bring the
+needle through on the upper left side of the threads to be covered, and
+take it back again on the lower right, then bring it through on the
+upper right side and return it to the back on the lower left, which
+completes the first stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.]
+
+Tent stitch (fig. 80) is the finest canvas stitch, and is therefore
+suitable for work involving much detail. Pictorial and heraldic subjects
+are frequently carried out in it. It is worked diagonally over a
+perpendicular and horizontal thread of the canvas. The diagram shows
+the method of working both back and front. It will be noticed that
+though the line goes alternately from left to right and from right to
+left, the stitch is always the same at the back as well as the same upon
+the front; if this were not so, alternate rows would have a different
+appearance upon the right side. The diagram does not show the connection
+between the first and the second row, but it is evident that it must be
+a short upright line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
+
+Gobelin stitch is a useful variety; it lends itself to shading better
+than cross stitch. It is most often worked upon a fine single canvas,
+and it can be used as a raised stitch. Fig. 81 represents the stitch; it
+is worked similarly to tent stitch but over two threads in height and
+one in width, no matter whether the single or double thread canvas is
+used. In order to work it as a raised stitch, a line of some kind of
+padding is thrown across the canvas, and the stitch taken over it. This
+line can be arranged to show in part, in which case the material must be
+one presentable, such as a gold cord or narrow braid. The padding would
+be covered with stitching to form the background, and left exposed for
+the pattern, which would probably be a simple repeating form of some
+kind. Gobelin stitch is sometimes worked quite perpendicularly just over
+two threads in height.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
+
+Irish stitch is pretty and quickly worked. It is usually taken
+perpendicularly over four threads of the canvas (fig. 82), though the
+number over which it is taken may vary. It is worked in such a way as to
+make the stitches of each succeeding row fit between those of the last
+row, and can be carried out either diagonally or in horizontal lines.
+What is known as Florentine work is carried out in a stitch of this
+kind. The pattern in this kind of work is taken horizontally across the
+ground in a succession of shaded zigzag lines.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.]
+
+Plait stitch is often used for grounding. It resembles a simple plait
+laid in close rows to and fro on the ground. It can frequently be seen
+used upon the Italian XVIth century linen work, that in which the
+pattern is left in plain linen, and the ground worked in some colour.
+The diagram in fig. 83 shows the method of working the stitch. If
+carried out correctly, the back of the material should show a row of
+short perpendicular lines, each composed of two threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.]
+
+Two-sided Italian stitch is descriptively named, for it is alike on both
+sides. This is frequently seen on XVIth and XVIIth century Italian linen
+work, similar to that mentioned above. A loosely woven linen makes a
+suitable ground material, for in the working the stitches must be pulled
+firmly, so as to draw the threads of the fabric together; this gives
+over the ground a squared open-work effect, which is very pretty. Fig.
+84 explains the working of the stitch; it is shown in four stages, and
+is quite simple; the final result is a cross surrounded by a square. The
+lowest figure in the diagram shows the last stage, for the upper side of
+the square is filled in when the row above is worked. The drawing
+together of the web is not shown, but at a trial it should be done, for
+in that lies the special character of the stitch. The silk used must be
+just thick enough to well cover the linen, but not too thick, for then
+the work would be clumsy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.]
+
+Holbein stitch (fig. 85), also known as stroke or line stitch, is alike
+on both sides, and is often used in conjunction with cross and satin
+stitch, as well as alone. Very intricate and interesting patterns can be
+devised to be carried out with these three stitches, worked always with
+regard to the web of the linen. Squared paper could be used for
+planning the design, as the stitches would all be practically of the
+same length, and the pattern must be one that can be easily carried out
+alike on both sides. The stitch is worked as follows: An even running
+stitch, picking up as much material as it leaves, is taken all round the
+pattern. This does half the work on either side; the gaps are then
+filled up by the running stitch being taken in a contrary direction,
+which completes the pattern. Occasionally stitches go off at an angle
+from the running pattern; these are completed on the first journey by a
+satin stitch being made at the necessary point. The present diagram is a
+zigzag line, with one of these stitches going off at each angle. Fig. 86
+is an example of a border design carried out in Holbein stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
+
+The stitch illustrated in fig. 87 is known as rococo stitch. It is a
+useful one for carrying out a conventional design, such as, to give a
+simple illustration, a flower sprig repeating in the spaces formed by a
+trellis pattern. The effect of the stitch when worked cannot be judged
+from this diagram; to see this properly a piece of canvas must be worked
+entirely over with it. The pattern chosen is usually one that lends
+itself to being worked in diagonal lines, as this stitch is best worked
+in that way. It entirely hides the canvas background, and is carried out
+very similarly to the oriental stitch in fig. 71. By the help of that
+diagram and description and the present one, which gives various steps,
+the worker will easily master the stitch, which is quite simple. The
+ordinary carrying out of the stitch is shown where the needle is at
+work, and in another part the diagram, by some loosened stitches,
+illustrates how to pass from one cluster to the next.
+
+Some fine examples of canvas work design, introducing a variety of
+stitches, may be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. These are large
+panels filled with foliage and flowers growing about architectural
+columns.[3]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] No. 879, 1904.
+
+[3] No. 517-522, 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+METHODS OF WORK
+
+  Couching--Braid Work--Laid Work--Applied Work--Inlaid Work--Patch
+  Work.
+
+
+COUCHING
+
+Couching is the name given to a method of embroidery in which one thread
+is attached to the material by another one. Sometimes not only one
+thread but a number of threads are couched down together; or it may be
+cord, braid, or metal thread that is attached to the material in this
+way. Fig. 88 shows some couching in progress. The method probably arose
+through the difficulty experienced in passing either coarse or very
+delicate threads through a material. Couching is constantly in use with
+gold thread embroidery, and it is further discussed in the chapter upon
+that subject, where also is described an entirely different method,
+which is to be recommended for couching other as well as for gold
+threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.]
+
+Couching is useful in a variety of ways, _e.g._ for carrying out work in
+line or for outlining other embroidery, applied work for instance, which
+is frequently finished off by means of a couched thread; in the case of
+a difficult ground material, it is one of the most manageable methods of
+working. The geometrical open fillings of leaves and backgrounds are
+often composed of lines of thread thrown across and couched down at
+regular intervals. Fig. 89 is an example of a favourite filling of this
+kind. Embroidery stitches can be made use of for couching down other
+threads; a bunch of threads may be laid upon the material, and an open
+chain, buttonhole, or feather stitch worked over in order to fix it in
+place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
+
+Braid work is quickly and easily executed; it needs only a suitable
+pattern and a pretty braid for couching down to be most successful.
+There are a few points to be observed about the technique--the cut edge
+of a braid is awkward to manage, for it must, with a special needle, be
+taken through to the back of the material and there made secure and
+flat; for this reason the design should be so planned as to have as few
+breaks as possible. Interlacing strap work designs, of which a simple
+example is given in fig. 90, are very suitable for braid work. The
+thread that couches down the braid may be quite invisible, or, on the
+other hand, it may be made use of to further decorate the braid by being
+placed visibly across it, perhaps forming a chequering or other simple
+pattern, as shown in fig. 91. Ravellings of the braid may be used as
+invisible couching threads for stitching it down. Curves and sharp
+corners need special attention by way of extra stitches. The completed
+work is much improved by several hours' pressure under a weight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
+
+
+LAID WORK
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.]
+
+Laid work might be described as couching on a more extended scale--a
+given space is covered with threads taken from side to side in parallel
+lines close together, fixed at either extremity by entering the
+material. Further security is usually given by small couching stitches
+dotted down at intervals over the laid threads, or by throwing single
+lines of thread across in a contrary direction and tying these down at
+intervals with couching stitches. Yet another way is, to work a split or
+stem stitch over the laid threads, and thus fix them down. Fig. 92 shows
+a flower carried out in laid work. The tying-down threads can often be
+made use of in one way or another to further decorate, or to explain
+form, by means of contrasting colour, change in direction, and so on.
+The laid stitches in this flower are taken from the centre outwards and
+fixed in place by couched circular lines of thread. The centre of the
+flower has a geometrical filling, composed of a couched lattice pattern
+with French knots between. Conventional centres of this and like kinds
+are very pretty for embroidery flowers; such patterns as those shown in
+fig. 93 can often be seen in use, and they need only a trial to be
+frequently adopted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93.]
+
+Laid work shows off the gloss and texture of silk to great advantage,
+which is due to the thread being laid upon the material without being
+cut up into small stitches. Floss silk is much used for the work; it
+must not be at all twisted in the laying down, since this mars the
+effect. The work is carried out in a frame; it is quickly executed and
+economical, the thread being practically all upon the surface. Owing to
+the length of the stitches, this is not a very durable method, so it
+should not be subjected to hard wear. The work has sometimes a flimsy,
+unsatisfactory appearance, probably because of these long stitches. It
+will be seen that the silk passing through to the back, and then
+immediately to the front again, takes up very little of the material. A
+method in use for giving greater strength in this way is to lay the silk
+first in alternate lines and to fill up the gaps thus left upon a
+second journey across the form. For added strength, use might be made of
+a linen thread at the back, as in the _point couché rentré ou retiré_
+method that is discussed later.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
+
+A gold thread outline gives a nice finish to laid work. If there is
+nothing in the way of an outline, and the pattern and ground are both
+covered with laid threads, the edges of the pattern are likely to look
+weak. Fig. 94 shows a leaf filled in with rather loosely laid threads
+and outlined and veined with gold passing, the veining answering the
+double purpose of fixing down the laid threads and veining the leaf at
+the same time.
+
+In this work, the colouring is frequently in flat tones, but if
+necessary it is quite easy to introduce gradation. Further variety can
+be obtained by a contrast in colour in the tying-down threads.
+
+
+APPLIED WORK
+
+The ancient Latin term _opus consutum_, and the modern French one
+_appliqué_, which is perhaps the name most commonly in use, both refer
+to the same kind of work; what is now called cut work is quite
+different from this, and is described elsewhere. Under the heading of
+applied work comes anything that, cut out of one material, is applied to
+another; it may have been previously embroidered, or it may be just the
+plain stuff. Both kinds can, as has been proved, be carried out with
+excellent effect, but much unsuitable and badly designed work has been
+done by this method, with the result that the very name has fallen into
+disrepute.
+
+The simplest kind of applied work is that in which the design, traced
+upon one material, then cut out along the outline of the pattern, is
+applied to another material, the junction of the two materials being
+hidden by a cord or suitable stitch. The applied work is most often
+flat, but it can be in slight or in strong relief. The texture of the
+materials employed may be an important factor in the result, for a
+contrast in material as well as in colour is often wanted; sometimes the
+former alone is sufficient. The choice of material depends very much
+upon the use to which the finished work will be put, but this simple
+form of applied work often relies for part of its effect upon an
+intrinsic interest in the material, so it is usually carried out with
+such materials as velvet, satin, or silk, either plain or figured.
+
+The design for this kind of work should be of a bold conventional type,
+such as large foliage with the character of the heraldic mantling; any
+naturalistic flowers, figures, or animals easily become grotesque. A
+simple outline to the forms is necessary, both because of the technical
+difficulties and for the effect of the finished work. This kind of work
+is hardly suitable for expressing fine detail; oftentimes it is seen
+from a distance, and many indentations on an outline sometimes tend to
+weaken it. Heraldry can be well expressed by this method. Fig. 95 is an
+example from a piece of XIIIth century work, a fragment of the surcoat
+of William de Fortibus, third Earl of Albemarle, who lived in the reign
+of Henry III.; the example can be seen in the British Museum. This
+method of work is also particularly suitable for such purposes as the
+decoration of wall surfaces, for hangings of various kinds, or banners;
+it can, however, be used for many other purposes, provided the design
+and the materials are well chosen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
+
+Owing to the difficulty of working upon some ground stuffs, the method
+has arisen of carrying out the embroidery upon an easily worked ground,
+such as linen; cutting it out, when finished, along the outline and
+applying it to the proper ground, the junction of the two materials
+being hidden by a cord or some equivalent. It is usually further
+completed by light sprays or some other kind of finishing touches being
+placed around the applied part, these worked directly on to the proper
+ground. This prevents the embroidery from looking too bald and detached
+from its surroundings, of which there is always a danger when it is
+carried out separately and then attached; if at all possible it is
+always more satisfactory to work directly on to the right ground.
+
+As a matter of fact it is almost always possible to do this; the workers
+of the XIIIth century, the period at which the art of embroidery was at
+its height, carried out the most exquisitely fine stitching and design
+on such grounds as velvet that had almost as long a pile as some
+varieties of plush. The famous cope of English work known as the Bowden
+cope, of which a detail is given in Plate I., is an excellent
+illustration of this point. Upon careful examination of the work it is
+apparent that between the stitching and the velvet there is a layer of
+material, composed either of fine linen or silk. This would be of great
+help in the carrying out of the stitching. It is exceedingly probable
+that this layer of fine material was at the commencement of the work
+laid completely over the velvet background of the cope; for one thing,
+the design, with its finely drawn detail, could easily be perfectly
+traced upon a surface of this kind and only imperfectly upon velvet;
+another advantage of this method would be, that the background would be
+kept quite free from dust and from getting soiled by the hands during
+the lengthy process of the work. The stitching would be carried through
+all the surfaces, and when finished, the fine surface layer would be cut
+away close round the edges of the design, which would be quite easily
+done. This method of working upon a difficult ground is well worth
+trying in place of the applied method.
+
+To return to the discussion of applied embroidery--let us suppose the
+embroidered piece to be just completed on its linen ground, still
+stretched in the frame in which it was worked. In another frame, stretch
+the background material and trace upon it the exact outline of the piece
+to be applied. Cut out the embroidered piece carefully round the edge,
+allowing about one-sixteenth of an inch margin outside the worked part,
+leaving, if necessary, little connecting ties of material here and
+there for temporary support. With fine steel pins or needles fix the
+cut-out work exactly over the tracing already made on the ground
+material, then make it secure round the edge with rather close stitches
+of silk placed at right-angles to the outline; with fine materials the
+raw edge of the applied part can be neatly tucked under and fixed in
+place by this overcast stitch. A cord is next sewn on to hide the fixing
+and give a finish to the edge. The colour of this cord is important,
+since its colour may increase the expanse of either the applied part or
+the ground. Sometimes a double cord is put round, and in this case the
+inner one is attached to the embroidery before it is cut out of the
+frame, and the second attached afterwards. The inner one is often of a
+colour predominating in the embroidery, and the outer one of the colour
+of the ground. Gold cord is very usual; if a coloured silk one is used
+it must be a perfect match. The ordinary twisted cord looks best
+attached invisibly; to do this, slightly untwist it whilst stitching,
+and insert the needle in the opening thus formed. Some kinds of flat
+braids look well with the fixing stitches taken deliberately over them
+and forming part of the ornamentation (see fig. 91). Bunches of silk are
+sometimes couched round with a buttonhole or other stitch, but whatever
+the outline may consist of, it should be a firm bold line.
+
+The work must be perfectly flat when completed. Puckering may occur
+through want of care in the preliminary straining or in the fixing on of
+the applied parts. Some materials are more easy to manage than others.
+The difficult ones can if necessary have a preliminary backing applied,
+which is useful also if the material is inclined to fray. The backing
+may consist of a thin coating of embroidery paste, or of tissue paper or
+fine holland pasted over the part to be applied. The more all this kind
+of thing can be avoided, the better the work, for pasting of any kind is
+apt to give a stiff mechanical look; also, if the work is intended to
+hang in folds any stiffness would be most impracticable.
+
+Even more than simpler work applied embroidery needs the finish of some
+light work upon the ground. Gold threads and spangles, arranged in
+fashion similar to the sprays in fig. 112, are very often used.
+Sometimes, instead of this, some small pattern in outline is run all
+over the ground in order to enrich it.
+
+
+INLAID WORK
+
+Inlaid work is in effect similar to the applied, and it is used for the
+same purposes. The difference with this is that both background and
+pattern are cut out and fitted into each other, instead of only one of
+them being cut out and laid on an entire ground. The method of work is
+economical, for there need be very little waste of material. What is
+left from cutting out the pattern and background for one piece can be
+used as ground and pattern for another and possibly companion piece.
+There is in Perugia a church which possesses a complete set of draperies
+of this description, that were made at a good period for this work,
+early XVIth century, and evidently were designed for the position they
+occupy. On festivals, the piers, pulpit, and parts of the wall are hung
+with these rose and gold-coloured hangings of inlaid work. The design is
+a conventional scroll-work pattern, and the various hangings have
+alternately the rose ground with gold pattern, and gold ground with rose
+pattern, the whole forming a rich and harmonious interchange of colour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
+
+Fig. 96 is an example of inlaid work. It is a XVth century tabard said
+to have belonged to Charles the Bold, and now in the Musée Historique at
+Berne. The pattern, it will be noticed, is planned on the counterchange
+principle, which is particularly well suited for this method of work.
+
+A very ancient piece of the same kind of inlaid work is the funeral tent
+of Queen Isi-em-Keb, dated about 980 B.C., which is in the Boulak
+Museum, Cairo. It is composed of thousands of pieces of gazelle hide
+dyed in various colours and stitched together so as to form a wonderful
+design.[4]
+
+To carry out the work--Stitch in a frame some holland to use as a
+background; this may be only temporary, being removed when the work is
+completed, or it may be left for additional strength. The materials for
+both background and pattern must first be carefully cut out. It is a
+good plan, where possible, to cut the two together so as to ensure exact
+similarity, for they have to fit together afterwards like the parts of a
+puzzle. The cut edges cannot be allowed to fray, so if there is any
+danger of this, precautions must be taken to prevent it, though the
+better way is to choose in the first place more suitable material.
+Leather is a particularly good example of one. Any pasting or backing
+which might be used for prevention of fraying would prevent also that
+possibility of exposing both sides of the work, which in inlay is
+sometimes a valuable quality; also, the stiffening which unavoidably
+results from pasting is rarely an improvement. When materials of
+different thicknesses are used together, the thinner one can be lined
+with fine holland so as to make it nearer equal in strength. After the
+materials are cut out the next process is to lay them in position on the
+prepared holland and tack them to it. Then, with an overcast stitch that
+must not be allowed to pierce the under surface, join all the edges
+together, and cover the stitches with a finishing cord or braid. The
+backing can now be removed if need be.
+
+
+PATCHWORK
+
+Patchwork can hardly attain to a high position amongst the various
+branches of embroidery. The main object of doing patchwork frequently is
+to make good use of valuable scraps of waste material. Unless, however,
+the product shows evidence of well thought out colour and arrangement,
+it cannot come under the heading of embroidery. Interesting results,
+however, of many kinds can be produced from this paint-box of brightly
+coloured scraps of material by ingenious mixing and shaping of them.
+Patchwork infers a rather more mosaic-like design than inlaid work, to
+which it is in some respects similar. The geometrically planned mosaic
+and inlay pavements that are to be seen so commonly in Italy and the
+East suggest great variety of patterns that could be applied to
+patchwork. The illustration at fig. 97 is a simple example taken from
+this source. Too often the results are only "alarming," as the Countess
+of Wilton expressively puts it, thinking, probably, of the patterns
+frequently seen upon cushions, patterns more resembling bright-coloured
+bricks set in cornerwise than anything else. They are the most unrestful
+looking things imaginable. The important elements of the work lie in the
+colour, shape, and texture of the pieces used, for upon the right
+selection the result wholly depends. The shapes chosen must be simple
+owing to the necessity of fitting and stitching them together, but there
+is plenty of variety obtainable with simplicity. The design may consist
+of one shape repeated or several. If only one, it is limited to a few
+geometrical figures, such as the square, hexagon, or shell shape; if
+more than one, there can be greater variety of pattern. Fig. 98 is an
+example in which four shapes are made use of, a large and small circle,
+an octagon, and an S-like twist. Four of these twists together make the
+figure that interlaces over the surface. Embroidery stitching can be
+added to patchwork; for instance, this example might have a neat border
+pattern worked on all the S-shapes, as suggested in the diagram, which
+would probably considerably increase its interest. Fig. 99 shows flowers
+springing from the base of the shell-form in use upon it. The embroidery
+could be simply carried out in one colour, or if a more gorgeous result
+were required, variety could be introduced in this way as well as in the
+ground, and a marvellous combination of intricate colour could be thus
+produced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
+
+For the work to be made up satisfactorily it is necessary that the
+shapes be accurately cut out. To ensure this, a metal plate is cut and
+all the shapes are taken from it; sometimes, in lieu of this, a pattern
+is cut out in stiff cardboard. Lay this pattern-shape on the wrong side
+of the material and pencil it round, then carefully cut out the stuff,
+leaving about a quarter of an inch for turning in. Next lay the
+pattern-shape upon a piece of stiff paper or thin card-board and again
+trace off the shape, this time cutting it out exactly to the pattern,
+tack the material to the paper, and stitch down the raw edges at the
+back. Lay the prepared patches on a table and put them in place by
+referring to the design, and then commence sewing the edges together
+with an overcast stitch on the wrong side. When all are sewn, remove the
+papers and flatten the seams with an iron. Any braid or stitch that may
+be required to mask the join is next put on; this may be made ornamental
+by interlacing knots at the corners, or by any other device that happens
+to suit the work. The last thing to be done is to put a neat lining upon
+the back to cover and protect the numerous raw edges.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] For further information see "The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen,"
+by Villiers Stuart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_)
+
+   Quilting--Raised Work--Darning--Open Fillings--Darned Netting.
+
+
+Quilting is a method of working by which three materials are fixed
+together by more or less all-over stitching. It probably developed
+through the necessity of keeping the three layers in place. For
+practical purposes only, the sewing machine does the work excellently,
+but by making the stitching follow out some prearranged design, it is
+raised to the level of art. Plate III. is an interesting example showing
+what can be done in the way of design with the stitching over the
+surface. Embroidery may be added to the quilting, and this is often an
+improvement. The Eastern nations carry out marvellously intricate
+designs in quilting, and English XVIIIth century work of this kind shows
+Eastern influence strongly. A good example of this is a very interesting
+piece in the Victoria and Albert Museum.[5]
+
+The first aim in quilting was evidently warmth, and the name denotes one
+of the chief uses to which it is put. It is made use of also for
+curtains, infants' caps or gloves (see fig. 100), all these things
+requiring the three layers for warmth. The materials usually consist of
+a surface one, which can be silk, fine linen or anything else; an
+interlining of some softer material having a certain amount of spring in
+it, such as flannel, cotton wadding, or wool; and for the third, an
+underneath lining of some kind. A cord is sometimes inserted instead of
+the inner layer of stuff, the lines of stitching running along either
+side to keep it in place. Occasionally there are only the top and the
+under layer, with no intervening material. The stitch usually employed
+is a running, back, or chain stitch, and it can be of the colour of
+the surface, or a contrast to it. Gold silk is often seen upon a white
+linen ground. The chief interest in the work lies in the choice of
+pattern, such things as colour, variety of stitching, interest in
+material, are not made much of. In planning the pattern, use is made of
+the knowledge that the closely stitched parts will lie more flatly, so
+it frequently happens that the ground has a small diaper running over
+it, and the pattern part, being less worked upon, perhaps only outlined,
+stands out more and forms an effective contrast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
+
+
+RAISED WORK
+
+In the XIVth century raised work was commonly done, but few examples are
+known of date earlier than this. The raised effect is obtained by an
+interposed layer of padding, which is a good method of getting a certain
+kind of effect. It is perhaps wise to err on the side of too little
+rather than too much relief. An example of too much and also of a wrong
+kind is the English stump work that was popular in the XVIIth century,
+when figures were stuffed like dolls, the clothes made separately and
+attached, even to the shoes and stockings. Germain de St. Aubin, writing
+in 1769, describes with much admiration a kind of _broderie en ronde
+bosse_, apparently much the same thing and in equally doubtful taste,
+though the skill required to carry it out must have been considerable.
+
+The work, usually done in a frame, must be well carried out technically;
+the padding should be quite perfect in the form required before the
+final surface layer is worked over it, for this one will not make any
+deficiency right, but will only serve to show it up the more. Another
+point to be careful about is to make the padding stop well within the
+traced line of the pattern, otherwise the finished design will turn out
+much larger than was originally intended. The outline is sometimes
+worked round at the commencement, whereby its correctness is ensured.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
+
+Many different materials are brought into use for padding purposes. One
+of the simplest and most durable is a running of thread as illustrated
+in fig. 101. The thread can be arranged so as to be thicker in the
+centre than at the edges by laying some extra stitches over that part.
+If a quite flat padding is required, the shape, cut out in cloth, felt,
+or parchment, is attached by stitches to the material as shown in fig.
+102; the surface stitching would be taken across it. Cardboard,
+sometimes pasted on to the ground, is used for this purpose, but it is
+unsatisfactory in several ways; for instance, cardboard letters are
+procurable for embroidering initials upon linen, but they are not at all
+practical for anything that goes through the wash; moreover, the letters
+are sometimes of bad design. Cotton wool is used as a stuffing, its
+surface being usually covered over with muslin, but this again would
+not stand much wear of any kind, and so could only be used under certain
+conditions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
+
+Another good method is to couch down a hank of threads of fine cotton or
+perhaps wool as illustrated in fig. 103. For raised lines there is a
+special kind of string procurable that can be couched to the ground
+material at the required places. The padding, whatever it may be
+composed of, should be as nearly as possible of the same colour as the
+surface layer, in view of any after wear and tear misplacing the
+threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
+
+The top layer of underlay must lie in direction contrary to the surface
+embroidery stitching, which is very often some form of satin stitch
+taken from side to side over the padding. Instead of going through the
+material it can be fixed on each side with a couching stitch, as in
+fig. 104. A stronger way than these would be that shown in fig. 129.
+Buttonhole is a good stitch for working over a padding; it would be
+worked solidly in the manner described and illustrated on page 117, but
+taken, as there shown, over a padding instead of over a flat surface.
+
+
+DARNING
+
+There is a most practical sound about darning; it can, however, be made
+good use of in embroidery as well as in plain needlework. There are two
+rather different kinds in use; in both the stitch is a running one and
+done in much the same way that a thin place would be darned in mending.
+
+One kind of darning is rather popular at the present moment, and
+examples of it may be familiar; it is a large, bold kind of work, often
+carried out with a coarse twisted silk. Upon the background, the lines
+of stitching usually run straight across or up and down, in the pattern,
+they radiate according to the shape of the form to be filled. The entire
+material is covered one way or another by the running stitches, and
+just one thread of the ground fabric is picked up where necessary at
+irregular intervals; a loosely woven linen is often chosen for working
+upon, one in which it is easy to pick up the single thread. Gradation of
+colour can easily be introduced; the design chosen is most frequently
+some kind of conventional flower and leafy scroll. This method of
+embroidery is seen to best advantage when used upon large surfaces.
+
+The second kind is called pattern darning; in it the stitches are picked
+up in some regular order, so that they form various geometrical patterns
+over the surface. It is worked by counting the threads of the fine linen
+ground and picking up a single thread or more in some regular sequence.
+The threads are run in parallel lines close together, either
+horizontally or vertically, so as to take advantage of the web of the
+fabric. The work is particularly pretty and not difficult, requiring
+only patience and good eyesight. Fig. 105 gives some simple examples of
+the work--The first is a chevron pattern, formed by picking up one
+thread and leaving about five each time; each succeeding row moves a
+step forward or backward as required to carry out the pattern. In the
+second example the darning is taken two ways of the material; in the
+centre, where it meets and crosses, it entirely covers the ground. A
+different colour might be used for each direction, which would look very
+well at the crossing in the centre. The four corners are filled up with
+a chequer darn; this each time picks up as much material as it leaves.
+The third example shows the darning stitch forming a diamond pattern.
+Samplers, dated early XIXth century, may be seen entirely filled with
+these pattern darns; they are covered with most intricate and beautiful
+sample squares showing various patterns in darning, and were possibly
+done in order to learn how to repair damask table linen. In a collection
+of early Egyptian work in the Victoria and Albert Museum, there is some
+pattern darning, dated VIth to IXth century, A.D., which proves it to be
+a very early method of embroidering.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.]
+
+This pattern darning, however, is so pretty that it is often possible to
+make use of it in embroidery work for all kinds of purposes. It makes a
+very good background if there is sufficient space to show the pattern,
+if there is not, the irregular darning might be used instead, for it
+would in that case be just as good and much quicker to work. To
+pattern-darn the ground with the ornament upon it left in the plain
+material, perhaps not worked upon at all, is a very effective method of
+carrying out a design, see fig. 106 for example. Again it might very
+well be used for the conventional carrying out of draperies in the same
+way as in _point couché rentré ou retiré_.[6] The draperies on the
+figure in the frontispiece could easily be carried out with silk thread
+in the darning stitch, in fact this method of decoration more closely
+resembles the early couching than any other; it is not quite as
+satisfactory because the single threads of the background that are
+picked up prevent the ground showing nothing but silk. Bands of this
+work may be seen ornamenting needle books or work cases; it shows to
+best advantage when worked finely with floss or filosel silk, the coarse
+twisted silks are too thick for the purpose.
+
+
+OPEN WORK FILLINGS
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+Patterns can be carried out in line, they can be worked quite solidly,
+and there is a method that lies between these two known as open filling.
+The open and solid fillings are often used together in the same piece of
+work; examples of this can be seen on the XVIIth century wool-work
+curtains, the large scrolling leaves are sometimes partly worked openly
+and a portion, possibly reflexed, filled in with solid stitches in
+gradating colour; see for an example Plate VIII. This has a very good
+effect, it prevents the work looking too heavy, shows up the form more
+clearly, and allows of more variety in the stitching. With open fillings
+the outline surrounding them must always be some firm decided line, such
+as is made by a band of satin or long and short stitch, or, in the case
+of larger forms, by several rows of different line stitches worked
+closely together, one inside the other, most likely in different shades
+of colour. A filling of open work can be carried out in a variety of
+ways; it may be a decorated trellis, a regular dotting of some kind, or
+some geometrical pattern in outline, or some light stitch such as an
+open buttonhole (see fig. 107), which would be treated each as a
+diapering over the form to be filled. It does not much matter what the
+filling is as long as it is dispersed pretty regularly over the space,
+giving the effect at a little distance of a light pervading tone, and
+when examined closely exhibiting an interesting small pattern. The open
+filling method can be used entirely throughout a design with very pretty
+effect; an example of this may be seen on an embroidered coverlet and
+pillow case in the Victoria and Albert Museum.[7] The pattern, composed
+of vine leaves and grapes, is carried out in dark brown silk on a linen
+ground, the leaves being all outlined with satin stitch. There is
+wonderful variety in the patterns, no two alike, which form the open
+fillings of the leaves; this makes them most interesting to examine, and
+is evidence of enthusiasm in their designing. Fig. 108, a leaf taken
+from this specimen, shows one method of filling a form with open
+work.[8] Fig. 109 shows a collection of patterns taken from the same
+piece of embroidery. It will be observed that small stitches of the same
+length compose the pattern, which can be designed upon squared paper and
+easily copied on to the linen ground by always picking up the same
+number of threads. To look well these little forms must be accurately
+worked, and they or similar kinds can be used upon flowers, leaves,
+beasts, draperies, or anything else quite indiscriminately. Fig. 110,
+from a cap in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a drawing showing the
+same kind of open filling in use upon a bird.[9]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
+
+A quicker way of carrying out these geometrical fillings is by using
+such forms as a lattice and throwing the lines from side to side
+across the shape to be filled, fixing them down, where they cross each
+other, with couching stitches; the interstices left between the threads
+can be filled in with little stars, crosses, or dots (see fig. 111).
+Buttonhole stitch, if made use of as an open filling, would be taken in
+lines straight across a form, the stitches being worked possibly two or
+three closely together and then a space, and so on.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
+
+Fig. 112 suggests another method of lightly filling a leaf with a
+conventional veining and dotting. There is no limit to the variety which
+can be obtained in this method of working.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
+
+Open fillings are effective for use upon any work that is intended to be
+seen with a light at the back; they make very decorative the various
+forms they fill, in such things as muslin window blinds, curtains, fire
+screens, whether hand screens or the larger type. For articles of this
+kind the patterns should be rather more solid and less lined in
+character; fig. 113, taken from a window blind exhibited in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum, exemplifies what is meant; most of the patterns
+illustrated in fig. 100 could be treated in a more solid manner if
+necessary, and would look equally well that way. When working upon
+transparent grounds special care must be taken with the reverse side as
+well as with the surface, for the work to be practically alike upon both
+sides; there must be no threads running from one form to another nor any
+visible fastening off of ends.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
+
+
+DARNED NETTING
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
+
+Darned netting, or _lacis_, as it is sometimes called, might almost come
+under the heading of either lace or embroidery. It is used effectively
+with other kinds of white linen work, bands or squares of it being let
+into the linen; the contrast of the solid with the more open work gives
+a pretty effect. Fig. 114 is an example of this work. The darning is
+done on a plain netted ground which can be prepared by the worker if
+acquainted with netting, if not, the squares can be obtained ready for
+working upon. The pattern must be designed upon squared paper as for
+cross stitch work, then it is simply a question of following out the
+pattern upon the square net ground. Every square of the patterned part
+must be crossed in each direction by two lines of darning, which should
+about fill it up. The various lines are run in and out as continuously
+as possible, so as to avoid unnecessary fastening off or passing from
+one part to another. When a fresh thread is required, join it with a
+knot to the end of the last one (see figs. 165 and 166), and darn the
+ends in neatly with the other threads. These knots are often used in
+embroidery, for they are both strong and small. Detached stitches and
+parts must be worked by themselves; the thread should not be carried
+from one to the other. The work must be done in a frame and carried out
+with a blunt-pointed needle. The same thread is used for the netted
+ground and for the darned pattern. A method of work that the French call
+_dessein réservé_ is, in result, rather similar to this, but it is
+worked in just the reverse way. The pattern, whatever it may be, is
+left in the plain linen, and the background has certain threads in each
+direction withdrawn at regular intervals, whereby the effect of the
+squared net ground is obtained.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] No. 1564, 1902.
+
+[6] For description of this method, see page 238.
+
+[7] A piece belonging to Lord Falkland.
+
+[8] Fig. 18 is a drawing from the border of the same example.
+
+[9] No. 308, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_)
+
+  Drawn Thread Work--Hem Stitching--Simple Border Patterns--Darned
+  Thread Patterns--Corners--Cut or Open Work--Various Methods of
+  Refilling the Open Spaces.
+
+
+This method of work is the acknowledged link between embroidery and
+lace, and was possibly the origin of the latter. Drawn work is that in
+which the threads of either the warp or the weft of the material are
+withdrawn and those remaining worked into a pattern, by either
+clustering together or working over them in some fashion. The cut or
+open work, as it is sometimes called, is that in which both warp and
+weft are in places cut away, and the open spaces thus formed are partly
+refilled with a device of one kind or another.
+
+The work is most often carried out in white thread on white linen, but
+coloured threads may occasionally be introduced with advantage. It is a
+durable method of work, and particularly suitable for the decoration of
+various house-linens, things that must undergo daily wear and wash; its
+rather unobtrusive character too makes it the more suitable for this
+purpose. The work is used in conjunction with other kinds of embroidery,
+perhaps making a neat finish to an edge, or lightening what would
+otherwise be too heavy in appearance.
+
+Drawn thread and cut work can be carried out with such detail and
+fineness as to really become most delicate lace. In this chapter,
+however, it is intended to be treated rather as an adjunct to other
+embroidery, therefore only elementary work will be discussed. More
+attention might with advantage be paid to the design of this kind of
+work, for more might be done with it than sometimes is. For one thing,
+there is very little variety in the patterns, and the result often seems
+a spidery mass of incomprehensible threads with no very perceivable
+plan; perhaps if more attention were paid to the proportion and massing
+of the solid and open parts, a better result might be attained. Neatness
+and simplicity are good qualities in the pattern, the method of work not
+being suited to the expression of the various larger and bolder types of
+design.
+
+
+DRAWN THREAD WORK
+
+In drawn work the question is how to treat the remaining warp threads
+after the weft has been withdrawn. They can be clustered in bunches in
+different ways with ornamental stitches added, or be entirely covered
+over with darning or overcast stitches in such a way as to form a
+pattern.
+
+The beginning of most drawn thread work is hem stitching, the two edges
+marking the limit of the withdrawn threads have usually to be hem
+stitched before any pattern can be carried out. One method of doing this
+is in progress in fig. 115. In order to work it, draw out three or four
+threads of the warp and tack the hem down to the top edge of the line
+thus made. The diagram explains the remainder of the working.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
+
+Fig. 116 shows in the first example clusters of four threads drawn
+together at each edge by hem stitching in such a way as to form a
+ladder-like pattern. This and the one below are the ornamentations of a
+plain hem that are most commonly seen. The variation in pattern in the
+lower one is obtained by drawing together on the lower edge two threads
+from two consecutive bunches in the upper row instead of just repeating
+over again the same divisioning as before. These two examples are drawn
+to show the reverse, not the working side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.]
+
+Another way of disposing of the undrawn threads is to cover them with a
+kind of darning stitch, as illustrated in fig. 117. This kind of work is
+more solid than the other, and is for that reason very durable. This
+example is commenced at the right-hand corner, where the threads are
+drawn loosely in order to explain the working. The needle, which should
+have a blunt point, takes the thread to and fro alternately over and
+under two clusters of warp thread, drawing them together a little
+during the process; half-way down, the needle leaves the first set of
+threads and continues working with the second and a new set (see needle
+in diagram). When this is worked down to the base the needle takes the
+thread invisibly up the centre of the worked part to the point where it
+is required for the continuation of the pattern. The working of this
+simple pattern explains the principle upon which all kinds of pretty and
+more complicated designs can be carried out. The darning thread may be
+coloured; in a more intricate design two or three different colours
+might be introduced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.]
+
+Fig. 118 shows another pattern in the same kind of work. The darning
+stitch begins by working to and fro over and under four clusters of warp
+threads, part way down it continues over the two central ones only,
+leaving the outside clusters alone for the present. It finishes up, as
+at the beginning, to and fro over the four. The threads that were left
+are next covered with an overcast stitch, the adjoining ones in each
+case are caught together in the centre in order to form the X shape that
+recurs along the pattern. This darning kind of work is very closely
+allied to weaving, and especially the kind often seen in Coptic work, in
+which bands of the woof threads are purposely omitted in places, whilst
+the fabric is being made, in order that a pattern may be hand-woven in
+afterwards to take their place. Many beautiful examples of this work are
+on view in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.]
+
+In working a drawn thread border round a square shape, at each corner
+there comes an open space that requires a filling. Fig. 119 shows two
+wheels that are commonly used to ornament such places. The square in the
+first one has a preliminary groundwork of threads thrown across from
+corner to corner and from side to side, all meeting and crossing in the
+centre. The working thread is brought through at this point and the
+wheel commenced by taking a kind of back stitch over a bar and bringing
+the needle up beyond the next bar. It then takes the thread a step back
+and over the same bar and brings it up beyond the next; this goes on
+until the circle is of sufficient size, the stitches growing a little
+longer in each succeeding row. In the diagram the thread is loosened at
+the end to explain the working. The lower example is a commonly used
+wheel, which is made by the thread running round alternately over and
+under a bar until the wheel is completed. It should be as solid as the
+upper one, but is purposely left loose in the diagram. Either of the
+wheels could have a line of buttonhole stitching worked round the edge
+as a finish. This figure shows also the two usual ways of making firm
+the raw edges in cut work--the square shape is bound by an overcast
+stitch, and the round one by buttonholing.
+
+
+CUT OR OPEN WORK
+
+Cut work can be most interesting both to look at and to carry out. In
+the XVIIth century Italy was famous for its _punto tagliato_ or cut
+work. John Taylor mentions "rare Italian cutworke" in "The Praise of
+the Needle." This poem may perhaps be of interest to some; it was
+prefixed to a book of embroidery patterns of cut work named "The
+Needle's Excellency." It ran through twelve editions, the first of which
+was printed in 1621, and sold at "the signe of the Marigold in Paules
+Churchyard." Copies may be seen in the British Museum Library; in the
+Bodleian, Oxford, in the Ryland's Library, Manchester, and occasionally
+elsewhere. Fig. 120 shows a pattern taken from this book.
+
+There are several distinct varieties of cut work, for instance, that
+known as renaissance embroidery, which is usually composed of an
+arabesque design from which the background is cut away, leaving the
+pattern in the linen; the cut edges are outlined and protected by an
+overcast stitch. The pattern has to be specially planned with the idea
+of holding strongly together, but, if necessary, buttonholed bars can be
+added to form strengthening ties in any weak part.
+
+Another kind of cut work is that known as _broderie anglaise_, and
+sometimes as Madeira work, over which our grandmothers spent much time,
+perhaps without adequate result. The pattern is followed out by round
+holes pierced in the linen with a stiletto and then overcast round the
+edges. At the present day the work is done mostly by machinery, though
+hand work also is procurable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.]
+
+Perhaps the prettiest kind of cut work is that in which various-shaped
+spaces are cut out of the linen, and these filled in, in part, with
+some design built up with stitches. There are various methods of
+refilling the spaces cut out, one of the simplest is a diapering formed
+by some lace stitch, such as an open buttonhole. As a rule, the
+decoration of the open spaces is based upon bars of thread that are
+either composed of warp or woof threads left, instead of being cut away,
+or else upon fresh threads thrown across in various directions. The
+pattern is planned on and about these strengthening ties, and where
+necessary receiving support from them. An ingenious worker will soon
+devise ways of refilling the spaces by all kinds of interesting
+patterns, which can be geometrical or floral, or any kinds of objects
+that can be attractively represented in conventional fashion, such as
+figures, birds, insects, ships in full sail, or anything else. It must,
+however, be remembered that the various forms filling the spaces are for
+use in the way of strength as well as for ornament, and that the work is
+often put upon objects that have to endure daily wear.
+
+Open work is frequently mixed with other, and especially with white
+embroidery, and such things as counterpanes may be seen arranged with a
+chequering of alternate squares of embroidered linen and open work.
+
+Fig. 121 shows in progress a simple method of filling a space, mainly
+making use of the strengthening threads that have been left at regular
+intervals over the cut part. The threads are covered with an overcast
+stitch, and alternate squares of those that recur over the space are
+decorated with a cross. This is made by the working thread, after
+reaching the right point at the centre of an overcast line, being thrown
+across the space and then twisted back over itself to the
+starting-point, where it is in the right position for continuing the
+overcast line. The crosses being put in at the same time as the
+overcasting of the bars renders some forethought necessary to get each
+in at just the right time and place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
+
+Another kind of filling can be seen in progress in fig. 122. The
+stitches used in it are overcast and buttonhole. With the help of this
+last-mentioned stitch patterns of all kinds can be carried out, for each
+succeeding row of the stitch can be worked into the heading of the last
+row, and in this way it is possible to build up any required shape. This
+figure is a working diagram of a piece of cut work of which the
+completed square with its surrounding decoration can be seen in fig. 34.
+After overcasting the raw edges a diagonal thread is thrown across (E D
+on plan), upon which the pattern shall be built up; the thread is taken
+once to and fro and then twisted back again for a third crossing.
+Commence by overcasting the threads from point D, and upon reaching the
+part where the pattern is widened out, change the stitch to an open
+buttonholing (as shown on line B). It is worked openly in this way in
+order to leave space for another row of the same kind of stitching to be
+fitted in from the opposite side, which is the next thing to be done.
+Then an outer row of buttonhole stitch is worked on each side of the
+central bar and into the heading of the first row of stitching; this is
+shown in progress where the needle is at work. The entire pattern is
+carried out in this way, first laying down foundation threads in the
+necessary places and then covering them up with either overcasting or
+buttonhole stitch as required. It is easily possible to carry out
+flowers and all kinds of other things sufficiently well to make them
+pleasantly recognisable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+EMBROIDERY WITH GOLD AND SILVER THREADS
+
+  Introduction--Materials--Precautions for the Prevention of
+  Tarnish--Ancient Method of Couching--Its various Good
+  Points--Description of Working Diagram--Working a Raised
+  Bar--Examples of Patterns Employed in Old Work--Illustrations upon
+  Draped Figures--Usual Method of Couching--Couching Patterns--Outline
+  Work--Raised Work--The Use of Purls, Bullions, &c.
+
+
+Gold and silver threads have always played an important part in
+embroidered work, and are a most valuable addition to the worker's stock
+of materials, for they give a splendour and richness that is not
+obtainable in any other way. They have been utilised from the earliest
+times in both embroidery and weaving; in scripture and other ancient
+historical writings there is abundant proof of this fact.
+
+The earliest form of gold thread in use was the pure metal beaten into
+thin plates and then cut into long narrow strips; that it was sometimes
+rounded into wire form is very probable. The first wire-drawing machine
+is said to have been invented by a workman at Nuremberg, but it was not
+until two centuries later that the drawing-mills were introduced into
+England.
+
+Gold thread, similar to that we now use, entwined about a silk one, is
+mentioned in a XIVth century Latin poem; also, it is known that in the
+XIIIth century our English ladies prepared their own gold thread before
+working it in, and it was of the same type as ours, the gold being
+spirally twisted round a thread of silk or flax.[10]
+
+To be a skilled worker with gold thread needs considerable application
+and practice. There is much variety in the work, some branches of it
+being more simple to manipulate than others. It is desirable for all
+workers to understand something of gold work, for it is frequently
+employed in conjunction with other embroidery, as well as alone. Fig.
+123 shows a couched line of gold thread outlining some silk embroidery,
+which gives a pretty jewel-like effect of something precious in a
+setting of gold.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.]
+
+Gold embroidery may be divided roughly into three main classes, outline
+work, solid flat work, and raised work. Outline work is, as far as
+technique is concerned, one of the simplest forms of gold embroidery.
+The pattern is followed round with a gold cord or double thread of
+passing, fixed either visibly or invisibly with a couching stitch; the
+work needs but an interesting design and suitable background to be most
+successful. Fig. 124 illustrates a portion of a design, carried out with
+gold cord upon a velvet ground, which has been further enriched by the
+addition of little applied white flowers. The raised work, and that
+which introduces the use of purls and bullions, is at once more
+complicated, and perhaps hardly as pleasing as the simpler flat work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.]
+
+The method of applying the gold to the material is usually by couching
+of one form or another, for most of the threads are too inflexible to
+be stitched through. The ground, if it shows at all, is usually a rich
+stuff, such as velvet, satin, or silk, in order to be in keeping with
+the valuable thread. If the ground chosen is difficult to work upon, the
+embroidery is carried out upon linen, and the finished work afterwards
+applied to the ground. If both background and pattern are solidly
+embroidered, linen can be used as the permanent ground. It is usual to
+have two layers of material for working upon, for gold threads are heavy
+and require the support of the double ground. There are several
+advantages in this double material, as the old workers knew, for we find
+they commonly used two. The under-layer can be a strong linen, and the
+surface one silk, satin, or a fine linen, as required.
+
+
+MATERIALS
+
+A variety of metal threads are manufactured for embroidery purposes, and
+they are all obtainable in gold, silver, or imitations of these;
+aluminium thread has been made lately, and has the advantage of being
+untarnishable, but its colour and quality do not seem quite
+satisfactory, and it is not popular. The imitation threads are never
+worth the using; they tarnish to a worse colour, and are more difficult
+in manipulation; what goes by the name of real gold, is silver or
+copper, plated with the more valuable metal. The pure gold thread is
+said not to be so practical as this, being too brittle; but somehow or
+other it was more successfully manufactured in the past than nowadays,
+for some gold work six centuries old exhibits beautifully bright
+threads.
+
+The following list comprises the chief threads used in this work:--
+
+_Passing._--This is a bright smooth thread, resembling in appearance a
+gold wire; it consists of a narrow flat strip of gold spirally twisted
+round a silken thread. It can be obtained in different sizes, the finest
+qualities going by the name of tambour. Most passing has to be couched
+on to the material, but it is possible to stitch in the tambour like
+ordinary thread.
+
+_Purl._--This resembles a smooth round hollow tube of metal, very
+pliable and elastic; when pulled lengthways it is found to be
+constructed like a closely coiled spiral spring. It is manufactured in
+lengths of about one yard, and for use it is cut into small sections of
+any required size with scissors or a knife. There are several varieties
+of purl, namely, the smooth, rough, check, and wire check. The smooth
+has a bright polished appearance, which is obtained by a flat gold wire
+being spun spirally round; the rough has a duller and more yellow
+appearance, which is owing to the wire having been rounded; the check is
+bright and sparkling, and consists of the flattened wire spun in a
+different way, so that parts of it catch the light and sparkle; the wire
+check is the same thing, but duller and of a deeper yellow, owing again
+to its being made of the round wire.
+
+_Bullion._--This is the name given to the larger sizes of purl.
+
+_Pearl Purl._--This is manufactured in the same spiral tube-like fashion
+as the other purl, but the gold wire is previously hollowed out in this
+[inverted U] shape, the convex side being the one exposed. This, when
+spun round, has the appearance of a string of tiny gold beads. It is
+frequently used as an outlining thread.
+
+Various gold twists and cords can be obtained; they are composed of
+several threads twisted up in the usual cord fashion, each ply
+consisting of gold spun round a silk thread.
+
+_Plate_ is a flat strip of metal commonly about one-sixteenth of an inch
+wide; it can be obtained in different widths.
+
+_Spangles._--These are small variously shaped pieces of thin metal,
+usually pierced with a hole in the centre for fixing on to the material.
+They are frequently circular in shape, and either flat or slightly
+concave; the latter are the prettier. Many fancy shapes also are
+obtainable, but they are inclined to look tawdry, and suggestive of the
+pantomime.
+
+_Cloth of Gold and Silver._--This is a fabric manufactured of silk, with
+gold or silver thread inwoven in the making. It is not now so much used
+as formerly, when it was in great request for robes of kings and other
+high dignitaries of church or state.
+
+A special make of silk for couching down gold thread is obtainable in
+various colours. It is called horsetail or sewings, and is both fine and
+strong.
+
+Padding for use in raised gold work is usually yellow, and for silver,
+white or grey. Yellow soft cotton, linen thread, or silk, are all used
+for the purpose.
+
+Various precautions can and must be taken to keep the gold thread
+bright, for under unfavourable circumstances it rapidly assumes a bad
+colour; the silver thread is even more liable to tarnish than the gold,
+and it turns a worse colour, going black. There is a special paper
+manufactured to wrap threads in, and the stock supply should be kept in
+a tin or air-tight bottle; this is in order to protect the metal from
+damp, which is most injurious; to do this is a difficult matter in the
+English climate. Linen used for working upon, or as backing, is best
+unbleached, for sometimes the chemicals used in the bleaching process
+have a deleterious effect upon the gold; a piece of gold embroidery
+wrapped up in cotton wool for preservation has been found completely
+spoiled by some chemical in this wool, which proved more disastrous than
+exposure to air would have been. Gas, strong scents, handling
+(especially with hot hands), all have an evil effect, and so should be
+avoided as much as possible. Work even whilst in progress should be kept
+covered as much as is practicable, and should not be allowed to hang
+about; the quicker it is done the better. A piece of finished work can
+be polished up with a leather pad or a brush, similar to a housemaid's
+brush for silver-cleaning purposes; this of course, must be used with
+care.
+
+
+ANCIENT METHOD OF COUCHING
+
+Gold thread can be couched on to the material in two distinct ways, one
+of them in use at the present day, the other one that was commonly
+practised in the XIIIth and XIVth centuries. About the second half of
+the last-named century the earlier method was supplanted by the present
+one. Almost every example of early gold thread work exhibits this
+obsolete and ingenious method of couching. The Syon cope and the Jesse
+cope in the Victoria and Albert Museum may be mentioned as famous
+examples. M. Louis de Farcy[11] draws especial attention to this
+beautiful method of working, to which he gives the name _point couché
+rentré ou retiré_, and strongly urges its revival; he points out many
+distinct advantages it has over the method now in use.
+
+The durability is very great, owing to the couching thread being upon
+the reverse side, where it is protected from wear and tear, and being
+out of sight can be made strong and durable. If a thread is accidentally
+broken it does not necessarily give way along an entire line, as may
+easily happen in the present method. A proof of this point can be seen
+upon the beautiful Ascoli cope lately in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+about which there has been so much discussion of late as to in what
+country it originated, and who was the rightful owner. The early
+couching worked entirely over the background of the cope is in a state
+of perfect preservation; portions of the gold thread drapery have here
+and there been couched by the other method, the tying down threads have,
+in those parts, mostly disappeared, and the gold hangs loose and ragged
+upon the surface.
+
+By the way in which it is worked, there results a particularly pleasing
+and even surface, agreeably varied by play of light and shade. Another
+advantage of the ancient method is that the completed work is very
+flexible; this point will appeal to those who have experienced the
+extreme stiffness of a large surface of ordinarily couched metal
+threads. Flexibility is an invaluable quality for any work destined,
+like copes and curtains, to hang in folds.
+
+Representations of draperies upon figures are well expressed, for by the
+way in which they are worked there comes an indentation along the lines
+marking the folds; this emphasises them rather happily, and also breaks
+up the surface in a satisfactory manner.
+
+Fig. 125 is a diagram that will aid in explaining the working, it gives
+both the front and the reverse side. This has been found to be the
+simplest and the most practical method of obtaining a result similar to
+the early examples; there is, however, no means other than examination
+of result whereby to get at this obsolete method. To all appearance
+there is upon the surface a kind of satin stitch worked in gold passing,
+the stitches carrying out some geometrical pattern, such as a chevron or
+lattice; but at the back a linen thread is seen running to and fro in
+close parallel lines in the same direction as the surface thread, and at
+regular intervals encircled by the gold passing, just as if this was
+intended to couch down the linen thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Front. Back.]
+
+The ingenuity and satisfactoriness of the method must be admitted by all
+who give it a trial, and it is interesting to conjecture how it may have
+arisen. Possibly weaving suggested it to the embroiderers, for, take
+away the intervening material, and it is not unlike woven work, and
+these two arts would very likely be the accomplishment of the same
+person. Perhaps the commonly used method of taking a coarse thread
+through to the back (see fig. 167) suggested it, for this is briefly the
+whole process.
+
+In order to try the couching, a two-fold ground material must be firmly
+stretched in an embroidery frame, a strong linen underneath and a
+thinner closely woven one upon the upper side. Some fine gold passing
+and some strong linen thread, well waxed, are required to work with,
+also an embroidery needle with long eye and sharp point, the size, which
+is important, depending upon the threads in use; the needle has to
+pierce the two-fold ground material, making a hole only just large
+enough for the passage of a double gold thread.
+
+If the linen has a regular even thread the drawn pattern shown in the
+diagram can be worked by counting the threads of the ground fabric, but
+if this is difficult or impossible, as in the case say of a twilled
+surface, a careful tracing must be made upon the linen; a beginner may
+find this the easier way in any case.
+
+The end of the gold thread, which by now, in readiness for working,
+will be wound upon the bobbin or spindle, must be passed through to the
+back at the starting-point, the top left-hand corner in the diagram. The
+linen thread secures it at the back and then comes through to the front
+upon the traced line exactly beneath (see arrow on plan). It now
+encircles the gold thread which the left hand draws out rather tautly,
+and then returns by the same hole to the back, pulling the metal thread
+through with it. There is knack in taking the gold thread only just
+through and leaving the completed stitch straight and flat upon the
+surface. The process is now repeated, the linen thread coming through to
+the front again upon the next traced line, and so on. When the base of
+the pattern is reached the gold thread is taken through once upon that
+line, and then commences a like journey upwards.
+
+This practically explains the couching; variety is obtained by change of
+pattern, but the method of carrying it out is always the same. Figs.
+126, 127, and 128 show three patterns taken from old examples of this
+couching.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.]
+
+The difficulties in technique are easily overcome; an important aid in
+this matter is the use of materials exactly right; this means needles
+and threads of the correct size, the ground composed of suitable
+fabrics, and properly strained in a frame. The aim in the working is to
+get each stitch perfectly flat and straight in its correct place in
+spite of the obstinacy of the metal thread; to avoid making the
+perforation larger than necessary, for this makes the work clumsy; to
+make each succeeding line lie closely beside the last one, for the
+surface must be of solid gold, and if the ground showed through in
+places it would impoverish the effect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.]
+
+The direction of the couched thread is usually either vertical or
+horizontal, and it may be both of these in the same piece of work. The
+reason of this may be because it is worked by counting the threads of
+the fabric, or because the pattern is always treated as a diaper and
+placed upon the surface without regard to contour. The exception to this
+rule of direction is when the couching is taken along a stem or the
+narrow hem of a robe to form the border, or along a girdle, it then
+follows the direction of the band, this being evidently the most
+straightforward and satisfactory method to use for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129. Front. Back.]
+
+The _point couché rentré ou retiré_ is an excellent method to use for
+working a raised bar. Fig. 129 shows the front and reverse sides of a
+bar worked by it. The gold thread comes cleanly through from the back of
+the material instead of being clumsily doubled upon the surface, and the
+durability is evidently great. The linen thread, it will be seen, runs
+to and fro at the back, at each turn securing the gold thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
+
+In fig. 130 this couching is to be seen in use upon drapery. It is taken
+entirely over the exterior surface of the cloak, and upon the crown,
+sceptre, and model of the church. The lines expressing the folds of
+drapery are in this case shown by the couching at these places being
+taken in a different direction. Fine gold passing is used for the
+couched thread, much finer than can possibly be shown in the drawing,
+and the pattern chosen for the couching down is a chevron. The other
+parts of the work are done with silk thread in a fine chain or split
+stitch. The play of light upon the varied surface of the golden cloak is
+very beautiful; the drawing of the figure is perhaps primitive, and,
+regarded from the draughtsman's point of view, somewhat ludicrous; it is
+however sufficiently good to express all that its author intended, and
+there is something very human in this dignified little king who would
+not have you forget that he founded a church. The king who is
+personified here is Edward the Confessor, so the church is Westminster
+Abbey, of which he was the founder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
+
+The Madonna and child forming the frontispiece of the work is another
+example of this couching. The method of expressing the folds of drapery
+is slightly different from that employed upon the king's robes. All
+drapery carried out in this stitch is worked in somewhat the same
+fashion, that is, the couching running to and fro between the lines
+marks each fold as roughly shown at fig. 131. This method leaves an
+indented line to express the drapery, which is a more satisfactory way
+than a simple line of dark colour worked over the gold, as in more
+modern work. The indented line is often further emphasised by a line of
+dark silk stitched along it, which is done in this case. The figures
+are taken from the Jesse cope in the Victoria and Albert Museum;[12]
+this vestment, with its red silk background and its finely coloured and
+drawn ancestors of Christ posed amongst encircling vine branches, is a
+most beautiful, though sadly mutilated, example of XIIIth century design
+and workmanship.
+
+
+MODERN METHOD OF COUCHING
+
+In the usual form of couching the gold thread is attached to the
+material by fine strong silk. The thread is fastened down as a rule
+two-fold, sometimes even three-fold; this method is both quicker and
+more effective than couching each thread separately. As the couching
+thread is necessarily in evidence, decorative use is often made of it as
+well as practical; the stitches, for instance, may be planned so as to
+carry out some pattern (see fig. 132) instead of being put down at
+random. There is no limit to the variety of the patterns that can be
+devised in this way.
+
+Decorative use can be made of the colour of the couching thread; a hot
+colour warms the tone of the gold and a cool one does the reverse; and
+the more contrasting the colour the more it is in evidence.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.]
+
+The gold thread may be couched solidly in straight lines, as the above
+figure shows, or it may be arranged in wavy lines either close or open,
+as in fig. 133. The thread is waved by bending it round the pointed end
+of a piercer just before fixing down. This waving line is particularly
+suitable for the gold thread, since the slight change in direction
+allows the light to play upon the metal very prettily. For this reason
+gold is often couched solidly in circular or shell form over a ground.
+In gold embroidery, therefore, the direction of the thread is a
+specially important matter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+At the end of a line a technical difficulty sometimes arises in the
+turning of the thread, which is apt to be clumsy. This difficulty is
+overcome in various ways; the most usual is to return the doubled thread
+as neatly as possible and continue the next line; another is to cut the
+thread sharp off, secure it close to the end with a double stitch, and
+recommence in like fashion; the thread can sometimes be passed through
+to the back and brought up in position for working the next line. The
+fine point of a leaf may present difficulties in the same way; sometimes
+one of the two threads is temporarily let slip and the point completed
+with the single one, the left thread being picked up upon the return
+(see fig. 134). For such occasions as this it is more practical to wind
+the two threads of passing upon separate bobbins, and bring them
+together at the working. Another way of overcoming the point difficulty
+is shown at fig. 135.
+
+
+RAISED WORK
+
+The couched gold threads may be raised in parts by means of some kind of
+padding interposed between it and the ground. They are very effective so
+treated, since the raised metal catches and reflects the light in a
+pleasing manner. This raising of the thread, however, has been carried
+to such extremes as to resemble goldsmith's work rather than embroidery,
+and it is then hardly in good taste.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
+
+A simple method of raising the gold is to lay down lines of string at
+stated intervals over the ground. The well-known form called basket
+stitch is done in this way; fig. 136 illustrates this stitch, a part of
+the square is left unworked in order to expose the under-layer of
+string. To carry out the diagram--First couch down the lines of string
+at regular intervals over the surface, then commence laying on the gold
+by carrying a doubled thread of passing over two bars of string, and
+there fixing it down to the material, then over two more and fixing it
+down again, and so on to the end of the line. This is exactly repeated
+for a second line of passing, then, for the next two lines, commence by
+carrying the passing for the first stitch over one bar only, and for the
+remainder of the line over the two as before. This process repeated
+makes the wicker-like pattern so frequently seen in gold work. It can be
+used as a filling or as a border. It is evident that with the same
+arrangement of strings many other patterns could be carried out by
+varying the points of couching down.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.]
+
+Another way in which string is used for padding the gold is illustrated
+in fig. 137. The pattern, which in the first part is two diamond shapes
+and a border line, is laid down in string. The doubled gold thread is
+then taken horizontally to and fro in close parallel lines over the part
+to be worked, and fixed by couching stitches at necessary intervals;
+wherever else these stitches may be put, one must always be placed upon
+each side of a raised line to make it sharp and clear. Other kinds of
+padding are used in this method of work; for instance, a lozenge shape
+may be stuffed with layers of soft cotton, as shown in the second part
+of this same diagram. Sometimes most complicated patterns are laid down
+in string and covered with gold thread in this way, _e.g._:--fig. 138
+shows an interlacing pattern taken from the border of an orphrey upon a
+XVth century chasuble.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.]
+
+
+THE USE OF FANCY GOLD THREADS
+
+A cursory glance must be given to the use of purls and other fancy
+threads, but these are mostly used nowadays for badges on uniforms, or
+for masonic purposes, and are carried out by the trade. These threads,
+when tarnished, are very difficult to clean, they easily turn a bad
+colour and catch the dust, and for real embroidery purposes are not as
+satisfactory as the plainer threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.]
+
+Purl and bullion must be cut very accurately into pieces of the required
+size, and attached to the material as a bead would be. The metal must be
+as little as possible touched with the fingers; the cut pieces can be
+placed upon a tray lined with some soft springy substance, such as felt,
+in order to be easily picked up with the point of the needle, and they
+can be adjusted to their right position upon the work by the aid of the
+flat end of the piercer; unnecessary handling may be avoided in this
+way.
+
+These threads, laid over padding either straight across or at an angle,
+may be used for the stems or petals of conventional flowers. The various
+kinds, dull, bright, and check, may perhaps be used in succession.
+
+Plate is frequently taken to and fro over the same kind of forms over a
+prepared padding, being caught down by a stitch on each side by a method
+the French call _le guipé_. It needs skill and practice to do this well.
+Crinkled plate used to be couched on to work, but now is not much used
+in this way.
+
+Pearl purl is most often seen outlining a form filled in with the other
+threads; an enlarged example of this thread lies vertically down the
+centre of fig. 139, the end of it is pulled out, in order to show the
+formation of the thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.]
+
+Spangles are usually sewn down separately; they may be attached by
+stitches from the centre outwards or by the thread being passed through
+a piece of purl and then returning to the back through the hole in the
+centre of the spangle. Fig. 139 illustrates another way of using these
+spangles to form a long tail shape. Here again they are attached with
+the help of pieces of purl. In the same figure are given some
+illustrations of the use of the fancy threads; to learn more about them
+the student should examine XVIth to XVIIIth century gold work during
+which period they were in popular use.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] See Dr. Rock's "Textile Fabrics."
+
+[11] In _La Broderie du Onzième Siècle jusqu'à Nos Jours_.
+
+[12] No. 175, 1889.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+LETTERING, HERALDRY, AND EMBLEMS
+
+  The Uses of Lettering--Marking--Monograms--Heraldry--Emblems.
+
+
+Lettering of one kind or another is frequently in request. It is useful
+for inscriptions, verses, names attached to figures, the signing and
+dating of work, and for the more ordinary purposes of marking linen and
+so forth. Signed and dated work has peculiar attractiveness: it can be
+placed amidst definite historical associations: an authenticated piece
+of embroidery, say of the reign of King Richard Coeur de Lion, Queen
+Anne, or George III., would be an historical document and a standard to
+gauge the period of any uninscribed examples. Although few of us are
+likely to possess treasures of the XIIIth century, signed and dated
+pieces of our great-grandmothers' embroideries are interesting personal
+landmarks in family history, so for this reason, amongst others,
+unostentatious marks of identification are by no means out of place.
+Descriptive names or verses are also a means of amplifying the story and
+so enlivening our curiosity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.]
+
+Lettering can answer a further purpose still; it can enrich the design,
+for, if rightly chosen and employed, letters are very decorative. They
+may be seen forming a border to a piece of work. The three letters in
+fig. 140 were taken from an XIth century embroidered cope, which has a
+fine inscription running round the entire lower margin.[13] The names of
+the saints and martyrs standing in rows in the columned arcades,
+affected at certain periods, are sometimes inscribed in the mouldings of
+the arches above them or along the base; kneeling donors can be seen
+naïvely presenting a little scroll inscribed with prayers, and many
+other interesting uses of lettering might be recalled. The names St.
+Luke and St. John, shown in fig. 141, are taken from a beautiful
+embroidered example of Gothic lettering.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.]
+
+Illuminated manuscripts supply fine examples of initial letters and
+writing. A visit to the show-cases in the King's Library at the British
+Museum will be of great interest to the student; the illustrations also
+to be seen there, the beautifully composed and coloured figure-subjects,
+would be equally suitable for carrying out in embroidery; indeed it is
+very probable that many of the figure compositions on the old copes and
+chasubles were derived from such a source. Fig. 142 gives as an example
+of an alphabet one taken from a Benedictionale of late XVth century
+date.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.]
+
+A practical purpose to which lettering is often put is the marking of
+linen. To learn how to do this used to be a recognised part of a girl's
+education, and was one of the objects of the sampler. Marking can be
+anything from a simple cross-stitch initial to an elaborately worked
+monogram. For simple work the corner to be marked can be tacked upon
+_toile cirée_, a material not unlike American cloth. Tambour frames
+also are useful for this purpose.
+
+Fig. 143 shows the stitches most used for working simple letters such as
+those seen upon the old samplers. The first is cross stitch, which for
+marking purposes should be worked so as to be alike on both sides. To do
+this requires some forethought whilst the work progresses, and
+necessitates an occasional doubling of one of the crossed stitches, in
+order to reach the point for commencing the next one and at the same
+time preserving a cross on each side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.]
+
+The second stitch in the diagram shows a square on one side and is a
+cross upon the reverse. This makes a good stitch for the purpose, is
+quite simple to manipulate, and is easier to manage than the cross on
+both sides.
+
+The third example is made use of when a larger letter is required. It is
+known as blanket stitch, and is used for the marking of such things. It
+may be further completed by a neat back stitch just fitting along the
+outside edges of the other stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
+
+Many embroidery stitches are suitable for marking purposes, such as
+satin, chain, stem, back, rope, basket, and others. The Oriental stitch
+which carries out the letter in fig. 144 is a good one when both sides
+can be seen, for though these are quite different, it is presentable
+upon either. The diagram shows the appearance of the stitch on the front
+and on the back.
+
+A simple initial letter may be made interesting by enriching the ground
+behind it with some form of diaper patterning. An example of this is
+shown in fig. 145. The letter could be worked in a plain satin stitch
+over a padding of threads, and the pattern on the ground in a darning
+stitch and French knots, or in any other suitable way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.]
+
+A monogram carried out in embroidery can be a very pretty thing; there
+is scope in it for ingenuity both of design and of stitching. The
+letters may be decorated and tied up with a floral spray, strap work or
+a combination of several _motifs_. Fig. 146 shows a monogram composed of
+the letters I. G. ornamented and bound together by a ribbon-like
+interlacing band. The letters are worked in a raised satin stitch, and a
+running stitch in another colour threads in and out down the centre of
+each letter. The outline is stem stitch in a darker colour. The band is
+outlined on both sides with an overcast stitch, which always makes a
+particularly neat edging for anything of this sort. The centre is filled
+with a row of French knots, the tassels are worked in close lines of
+stem stitch, and the petals of the small flowers in satin stitch,
+finished off with a French knot at the centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.]
+
+Another mark of proprietorship and origin was the shield of arms of the
+owner, which introduces the subject of heraldry. A shield executed with
+the needle is often seen, and looks particularly rich. Heraldry is an
+intricate science, full of pitfalls for the unwary, and demands an
+earnest study of its complex rules and regulations. Every one should
+know at least some fine examples of great national shields such as the
+Lions of England, the Fleur de Lys of France, and the Imperial Eagle.
+Examples of shields surmounted by helmets and crests with quaint and
+flowing mantling are to be seen in all kinds of art work.
+
+Various stitches and methods specially lend themselves to the expression
+of heraldry. Those which, like cross stitch, impose a certain
+simplicity, are very good. Another suitable medium is applied work, of
+which an illustration can be seen on page 95. Gold and silver thread are
+very useful here, and look exceptionally rich when couched in the XIIIth
+century method. Fig. 147 is an embroidered coat of arms dated the first
+half of the XIVth century. It is executed almost entirely in the _point
+couché rentré ou retiré_. The arms are those of the Clinton and
+Leyburne families--_argent, 6 cross crosslets fitchée 3, 2 and 1 on a
+chief azure, two mullets or_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.]
+
+In designing heraldic work care must be taken to introduce no debased
+forms such as were current after the XVth century. The XIIIth and XIVth
+centuries are the periods considered best for the study of this subject.
+Heraldry sometimes adds historic interest to embroideries; owners or
+donors may be traced by their coat of arms appearing upon some part of
+the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.]
+
+Allied to heraldry and marking are a number of decorative objects that
+have acquired peculiar traditional significance of an emblematic or
+symbolical nature, hard to define. The Cross of Christianity may be
+instanced, the olive branch of peace, the mirror of truth, and the snake
+of eternity. The name of a saint is frequently declared by an emblem
+accompanying the figure. In appropriate surroundings emblems may often
+be used effectively. For knowledge about these things the student must
+go to various books that deal with the special subject. Fig. 148 is an
+illustration of the well-known emblem, the Pelican in her piety.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[13] This cope is full of interest in every detail. See M. Louis de
+Farcy, _La Broderie du Onzième Siècle jusqu'à Nos Jours_. Plate II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE GARNITURE OF WORK
+
+  Finishing off--Making up--Edges--Use of Cord-making Appliance--Cord
+  Twisted by Hand--Knotted Cord--Fringes--Tassels--Knots.
+
+
+When the embroidery is completed, the making up, the addition of
+tasteful finishing touches, and such things as fringes, tassels, and
+linings, must all be considered. These will, if judiciously made use of,
+give a distinction and character to the work that might be missed if due
+care and thought were not expended upon such details. This part of the
+work might be compared to the garnishing of a boiled fowl with lemon and
+parsley, a minor detail, but a very effective one.
+
+It is possible, by the help of such expedients, to emphasise certain
+colours and bring out points of the design, as well as to give
+completeness and finish. Such things as fringes, cords, and tassels are
+often more satisfactory when made by the worker and with materials like
+those used in the embroidery, for such will be more likely to be in
+keeping with the character of the rest, and to be more interesting in
+detail. In the finishing off the same taste and neatness of execution is
+required as in the embroidery. Good work can be very much marred in the
+making up; on the other hand, a little extra interest added on a part
+not often seen renders it doubly valuable.
+
+The mounting of certain things should not be attempted at home; boxes
+should be handed over to the cabinetmaker, books to the bookbinder, and
+so on, for it is not possible for any one not an expert to do these
+things properly, and even good work can look poor if badly set.
+
+The question how to appropriately finish off an edge often arises; let
+it be hem stitched rather than plain hemmed; or a narrow line of drawn
+thread work may be inserted, for an open-work border is frequently a
+set-off to the rest of the embroidery. If a binding is placed over the
+edge this can be fixed with a pretty stitch, or the stitch alone can
+bind the edge, one such as buttonhole, overcast, or that shown in fig.
+76. With some stitches the edge of the material can be rolled over a
+piping cord and the stitch worked over the thus emphasised margin.
+
+The difficulty of procuring cord suitable for use with embroidered work
+makes the appliance illustrated at fig. 149 a useful possession.[14] The
+cords made upon this wheel can be of any thickness, according to the
+number of plies and the substance in each. Different colours and
+materials can be twisted up together, such as a gold and silk thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.]
+
+To make a three-plied cord, cut three equal lengths of thread rather
+longer than the required cord is to be, as it shortens in the
+twisting. Make a loop at each end of the thread, or, better still,
+attach tiny metal rings at the ends. Hook the threads in position as
+shown in the diagram, and place the instrument far enough from the
+clamped block of wood to make the threads that are stretched between
+quite taut. Now commence the twisting by turning the large wheel quickly
+with an even motion in the direction that continues to twist up the
+threads, keeping the left hand on the instrument to steady it, for it
+gradually slides towards the block as the twisting continues. When
+corkscrew-like knots begin to come in the threads, stop revolving the
+wheel, unhook the two outer threads and place them both on the central
+hooks together with the third thread, keeping them taut during the
+process. Revolve the large wheel again, in the direction opposite to
+that in which it has been working, and continue turning until the cord
+is tightly twisted up. It is now made, and can be removed from the
+machine. The second twisting had better be over-done rather than not
+sufficiently, since if over-twisted the cord rights itself upon being
+removed from the machine. A two-ply cord is made in like manner, by
+using first the two outer hooks only, and then placing both threads
+together on the central hooks.
+
+There is a simple way of making this cord without the help of any
+instrument, but it is not possible to get the perfect result that the
+machine gives. It is most easily carried out by two persons, though one
+can do it. In order to make a two-plied cord, by hand, take a thread
+rather more than twice the length of the required cord. Let each worker
+take an end of the thread in the right hand and commence to twist it
+between the thumb and finger, each working in direction opposite to the
+other and keeping the thread at tension. When twisted as much as
+possible without getting corkscrew-like knots in the thread, the cord
+must be doubled in half by holding it at the centre and bringing
+together the two ends, which are then knotted. During the entire process
+the thread must be kept under tension. If one end of the cord is now let
+go it should immediately twist itself up tight, and remain in that
+position. If any small knots form during the process run the cord
+sharply through the fingers once or twice to straighten it out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.]
+
+Another pretty kind of cord is a knotted one. It is made in the hand in
+most primitive fashion by using the two first fingers as crochet hooks.
+The thread used for making it should be stout and firm. To commence
+making the cord, knot two pieces of thread together and place the
+threads in position as shown in fig. 150. The next step is shown in fig.
+151, which is the index finger of the left hand bringing the darker
+thread through the loop. Fig. 152 shows this thread looped on the
+finger, the cord held in the left hand instead of the right, and the
+right hand in process of drawing the lighter thread, which was the last
+loop, tight. The next move, fig. 153, shows the right-hand first finger
+making the new loop with the lighter thread, and fig. 154 shows the
+loop on the finger, the cord passed over to be held in the right hand
+again, and the left hand this time pulling the last loop tight. Continue
+making the cord by following out the last four positions consecutively.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.]
+
+A very usual finish to an edge is a fringe. This can be made either by
+fraying out the material or by adding a detached fringe, either knotting
+it in or attaching it in some other way. If the fringe is to be a
+frayed-out one, the best way to do it is to first draw out a few warp
+threads where the head of the fringe is to come, then hem stitch the
+upper edge of this, see the right-hand end of fig. 155; this makes the
+heading of the fringe secure, after which the remainder of the warp
+threads can be withdrawn. When fringing a square in this fashion, it is
+well to save some of the frayings out to knot in at the four corners
+where otherwise there would be gaps.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.]
+
+To knot an added fringe into the border is a very simple matter. Begin
+by cutting the threads that are to compose it all to one length, about
+double that of the required fringe. Take a few together to form a bunch
+and double it in half. With a stiletto make a hole near the edge of the
+material; then bring from the back a crochet hook through this hole, and
+draw the loop formed by the doubling of the bunch a little way through,
+then take the ends of the bunch through the loop and draw them tight in
+order to make the knotting firm.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156.]
+
+There are many ways of patterning a plain fringe, sometimes a change of
+colour in the knotted-in threads is sufficient, as shown in fig. 156.
+Another very usual way is to divide the bunches and refasten them
+together in some way to form a pattern. Fig. 157 is an example of this;
+they may be either knotted together, as in the first half of the
+diagram, or bound with thread as in the second half, the needle reaching
+the required places by running in zigzag fashion up the thread and down
+again.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157.]
+
+A simple fringe can be made of strands twisted together, as in the first
+half of fig. 158. This is made upon the same principle as the twisted
+cord already described. About three threads of the fringe are twisted up
+tight, and an adjoining three treated in the same fashion. These threes
+are then twisted together in the direction opposite to that which has
+just been used, and thus are securely locked together. The ends of the
+completed fringe may require a little trimming off to make all of an
+equal length. The second half of the diagram shows a durable and simple
+fringe made by a close series of knots down the thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158.]
+
+Fig. 159 suggests two methods by which a stitching of coloured thread
+near the margin can help to decorate a plain fringed edge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.]
+
+A row of tassels makes a pretty finish to various things. Complicated
+tassel-making requires a professional hand; even a simple tassel
+requires making properly. The first proceeding is to wind some thread
+round a piece of cardboard, which should be a little wider than the
+tassel is to be long; then double a piece of the same thread and thread
+the two ends into a needle, thus leaving a loop at the usual knot end.
+Slip the needle through the centre of the wound thread close to the
+cardboard, then through the loop and draw the thread tight; this will
+bind the threads securely at that point. They can then be cut exactly
+opposite this on the other side, which will release the cardboard. Give
+the binding thread another tightening pull, and then take the needle and
+thread straight through the centre, as shown in fig. 160, and fasten it
+off with a good knot. This knot will be in the ball part of the tassel
+and will help to make it round. Next, double the tassel into shape ready
+for the collar. Thread the needle as before and make the thread encircle
+the tassel, as shown in the second figure in the diagram, drawing the
+thread quite tight, and, if necessary, winding it several times round
+the neck of the tassel until the collar is of sufficient width, then
+take the needle and thread straight through the centre, bringing it out
+at the top, where it can be made use of to fix the tassel in its place
+upon the work. With sharp scissors trim the edge of the tassel which
+now is complete. The ball part can be further decorated by covering it
+with an open network of stitches in some contrasting colour; buttonhole
+and various lace stitches can be used for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160.]
+
+
+KNOTS
+
+Knots, which can be very pretty, are at times required in embroidery;
+anything that requires a fastening may give an opportunity for some
+pretty interlacing strap work or knotting. Also knots may be practically
+useful in both weaving and embroidery, for sometimes a finishing thread
+must be knotted on to a new one, since there may be no opportunity of
+making a firm commencement with the aid of the material.
+
+The knot shown in fig. 161 is called the girdle knot; it might be made
+use of in many other ways. To carry it out, make a loop with one end of
+the cord and hold it between the left finger and thumb, the looped part
+being towards the right, and the end that points downwards to the left
+passing over the other end. Take up the other piece of cord, pass it
+diagonally across the surface of the loop, commencing from the
+right-hand lower side, then round under one end and over the other, then
+up into the loop from underneath, over its own end that crosses the loop
+there, and then out under the loop at the top right-hand corner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.]
+
+The Chinese knot, which is used for a sailor's collar, is shown in fig.
+162. The looped end can be left as large as necessary. To work it the
+first part of the knot is laid in position on the table, commencing at
+point A; for the latter part (from point C) the thread is interlaced
+through to the finish. It can then be pulled tight, taking care in the
+drawing-together process that the various loops are adjusted in right
+position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.]
+
+Another ornamental knot is shown at fig. 163. To make it--Form a loop
+and hold it between the left thumb and finger, the loop pointing to the
+right, the longer end pointing upwards and passing over the end that
+points downwards. Take hold of the end pointing upwards, pass it
+perpendicularly downwards across the surface of the loop, then round
+under the other end, up over its own end, under the side of the loop,
+over its own end that lies across the loop, and out under the loop at
+the right-hand end. Pull as tight as required. All these knots may be
+made of double cord by running a second through, following the lead of
+the first, just before tightening up the knot. The one last described
+may be made of doubled cord from the commencement, the looped end being
+used as the working end: the knot will then finish off with a loop at
+one end, which can be used as a loop or cut if required.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.]
+
+Fig. 164 is an example of a pretty piece of interlacing strap work
+attached to a fastening.
+
+The weavers' knot (fig. 165) is useful for practical purposes in both
+weaving and embroidery; this knot is universally employed by the cotton
+weavers when the warp breaks. It is made as follows--Place the two ends
+that are to be knotted together between the thumb and first finger of
+the left hand in such a way that they cross each other at right angles,
+the end that points towards the left passing under the one pointing
+towards the right. Pass the long end of thread that hangs down towards
+the right, and which is the newly attaching piece, over the thumb, round
+the back of the end pointing to the left in front of the other end, and
+let it hang down again towards the right, holding the loop thus made
+between the thumb and finger; then pass the end pointing towards the
+right down through this loop and out on the opposite side. To draw the
+knot tight, pull the end which hangs down towards the right, which will
+tighten the loop and so complete the knot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.]
+
+The reef knot (fig. 166) is another useful one, and it has this
+advantage over the weaver's knot, that both short ends return parallel
+to the long ones instead of going off at an angle; this makes it neater
+for some purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.]
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[14] This will be found described in detail in Chapter II. There is an
+interesting drawing of a neat little machine, similar to this, but
+worked by cogwheels, in _L'Art du Brodeur_, by Germain de St. Aubin
+(1770).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS
+
+  Transferring Patterns--Paste for Embroidery Purposes--Protection and
+  Preservation of Work--Washing Embroidery--Prevention and Cure of
+  Puckered Work--Points about the Thread--Dressing the Frame.
+
+
+The best method of getting the pattern on to the material is to draw it
+on directly with a brush; since this, however, is not always possible,
+other ways of doing it can be employed.
+
+The pattern can be transferred to the background by a process called
+pouncing. To do this fix some tracing-paper over the design and
+carefully take the outline; a good margin of plain paper should be left
+round the outside in order to prevent any of the pounce getting
+accidentally rubbed on to the embroidery. The next process is the
+perforation of the pattern. Lay the tracing upon some substance of the
+nature of thick felt, then with a pricker or a needle, held in an
+upright position, pierce tiny holes all round the outline of the
+pattern, very close together. This completed, attach the perforated
+tracing securely to the material, the smooth side of the perforations
+towards the stuff. Both material and tracing paper may be fixed to a
+board with drawing pins. Next, rub the pounce, which consists of finely
+powdered charcoal or of white chalk, lightly over the perforated parts
+with a soft pad, keeping the rubbing always in the same direction; once
+or twice at the most over the surface is quite sufficient, often too
+much is rubbed through, which afterwards is only in the way. The pad,
+first dipped into the pounce, is rubbed preparatorily upon some paper to
+remove the superfluous powder, and then upon the actual work. Carefully
+remove the tracing-paper; there should now be visible upon the surface
+of the material, in charcoal dust, a perfectly clear reproduction of the
+pattern. Should, however, the impression be blurred, it is quite easy to
+flick everything away with a duster and repeat the process. The causes
+of failure would most probably be that the perforations were too large
+or too far apart, or that there was some movement of either paper or
+material during the process. It is necessary for the pattern to be
+permanently fixed upon the ground material; blow lightly to remove any
+superfluous powder, then, with a brush dipped in light red oil-paint
+moistened with turpentine, trace a fine clear line over the powdered
+pattern. When this is dry, what is left of the charcoal can be lightly
+dusted away. Red is in most cases a good colour to use for tracing
+purposes, for if by chance any tracing should show or come off on the
+thread it will be a clean-looking colour, and one comparatively easily
+removed in any after cleaning.
+
+Red or blue carbonised paper is used for tracing patterns; it is not a
+good medium though it may be an expeditious one. If it is used, an after
+painting over the outline will make the marking permanent.
+
+When pouncing or painting is difficult, a method of indicating the
+pattern upon the stuff is to trace the design on tissue paper, and tack
+it to the ground material with cotton, the stitching of which should
+follow the outline of the design, and be kept as much as possible upon
+the front. The thin paper is then torn away, and there will be some
+suggestion of pattern left upon the material.
+
+Transparent ground stuffs need only be laid upon the pattern; then the
+tracing can be taken directly on the stuff.
+
+Paste is sometimes in request for embroidery purposes; the following is
+a good recipe--Pour rather less than half a pint of cold water into a
+saucepan, add to this a piece of carpenter's glue about the size of a
+small filbert and place it on the fire to heat. Put three teaspoonfuls
+of flour into a basin, and with cold water mix to a smooth paste; when
+the water in the saucepan boils add it to the paste, stirring well all
+the time; then place the mixture in the saucepan and boil for about two
+minutes. When cold it is ready for use. It may be required as a
+preservative; for instance, canvas work when finished can have a thin
+coating of paste rubbed over the back in order to preserve the stitches
+from giving or running; when the work is to be used for such things as
+furniture coverings this may be a good thing to do. Applied work is
+sometimes pasted on to its new ground, and a backing may be fixed to the
+surface material by paste. The more all this can be avoided the better,
+for its tendency is to give a stiff mechanical look to work;
+professional people, however, are rather fond of the paste pot. Paste,
+if used, must be of the right kind, or it will do more harm than good.
+It should be very fresh, and have no acid in its ingredients, of which
+gum arabic must not be one if any after stitching has to take place
+through the stuff, for gum makes it hard and less penetrable. The paste
+must be applied and allowed to dry thoroughly before the work is removed
+from the frame. A finger makes a good brush for the purpose. The paste
+should be put on as thinly and evenly as possible, care being taken not
+to rub on the cross of the material, since this might stretch it
+unevenly.
+
+Shoemakers' paste is easily procured, and can be used for embroidery
+purposes. This is made from rye flour, and is very strong. It is
+harmless if perfectly fresh.
+
+A good many things go to the keeping of work fresh and orderly, which is
+a very important matter. The work must be kept carefully covered up when
+not in use; finished parts can sometimes be covered whilst the work is
+going on, for the covering is easily raised when comparison with the
+part in progress is necessary. The work should have some protection if
+the hand rests on it; the worker should wear a white apron with sleeves.
+The worker's hand should be cool, dry, and smooth; hot hands should
+frequently be washed. The use of pumice stone cures slight roughness,
+but fine work cannot be attempted if the fingers are for any reason
+constantly rough. Wools and silks need a case to keep them orderly and
+clean. The best way to preserve valuable embroidery is to frame it,
+which, of course, is not always practicable, but it is a sure safeguard
+against moth and dust.
+
+For washing embroidery special soap should be procured. It is not well
+to use any ordinary soap, for this may contain alkali, which would
+injure the colours in the work. Dissolve the soap in boiling water, and
+add cold to make it just warm and of the required strength. Immerse the
+embroidery in the lather thus made, and work it about gently, avoiding
+any friction. When clean, rinse first in warm water, afterwards in cold,
+to which a little salt may be added. The water must be squeezed out
+carefully and the material quickly dried. If ironing is necessary it
+must be done on the wrong side, but if the work can be pinned out on a
+board to dry, and in this way stretched and smoothed without any
+ironing, so much the better, for the embroidery will not be flattened at
+all. Another way of ironing embroidery that is not harmful is to do it
+from underneath while some one holds out the material.
+
+It is easy to prevent the puckering of work when it is carried out in
+the frame; there is, however, no necessity for it to occur in hand work.
+Certain stitches are more inclined to draw up the material than others,
+and extra care has to be taken in working upon the cross of the fabric.
+The work should be held in convex fashion over the fingers of the left
+hand. Weights are occasionally attached to the corners of the work to
+prevent any unconscious drawing of it up.
+
+There are remedies for the cure of slightly puckered work. Place on a
+drawing-board some clean blotting-paper, damp it evenly over with a wet
+handkerchief, and then lay the work, right side up, upon it. Fix the
+work down to the board with drawing-pins, inserted at regular short
+intervals round the edge, endeavouring during the process to stretch the
+material to its original shape. This needs doing carefully, for it is
+quite possible to stretch it to a wrong shape, and it will remain as now
+pinned out. Next, lay some white paper or a handkerchief upon the
+surface of the work, and then place upon it a flat weight that presses
+equally on every part of the embroidery. Leave it undisturbed for a
+night, and the puckering will probably be cured. Work, if not puckered,
+may be improved by going through this process, which practically amounts
+to a mild ironing, but without any injurious effects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.]
+
+There are various points about the thread that should be known. To
+commence a new thread run a few stitches in the material upon the right
+side upon a part that will afterwards be covered by the working. This is
+a better way than a fastening on the wrong side, for it is both neater
+and more secure. A knot made at the beginning is fairly safe, but it is
+undesirable for several reasons. The needleful should not be lengthy
+lest it gets worn before it is all worked in. With some threads it is
+important to thread only the proper end into the eye of the needle,
+since one way they will work in roughly and the other way smoothly. An
+end of a coarse thread can be taken through to the back of the material
+by the help of a fine one; the fine thread is brought through from the
+back by the needle, it then encircles the coarse one, and returns to the
+back by the same hole, pulling the coarse thread with it, as in process
+in fig. 167. Taking it through by the aid of a thick needle would make
+too large a hole. Thread can be knotted into the eye of the needle if
+for any reason it is required to be quite safe from accidental
+unthreading. The neatest way of doing this is to pass the needle
+through the centre of the thread and draw it tight; this is a useful
+trick for any unskilled worker with needles and thread, for re-threading
+also may be a difficulty. When work has to be unpicked it is better to
+cut the threads rather than do any drawing out, for they are in any case
+unfit for further use, and this method wears the material less; a
+beginner must not shirk unpicking if first-rate results are to be
+obtained.
+
+
+FRAME WORK
+
+Certain stitches and methods of work cannot be carried out except with
+the help of a frame, others are hand stitches, and some few can be
+worked either way. Work done in a frame takes longer than that done by
+hand, and is rather more fatiguing. Each method has its advantages; in
+the frame it is perhaps easier to get good technique, for difficulties
+such as puckering the material, irregular stitching, and so on, are more
+easily avoided, also it is more possible to see the effect of the whole
+whilst the part progresses. In frame work a thimble is required for each
+hand, for one pushes the needle through from above and one from below.
+It is a rest to be able to reverse the hands, so both should be equally
+dexterous in either position.
+
+To dress the frame correctly is an important preliminary, for unless
+done well the effect of much after labour may be spoiled. In the chapter
+upon tools and appliances in fig. 9 is shown a piece of linen stretched
+in the frame ready for commencing work.
+
+The square of material that is seen to be inserted in the centre of the
+stretched linen is to show how a very small piece or a portion of a
+large surface could be stretched in the same sized frame. A corner may
+require marking or a small detail of embroidery carrying out upon it. A
+portion is cut out of the centre of the stretched linen, and the piece
+or part of the material to be worked stitched securely to it, as
+illustrated in the diagram. The remainder of the material, if there is
+any, can be folded up and pinned out of the way over the rollers.
+
+To return to the dressing of the frame--the linen to be stretched,
+before being fixed in place, must be hemmed or herring-boned down at the
+top and base and then sewn with overcast stitches to the webbings,
+inclining during the process to pucker the webbing rather than the
+material. The side pieces can now be put through the holes at the ends
+of the rollers and the metal pins inserted, or nuts adjusted, as the
+case may be, in order to stretch the material to the right tension. The
+raw edges at the sides must now be turned in or bound with tape, and a
+string securely attached at intervals along the edge; this is for lacing
+the string through that now braces the material to the sides of the
+frame (see fig. 1). The screw-sided frame has an advantage over the side
+pieces shown in fig. 9, in that in the former an extra turn can, at this
+point, be given to the nuts to still further stretch the material; on
+the other hand, some workers prefer the flat side pieces, thinking that
+they make the frame more rigid.
+
+If the material, when fixed to the two webbings, is too long for the
+frame, it must be wound round one of the rollers until of the correct
+size. This must be done carefully, for a delicate fabric might get
+damaged in the process; the roller can be padded with soft paper, and an
+interlining of tissue paper can be inserted and wound up with the
+material. It may not always be desirable to do this winding round the
+rollers; in that case fine glazed holland can be stretched in the frame,
+and the part to be first embroidered fixed to it. When the first part of
+the work is completed, the holland is cut out of the frame and fresh
+pieces substituted as the work goes on. If it is not wished that the
+stitches should be taken through both surfaces, as would here be the
+case, it would be possible to cut the linen partly away underneath, and
+use it only as a kind of inner frame for stretching the material on, in
+a way somewhat like that already described (see fig. 9).
+
+A backing to the material, however, is often a necessity--perhaps heavy
+work may be put on it or the stuff itself is fragile; in such cases
+there must be a backing of some kind. This usually consists of fine
+holland or linen, which is first stretched in the frame and then has the
+surface material securely stitched to it with overcast stitches, care
+being taken that both materials are equally strained.
+
+To frame velvet, sew it to the webbing by the selvedges or that way of
+the material, since the pile with that arrangement is more manageable
+when the embroidery is in progress.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.]
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+TAPESTRY WEAVING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Weaving, a most ancient art, naturally precedes embroidery, for this
+necessitates an already existing ground stuff, which is generally some
+kind of woven material. All varieties of weaving are done by one
+little-varied method, that of the weft passing to and fro in and out of
+the warp, and thus binding the whole into a fabric or web.
+
+The kind of weaving which demands from the worker the greatest artistic
+skill is that which produced the great masterpieces of Flanders, once
+known as Arras, from the town of that name, and now commonly called
+Gobelins tapestry, so named from the _Manufacture des Gobelins_ in
+Paris, at which establishment, founded over three hundred years ago, it
+is still produced.
+
+It is this kind of weaving that is now to be discussed, but without the
+least suggestion that the pupil should work upon a scale so large as is
+usually followed, though there is no reason against doing so if it is
+practicable. Tapestry weaving is so constantly associated with objects
+of large size, such as wall hangings, that it is scarcely realised as an
+art in this smaller way and as an alternative to embroidery. Yet it can
+be work of a most interesting kind even when produced in pieces only six
+inches square, as is well shown by existing specimens of the work of the
+weavers in Egypt who flourished in the early centuries of the Christian
+era. Examples of this work can be seen in many museums; they consist
+frequently of decorative panels of tapestry work inlaid in linen tunics
+and stuffs that have been used as grave clothes. These early Coptic
+examples are, like all tapestry, built up by interweaving various
+threads upon warp-strings stretched in close parallel lines. By varying
+the colour of the threads that are thus manipulated upon the warp,
+patterns of any degree of complexity can be built up directly by hand,
+and without the assistance of any further mechanical contrivance. The
+peculiarity of this ancient weaving is that the patterns are frequently
+woven upon the warp-threads of some fabric, from which the weft either
+has been removed, or, what is perhaps more probable, been purposely left
+out when the material was made, to leave space for this decorative
+pattern weaving to be added to it.
+
+The Latin name for the workman who in this way wove in the ornamental
+patterns was _Plumarius_, which is a name known to be applied to an
+embroiderer also. This weaving of small subjects is certainly very
+little removed from embroidery; it may fairly be called needlework, for
+it is as often carried out with needles as with bobbins, the former
+being frequently better suited to the size of the work.
+
+In execution weaving is not more difficult than embroidered work; it can
+be done in an ordinary room and upon a simple loom that is not more
+cumbersome than an embroidery frame; in fact an embroidery frame can
+sometimes be used in the place of a loom.
+
+Weaving takes about as long in doing as finely stitched solid
+needlework, for in weaving the entire fabric is made, both pattern and
+ground. The speed with which the work can be done of course varies
+considerably, being mainly dependent upon the design that is being
+carried out. Also the quality of the materials used affects the rate of
+working; for instance, the thickness of the warp-strings and the placing
+of them nearer together or further apart. Moreover the weft may be
+composed of one strand or of several strands together.
+
+In weaving, unless the materials used are very fine, it is impossible to
+get minute detail in drawing; fortunately it is seldom necessary to
+attempt much of this. The simpler and more direct work is as good as,
+and sometimes better than, that with finely gradated colour, shading,
+and form. On the other hand, work, small in scale, even though simply
+treated, does not look well when carried out with very coarse materials,
+for they seem out of proportion to the size of it.
+
+The main difficulty in the technique of the work lies in the attainment
+of good draughtsmanship, which of course includes light and shade as
+well as outline. It is naturally more difficult to draw by means of
+bobbin and thread, in horizontal lines, than to work unrestrictedly with
+a pencil, or even with an embroidery needle.
+
+There is a great deal in the preparation of the design; as in all other
+crafts this must be suited to the method of work; otherwise the
+difficulties of execution will be greatly increased and the result will
+be less satisfactory. This is even more important in weaving than in
+embroidery, for in the latter the stitch and method may possibly be
+chosen to suit the design, but in weaving no variation of stitch is
+possible; all must be carried out in the same way.
+
+Tapestry weaving, whether for wall hangings or for small objects, has
+the same technical difficulties, and certain restrictions govern all
+work of the kind. One point to be observed is, the main lines of the
+design should go as little as possible in the same direction as the warp
+threads. This is because with each change of colour in the weft that
+occurs in the direction of the warp, there comes an inevitable
+separation in the woven material, which, oft repeated, would materially
+impair the strength of the fabric. The less frequently this occurs, of
+course, the better, since it entails additional labour, either a
+joining-together stitch at the time of working or an after-sewing up
+from the back. Long lines made by change of colour going straight or at
+a slight angle across the warp-threads, are perfectly simple to manage,
+and the hatching lines of shading, as well as the outline, should be
+taken as much as possible in this direction.
+
+It will be noticed that most tapestries have the ribbed lines of warp
+going horizontally across; in the loom these lines are perpendicular, so
+this means that the design has been placed and carried out sideways upon
+it. This is for the reason just under discussion, for the long lines of
+a design are most frequently perpendicular, take, for instance, lines of
+figures, draperies, or architecture, and so by placing the design
+sideways in the loom, most of the important lines will come in the
+direction most easy for the working of them.
+
+With small pieces it frequently does not matter which way it is carried
+out, but it is useful to know when making the design that there is the
+alternative of placing it either way upon the warp-threads. If this
+matter were not considered and arranged, there might come a good deal of
+twisting round one or two warp-threads which would be most
+unsatisfactory in working and in appearance. A band of plain colour
+framing a square piece of work will be found to be completely detached
+from the centre part upon each side of the square, although working in
+very straightforwardly at the top and base; if, instead of being a
+straight band, the inner edge was vandyked, the work would be well
+knitted together upon all sides (see fig. 169). In such ways as this the
+technical pitfalls can be somewhat avoided by a designer who understands
+the method of the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169.]
+
+To lay down definite rules for designing is practically impossible;
+right and wrong depend upon so many circumstances. The study of fine
+tapestries of the best periods is one of the most satisfactory ways of
+learning what one may or may not attempt; the beautifully flowered
+grounds in many of these show what excellent motives flowers make, and
+how they should be treated. It is not usually a good plan to introduce
+in any part of the work much plain ground, for it is inclined to look
+poor; this is very likely the reason why the grass in tapestry-land is
+often covered with such profusion of flowers. Tapestry calls for
+beautiful colour, richness, and plenty of interesting detail; it is
+essentially decorative work, and must be treated as such. The
+arrangement of colours and tones need to be sharply defined; if by
+chance a dark leaf comes against another dark one, a line of light
+colour is sometimes deliberately run between, perhaps shading or
+outlining one of the forms; a flower may even change its colour as it
+passes over different backgrounds; what is more remarkable is that this
+change, unless sought for, is imperceptible.
+
+The work may be applied to all kinds of uses, such as coverings for
+furniture, mats, curtains, bell-pulls, book-covers, bags, boxes, and so
+forth. Anything that hangs upon a wall is particularly suitable for
+working in tapestry, for at a little distance this kind of work shows up
+more effectively than embroidered work does. A great many articles, such
+as alms-bags, frontals of all kinds, stoles and book-markers, for use in
+churches could most excellently be carried out in tapestry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+NECESSARY APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS
+
+  The Loom--Mirror--Bobbins and Needles--The Comb--Embroidery Frame
+  treated as a Loom--Warp--Wools--Silk--Gold and Silver Thread.
+
+
+TOOLS AND APPLIANCES
+
+The chief requisite for weaving is the loom; this can be made by a
+carpenter from a working drawing. In the Victoria and Albert Museum
+there is a model of a small tapestry loom, presented by William Morris,
+which a novice will do well to examine. It is quite possible to carry
+out a small piece of weaving upon an embroidery frame, but to work in a
+loom which has all the proper appliances is always quicker, better, and
+absolutely necessary with work of any size.
+
+There are two main varieties of tapestry loom, one in which the
+warp-threads are horizontal, and another in which they are vertical. The
+latter kind is considered to give the best results, mainly owing to the
+possibility of the worker's seeing the right side of the work whilst it
+is in progress. This is a great advantage, for tapestry is woven with
+the reverse side towards the worker, and progresses by such gradual
+steps that the weaver is prone to lose sight of the whole whilst paying
+attention to the part in progress, and it will be easily understood that
+to be able to go round and view the entire piece is of immense help. A
+detail may perhaps be corrected during the progress of the work, but
+afterwards this would be an awkward matter. It is one of the
+difficulties of weaving to have to finish completely each step as it
+comes up. Working from the wrong side is not so hard as it might seem,
+for both sides are practically alike; the side towards the worker,
+however, shows ends of thread and thread passing from one place to
+another, which make it somewhat unpresentable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.]
+
+Fig. 170 shows a drawing of a small loom with some warp stretched upon
+it in readiness for commencing work. It stands upon the ground, and is
+about 4 feet high by 2½ feet wide. It is made of beechwood; a hard
+wood like this is best, for there must be no possibility of the rollers
+bending with the strain of the warp. The loom consists of two uprights
+standing upon heavy feet; these uprights are joined together at the top
+and base by strengthening cross bars. Two wooden rollers are fixed into
+the uprights (see A and B in fig. 170) and in the surface of each of
+these a narrow groove is hollowed out lengthwise (see fig. 171); this is
+for the purpose of holding a long metal pin, by means of which the
+warp-threads are kept in place. The rollers are fitted at one extremity
+with a handle for turning them round, and at the other with a ratchet
+and toothed wheel to prevent unwinding. The purpose of the upper roller
+is to hold the supply of warp-thread and unwind it as required; the
+lower one is for winding up the web as the work progresses, so that upon
+a loom of this size a piece of work of considerable length can easily be
+carried out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.]
+
+The warp soon after it passes from the top roller is divided into two
+leaves by a cylindrical wooden bar about one inch in diameter, called
+the cross stave (see fig. 172). The cross stave may be oval or round in
+section; if it is oval the warp-threads may be moved more widely apart
+when required by turning the stave round, but this is not often
+necessary. The upper part of the cross stave can be seen in position in
+the loom diagram, which shows also how the stave divides the threads,
+which pass alternately one in front and one behind the bar. After this
+the threads are passed through a comb-like instrument, having about
+fourteen divisions to the inch (see fig. 173). This extends from side to
+side of the loom, and lies in a groove made in the bar that fixes the
+coat-stave (C in fig. 170) in position at either extremity. It can be
+taken out and exchanged for another with a different divisioning, if
+necessary; without doing this, however, it is quite possible to put at
+intervals two threads through one division, or to pass over one
+occasionally if need be. The threads are next fixed in the lower roller.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.]
+
+The coat-stave can be seen projecting from near the top of the loom. A
+number of looped threads called coats are fixed to it, and each one of
+these encircles a thread of the warp. They are attached only to those
+threads that were passed behind the cross stave and form the back leaf
+of the warp, and they are for the purpose of pulling these forward when
+required.
+
+Underneath the lower roller is fixed a wooden tray, which is useful for
+holding bobbins, comb, or scissors.
+
+On the loom is hung a small mirror facing the right side of the work
+(see fig. 170). This enables the weaver to glance now and then through
+the warp-strings at any detail that is in progress.
+
+Smaller looms can be made, suitable for placing upon a table; these,
+standing about two feet in height, must in some way be firmly fixed to
+the table, in order to be properly rigid for work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.]
+
+The thread composing the woof is wound upon a wooden bobbin or shuttle,
+such as that shown in fig. 174. The chief point about this is, that it
+may not have sharp angles that might catch in the warp whilst passing to
+and fro. The pointed end is sometimes made use of to poke between the
+warp-threads and press down the weft. A fresh bobbin is employed for
+each colour, and the wool is wound upon it two or three strands
+together, just as may happen to be required for the work. Large
+blunt-pointed needles about three inches long (fig. 175) are often used
+in place of bobbins, for with small pieces of work sometimes so little
+of a colour is required as to make it unnecessary to wind a quantity on
+a bobbin, which is, after all, only a needle with an extra long thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.]
+
+A comb is necessary for pressing down the weft whilst the work is in
+progress. Combs vary in size and shape; fig. 176 shows one suitable for
+this type of work; it is 1½ inches square, slightly wedge-shaped, and
+about one-eighth of an inch thick. Boxwood is the most suitable wood to
+make them from, since it is particularly hard and fine in the grain.
+They are sometimes made of metal, ivory, or bone; for large work, metal
+combs of a heavier type are used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.]
+
+An embroidery frame, which has been already mentioned as a possible
+substitute for the loom, is oftentimes an article more easily procured.
+Fig. 177 illustrates how a frame of this kind may be prepared with
+warp-threads for weaving. One with the screw side pieces is the best,
+for these enable the tension of the warp to be slightly adjusted if the
+working shows any tendency to slacken the thread.
+
+To prepare the frame for weaving--Place the parts together at the
+required distance from each other; secure the end of some warp-thread to
+some part of the frame, and then commence to wind it round and round
+over the two rollers, placing the threads at approximately the right
+distance apart, taking into account when doing this that the two leaves
+thus formed will eventually be brought into the same plane. When the
+required width of warp-thread is wound upon the rollers, secure the end
+of the string and proceed to bring the front and back leaves together by
+darning a knitting-needle or some similar article in and out of the
+threads at the centre. Then slide it up close to the top roller and
+secure it by tying it with string at each end (see diagram). The same
+process is gone through with a second pin, which is tied to the lower
+roller.
+
+The warp-threads can now be adjusted to their proper distance apart, as
+they will probably be a little irregularly spaced. The next process is
+to weave two or three courses of warp-thread close to the knitting-pins
+at either end; this brings the warp still nearer to being in the one
+plane, and enables the threads to be arranged in perfect order by the
+aid of the point of the bobbin or a needle, and they will remain as now
+placed.
+
+The frame is now ready for work. A piece of plain web, about half an
+inch in width, is usually woven before the actual design is begun; this
+serves as a selvedge for turning in when the completed work is mounted,
+and also gets the warp into condition much better for working upon.
+
+A thick knitting-needle can be passed between the alternate threads of
+the warp and placed towards the top of the frame, as shown in the
+diagram. This takes the place of the cross-stave in the loom, and, by
+thus dividing the warp into two leaves, is of assistance when the
+shuttle goes in one direction. Coats cannot easily be applied to an
+embroidery frame.
+
+It is quite possible upon a frame of this kind to weave a long narrow
+band of any kind. The warp must be wound on and arranged in position at
+the necessary length by separating the rollers and temporarily fixing
+them apart at the distance required for the band. The surplus warp is
+then wound up on the upper roller until the side pieces will fit into
+the ends. As it gets worked upon, the completed part is wound upon the
+lower roller. A piece both long and wide would be impracticable,
+especially if any winding on and off the rollers were necessary.
+
+
+MATERIALS
+
+There are very few materials required for tapestry weaving; they consist
+of, string for warp, wools, silks, and maybe gold and silver thread for
+the weft.
+
+The warp is usually composed of a smooth, strong, evenly twisted thread,
+specially made for the purpose. It can be procured of various
+thicknesses. It happens sometimes that in parts the warp shows, as a
+fringe or in some other way; in this case it could be made of a strong
+silk thread, such as purse silk, though for edges of mats, the ordinary
+string warp fringed out is quite suitable. Occasionally weaving is
+carried out in such a way as to expose the warp in various parts of the
+work, the pattern being woven, but the ground left altogether unworked.
+In a case of this kind the colour and composition of the warp is
+naturally important, and must be considered. In a show-case in the
+British Museum there can be seen a small book with an interesting woven
+binding carried out after this manner. The warp is composed of gold
+passing, and the effect of this with a pattern carried out in brightly
+coloured silks is very pretty indeed, the gold adding a rich glow to the
+whole.
+
+Wool and silk are the chief materials used for the woof. It is well to
+choose those of fine texture, for several strands can then be wound
+together upon one bobbin, which, with coarse materials, would be too
+clumsy a method. When working in this way there is more opportunity of
+varying colour and texture, for three shades may be wound upon the
+bobbin together to get a required colour, and this has often a prettier
+effect than the use of an unblended colour; also, silk and wool are very
+satisfactory wound and worked in together, each texture showing the
+other to advantage.
+
+Fine gold or silver threads are frequently used in tapestry weaving.
+They can be woven in alone, which gives a metallic look, or they may be
+mixed with strands of silk. Both ways are very good, and the use of the
+metal thread adds great richness to the work. These threads make fine
+backgrounds, and they can be used in many ways upon the design; it is a
+common practice to carry out the lighting of draperies and of other
+parts in real gold, just as they are treated in illuminated manuscripts.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PREPARATIONS FOR WORK
+
+  Warping the Loom--Dressing the Coat-Stave--Tracing the Pattern upon
+  the Threads.
+
+
+Upon commencing the warping of the loom the first matter to be decided
+is the length of the threads. Some extra length must be measured off
+besides that actually used for weaving, to allow for what is taken up
+in fixing the threads and winding them round the rollers, and as it is
+not convenient to work more than about half-way up the loom, this also
+has to be allowed for in the length. The threads must all be cut to one
+size, and since they have to be doubled in halves when placed on the
+loom, this should be twice the required length.
+
+Another question for early decision is the number of warp-threads that
+may be allowed per inch. This varies with the coarseness of the strings
+and the thickness of the weft that will have to pass to and fro between
+them; what governs both of these points is the design, whether there is
+much detail or not, for if the drawing is complicated the warp-strings
+must be fine in order to be able to carry it out; this point will be
+better understood after some experience of working. Fourteen to sixteen
+threads to the inch is a very usual number.
+
+The fixing of the threads in the upper roller is a very simple matter.
+It is done by doubling each in halves and placing the loop thus formed
+over the metal pin, which for this purpose may be temporarily suspended
+by string to the frame of the top of the loom just above the roller. It
+can be dropped into its place in the groove when all the threads are
+looped upon it, and made secure there for the moment by tying some
+string round the extremities of the roller.
+
+Each thread is now taken separately through the comb-like instrument.
+The cross-stave is laid upon this, so it is well to put it in place now,
+and carry the threads alternately in front and behind it, whilst passing
+them through the comb. The threading of the strings through the comb
+decides the number there will be to the inch, so they must be put
+through at the required distance apart.
+
+The upper roller is next given a complete turn, which will make the
+metal pin and the threads that are round it secure in the groove. The
+winding up must be continued until only about three inches of the
+warp-string hang below the lower roller. Some kind of tension must be
+applied to the threads whilst this winding is going on, or it will be
+done irregularly; a hand, or several hands, holding it, answers the
+purpose well enough.
+
+The next process is to fix the threads securely in the lower roller. The
+difficulty here lies in getting the placing and tension of the threads
+between the two rollers exactly regular and even. If some were slack and
+others tight it would be very awkward to correct afterwards, and
+impossible to weave upon properly if incorrect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178.]
+
+Fig. 178 shows a practical method by which the warp may be fixed in the
+lower roller, but any contrivance will do that gains the required
+result. To carry out the fixing as in the diagram, the roller must be
+turned so that the groove comes just at the centre in the front. Four
+lines of warp-thread are then fixed from end to end of the roller, two
+above and two below the groove. Each warp-string in turn is now threaded
+in and out of these cross lines, as shown in the diagram. This places
+them in regular order, at the correct distance apart, and keeps them at
+very nearly the same tension throughout. The metal pin is now placed in
+the groove and pushes the threads before it. It must be temporarily made
+firm there by string tied round the roller at intervals.
+
+The next process is to tie the warp-threads in knots, either two or four
+together, just where they emerge below the pin. This prevents any giving
+way, and if the threads are pulled just equally tight immediately before
+the knotting, the tension of the entire warp will be the same. The lower
+roller is next turned round until the metal pin is made quite firm in
+its place by the warp-threads passing across the face of the groove.
+The warp will now be fixed in the loom as shown in the drawing in fig.
+170.
+
+The placing of the coats upon the coat-stave is the next part of the
+preparatory work. Commence by fixing a line of warp-thread along the
+exterior side of the coat-stave, making it secure to the bar at both
+ends. The coats, encircling the stave and a thread of warp, are fixed to
+this string by a kind of buttonhole stitch (see fig. 179). It is
+important that each loop should be of exactly the same size; this can be
+ensured by temporarily fixing a rod across the loom at the point where
+the loops will encircle the warp-thread, and then taking the loop round
+this bar as well as round the thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179.]
+
+To commence making the coats, take a long needleful of warp-thread and
+secure the end of it to the string at the right-hand end, and then make
+about three small looped stitches upon it (see needle in progress in the
+diagram); next, instead of making another of the same stitches, take the
+thread down below the stave, let it encircle the first thread of the
+back leaf and then be brought up over the coat-stave and string and be
+looped under the thread to complete the stitch (see B). Usually a long
+and a short stitch are taken alternately, but the number of short ones
+may be varied. This process is continued until all the threads of the
+back leaf are encircled each by a loop.
+
+A new length of thread must be knotted on to the last one as it gets
+used up. The weavers' knot, which is shown on p. 291, might be used for
+the purpose. It would be made use of also if by chance the warp-thread
+were broken, for it is a knot specially good for the purpose.
+
+When the coats are completed there are still one or two preparations to
+be made before actually commencing to weave. Either a metal rod or a
+long narrow piece of wood must now be threaded in and out of the
+warp-strings and placed in position at the base. This rod can be seen
+properly placed in position in fig. 179 in front of the lower cylinder.
+This is put there to keep the lines of the woof horizontal when they are
+being beaten down by the comb.
+
+Next wind on a bobbin some warp-thread similar to that already on the
+loom, or, if that happens to be very coarse, let this be a little finer.
+Now weave two courses with this warp-thread and beat it down with the
+comb, leaving the woof during the process rather loose. The technique of
+weaving with all its difficulties is discussed in Chapter XVIII. When
+two of the warp-thread courses are complete, insert either the pointed
+end of the bobbin or a blunt needle between the warp-threads below the
+woven portion, and if necessary move the warp-strings a little to or fro
+until they are equally separated each from the other all along the line.
+Next weave about four more courses of the woof; these will serve to keep
+the arranged warp-threads still more firmly in place. Then with a red
+pencil rule a horizontal line straight across the warp-strings about
+one-third of an inch above the woven portion. Wind on another bobbin
+some wool and weave it to and fro until the space between the woven
+portion and the red line is filled in. Between each course the comb must
+beat the woof-threads firmly down. It is often necessary to weave over
+some portions of the surface more than over others as the threads pack
+down tighter in some parts. The loom should be now in perfect order for
+commencing work. The preparatory weaving that has been done is often
+useful afterwards as a selvedge.
+
+It is necessary to have a coloured drawing of the design for frequent
+reference whilst the work is in progress; also a tracing of the outline
+must be marked upon the warp-threads for the worker's further guidance.
+The tracing upon the threads must be a reflection of the pattern owing
+to the fact that the work is done from the back. It does not affect the
+matter if the design is a symmetrical one, but to find the lions of
+England facing the wrong way in some completed piece of heraldic work
+would be most annoying. In order to get a tracing of the design upon the
+threads, a sheet of paper, with a distinct outline of the pattern upon
+it, must be attached, possibly by pinning, to the further side of the
+warp-threads, exactly where the weaving is to take place. The outline
+will be clearly perceivable through the threads, and the next process is
+to take pen and Indian ink and make a dot upon each warp-thread in
+sequence round the outline of the pattern. When this is completed, the
+tracing-paper can be removed, and the dots upon the warp must be taken
+all round each thread instead of marking one side only. The marking
+round is done by holding a warp-thread between the finger and thumb,
+placing the side of the nib against one of the dots, and then twisting
+the thread to and fro against it. All the marks upon the first thread
+are treated in succession in this way, then the next thread is taken up
+and treated in similar fashion, and so on until all are done. Fig. 180
+shows a leaf marked upon the warp-threads in readiness for working.
+This marking should be clear, sharp, and decided, all the lines being
+taken horizontally round, as in fig. 180; if the pattern seems to run up
+a thread, a mark just half-way up is sufficient guide. In a piece of
+work of any size the tracing must be done, a part at a time, for the
+threads moving slightly when the warp is unwound and the web wound up
+may displace the marks and make the guiding lines incorrect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE TECHNIQUE OF WEAVING
+
+  Weaving--Commencing and Fastening Off--The Interlocking Stitch--Fine
+  Drawing--Shading--Added After-stitches.
+
+
+The way in which the woof threading in and out of the warp makes the web
+is shown at C, fig. 179. Here the woof has been taken once to and fro; a
+movement called a weft or a course, one way only, goes by the name of a
+half pass or a shoot. By the use of the cross stave for one direction,
+and of the coats for the other, the tediousness of the process of
+darning in and out and so picking up the right threads is avoided. It is
+not always practical to make use of these appliances; for instance, in
+working over only two or three threads it may not be worth while, but
+when they can be made use of the work is done twice as rapidly by their
+help.
+
+The bobbin enters the loom rather high up, for there the division of
+threads is greatest. One hand starts the bobbin upon its journey, the
+other hand, entering between the divided warp-threads, takes it on and
+out as required. Sometimes the bobbin has to go the entire way between
+the leaves, and at others it may be only over two or three threads, this
+depending upon the pattern. To enable the bobbin to make the return
+passage, the warp must be redivided, the threads that are at the back
+must be brought to the front; this is managed by the help of the
+coats--a bunch of them is taken in the hand in order to pull forward the
+threads to which they are attached. This can be done by sections all
+along the line, or just in one part of it if it be so required.
+
+The weft is almost always taken in horizontal lines to and fro. The
+exceptions to this rule occur when it is very evident that to run up
+and down a narrow slanting line from end to end is far simpler than to
+work up in a horizontal zigzag fashion along it.
+
+About an inch of thread is left at the end and at the commencement of
+each length of weft; these are secured by the tight packing down of the
+threads above them, so there is as a rule no need for any knot or
+fastening off, which would be necessary only in the case of commencing
+or ending off round a single thread, but it is important for the future
+durability of the work to see that the ends are secured. Sometimes a
+commencement or a finish is made just where a natural division of the
+fabric occurs; in this case, the end of thread would not be secure, for
+it might work loose or appear upon the right side. This can usually be
+avoided by commencing a little further along the line. The few times
+that fastening off or on is necessary, the thread can be run into the
+part already woven with a smaller needle, or else be knotted on to a
+loose end of wool.
+
+The bobbins not actually in use hang down fixed as in lace work by a
+half-hitch. Fig. 181 shows this in process of making; the loop is passed
+from the finger on to the bobbin; it will unwind as wanted and yet hold
+firm whilst hanging down. The thread is always carried, if practicable,
+from one place to where it is next required, in order to avoid
+unnecessary breaking off. Tapestry is sometimes woven with both sides
+alike, which means only that all the ends must be cut close off. It is
+said that work so treated is quite durable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.]
+
+Special care must be taken that the weft is turned neatly round at the
+margins, because if it is at all loose there the work has a ragged,
+untidy appearance. This applies also to any turnings that may occur in
+other parts due to the carrying out of the pattern; if in these places
+the thread is too loose upon the warp, the fabric will be uneven and
+pushed out of place; if on the other hand the thread there is too tight,
+the slits will gape, and if these are afterwards closed by stitching,
+the entire material will be drawn in. A new thread is never commenced
+actually at the margin, for it would then be seen upon the right side;
+it is quite easy to avoid this happening by commencing an inch further
+in. This may entail beginning in a direction which is apparently wrong
+for picking up the proper threads, that is, those not picked up in the
+row below; but this must happen at times, and the work packs down and
+quite prevents the warp showing, as it might be inclined to do in such a
+case. It is sometimes at the margin a good plan to pick up two
+warp-threads together, for this emphasises the edge rather pleasantly;
+this might be advisable in carrying out a long ribbon-like border of any
+kind.
+
+After each shoot, the point of the bobbin, the comb, or maybe the
+fingers, should press down the woof to make it lie close upon the row
+before, and so entirely cover up the warp. Fig. 182 shows the comb in
+action, and also the bobbins hanging. The weft must be left a little
+slack along the line for this purpose, and some experience is required
+in order to leave just the right slackness. The turn at the edge is
+arranged first, and then the thread eased evenly along its length in
+readiness for being pressed down; it must have the appearance not of
+running straight across the warp-strings, but of lying loosely round
+them. For packing down a long line, much more play of weft is required
+than for a short one.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.]
+
+The usual fault with beginners is to draw the web too tight here and
+there. This is a fault to be specially avoided, for it causes the fabric
+to be drawn in, and to vary in width, spoiling its appearance and making
+the threads difficult to work upon; also the packing down of the weft
+could not be properly done, which would cause the warp-threads to be
+exposed in parts.
+
+The thoroughness of this packing down of the weft is for several reasons
+very important. The durability of the work is much affected by it, both
+for the securing of the ends of wool already mentioned, and for the
+making of a strong, well-knit piece of fabric. Another reason is, that
+the drawing of the various forms in the design may be made incorrect, in
+this way: suppose an apple were woven in, apparently correctly, but the
+wefts were not pressed down thoroughly, the weaving and packing down of
+the wefts above it would be sure to press the part underneath closer
+together, and the effect of this would be to make the round apple assume
+a flattened oval shape, and cause similar changes throughout the work.
+
+It has already been mentioned that wherever a change of colour occurs
+vertically, that is, in the direction of the warp-threads, there results
+of necessity a division or slit in the web; the slit, which may be of
+any length, if noticeable, must be closed. This can be done whilst the
+weaving is in progress by a method of interlocking the two wefts as they
+meet, or else by stitching up at the back when the work is finished. The
+latter way is called fine drawing, and must be very carefully done,
+especially with large tapestries.
+
+Both methods are used; the first takes longer, but is the most durable.
+Old and worn tapestries will usually be seen to have given way where
+this stitching up at the back has taken place. In small pieces of work,
+however, there is not much likelihood of strain, so the oversewing at
+the back answers fairly well. The two ways can be used in conjunction.
+Supposing a border, owing to its being of a different colour, had to be
+joined the entire length of the work, the interlocking stitches might be
+made at intervals of about half an inch, and when the work was finished
+the oversewing at the back might be taken the entire length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.]
+
+Fig. 183 is a diagram illustrating the way in which the wefts may be
+interlocked whilst the weaving goes on. Examination of the drawing will
+probably be sufficient explanation; however, interlocking is effected
+thus: Commencing at the base, run a weft of the darker wool to and fro,
+leaving it slack at the turning point. A half pass of the
+lighter-coloured woof is then run through, it is threaded in an upward
+direction through the slack loop of the darker wool, waits there whilst
+another weft of the darker colour is worked, and then is threaded down
+through the second loop that has been formed, and returns to the
+starting-point. It then comes back again and is threaded upwards through
+this same loop, and waits, as before, for another to be formed, and
+returns back through it--and so on. If this is done properly, no change
+is visible on the right side. The joined weft will last as long as any
+other part of the weaving.
+
+The process of stitching up at the back is simply an oversewing with
+silk or other strong thread. The stitches must be rather close, drawing
+the edges just sufficiently together, and they must not show through to
+the right side. The stitching together should be done while the work is
+on the loom, since the web would then be in less danger of pulling out
+of shape.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.]
+
+Shading in tapestry weaving is carried out by a hatching process which
+is most simply explained by a diagram (fig. 184). The difficulty is not
+in the working, but in getting the form of the shadow or light correctly
+expressed. There is no need for fine gradation of colour and tone, for
+the shading looks best when carried out simply and boldly, but the
+drawing of it should be decided and good. The above figure gives but one
+intermediary tone in shading from one colour to another, which is the
+ancient method of working; at the present day the weavers in the
+_Manufacture des Gobelins_ employ several other intermediary tones, thus
+allowing of finer gradation; possibly however these fine gradations are
+not of such great importance, and so need not have an unnecessary amount
+of attention and time devoted to their accomplishment.
+
+The student will do well to examine fine examples and make careful
+drawings from them, since this will teach the right way of going to work
+better than anything else can. Fig. 185 is simply a shaded leaf taken at
+random from a piece of weaving; the same leaf was shown in outline in
+fig. 180, so the two show the commencement and completion of the same
+piece. It will be noticed upon studying tapestry that usually all the
+light parts of a work are hatched with the same colour, often a buff
+shade, those of rich tapestries with gold thread. This sameness of
+colour throughout gives unity to the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.]
+
+Sometimes after the weaving is completed a few finishing touches can be
+satisfactorily put in by means of single stitches taken through the
+fabric with a sharp-pointed embroidery needle. The dots representing the
+seeds upon a strawberry could be stitched in afterwards in this way, for
+to insert them while the work is going on would be very tedious. This
+kind of thing must not be overdone, however, for the stitches are apt,
+unless very deftly treated, to have a laid-on look, and care must be
+taken not to mar the evenly ribbed effect, which is one of the
+characteristics of tapestry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.]
+
+This weaving is a most fascinating kind of work, as will be found upon a
+trial. The simplest patterns look very interesting when woven, and, on
+the other hand, the work can be carried to any degree of complexity that
+the worker desires. For a first trial a piece might be done with no
+attempt at shading; even one such as that illustrated at fig. 186 would
+be suitable. This example happens to be a form particularly easy for
+carrying out in weaving. The worker should begin at the lower right-hand
+corner and work the successive flights of steps diagonally, as shown by
+the unfinished portion of the diagram.
+
+In the way of actual technique there is in the art of tapestry weaving
+not nearly as much to be learnt as there is in embroidery, for there are
+no varieties of methods and of stitch to be acquired; still for a person
+to become a skilled weaver, capable of carrying out large wall hangings,
+is a thing very difficult of attainment--indeed it is said that it takes
+as long as fifteen years of constant application to acquire the
+necessary knowledge and skill. To carry out designs of less magnitude
+and intricacy is a very different matter; success in this smaller way is
+far more easily attained, and is well within the reach of unprofessional
+people.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
+
+
+PLATE I.--_A Detail from a XIVth Century English Cope._--The figure of
+Christ which is shown in this plate is taken from a central group,
+representing the coronation of the Virgin, in a famous cope in the
+possession of Colonel J. E. Butler-Bowdon. The ground is of rich red
+silk velvet; the face, hands, and linings of the draperies are worked in
+silk in split stitch; the drapery, crown, and surrounding architectural
+decoration are in gold thread couched by the early method. The twisted
+column with oak leaves and the five lobed arch are both characteristic
+of English work of this period. Note the use of pearls in the lion's
+head and in the acorns, also the charmingly drawn bird. An interesting
+technical point displayed in this example is that the work is done
+directly on to the velvet ground, instead of being first worked upon
+linen and afterwards as a completed piece of embroidery applied to the
+velvet. The method in use here, if at all possible, is always the most
+satisfactory.
+
+Size of detail, about eleven inches by six.
+
+
+PLATE II.--_Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope preserved at
+Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire._--The cope is not now in its original state,
+for it has been divided into two parts and used for the decoration of
+the altar. The background is composed of a thin greyish white silk
+backed with a stronger material. The white may have been originally some
+other colour; it is, however, in its present state, very beautiful and
+harmonious. The drawing of the features in this cope is remarkably
+refined and true to nature (the reproduction does not do full justice to
+the original). The ancient method, of working the faces in split stitch
+commencing with the middle of the cheek and continuing spirally round,
+then afterwards pressing the centre down by some mechanical means, is
+plainly to be observed here. The effective drawing of the tresses of
+hair in alternate lines of two colours is well seen in the left-hand
+example. The gold thread which is freely made use of all over the cope,
+upon the draperies, nimbi, and surrounding foliage, is marvellously
+bright and sparkling, although nearly six hundred years old. The
+manufacture of untarnishable gold for embroidery purposes seems beyond
+present day enterprise.
+
+Width of nimbus, two and a half inches.
+
+
+PLATE III.--_A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet, probably of Sicilian
+work. Date about 1400._--In this interesting example of quilting, which
+is exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum, the ground is composed
+of a buff-coloured linen. The raised effect is obtained by an
+interpadding of wool. The background is run over irregularly with white
+thread, in order to keep it more or less flat, and the design, which is
+in fairly high relief, is outlined with brown thread. The entire
+coverlet is embroidered with scenes from the life of Tristan. Tristan
+frequently engaged in battle against King Languis, the oppressor of his
+country. This detail represents "How King Languis (of Ireland) sent to
+Cornwall for the tribute."
+
+Size of detail, two feet by three.
+
+
+PLATE IV.--_A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered in coloured
+silk threads upon a white linen ground._--This is a piece of German XVth
+century work exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is
+embroidered almost entirely in one stitch, which might be described as a
+variety of herring-bone. The design is made up of two motives which
+repeat alternately along the band--a square shaped tree and a circle,
+the latter decorated with floral sprays and, in the centre of it, a
+group of emblems. Down the middle of the design runs a series of names
+in fine Gothic lettering--"Ursula" and "Augustinus" being the two that
+occur in this plate.
+
+Width of embroidered band, four and a half inches.
+
+
+PLATE V.--_A portion of a late XVth century Orphrey, embroidered with
+the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham._--The ground is of red
+velvet, and is embroidered with gold thread and coloured silks. The two
+shields here represented bear the arms of the families of de Bohun and
+Fitzwalter. Each shield has for supporters two swans, and is surrounded
+by floral sprays. The Stafford knot unites the sprays between the
+shields. The chasuble upon which this orphrey is placed is made of a
+lovely brocaded silk decorated with falcons, peahens, and roses.
+
+Width of embroidered orphrey, about eight inches.
+
+
+PLATE VI.--_A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth century
+Embroidered Picture representing the story of Daphne._--The picture is
+worked in coloured wools and silks in cross stitch upon canvas, and is
+an admirable example of this kind of work, and this particular detail is
+a good illustration of a very satisfactory treatment of foliage. The
+whole panel measures about seven feet by two, and is exhibited in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+Height of detail, ten and a half inches.
+
+
+PLATE VII.--_An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth century Wool-work
+Curtain._--This curtain, the property of Miss Killick, is a pretty
+example of a small crewel-work hanging. The design is of a type that was
+often used upon hangings of that period. It is embroidered with brightly
+coloured wools upon a white linen ground, and is in a good state of
+preservation. Much ingenuity as well as variety of stitching are shown
+in the execution of the work.
+
+Size of curtain, about five feet by three.
+
+
+PLATE VIII.--_A portion of a large XVIIth century Linen Hanging
+embroidered with coloured wools._--In both design and execution this
+curtain is remarkably fine. The entire hanging is about eighteen feet in
+width by seven in height. It is embroidered with a conventional
+representation of a forest; in the branches of the trees lodge all kinds
+of birds and beasts. The type of design shown in this plate and in the
+last is derived from Eastern work; its introduction into England was due
+to the increase of trade with oriental nations, which developed about
+this time.
+
+Size of detail, about six feet by four.
+
+
+PLATE IX.--_Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth century English
+Sampler._--The letters and surrounding decoration shown in this example
+of cut or open work are built up on a square network of warp and weft
+threads that were left at regular intervals throughout the space, when
+the unnecessary threads were withdrawn, and then covered with a kind of
+darning stitch. The letters are worked in buttonhole stitch, each fresh
+line being taken into the heading of the last one. The other parts of
+the work are carried out in either buttonhole or overcast stitch. The
+complete sampler is a long narrow strip of linen, across which run
+specimen bands of various kinds of work. It is exhibited in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum.
+
+Width of cutwork detail, six inches.
+
+
+PLATE X.--_An Embroidered Sampler._--The work is carried out in coloured
+silks in minute cross-stitch and occasional rows of satin stitch, upon a
+ground of fine single-thread canvas. It is dated 1798, and was worked by
+Alice Knight, the author's great-grandmother. The birds, trees, and
+flowers, the charming little border patterns, and the comical cats
+standing on either hillocks or housetops, are all characteristic of
+sampler work. Working the sampler was once the regular introduction to
+mending, marking, and embroidery, and one was done by almost every
+XVIIIth century child as a part of education, indeed the practice of
+working samplers was continued some decades into the XIXth century.
+
+Actual size of original, eighteen inches by twelve.
+
+
+PLATE XI.--_An Example of Persian Embroidery._--Formerly in the
+collection of Lord Leighton, and now in that of the London County
+Council's Central School of Arts and Crafts. The embroidery is carried
+out almost entirely in chain stitch with brilliantly coloured silks,
+upon a fine semi-transparent ground. The flowers that appear dark in the
+reproduction are worked in a bright rosy red, others are yellow and
+orange, and the leaves are in pale grey green outlined with a dark
+myrtle shade of the same.
+
+Size of panel, about five feet by four.
+
+
+PLATE XII.--_A Detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth._--The entire
+surface of this fine white linen cloth is strewn with a profusion of
+beautiful flowers, worked in floss silk in bright colours. The flowers
+were all drawn directly from nature by the worker, Mrs. W. R. Lethaby.
+
+
+PLATE XIII.--_An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by Miss May Morris,
+designed by Mr. Philip Webb._--The work is carried out with floss silk
+in bright colours and gold thread, both background and pattern being
+embroidered. The five crosses, that are placed at regular intervals
+between the vine leaves, are couched in gold passing upon a silvery silk
+ground.
+
+
+PLATE XIV.--_Two Pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from Tombs in
+Egypt._--These are exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The
+upper example is about five inches square, dated IIIrd to VIIth century,
+Egypto-Roman work, and is said to have decorated a child's tunic. It is
+woven in coloured silks upon a green ground; the colours are still
+wonderfully fresh and bright. Weavers may see various interesting
+technical as well as other points in this early work. For instance, how
+the difficulty of the narrow detached vertical lines, necessitated by
+change of colour in the weft, has been overcome by using surface
+stitching instead, the easier horizontal lines being woven in the usual
+way. A good deal of this surface stitching can be seen in the ancient
+weaving; sometimes an entire pattern is picked out by this method, the
+ground having been first woven all over in some plain colour.
+
+The lower border pattern is a band of weaving about two inches in width,
+Saracenic work. It is woven in coloured silks and linen thread upon the
+actual warp threads of the garment that it decorates. The weft threads
+were probably omitted for the space of one and a half inches when the
+fabric was being made in order that some ornamentation might be put in,
+in this way. Some of the weft threads have perished, leaving the warp
+exposed to sight; this enables the student to understand better the
+manner in which it was carried out.
+
+
+PLATE XV.--_An Example of a Tapestry Field strewn with Flowers._--This
+kind of decoration is characteristic of many tapestry grounds, for the
+style is particularly suited to the method of work, and very happy in
+result. The detail shown in this plate is taken from a piece of late
+XVIth century Flemish work; it carries on, however, a much earlier
+tradition. The ground is of a dark blue colour, and the flowers varied
+as in nature.
+
+
+PLATE XVI.--_A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and gold thread by
+the Author._--The ground is woven with black silk, decorated with gold
+at the top and base. The centre panel is carried out in brightly
+coloured silks and gold thread. The various compartments are filled with
+representations of flowers, birds, and fishes, upon an alternating
+purple and blue background. The dividing lines are of gold thread.
+
+Size of bag, ten inches by six.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
+
+[Illustration: Plate I.--A detail from a XIVth Century English Cope.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate II.--Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope
+preserved at Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate III.--A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet,
+probably of Sicilian work. Date about 1400.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IV.--A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered
+in coloured silk threads upon a white linen ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate V.--A portion of a late XVth Century Orphrey,
+embroidered with the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VI.--A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth
+Century Embroidered Picture, representing the story of Daphne.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VII.--An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth Century
+Wool-work Curtain.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VIII.--A portion of a large XVIIth Century Linen
+Hanging, embroidered with coloured wools.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IX.--Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth Century
+English Sampler.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate X.--An Embroidered Sampler.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XI.--An example of Persian Embroidery.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XII.--A detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth.
+Designed and executed by Mrs. W. R. Lethaby.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XIII.--An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by
+Miss May Morris, designed by Mr. Philip Webb.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XIV.--Two pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from
+Tombs in Egypt.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XV.--An example of a Tapestry Field strewn with
+Flowers.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XVI.--A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and
+gold thread by the Author.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Altar-cloth band (Plate IV.)
+
+Altar frontal (Plate XIII.)
+
+Appliances, 34
+
+Appliances and materials for tapestry weaving, 315
+
+Applied embroidery, 174
+
+Applied work, 172
+
+
+Background, the, 46
+
+Bag, tapestry (Plate XVI.)
+
+Beads, 50
+
+Bobbins, 321
+
+Braid work, 166
+
+_Broderie anglaise_, 222
+
+Bullions, 235, 256
+
+
+Canvas work, 147
+
+Coat-stave, 333
+
+Collotypes, descriptive notes on, 356
+
+Colour, 72
+
+Comb, 322, 344
+
+Cope at Steeple Aston (Plate II.), 357
+
+Cope, detail from XIVth century English (Plate I.), 356
+
+Cord, 40, 271
+
+Cord-making appliance, 39, 273
+
+Cotton, 49
+
+Couching, 164
+
+Couching gold, ancient method of, 238
+
+Couching gold, usual method, 250
+
+Coverlet, quilted Sicilian (Plate III.), 358
+
+Crewel work, 103
+
+Curtain, XVIIth century (Plate VIII.), 361
+
+Curtain, XVIIth century wool-work (Plate VII.), 361
+
+Cutwork, 213, 221
+
+
+Darned netting, 210
+
+Darning, 196
+
+Darning, pattern, 197
+
+Design, 30, 51
+
+Design for tapestry, 311
+
+Designing, pattern, 51
+
+Directions, practical, 292
+
+Drawn thread work, 213
+
+Dressing the coat-stave, 333
+
+
+Egyptian weaving (Plate XIV.), 364
+
+Emblems, 270
+
+Embroidery frame used as a loom, 323
+
+Embroidery, washing, 297
+
+Embroidery with gold and silver threads, 229
+
+
+Figure work, 69
+
+Fine drawing, 346
+
+Flax threads, 49
+
+Foliage, detail of (Plate VI.), 360
+
+Frames, embroidery, 35
+
+Frame work, 301
+
+Fringes, 280
+
+
+Garniture of work, the, 271
+
+Gold and silver threads, embroidery with, 229
+
+Gold thread embroidery, 229
+
+
+Heraldry, 268
+
+
+Inlaid work, 180
+
+Interlocking stitch, 347
+
+
+Knife, 43
+
+Knots, 118, 286
+
+Knotted cord, 277
+
+Knotted thread, 119
+
+
+Laid work, 168
+
+Lettering, 259
+
+Lettering, cutwork, XVIIth century (Plate IX.), 362
+
+Linen, 47
+
+Loom, 315
+
+
+Madeira work, 222
+
+Marking, 262
+
+Materials, 44
+
+Materials and appliances for tapestry weaving, 315
+
+Materials for gold work, 233
+
+Methods of work, 164
+
+Monograms, 259
+
+
+Needles, 35, 322
+
+
+Objects to work, 31, 314
+
+Open-work fillings, 201
+
+_Opus plumarium_, 101
+
+Orphrey, XVth century (Plate V.), 359
+
+
+Past work, study of, 28, 53
+
+Paste, embroidery, 295
+
+Patch work, 183
+
+Pattern darning, 197
+
+Pattern designing, 51
+
+Pattern tracing, 328
+
+Patterns, transference of, 42, 292
+
+Persian embroidery (Plate XI.), 363
+
+_Petit point_ pictures, 149
+
+Picots, 143
+
+Piercer, 43
+
+Practical directions, 292
+
+Precious stones, 50
+
+Pricker, 42
+
+Puckered work, cure of, 298
+
+Purls, 256
+
+
+Quilting, 189
+
+
+Raised gold work, 253
+
+Raised work, 192
+
+
+Sampler, embroidered (Plate X.), 362
+
+Samplers, 148
+
+Satin, 48
+
+Scissors, 35
+
+Shading, 68, 348
+
+Silk, 48, 327
+
+Silk threads, 49
+
+Silver and gold threads, embroidery with, 229
+
+Spindle, 43
+
+Stands, embroidery frame, 37
+
+Stitches, 75
+
+Stitch, back, 107
+
+Stitch, basket, 131
+
+Stitch, braid, 88
+
+Stitch, bullion, 121
+
+Stitch, buttonhole, 107
+
+Stitch, cable chain, 90
+
+Stitch, chain, 77
+
+Stitch, chequered chain, 84
+
+Stitch, Cretan, 134
+
+Stitch, cross, 152
+
+Stitch, double back stitch, 127
+
+Stitch, feather stitch, 129
+
+Stitch, fishbone, 131
+
+Stitch, French knot, 120
+
+Stitch, Gobelin, 154
+
+Stitch, herring-bone, 126
+
+Stitch, Holbein, 159
+
+Stitch, insertion, various, 139
+
+Stitch, interlocking, 347
+
+Stitch, Irish, 155
+
+Stitch, knot, 124
+
+Stitch, knotted chain, 92
+
+Stitch, long and short, 99
+
+Stitch, open chain, 86
+
+Stitch, overcast, 106
+
+Stitch, plait, 156
+
+Stitch, rococo, 162
+
+Stitch, rope, 86
+
+Stitch, Roumanian, 136
+
+Stitch, satin, 95
+
+Stitch, split, 94
+
+Stitch, stem, 101
+
+Stitch, stroke, 159
+
+Stitch, tailor's buttonhole, 109
+
+Stitch, tambour, 77
+
+Stitch, tent, 153
+
+Stitch, twisted chain, 85
+
+Stitch, two-sided Italian, 156
+
+Stitch, zigzag chain, 83
+
+
+Tablecloth, embroidered (Plate XII.), 364
+
+Tambour frame, 39
+
+Tapestry bag (Plate XVI.), 365
+
+Tapestry, example (Plate XV.), 366
+
+Tapestry weaving, introduction to, 307
+
+Tassels, 283
+
+Tarnish of gold and silver threads, 237
+
+Thimbles, 35
+
+Threads, 49, 299, 327
+
+Threads, gold and silver, 229
+
+Tools, 34
+
+Tools for tapestry weaving, 315
+
+Tracing patterns, 42, 328
+
+Tracing patterns on warp, 336
+
+Transferring patterns, methods of, 292
+
+Transferring patterns, requisites for, 42
+
+
+Velvet, 48
+
+
+Warp, 326
+
+Warping the loom, 328
+
+Washing embroidery, 297
+
+Weaving, 339
+
+Weaving, Egyptian (Plate XIV.), 364
+
+Weaving, tapestry, 305
+
+Work, garniture of, 271
+
+Work, methods of, 164
+
+Work, preparations for, 328
+
+Work, protection and preservation of, 292
+
+Wools, 49, 327
+
+
+Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.
+Edinburgh & London
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+EMBROIDERY MATERIALS
+
+GEORGE KENNING & SON, GOLDSMITHS, GOLD LACEMEN, AND EMBROIDERERS, are
+the actual manufacturers of all materials that are best for Embroidery
+of any and every description.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The following are a few articles from the great variety they
+manufacture: Threads, Tambours, Braids, Laces, and Cords in Gold,
+Silver, Tinsel, and Aluminium; also Spangles, Sequins, Ornaments, and
+Beads of every possible variety.
+
+Please insist on your Draper or Fancy Warehouseman supplying only
+materials manufactured by GEORGE KENNING & SON.
+
+MANUFACTORY: 1/4 LITTLE BRITAIN, E.C.
+
+_And at Liverpool, Glasgow, and Manchester._
+
+RIBBON WEAVING FACTORY, COVENTRY
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+J. MAYGROVE & CO. LTD.
+
+_MILLS_--          _WAREHOUSE_--
+ST. ALBANS.       51 ALDERSGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C.
+
+_Manufacturers of Silks for Weaving and Embroidery._
+
+_For REALLY RELIABLE BOILING and UNFADING DYES._
+
+MAYGROVE'S DUCHESSE FLOSS.
+
+    MAYGROVE'S TWISTED EMBROIDERY.
+
+        MAYGROVE'S FILOSELLE, &c.
+
+UNEQUALLED FOR LUSTRE, PERMANENCE, AND ARTISTIC GRADUATIONS OF COLOUR.
+
+READY FOR USE.
+
+
+FOR WEAVING.
+
+CHINA TRAM                 1000 Shades.
+TUSSAH TRAM AND ORGANZINE   500 Shades.
+ORIENTAL FLOCHE             500 Shades.
+WORSTED YARNS--COTTON YARNS.
+
+
+_STOCKED READY FOR DYEING._
+
+Organzines, Sewings, Flosses, Twists, and SPUN SILKS.
+WORSTED Cords, Genappes, Mohairs, &c. &c.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PLASTER CASTS
+
+LETTERING FOR LETTER CUTTERS BY A. E. R. GILL
+
+Plaster Casts of the Stones shown on the Collotype Plates, numbers 13,
+14, and 15, in the Portfolio, "Manuscript and Inscription Letters," by
+Edward Johnston, price 3s. 6d. net, are obtainable from the Publisher,
+or direct from Messrs. C. SMITH & SONS, Moulders, 15 Kentish Town Road,
+London, N.W., at the following prices:--
+
+_Roman Capital Letters (Incised)._        }
+_"Lower-case" Italics, &c. (Incised)._    }  12s. _net per set of three._
+_"Raised" Letters, Capitals, &c._         }
+
+PACKED--DELIVERED FREE IN LONDON--CARRIAGE FORWARD FOR COUNTRY
+
+These Casts being facsimiles of the actual stones make the best kind of
+models for Letter Cutters and Sculptors, and all who have to do with
+Inscriptions. Being small, they are easily handled.
+
+The Portfolio, "Manuscript and Inscription Letters," by Edward Johnston,
+is intended as a working supplement to his handbook, "Writing and
+Illuminating, and Lettering," price 6s. 6d. net. It contains 16 plates
+in all, measuring 9-7/8 × 12-3/8 inches, with full descriptions and
+notes.
+
+JOHN HOGG, _Publisher_, 13 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, E.C.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ROBERT S. RONALD
+
+Decorator and Upholsterer
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Loom Maker to the Royal School of Art, South Kensington
+
+Table or Pedestal Looms to Order
+
+Prices on Application
+
+Office and Works--
+ST. ANN'S HILL, WANDSWORTH,
+LONDON, S.W.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
+
+
+BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. Third Edition.
+122 Drawings by NOEL ROOKE. 8 Pages Collotype Reproductions. 352 pp. 5s.
+net.
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Times_.
+
+  "... A capital proof of the reasoned thoroughness in workmanship,
+  which is the first article in the creed of those who ... are
+  attempting to carry into practice the industrial teaching of Ruskin
+  and William Morris."
+
+
+SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY. By H. WILSON. Second Edition. 280 Diagrams by
+the Author. 32 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 500 pp. 6s. 6d. net.
+
+Containing special chapters, fully illustrated, based on demonstrations
+and with notes by Professor UNNO BISEI and Professor T. KOBAYASHI,
+of the Imperial Fine Art College at Tokyo, giving the traditional method
+of Casting, Damascening, Incrustation, Inlaying, Engraving, and
+Metal Colouring still practised in Japan, also on Niello, the Making
+of Boxes and Card Cases, with chapters on Egyptian and Oriental
+methods of work.
+
+
+WOODCARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. 79 Drawings by the
+Author. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 320 pp. 5s. net.
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Builders' Journal_.
+
+  "Undoubtedly the best guide to Woodcarving extant.... A practical
+  work, written with clearness and literary power by a practical man
+  ... of great artistic talent.... The illustrations are excellent."
+
+
+STAINED GLASS WORK. By C. W. WHALL. 73 Diagrams by Two of His
+Apprentices. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 392 pp. 5s. net.
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Scotsman_.
+
+  "It provides an exposition at once instructive and interesting of
+  the workshop practice of the craft ... of Stained Glass, animated
+  throughout by an encouraging and cheerful sense of the dignity and
+  the elevating influence of such an occupation."
+
+
+EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING. By Mrs. A. H. CHRISTIE. 178 Diagrams
+and Illustrations by the Author. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions.
+320 pp. 6s. net. (_Third Edition._)
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Pall Mall Gazette_.
+
+  "Mrs. Christie has performed her task to admiration, ... and her
+  lucid explanations of various kinds of stitches ... should be of
+  value to all workers at embroidery or tapestry weaving and to
+  novices anxious to learn."
+
+
+WRITING AND ILLUMINATING, AND LETTERING. By EDWARD JOHNSTON. 227
+Illustrations and Diagrams by the Author and NOEL ROOKE. 8 Pages of
+Examples in Red and Black. 24 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 512 pp.
+(_Fifth Edition._)
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Athenĉum_.
+
+  "... This book belongs to that extremely rare class in which every
+  line bears the impress of complete mastery of the subject. We
+  congratulate Mr. Johnston on having produced a work at once original
+  and complete."
+
+
+HAND-LOOM WEAVING. By LUTHER HOOPER. 125 Drawings by the Author and NOEL
+ROOKE. Coloured and Collotype Reproductions. 368 pp. 6s. net.
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Morning Post_.
+
+  "... Every phase and process in weaving is described with so clear
+  and careful an exactitude, that, helped as the text is by the
+  Author's sketches and diagrams, the reader should have no difficulty
+  in conquering with its aid the rudiments of the craft."
+
+
+PORTFOLIOS (in the Series) already issued.
+
+SCHOOL COPIES AND EXAMPLES. Selected by W. R. LETHABY and A. H.
+CHRISTIE. 12 Drawing Copies (1 in colours), with Descriptive
+Letterpress. 3s. 6d. net.
+
+MANUSCRIPT AND INSCRIPTION LETTERS. For Schools and Classes and the Use
+of Craftsmen. By EDWARD JOHNSTON. With 5 Plates by A. E. R. GILL, 16
+Plates in all. Full Notes and Descriptions by the Author. 3s. 6d. net.
+(_Second Edition._)
+
+
+NEW VOLUME IN THE PRESS
+
+HERALDRY FOR CRAFTSMEN AND DESIGNERS
+
+BY
+
+W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A.
+
+_Further Volumes and Portfolios in preparation._
+
+
+ON WORKMANSHIP
+
+A LECTURE BY H. WILSON
+
+AUTHOR OF "SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY"
+
+1s. 6d. net
+
+
+JOHN HOGG,
+13 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 20386-8.txt or 20386-8.zip *******
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving, by Grace
+Christie</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving</p>
+<p>Author: Grace Christie</p>
+<p>Release Date: January 16, 2007  [eBook #20386]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Susan Skinner<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net/c/)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>"Flowers, Plants and Fishes, Birds, Beasts, Flyes, and Bees,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Hils, Dales, Plaines, Pastures, Skies, Seas, Rivers, Trees,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>There's nothing neere at hand, or farthest sought,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>But with the needle may be shap'd and wrought."</i></span><br />
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">&mdash;<span class="smcap">John Taylor</span> ("The Praise of the Needle").</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p class='center'>
+SECOND EDITION REVISED<br />
+<br />
+(<i>A reprint of the First Edition, with various slight alterations<br />
+in text</i>)<br />
+<br />
+THIRD EDITION REVISED<br />
+<br />
+(<i>A reprint of the Second Edition</i>)<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h1>THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES<br />
+OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS<br />
+EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY<br />
+<br />
+EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY<br />
+WEAVING</h1>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+
+<h1>EMBROIDERY AND<br />
+TAPESTRY WEAVING</h1>
+
+<h2>A PRACTICAL TEXT-BOOK OF<br />
+DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP BY<br />
+MRS. ARCHIBALD H. CHRISTIE<br />
+WITH DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR<br />
+AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<p class='center'>PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG<br />
+13 PATERNOSTER ROW<br />
+LONDON 1912</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+<a href="images/frontis.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_frontis.jpg" width="399" height="600" alt="Frontispiece See page 249." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Frontispiece"></a><span class="caption"><i>Frontispiece See <a href="#Page_249">page 249</a>.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class='center'>
+Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson &amp; Co.</span><br />
+At the Ballantyne Press, Edinburgh<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="EDITORS_PREFACE" id="EDITORS_PREFACE"></a>EDITOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Needlework, which is still practised traditionally in every house, was
+once a splendid art, an art in which English workers were especially
+famous, so that, early in the XIIIth century, vestments embroidered in
+England were eagerly accepted in Rome, and the kind of work wrought here
+was known over Europe as "English Work." Embroideries <i>fa&ccedil;on
+d'Angleterre</i> often occupy the first place in foreign inventories.</p>
+
+<p>At Durham are preserved some beautiful fragments of embroidery worked in
+the Xth century, and many examples, belonging to the great period of the
+XIIIth and XIVth centuries, are preserved at the South Kensington
+Museum, which is particularly rich in specimens of this art. In order to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>judge of what were then its possibilities it is worth while to go and
+see there three notable copes, the blue cope, the Sion cope, and the
+rose-colour Jesse-tree cope, the last two of which are certainly
+English, and the former probably so. The Sion cope bears a remnant of an
+inscription which has unfortunately been cut down and otherwise injured,
+so that all that I have been able to read is as follows: <span style="font-size: small;">DAVN&nbsp;PERS&nbsp;:&nbsp;DE&nbsp;:&nbsp;V&nbsp;...</span>; probably the name of the donor.</p>
+
+<p>In the XIIIth century the craft of embroidery was practised both by men
+and women.</p>
+
+<p>That great art patron, Henry the Third, chiefly employed for his
+embroideries, says Mr. Hudson Turner, "a certain Mabel of Bury St.
+Edmund's, whose skill as an embroideress seems to have been remarkable,
+and many interesting records of her curious performances might be
+collected." And I have found a record of an embroidered chasuble made
+for the king by "Mabilia" of St. Edmund's in 1242. The most splendid
+piece of embroidery produced for this king must have been the altar
+frontal of Westminster Abbey, completed about 1269.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span> It was silk,
+garnished with pearls, jewels, and translucent enamels. Four
+embroideresses worked on it for three years and three-quarters, and it
+seems to have cost a sum equal to about &pound;3000 of our money.</p>
+
+<p>"The London Broderers" did not receive a formal charter of incorporation
+until 1561, but they must have been a properly organised craft centuries
+before. In 2 Henry IV. it was reported to Parliament that divers persons
+of the "Craft of Brauderie" made unfit work of inferior materials,
+evading the search of "the Wardens of Brauderie" in the said City of
+London.</p>
+
+<p>In Paris, in the year 1295, there were ninety-three embroiderers and
+embroideresses registered as belonging to the trade. The term of
+apprenticeship to the craft was for eight years, and no employer might
+take more than one apprentice at a time. In the XVIth century the Guild
+was at the height of its power, and embroideries were so much in demand
+that the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was established to furnish
+flower-subjects for embroidery design. It was founded by the gardener,
+Jean Robin, and by Pierre Vallet, "brodeur" to Henry IV. In the XVIIIth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>
+century the company numbered 250 past-masters.</p>
+
+<p>To this craft the present volume forms, I believe, an admirable
+introduction and text-book, not only on the side of workmanship, but
+also on that difficult subject, "design"&mdash;difficult, that is, from its
+having been so much discussed in books, yet entirely simple when
+approached, as here, as a necessary part of workmanship. It is fortunate
+that we have not as yet learned to bother our cooks as to which part of
+their work is designing and which is merely mechanical. Of course the
+highest things of design, as well as of workmanship, come only after
+long practice and to the specially gifted, but none the less every human
+creature must in some sort be a designer, and it has caused immense harm
+to raise a cloud of what Morris called "sham technical twaddle" between
+the worker and what should be the spontaneous inspiration of his work.
+What such combination has produced in past times, may perhaps best be
+understood by some reading in old church inventories of the simply
+infinite store of magnificent embroidered vestments which once adorned
+our churches. In an in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span>ventory of Westminster Abbey I find mentioned
+such patterns as roses and birds, fleur-de-luces and lybardes, angels on
+branches of gold, roses and ships, eagles and angels of gold, castles
+and lions, white harts, swans, dogs, and antelopes.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right;">
+W. R. LETHABY.</p>
+<p><i>September 1906.</i></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="AUTHORS_PREFACE" id="AUTHORS_PREFACE"></a>AUTHOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the following pages the practical sides of Embroidery and Tapestry
+Weaving are discussed, their historical development being only
+incidentally touched upon.</p>
+
+<p>The drawings illustrating design and the practical application of
+stitches have been taken almost without exception from actual Embroidery
+or Tapestry; the exceptions, where it has been impossible to consult
+originals, from photographic representations obtained from various
+sources, among which the collection of M. Louis de Farcy should be
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>I have to thank Miss May Morris and Mrs. W. R. Lethaby for permission to
+reproduce pieces of their work, and Miss Killick, Colonel J. E.
+Butler-Bowdon,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span> the Viscount Falkland, and the Reverend F. J. Brown of
+Steeple Aston for permission to reproduce work in their possession. Also
+I must thank the authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum for help
+in various ways, and Mr. J. H. Taylor, M.A. Oxf. and Cam., for his
+kindness in reading the proofs.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:right;">
+GRACE CHRISTIE.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Ewell,</i></span><br />
+<i>September 1906.</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<ul class="TOC"><li>     <span class="tocright">PAGE</span></li>
+<li><a href="#EDITORS_PREFACE">Editor's Preface</a>  <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_xi">xi</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#AUTHORS_PREFACE">Author's Preface</a>  <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#PART_I_EMBROIDERY">PART I</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>EMBROIDERY</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></li>
+
+<li>Introduction                                                 <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>TOOLS, APPLIANCES, AND MATERIALS</li>
+
+<li>Needles&mdash;Scissors&mdash;Thimbles&mdash;Frames&mdash;Stand and Frame combined&mdash;Tambour
+Frame&mdash;Cord-making Appliance&mdash;Requisites for Transferring
+Patterns&mdash;Pricker&mdash;Knife&mdash;Spindle&mdash;Piercer&mdash;Materials suitable for
+Embroidering upon&mdash;Threads of all Kinds&mdash;Stones, Beads, &amp;c.           <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>PATTERN DESIGNING</li>
+
+<li>The Difficulties of Pattern Making&mdash;A Stock-in-Trade&mdash;Some Principles
+upon which Patterns are Built Up&mdash;Spacing-Out&mdash;Nature and
+Convention&mdash;Shading&mdash;Figure Work&mdash;Limitations&mdash;Colour                 <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>STITCHES</li>
+
+<li>Introduction&mdash;Chain Stitch&mdash;Zigzag Chain&mdash;Chequered Chain&mdash;Twisted
+Chain&mdash;Open Chain&mdash;Braid Stitch&mdash;Cable Chain&mdash;Knotted Chain&mdash;Split
+Stitch                                                                <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>STITCHES&mdash;(<i>continued</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Satin Stitch&mdash;Long and Short Stitch&mdash;Stem Stitch&mdash;Overcast Stitch&mdash;Back
+Stitch&mdash;Buttonhole Stitch&mdash;Tailor's Buttonhole&mdash;Fancy Buttonhole
+Edgings&mdash;Flower in Open Buttonhole Stitch&mdash;Leaf in Close Buttonhole
+Stitches&mdash;Petal in Solid Buttonholing                                 <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>STITCHES&mdash;(<i>continued</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Knots and Knot Stitches&mdash;Herring-bone Stitch&mdash;Feather Stitch&mdash;Basket
+Stitch&mdash;Fishbone Stitch&mdash;Cretan Stitch&mdash;Roumanian Stitch&mdash;Various
+Insertion Stitches&mdash;Picots                                           <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>CANVAS WORK AND STITCHES</li>
+
+<li>Introduction&mdash;Samplers&mdash;Petit Point Pictures&mdash;Cross Stitch&mdash;Tent
+Stitch&mdash;Gobelin Stitch&mdash;Irish Stitch&mdash;Plait Stitch&mdash;Two-sided Italian
+Stitch&mdash;Holbein Stitch&mdash;Rococo Stitch                                <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>METHODS OF WORK</li>
+
+<li>Couching&mdash;Braid Work&mdash;Laid Work&mdash;Applied Work&mdash;Inlaid Work&mdash;Patch Work
+                                                                     <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>METHODS OF WORK&mdash;(<i>continued</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Quilting&mdash;Raised Work&mdash;Darning&mdash;Open Fillings&mdash;Darned Netting        <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>Methods of work&mdash;(<i>continued</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Drawn Thread Work&mdash;Hem Stitching&mdash;Simple Border Patterns&mdash;Darned Thread
+Patterns&mdash;Corners&mdash;Cut or Open Work&mdash;Various Methods of Refilling the
+Open Spaces                                                          <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>EMBROIDERY WITH GOLD AND SILVER THREADS</li>
+
+<li>Introduction&mdash;Materials&mdash;Precautions for the Prevention of
+Tarnish&mdash;Ancient Method of Couching&mdash;Its various Good
+Points&mdash;Description of Working Diagram&mdash;Working a Raised Bar&mdash;Examples
+of Patterns Employed in Old Work&mdash;Illustrations upon Draped
+Figures&mdash;Usual Method of Couching&mdash;Couching Patterns&mdash;Outline
+Work&mdash;Raised Work&mdash;The Use of Purls, Bullions, &amp;c.                   <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>LETTERING, HERALDRY, AND EMBLEMS</li>
+
+<li>The Uses of Lettering&mdash;Marking&mdash;Monograms&mdash;Heraldry&mdash;Emblems         <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>THE GARNITURE OF WORK</li>
+
+<li>Finishing off&mdash;Making up&mdash;Edges&mdash;Use of Cord-making Appliance&mdash;Cord
+Twisted by Hand&mdash;Knotted Cord&mdash;Fringes&mdash;Tassels&mdash;Knots               <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS</li>
+
+<li>Transferring Patterns&mdash;Paste for Embroidery Purposes&mdash;Protection and
+Preservation of Work&mdash;Washing Embroidery&mdash;Prevention and Cure of
+Puckered Work&mdash;Points about the Thread&mdash;Dressing the Frame           <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#PART_II">PART II</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>TAPESTRY WEAVING</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></li>
+
+<li>Introduction                                                <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>NECESSARY APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS</li>
+
+<li>The Loom&mdash;Mirror&mdash;Bobbins and Needles&mdash;The Comb&mdash;Embroidery Frame
+treated as a Loom&mdash;Warp&mdash;Wools&mdash;Silk&mdash;Gold and Silver Thread         <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>PREPARATIONS FOR WORK</li>
+
+<li>Warping the Loom&mdash;Dressing the Coat-Stave&mdash;Tracing the Pattern upon the
+Threads                                                              <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li class='center' style='font-size: large;'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></li>
+
+<li class='center'>THE TECHNIQUE OF WEAVING</li>
+
+<li>Weaving&mdash;Commencing and Fastening Off&mdash;The Interlocking Stitch&mdash;Fine
+Drawing&mdash;Shading&mdash;Added After-stitches                               <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><a href="#NOTES_ON_THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES">Notes on the Collotype Plates</a>                               <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></span></li>
+
+<li><a href="#THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES">The Collotype Plates</a>                                        <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></span></li>
+
+<li><a href="#INDEX">Index</a>                                                 <span class="tocright"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></span></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[Pg xxvi]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PART_I_EMBROIDERY" id="PART_I_EMBROIDERY"></a>PART I&mdash;EMBROIDERY</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">INTRODUCTION</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In the practice of embroidery the needlewoman has an advantage not now
+shared by workers in any other craft, in that the technical processes
+are almost a matter of inherited skill. Every woman can sew, and it is
+with little more than the needle and thread, which she habitually
+employs, that the greatest masterpieces of the art have been stitched.
+The art of embroidery, however, is not merely an affair of stitches;
+they are but the means by which ideas can be expressed in intelligible
+form, and memories of all kinds of things be pictured on stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>To laboriously train the hand is scarcely worth while unless it is
+capable of ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>pressing something that is at least pretty. Nowadays much
+embroidery is done with the evident intent of putting into it the
+minimum expenditure of both thought and labour, and such work furnishes
+but a poor ideal to fire the enthusiasm of the novice; happily, there
+still exist many fine examples showing what splendid results may be
+achieved; without some knowledge of this work we cannot obtain a just
+idea of the possibilities of the art.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that much advantage can be gained from studying the
+accumulated experience of the past in addition to that current in our
+own day. To do this intelligently, the history of embroidery must be
+followed in order that the periods richest in the various kinds of work
+may be ascertained. Museums afford useful hunting-grounds for the study
+of past work; other sources are private collections, churches, costume
+in pictures or on engraved brasses, and manuscript inventories such as
+those of cathedral treasuries, which sometimes contain interesting
+detailed descriptions of their embroidered vestments and hangings.</p>
+
+<p>Blind copying of old work is not of much value; it is not possible or
+desirable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> to imitate XIIIth century work now, but much can be learned
+by examining fine examples in an appreciative and analytical spirit. In
+what way the design has been built up can be discovered; the most
+complicated result may often be resolved into quite elementary lines.
+The student must find out wherein lie the attraction and interest, note
+good schemes of colour, and learn about stitches and methods of work by
+close examination of the embroidery, both front and back.</p>
+
+<p>Every one knows what embroidery is, and a formal definition seems
+unnecessary. As a matter of fact, it would be a difficult task to give
+one, since weaving, lace-making, and embroidery are but subtle
+variations of the same art.</p>
+
+<p>This art may be of the highest or the most homely character, and the
+latter is by no means to be despised. Simple unaffected work decorating
+the things of every-day use can give a great deal of pleasure in its
+way. This should surely be the accomplishment of every woman, for though
+she may not have the skill to attain to the highest branches, it would
+at least enable her to decorate her home with such things as the
+counterpanes, curtains, and other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> objects that set such a personal
+stamp upon the English domestic work of several centuries, and which
+nowadays can hardly be found except stored up in museums.</p>
+
+<p>It is advisable as a general rule that the design be both made and
+carried out by the same person. From the worker's own point of view the
+interest must be much greater when working out her own ideas than when
+merely acting as amanuensis to another. The idea is more likely to be
+expressed with spirit; further there is the possibility of adding to or
+altering, and thereby improving, the work as it progresses. The designer
+must in any case be well acquainted with stitches and materials, for
+they play an important part in achieving good results. The individuality
+of the worker should be evident in her work; indeed it generally is, for
+even plain hems by two people bear quite different characters; the
+degree of individuality present, varies with each one, but in any case
+it will be much more marked if the design and stitching bear the stamp
+of the same personality.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between good and unsatisfactory results should be
+carefully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> thought out, for it is often but a small matter. The best
+kind of work is that which appeals to the intelligence as well as to the
+eye, which is another way of saying there should be evidence of mind
+upon the material. Work must be interesting in some way if it is to be
+attractive; it had better almost be faulty and interesting than dull,
+dry, and correct. It can interest by reminding us of pleasant things,
+such as familiar flowers, shady woods, or green lawns; birds, beasts,
+and so forth can be depicted in their characteristic attitudes, or a
+story can be told; in fact, work can be made attractive in a hundred
+different ways. It must not show signs of having wearied the worker in
+the doing; variety and evidence of thought lavishly expended upon it
+will prevent this, and enthusiasm will quicken it with life.</p>
+
+<p>The selection of the object to work comes at an early stage, and is a
+matter to be well considered, for it is a pity to spend time and labour
+upon unsuitable objects when there are many excellent ones to choose
+from. In thinking over what to work it should be realised that it takes
+no longer to execute one rather important piece than several of a less
+ambitious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> character, and that the former is generally more worth the
+doing. Whether the subject is a suitable one for embroidery or not
+sometimes depends upon the method chosen for carrying it out; for
+instance, anything that has to endure hard wear must be treated in such
+a way as to stand it well.</p>
+
+<p>Dress is a fine subject for embroidery; but, for the decoration to be
+satisfactory, the art of designing dress must be understood, and the
+dress must also be well cut, or the embroidery will be quite wasted upon
+it. What is termed "art dress," proverbially bad, well deserves its
+reputation. There is a great difference in the quantity of work that may
+be put into dress decoration; this may be simply an embroidered vest,
+collar, and cuffs, or it may be actually an integral part of the
+costume, which as a much bigger and more difficult undertaking is
+correspondingly finer in effect when successfully carried out.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst larger objects that well repay the labour of embroidery,
+hangings of various kinds, quilts, screens, furniture coverings, altar
+frontals, church vestments, may be mentioned; amongst smaller, are bags,
+boxes, book-covers, gloves or mittens,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> bell-pulls, cushions, mirror
+frames, all kinds of household linen, infants' robes, and so on, and for
+church use such things as alms-bags, book-markers, stoles, pulpit and
+lectern frontals. Then a panel may be worked with the deliberate
+intention of framing it to hang on a wall. There is no reason why the
+painter should have the monopoly of all the available wall space, for
+decorative work is undoubtedly in place there; a piece of embroidered
+work might well fill a panel over a mantel-piece. There is no need to
+discuss what not to do, but, if the attraction to embroider a tea-cosy
+is too strong to resist, it should surely be of washable materials.</p>
+
+<p>Embroidery has distinct practical advantages over some other crafts
+practised nowadays&mdash;no special studio need be devoted to its use, for
+most work can be done in any well-lighted room, which indeed will be
+rendered more attractive by the presence of an embroidery frame, for
+this is in itself a characteristic and dainty piece of furniture. It
+need but seldom interfere with one of our pleasant traditions, genial
+converse with, and about, our neighbours, for it is a distinctly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+sociable occupation. Work of this kind can be put down and taken up at
+leisure; the necessary outlay in materials need not be extravagant, and
+so on. Many other points might be thought of, but the claims of the art
+do not demand any special pleading, for it is pleasant in the actual
+working, and can produce an infinite variety of most interesting
+results.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">TOOLS, APPLIANCES, AND MATERIALS</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Needles&mdash;Scissors&mdash;Thimbles&mdash;Frames&mdash;Stand and Frame
+combined&mdash;Tambour Frame&mdash;Cord-making Appliance&mdash;Requisites for
+Transferring Patterns&mdash;Pricker&mdash;Knife&mdash;Spindle&mdash;Piercer&mdash;Suitable
+Materials for Embroidering upon&mdash;Threads of all Kinds&mdash;Stones,
+Beads, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Good workmanship takes a prominent, though not the first, place.
+Technical excellence in needlework, as in all other artistic crafts, is
+a question of the worker's perseverance and her ability in the use of
+tools. In embroidery these are few and simple, and are as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Needles.</i>&mdash;For most purposes needles known as long-eyed sharps are
+used. Tapestry needles, similar to these, but with blunt points, are
+useful for canvas work and darned netting. For gold work a special
+needle can be procured with sharp point and long wide eye. A bent needle
+makes a crooked stitch; but needles if made of good steel should not
+bend; they break if used unfairly. The eye should be cleanly cut, or it
+roughens the thread. The needle must be just stout enough to prepare for
+the thread an easy passage through the material.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scissors.</i>&mdash;Three pairs may be necessary; for ordinary work a small
+pair with fine sharp points, for gold work small ones with strong points
+similar to nail scissors, and for cutting-out purposes a large pair with
+one rounded and one sharp point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thimbles.</i>&mdash;Steel ones are said to be most serviceable, silver are most
+usual; but whatever the material they must be neatly made in order not
+to wear the thread.</p>
+
+<p><i>Frames.</i>&mdash;A common type of frame is shown at <a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>. It is made in
+various sizes; the one here represented measures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> 18 inches across. It
+consists of four pieces of wood, two rollers for the top and base and
+two side pieces. Each of the rollers has a piece of webbing securely
+nailed along it, and its extremities are pierced with holes to receive
+the side pieces. These are formed of two long wooden screws, fitted with
+movable nuts, which adjust the width of the frame and the tautness of
+the stretched work. The piece of material that is stretched between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> is
+the link that keeps the frame together, for the screw ends fit just
+loosely in the holes of the rollers. The side pieces are sometimes made
+of flat laths of wood pierced with holes at regular intervals; in these
+are inserted metal pins, by means of which the work is kept stretched.
+<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a> represents a frame of this type. If the frame is a very large one
+it can have a strengthening bar fixed across the centre from roller to
+roller.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 732px;">
+<img src="images/fig_1.jpg" width="732" height="600" alt="Fig. 1." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_1"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 1.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The frame is most convenient for work when fixed in a stand, although it
+can be used leaning against a table or the back of a chair. A very large
+frame would be supported upon trestles, but for ordinary purposes, a
+stand, such as the one shown in <a href="#Fig_2">fig. 2</a>, is practical. It consists of two
+upright wooden posts, a little over 2 feet in height, which are
+connected near the base by a strengthening cross piece. Both this and
+the uprights are adjustable; the centre part of the posts is arranged to
+slide up and down, and can be fixed at any convenient height by the
+insertion of a long metal pin; the width of the cross piece is regulated
+in similar fashion, being made firm, by a screw, at the required width,
+thus allowing various sized frames to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> used in the same stand. The
+frame is fixed in place by metal clamps, and a wooden pivot is arranged
+so as to permit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> the stretched work to be inclined at any angle
+convenient. Both stand and frame should be well made and of good wood,
+for they must be able to stand strain and be perfectly firm and true
+when fixed for work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 476px;">
+<img src="images/fig_2.jpg" width="476" height="600" alt="Fig. 2." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_2"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 2.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A small circular frame, such as is shown in <a href="#Fig_3">fig. 3</a>, is useful for
+marking linen or for any small work. This, formed of two hoops fitting
+closely one within the other, can be procured in wood, ivory, or bone,
+of various sizes, the one illustrated being about 6 inches in diameter.
+The material to be worked upon is stretched between these hoops like the
+parchment on a drum. These tambour frames, as they are called, are
+sometimes fixed into a small stand or fitted with a wooden clamp for
+fastening to a table; this frees both hands for work. These tambours
+cannot well be recommended; the material is apt to stretch unevenly, and
+a worked part, if flattened between the hoops, is liable to be damaged.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;">
+<img src="images/fig_3.jpg" width="231" height="150" alt="Fig. 3." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_3"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 3.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The illustration at <a href="#Fig_4">fig. 4</a> shows a simple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> little instrument for making
+a twisted cord. It is interesting to note that Etienne Binet, who wrote
+on embroidery about 1620, when discussing some necessary equipment for
+an embroideress mentions "<i>un rouet pour faire les cordons</i>."</p>
+
+<p>There is sometimes a difficulty in procuring the cord just right to suit
+the finished work; the texture may be too coarse to put beside fine
+embroidery, it may not be a good match, and, even if so at first, it may
+fade quite differently from the worked silks. For these and other
+reasons it is a safe method to make the cord one's self, possibly with
+some materials of the kind already used in the embroidery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;">
+<img src="images/fig_4.jpg" width="330" height="600" alt="Fig. 4." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_4"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 4.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This appliance enables the worker to make any kind of twisted cord; it
+is as simple as a toy to handle, and gives excellent results. It is a
+metal instrument about 8 inches in height. The three small discs are
+wheels, supported on the arms of an upright cross which has a heavy
+circular base. These three wheels are connected by a cord with a larger
+wheel below that has a handle attached to it. The cord runs in a groove
+round the circumference of each wheel,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> and must be held taut in
+position. By turning the handle of the large wheel the three small ones
+are set in motion. Three hooks, attached to the axles of the small
+wheels, are therefore rotated with them. One end of each ply of the cord
+in making is looped on to one of these hooks, the other ends are
+attached to three similar hooks fixed into a block of wood which, when
+in use, is firmly clamped to the table. Further instruction in the
+making of cords is given in <a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">Chapter XIII</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60px;">
+<img src="images/fig_5.jpg" width="60" height="600" alt="Fig. 5." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_5"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 5.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To trace the pattern on to the material the following articles may be
+required: Indian ink, a small finely-pointed sable brush, a tube of oil
+paint, flake white or light red, according to the colour of the ground
+material, turpentine, powdered charcoal or white chalk for pounce,
+tracing paper, drawing-pins, and a pricker. This last-mentioned tool is
+shown in <a href="#Fig_5">fig. 5</a>. It is about 5 inches long, and is like a needle with
+the blunt end fitted into a handle. For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> rubbing on the pounce some soft
+clinging material rolled into a ball is necessary. A piece of old silk
+hose tightly rolled up makes an excellent pad for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The knife shown in <a href="#Fig_6">fig. 6</a> is useful for cutting out at times when the
+use of scissors is not practical. It is used in an upright position,
+with the point outwards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_6.jpg" width="450" height="179" alt="Fig. 6." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_6"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 6.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A spindle for winding gold thread upon whilst working is shown in <a href="#Fig_7">fig.
+7</a>. It is about 8 inches long. A soft padding of cotton thread is first
+placed round (between A and B, <a href="#Fig_7">fig. 7</a>), and the gold thread wound upon
+that. The end of the thread passes through the forked piece at the top
+on its way to being worked into the material. The use of this or some
+similar appliance enables the worker to avoid much touching of the metal
+threads.</p>
+
+<p>A small tool called a piercer is repre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>sented by <a href="#Fig_8">fig. 8</a>; it is used in
+gold work; the flat end assists in placing the gold in position, and
+also in making the floss silk lie quite flat; the pointed end is used
+for piercing holes in the material for passing coarse thread to the
+back, and for other purposes. This little tool, made of steel, is about
+5 inches in length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 64px;">
+<img src="images/fig_7.jpg" width="64" height="600" alt="Fig. 7." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_7"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 7.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 81px;">
+<img src="images/fig_8.jpg" width="81" height="600" alt="Fig. 8." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_8"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 8.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>MATERIALS</h4>
+
+<p>The surface is a matter of special interest in embroidery work. This
+makes the choice of materials of great importance. Besides the question
+of appearance, these must be suitable to the purpose, durable, and, if
+possible, pleasant to work with and upon. The materials chosen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> should
+be the best of their kind, for time and labour are too valuable to be
+spent upon poor stuffs; occasionally a piece of old work is seen with
+the ground material in shreds and the embroidery upon it in a good state
+of preservation, which is a pity, for a newly applied ground of any kind
+is never as satisfactory as the original one. Still another plea for the
+use of good materials is the moral effect they may have upon the worker,
+inciting her to put forth her best efforts in using them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;">
+<img src="images/fig_9.jpg" width="422" height="350" alt="Fig. 9." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_9"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 9.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The purpose to which the work is to be put usually decides the ground
+material, besides governing pattern, stitches, and everything else. A
+background is chosen, as a rule, to show to advantage and preserve what
+is to be placed upon it, though sometimes it is the other way about, and
+the pattern is planned to suit an already existing ground.</p>
+
+<p>A background must take its right place, and not be too much in evidence,
+although if of the right kind it may be full of interest. There are,
+roughly speaking, three ways of treating the ground, leaving the
+material just as it is, covering part of it with stitching, or working
+entirely over it.</p>
+
+<p>If there is no work upon the ground the choice of material becomes more
+important. Texture, colour, tone, and possibly pattern, have all to be
+considered, though the problem is often best solved by the selection of
+a plain white linen. The question of texture is sometimes one of its
+suitability for stitching upon; colour and tone may be of all kinds and
+degrees from white to black; these two, as a rule, being particularly
+happy ones. If the ground stuff is patterned, as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> the case of a
+damasked silk, it must be specially chosen to suit the work to be placed
+upon it; small diaper patterns are frequently very good, since they
+break up the surface pleasantly without being too evident.</p>
+
+<p>Linen, which well answers all the usual requirements, is, for this
+reason, very frequently chosen for a ground material. It can be procured
+in great variety, the handmade linens being the best of all. Of kinds
+besides the ordinary are twilled linens, of which one named Kirriemuir
+twill is similar to the material used in the fine old embroidered
+curtains. Some damask linens look very well as backgrounds for
+embroidery; the pattern is sometimes a slightly raised diaper, which
+forms a pleasantly broken surface. Loosely woven linens can be obtained
+specially suitable for drawn thread work. In any case, if there is
+dressing in the new material, it must be well boiled before the
+embroidery is commenced: this makes it much softer for stitching
+through. Coloured linens are rarely satisfactory, a certain kind of blue
+being almost the only exception. The safest plan is to keep to pure
+white, or to the unbleached<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> varieties that have a slightly grey or warm
+tone about them. Wools, silks, and flax threads all look well upon a
+linen ground; it is not usually in good taste to embroider with poor
+thread upon a rich ground material, and, upon the other hand, gold
+thread and floss demand silk or velvet rather than linen, though any
+rule of this kind may on occasion be broken.</p>
+
+<p>Velvet and satin make excellent backgrounds for rich work; they should
+not be used unless of good quality. The pile of the best velvet is
+shorter than that of poorer kinds, and so is easier to manipulate, which
+is a further reason for using the best. It is in any case a difficult
+material, so much so that work is often carried out on linen and
+afterwards applied to a velvet ground. The modern velvets, even the best
+of them, are for quality or colour not comparable with the old ones.</p>
+
+<p>Silk of different kinds is largely employed, since it makes a suitable
+ground for many kinds of embroidery. Twilled and damasked silks are much
+used; in the last-named kind, patterns must be carefully chosen to suit
+the particular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> purpose. A thick ribbed silk is rarely satisfactory for
+embroidery purposes.</p>
+
+<p>For working with silk thread, an untwisted floss takes the first place,
+but it needs some skill in manipulation. Filofloss is somewhat similar,
+but it has a slight twist in it, making it easier to work, though
+producing a less satisfactory result. Filosel is useful for some kinds
+of work, but it is a poorer quality of silk. The purse silks, and what
+is called embroidery silk, are all excellent; they are tightly twisted
+varieties of fine quality. There are various others in use; a visit to a
+good embroidery dep&ocirc;t will probably be the best means of finding out
+about these and about materials in general.</p>
+
+<p>Wools can be obtained in various thicknesses and twistings, each good in
+their way. Some workers prefer a but slightly twisted wool; however,
+examples of old wool work are to be found in which a finely twisted
+variety is used with most satisfactory effect.</p>
+
+<p>Flax threads can be obtained in very good colours, and are to be highly
+recommended. There are various cottons procurable, either coloured or
+white, that are good for marking and other embroidery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> purposes where an
+evenly twisted thread is desirable.</p>
+
+<p>Pearls and precious stones take their place in rich embroideries, also
+various less expensive but pretty stones may often be made use of
+effectively.</p>
+
+<p>Beads are a fascinating material to work with; all kinds of pretty
+things can be done with them, either sewing them upon a ground, knitting
+or crocheting, or making use of a small bead loom. A good deal of the
+ready-made bought bead work, that only requires a monotonous ground to
+be filled in around an already worked pattern of sorts, is not at all
+suggestive of its possibilities. Beads of both paste and glass can be
+obtained in much greater variety than is usually known, from the most
+minute in size to large varieties of all kinds of shapes and patterns,
+the colours of most of them being particularly good. The larger
+ornamental beads are useful in many ways, sometimes taking the place of
+tassels or fringes.</p>
+
+<p>Many kinds of most curious materials are at times brought into the
+service of embroidery, but the above-mentioned ones are the most usual.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">PATTERN DESIGNING</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Difficulties of Pattern Making&mdash;A Stock-in-Trade&mdash;Some
+Principles upon which Patterns are Built Up&mdash;Spacing-Out&mdash;Nature
+and Convention&mdash;Shading&mdash;Figure Work&mdash;Limitations&mdash;Colour.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>A beginner sometimes experiences difficulty in preparing her own
+patterns. A designer needs a wide knowledge of many subjects, which
+necessitates much time being given to study; also drawing ability is
+necessary to enable the worker to set down her ideas upon paper. For
+much simple and pretty work, however, a slight acquaintance with drawing
+and design is sufficient, and any one who can master the requisite
+stitches can also acquire some knowledge of these two subjects.</p>
+
+<p>The word design frightens some who do not know quite what it means or
+entails. Perhaps they do not realise that the design has already been
+begun when the object to be worked has been settled, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> the material,
+thread, and stitches have been decided upon&mdash;the rest comes in much the
+same way, partly by a system of choice; as it is necessary to know what
+materials there are which can be used, so must the chief varieties of
+pattern be known from which choice can be made. All patterns are built
+up on some fundamental plan, of which the number is comparatively small.
+The ability to choose, plan, and arrange is in a greater or less degree
+inherent in every one, so there should be, after all, no great
+difficulty in the design. The necessary underlying qualities are&mdash;a nice
+taste, freedom from affectation, an eye for colour and form, and, it
+might be added, a fair share of common sense.</p>
+
+<p>A pattern maker requires some stock-in-trade, and it is wise to collect
+together a store of some well-classified design material of ascertained
+value, ready to be drawn upon when required. A good knowledge of plants
+and flowers is very necessary. This is best acquired by making careful
+drawings from nature. In choosing flowers for embroidery purposes, the
+best-known ones, such as the daisy, rose, or carnation, give more
+pleasure to the observer than rare unrecognisable varieties.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> Figures,
+birds, beasts, and such things as inscriptions, monograms, shields of
+arms and emblems, all demand study and drawing, both from miscellaneous
+examples and from embroideries.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of all these should be studied in old work, in order that
+the curious conventions and all kinds of amusing and interesting ideas
+that have gradually grown up in the past may still be made use of and
+added to, instead of being cast aside in a wild endeavour after
+something original. The student who collects a supply of the foregoing
+materials will find she has considerably widened her knowledge during
+the process, and is better prepared to make designs.</p>
+
+<p>In making a pattern the first thing to be decided upon is some main
+idea, the detail that is to carry it out must then be considered. This
+latter may be of various types, such as flowers, foliage, figures,
+animals, geometrical forms, interlacing strapwork, quatrefoils, &amp;c.,
+&amp;c.; perhaps several of these <i>motifs</i> may be combined together in the
+same design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;">
+<img src="images/fig_10.jpg" width="352" height="600" alt="Fig. 10." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_10"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 10.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the simplest plans upon which a pattern can be arranged is that
+of some form recurring at regular intervals over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> the surface. The
+principle involved is repetition; an example of it is shown at <a href="#Fig_10">fig. 10</a>.
+The form that is used here is a sprig of flower, but the repeating
+element admits of infinite variation, it may be anything from a dot to
+an angel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 504px;">
+<img src="images/fig_11.jpg" width="504" height="600" alt="Fig. 11." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_11"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 11.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Copes and chasubles, bedspreads and curtains, are often to be seen
+decorated with some repeating form. <a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> shows in outline a
+conventional sprig that is repeated in this fashion over the surface of
+a famous cope in Ely Cathedral. <a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a> is an example of a sprig of
+flower taken from a XVIIth century embroidered curtain; similar bunches,
+but composed of different flowers, recur at intervals over this hanging.</p>
+
+<p>It may interest the practical worker to know what are the different
+stitches used upon this figure. The petals of the top flower are in
+chain stitch in gradated colouring, the centre is an open crossing of
+chain surrounded by stamens in stem stitch in varied colour, the
+outermost leaves are outlined in stem stitch with an open filling of
+little crossed stitches. The petals of the lower flower are worked
+similarly, and the centre is carried out in chain stitch and French
+knots. The leaves are filled in with ingenious variations of these
+stitches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/fig_12.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_12.jpg" width="360" height="600" alt="Fig. 12." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_12"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 12.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The repeating element is perhaps a symbolical figure, a heraldic shield,
+or it may be some geometrical form that supplies the motive. <a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a> is
+a conventional sprig of hawthorn that ornaments in this way an altar
+frontal at Zanthen. It is by no means necessary that the element<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> which
+repeats should be always identical; so long as it is similar in size,
+form, and general character it will probably be the more interesting if
+variety is introduced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 165px;">
+<img src="images/fig_13.jpg" width="165" height="250" alt="Fig. 13." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_13"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 13.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principle of repetition is again found in <a href="#Fig_14">fig. 14</a>, but with an
+additional feature; a sprig of flower is used, with the further
+introduction of diagonal lines, expressed by leaf sprays, which are
+arranged so as to surround each flower and divide it from the adjoining
+ones.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 356px;">
+<img src="images/fig_14.jpg" width="356" height="600" alt="Fig. 14." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_14"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 14.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is advisable to space out the required surface in some way before
+commencing to draw out a pattern; for carrying out <a href="#Fig_14">fig. 14</a> it would be
+well to pencil out the surface as in <a href="#Fig_15">fig. 15</a>; a connection between these
+two will be perceived at a glance. This spacing-out of the required
+surface in one way or another is of great assistance, and may even prove
+suggestive in the planning of the design. It helps the regularity of the
+work, and order is essential in design as in most other things in life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 164px;">
+<img src="images/fig_15.jpg" width="164" height="350" alt="Fig. 15." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_15"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 15.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another very usual expedient is that of introducing a main central form,
+with others branching out on either side and symmetrically balancing
+each other. An example of this is given in <a href="#Fig_16">fig. 16</a>. The symmetry may be
+much more free than this; a tree is symmetrical taken as a whole, but
+the two sides do not exactly repeat each other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 306px;">
+<img src="images/fig_16.jpg" width="306" height="600" alt="Fig. 16." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_16"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 16.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A plan very commonly employed is that of radiating main lines all
+diverging from one central point. <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a> shows a design following this
+principle; there is infinite variety in the ways in which this may be
+carried out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 704px;">
+<img src="images/fig_17.jpg" width="704" height="450" alt="Fig. 17." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_17"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 17.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another method would be to plan a continuous flowing line with forms
+branching out on one side or on both. <a href="#Figs_18_and_19">Figs. 18 and 19</a> are border
+designs, for which purpose this arrangement is often used, though it can
+also well form an all-over pattern; sometimes these lines used over a
+surface are made to cross each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> other, tartan wise, by running in two
+directions, producing an apparently complicated design by very simple
+means.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Figs_18_and_19"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 154px;">
+<a href="images/fig_18.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_18.jpg" width="154" height="600" alt="Fig. 18." title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;">
+<a href="images/fig_19.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_19.jpg" width="175" height="600" alt="Fig. 19." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption smcap">Figs. 18 and 19.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 295px;">
+<img src="images/fig_20.jpg" width="295" height="600" alt="Fig. 20." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_20"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 20.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Designs may be planned on the counterchange principle. This is a system
+of mass designing that involves the problem of making a pattern out of
+one shape, continually repeated, and fitting into itself in such a way
+as to leave no interstices. The simplest example of this is to be found
+in the chess board, and it will easily be seen that a great number of
+shapes might be used instead of the square. <a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a> is an example of a
+counterchange design carried out in inlay; for this method of work
+counterchange is very suitable. On reference to the chapter upon this
+work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> another example will be found (<a href="#Page_181">page 181</a>). <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a> illustrates the
+same principle, further complicated by the repetition of the form in
+three directions instead of in two only.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 446px;">
+<img src="images/fig_21.jpg" width="446" height="300" alt="Fig. 21." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_21"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 21.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A method of further enriching a straightforward pattern, covering a
+plain surface, is to work a subsidiary pattern upon the background. This
+is usually of a monotonous and formal character in order not to clash
+with the primary decoration, though this relationship may sometimes be
+found reversed. It has the appearance of being some decoration belonging
+to the ground rather than to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> primary pattern; in its simplest form
+it appears as a mere repeating dot or a lattice (see <a href="#Fig_22">fig. 22</a>), but it
+may be so elaborated as to cover with an intricate design every portion
+of the exposed ground not decorated with the main pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Many other distinct kinds of work might be mentioned, such as needlework
+pictures, the story-telling embroideries that can be made so
+particularly attractive. Embroidered landscapes, formal gardens,
+mysterious woods, views of towns and palaces, are, if rightly treated,
+very fine. In order to learn the way to work such subjects we must go to
+the XVIth and XVIIth century <i>petit point</i> pictures, and to the detail
+in fine tapestries. The wrong method of going to work is to imitate the
+effect sought after by the painter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;"><a name="Fig_22"></a>
+<a href="images/fig_22.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_22.jpg" width="355" height="600" alt="Fig. 22." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption smcap">Fig. 22.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is a mistake in embroidery design to be too naturalistic. In painting
+it may be the especial aim to exactly imitate nature, but here are
+wanted embroidery flowers, animals and figures, possessing the character
+and likeness of the things represented, but in no way trying to make us
+believe that they are real. The semblance of a bumble bee crawling upon
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> tea cloth gives a hardly pleasant sensation and much savours of
+the practical joke, which is seldom in good taste; the needle, however,
+adds convention to almost anything, and will usually manage the bee all
+right unless the worker goes out of the way to add a shadow and a high
+light. Such things as perspective, light and shade or modelling of form,
+should all be very much simplified if not avoided, for embroidery
+conforms to the requirements of decoration and must not falsify the
+surface that it ornaments. Shading is made use of in order to give more
+variety to, and exhibit the beauty of, colour by means of gradation, to
+explain more clearly the design, and so on; it is not employed for the
+purpose of fixing the lighting of the composition from one point by
+means of systematically adjusted light and shade, or of making a form
+stand out so realistically as to almost project from the background.</p>
+
+<p>In avoiding too much resemblance to natural forms it is not necessary to
+make things ugly; a conventional flower implies no unmeaning
+straightness or impossible curve, it may keep all its interesting
+characteristics, but it has to obey other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> requirements specially
+necessary in the particular design. Another point to be noted is that,
+since there is freedom of choice of flowers and other objects, only
+those perfect and well-formed should be chosen; all accidents of growth
+and disease may, happily, be omitted; if anything of this kind is put in
+it helps to give the naturalistic look which is to be avoided. Both
+sides of a leaf should match, though it may happen in nature, through
+misfortune, that one is deformed and small.</p>
+
+<p>In figure work, which, though ambitious, is one of the most interesting
+kinds of embroidery, the figures, like all other things, must be treated
+with a certain amount of simplicity; very little attempt must be made to
+obtain flesh tones, roundness of form, perspective, or foreshortening.
+The work should be just sufficiently near to nature to be a good
+embroidery rendering of it. However, without overstepping the limits
+there is a great deal that may be expressed, such things as character,
+gesture, grace, colour, and so on, matters which are after all of first
+importance. Detail, if of the right kind, may be filled in, but it is
+wrong to attempt what is to the craft<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> very laborious to obtain, for
+this would be misdirected energy, which is great waste. A right use of
+the figure can be seen in the XIIIth century embroidery pictures, which,
+covering medi&aelig;val church vestments, often display episodes from the
+lives of the saints. These are some of the masterpieces of the art of
+embroidery; observation of nature is carried to a marvellous pitch, but
+the execution never sinks into commonplace realism.</p>
+
+<p>Certain restrictions are always present, in making a design, that must
+be conformed to, such as, the limit of space, the materials with which
+the work is to be carried out, the use to which it will be put, and so
+on. These, instead of being difficulties, can afford help in the way of
+suggestion and limitation. A bad design may look as if it obeyed them
+unwillingly&mdash;a form is perhaps cramped, perhaps stretched out in order
+to fit its place, instead of looking as if it naturally fitted it
+whether the confining lines were there or not. In the early herbals,
+illustrated with woodcuts, examples can be found over and over again of
+a flower filling a required space simply and well; <a href="#Fig_23">fig. 23</a> is taken from
+the herbal of Carolus Clusius,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> printed at Antwerp in 1601 by the great
+house of Plantin. The draughtsman in this case had to draw a plant to
+fit a standard-sized engraver's block, and he had a certain number of
+facts to tell about it; he drew the plant as simply and
+straightforwardly as possible, making good use of all the available
+space, the result being a well-planned and balanced piece of work, with
+no affectation or unnecessary lines about it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;">
+<img src="images/fig_23.jpg" width="355" height="600" alt="Fig. 23." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_23"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 23.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fine colour is a quality appreciated at first sight, though often
+unconsciously. It is a difficult subject to speak of very definitely; an
+eye for colour is natural to some, but in any case the faculty can be
+cultivated and developed. By way of studying the subject, we can go to
+nature and learn as much as we are capable of appreciating; even such
+things as butterflies, shells, and birds' eggs are suggestive. Again,
+embroideries, illuminated manuscripts, pictures, painted decoration, may
+be studied, and so on; in fact, colour is so universal that it is not
+possible to get away from it. Unfortunately we are sometimes forced to
+learn what to avoid as well as what to emulate.</p>
+
+<p>Colour is entirely relative, that is to say it depends upon its
+immediate sur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>roundings for what it appears to be. Also it has effects
+varying with the material which it dyes; wool is of an absorbent nature,
+whereas silk has powers of reflection. It is a safe plan to use true
+colours, real blue, red or green, not slate, terra cotta, and olive.
+Gold, silver, white and black, are valuable additions to the colour
+palette; it should be remembered about the former that precious things
+must be used with economy or they become cheap and perhaps vulgar.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 205px;">
+<img src="images/fig_24.jpg" width="205" height="600" alt="Fig. 24." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_24"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 24.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For getting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> satisfactory colour there is a useful method which can at
+times be made use of; this is to stitch it down in alternate lines of
+two different tints, which, seen together at a little distance, give the
+desired effect. Backgrounds can be covered over with some small
+geometrical pattern carried out in this way, such as is shown in <a href="#Fig_24">fig.
+24</a>, perhaps using in alternation bright blue and black instead of a
+single medium tint of blue all over. At a slight distance the tone may
+be the same in either case, but this method gives a pleasantly varied
+and refined effect, which avoids muddiness, and shows up the pattern
+better. This same method is used for expressing form more clearly as
+well as for colour; waves of hair, for instance, are much more clearly
+expressed when worked in this way.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">STITCHES</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Introduction&mdash;Chain Stitch&mdash;Zigzag Chain&mdash;Chequered Chain&mdash;Twisted
+Chain&mdash;Open Chain&mdash;Braid Stitch&mdash;Cable Chain&mdash;Knotted Chain&mdash;Split
+Stitch.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>It is necessary for every worker to have a certain amount of knowledge
+of stitches, for they are, so to speak, the language of the art, and
+though not of first importance, still there is a great deal in
+stitchery. The needlewoman should be absolute master of her needle, for
+there is a great charm in beautifully carried out stitching; also a good
+design can be made mechanical and uninteresting by a wrong method of
+execution. The simplest and most common stitches are the best, and are
+all that are necessary for the doing of good work. Work carried out
+entirely in one stitch has a certain unity and character that is very
+pleasing. There are a great number of stitches in existence, that is, if
+each slight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> variation has a different name assigned to it. The names
+are sometimes misleading, for often the same stitch is known by several
+different ones; descriptive names have where possible been chosen for
+those discussed in the following pages.</p>
+
+<p>A worker may find it useful to keep by her a sampler with the most
+characteristic stitches placed upon it; a glance at this will be
+suggestive when she is in doubt as to which to use, for it is often
+difficult to recollect just the right and most suitable one at a
+moment's notice. It is necessary to learn only the main varieties, for
+each individual worker can adapt, combine, and invent variations to suit
+a special purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The direction of the stitch is important; tone, if not colour, can be
+very much altered by change in direction; also growth and form can be
+suggested by it; for instance, lines going across a stem are not usually
+so satisfactory as those running the length of it; these suggesting
+growth better. Folds of drapery are often explained by direction of the
+lines of stitching quite as much as by gradation of colour.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With reference to the stitches described in the following chapters, the
+worker is advised to try to work them by simply examining the diagrams,
+and, if in any difficulty, then to refer to the printed description, for
+such directions are apt to be tedious. The simplest way to master these
+is to let some one read them out step by step, and to work from
+dictation. It should be remembered that the use of a particular thread
+often makes or mars a stitch, some requiring soft silks to show them to
+advantage, whilst others may need a stoutly twisted thread.</p>
+
+<p>Chain stitch is universal, and one of the most ancient of stitches. It
+is the most commonly used of a group that might be described as linked
+stitches. Much beautiful work has been carried out entirely in it, and
+when a monotonous even line is required, this is a most suitable stitch
+to employ. It is equally in request for outline and filling in, and its
+chain-like adaptability makes it specially good for following out curved
+forms or spiral lines. Tambour stitch is practically the same in result,
+though worked in quite a different manner, for it is carried out in a
+frame with a fine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> crochet hook, instead of with a needle. This makes it
+quicker in execution, but more mechanical in appearance, so it is not to
+be as much recommended.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 453px;">
+<img src="images/fig_25.jpg" width="453" height="450" alt="Fig. 25." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_25"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 25.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To work chain stitch (<a href="#Fig_25">fig. 25</a>) bring the needle through at the top of
+the traced line, hold the working thread down towards the left with the
+thumb, insert the needle at the point where the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> thread has just come
+through and bring it up on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an
+inch further along, draw the thread through over the held down thread.
+It should show a neat line of back-stitching on the reverse side. The
+chain can be made broader by inserting the needle a little to the right,
+instead of at the exact point where the last thread came through. Care
+must be taken in the working not to draw the thread too tightly, as this
+stitch is inclined to pucker the material, especially when it is worked
+in curved lines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;">
+<img src="images/fig_26.jpg" width="458" height="600" alt="Fig. 26." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_26"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 26.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A flower and leaf worked with a solid filling of chain stitch are shown
+in <a href="#Fig_26">fig. 26</a>. The dark outline of the flower is in back stitch, the centre
+a mass of French knots, and the stem in stem stitch. By working the
+petals in curved lines in this way the shape is well suggested, and the
+play of light on the curves is particularly happy, especially if the
+thread used is silk or gold. Another slight variation from this would be
+to work the lines of chain stitch in different shades of colour, and so
+get each petal gradually either lighter or darker towards its base; this
+gives a very pretty effect. <a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a> shows an oak leaf<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> carried out in
+this way, the lines upon it indicate the way in which the stitches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+would be worked. The rule in solid fillings is to work from the outside
+inwards where possible, and thus make sure of a good outline.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 229px;">
+<img src="images/fig_27.jpg" width="229" height="500" alt="Fig. 27." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_27"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 27.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Victoria and Albert Museum there is a white linen dress<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+daintily embroidered in chain stitch. It is an excellent example of a
+kind of design suitable to this stitch; the leaves and flowers are
+carried out in lines of chain stitch following the outline, and in these
+lines use is made of strongly contrasting colour to both show up the
+form better, and also decorate it. The leaf in <a href="#Fig_28">fig. 28</a> is in style
+somewhat similar to this, and is intended to be carried out in two
+distinct colours.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 295px;">
+<img src="images/fig_28.jpg" width="295" height="600" alt="Fig. 28." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_28"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 28.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Chain stitches can be worked singly; they are used in this way as a
+powdering over a background. Sometimes they may be seen conventionally
+suggesting the small feathers on the shoulder of a bird's wing by being
+dotted over it at regular intervals. <a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a> shows how they might be
+used to carry out a tiny flower, five separate stitches represent the
+petals, and two more the leaves at the base; this is a simpler and more
+satisfactory method than to attempt very minute forms with satin
+stitches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 170px;">
+<img src="images/fig_29.jpg" width="170" height="350" alt="Fig. 29." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_29"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 29.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The common chain makes a particularly neat border stitch taken in zigzag
+fashion. To work this (<a href="#Fig_30">fig. 30</a>)&mdash;Trace two parallel lines on the
+material and work the chain across from side to side at an angle of 45&deg;
+to the traced lines. For further security it is well to catch down the
+end of the stitch just completed with the needle as it commences the
+following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> one. The line can be further decorated by placing a French
+knot, perhaps in a contrasting colour, in each little triangular space
+left by working the stitch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_30.jpg" width="450" height="173" alt="Fig. 30." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_30"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 30.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_31.jpg" width="450" height="169" alt="Fig. 31." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_31"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 31.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is an ingenious method of working ordinary chain stitch in a
+chequering of two colours (<a href="#Fig_31">fig. 31</a>). It is quite simple to work. Thread
+a needle with two different coloured threads, commence the chain stitch
+in the usual way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> until the thread has to be placed under the point of
+the needle for forming the loop. Place only one of the two threads
+underneath, leaving the other on one side out of the way, then draw the
+needle and thread through over the one held down. A chain stitch will
+have been formed with the thread that was looped under the needle. For
+the next stitch, the alternate thread is placed under, and so on, taking
+each thread in turn. The thread not in use each time usually requires a
+little adjustment to make it entirely disappear from the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Twisted chain is worked very similarly to the ordinary chain stitch. It
+has not such a decidedly looped appearance, which is sometimes an
+advantage. To work it (<a href="#Fig_32">fig. 32</a>)&mdash;Bring the thread through at the top of
+the line, hold it down under the thumb to the left, and insert the
+needle to the left of the traced line, slightly below the point where
+the thread has come through. Bring it out again on the traced line,
+about one-eighth of an inch lower down, and draw it through over the
+held down thread.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;">
+<img src="images/fig_32.jpg" width="449" height="450" alt="Fig. 32." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_32"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 32.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>An entirely different effect can be obtained by working this stitch
+much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> closer together, but in exactly the same way. It will then
+resemble a satin stitch slightly raised on one side. This is known as
+rope stitch and is at times very useful.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<img src="images/fig_33.jpg" width="442" height="450" alt="Fig. 33." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_33"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 33.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Open chain stitch makes a good broad line; it looks best when worked
+with a stout thread. To carry out the stitch (<a href="#Fig_33">fig. 33</a>)&mdash;Trace two
+parallel lines upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart,
+and bring the thread through at the top of the left-hand one. Hold the
+thread down with the thumb and insert the needle exactly opposite on the
+other line, bring it up one-eighth of an inch lower down and draw the
+thread through over the held down part, leaving a rather slack loop upon
+the material.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> Then insert the needle on the first line again, inside
+the slack loop, and bring it out one-eighth of an inch below. Repeat
+this on each side alternately. <a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a> is a drawing from a piece of
+white linen work in which the open chain stitch is used in combination
+with other stitches. This figure, with its open-work centre, is repeated
+diagonally over a white linen cloth exhibited in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;">
+<a href="images/fig_34.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_34.jpg" width="355" height="600" alt="Fig. 34." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_34"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 34.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Braid stitch rather resembles a fancy braid laid upon the material. It
+looks best when carried out with a stoutly twisted thread. To work it
+(<a href="#Fig_35">fig. 35</a>)&mdash;Trace two parallel lines upon the material about one-eighth
+of an inch apart, and bring the thread through at the right-hand end of
+the lower line. Throw the thread across to the left and hold it slackly
+under the thumb. Place the needle pointing towards the worker under this
+held thread, then twist it round towards the left and over the held
+thread until it points in the opposite direction. It will now have the
+thread twisted loosely over it. Next, insert the needle on the upper
+line one-eighth of an inch from the starting-point, and bring it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+through on the lower line exactly underneath. Place the thumb over the
+stitch in process of making and draw the thread through as the diagram
+shows. It can be worked openly or more closely as preferred.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 438px;">
+<img src="images/fig_35.jpg" width="438" height="450" alt="Fig. 35." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_35"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 35.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cable chain is descriptively named, for, when worked with a stoutly
+twisted thread, it has very much the appearance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> of a chain laid upon
+the material, rather too much so perhaps to be a pretty embroidery
+stitch. To work it (<a href="#Fig_36">fig. 36</a>)&mdash;Bring the needle through at the top of the
+traced line, throw the thread round to the left and hold it down with
+the thumb near where it has come through the material. Pass the needle
+under the held down thread from left to right and draw it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> through until
+there is only a small loop left. Insert the needle in the centre of this
+loop, on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an inch below the
+starting-point. Bring it out a quarter of an inch below and outside the
+loop. Take the thread in the right hand and tighten the loop that has
+now been formed, and then pass the thread under the point of the needle
+towards the left (see diagram). Place the left thumb over the stitch in
+process of making and draw the thread through; this will complete the
+first two links of the chain; to continue, repeat from the beginning.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<img src="images/fig_36.jpg" width="442" height="450" alt="Fig. 36." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_36"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 36.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Knotted chain is a pretty stitch; to look well it must be worked with a
+stout thread. To carry it out (<a href="#Fig_37">fig. 37</a>)&mdash;Trace two parallel lines upon
+the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart. Bring the thread
+through at the right hand end in the centre between the two lines, then
+insert the needle on the upper line one-sixteenth of an inch further
+along, and bring it through on the lower line immediately below. Draw
+the thread through and there will be a short slanting line left upon the
+material. Throw the thread round to the left and hold it under the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+thumb, then pass the needle and thread through the slanting line from
+above downwards, leaving the thread a little slack. Place the thread
+again under the thumb, then in the same way as before, from above
+downwards, pass the needle and thread through this slack loop. This
+makes the first two links of the chain; the last one will not be
+properly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> fixed in place until the next stitch is taken. The dotted
+vertical line on the diagram shows the piece of material taken up by the
+needle upon commencing the next stitch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;">
+<img src="images/fig_37.jpg" width="443" height="450" alt="Fig. 37." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_37"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 37.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Split stitch is a most useful one for many purposes. It is difficult to
+distinguish from a fine chain when done, but in the working it much more
+resembles stem stitch. It can be carried out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> in the hand or in a frame.
+This stitch, frequently seen upon ancient work, was much used for both
+draperies and features; the lines of the stitching usually, by their
+direction, expressing moulding of form or folds of drapery. To work it
+(<a href="#Fig_38">fig. 38</a>)&mdash;Bring the thread through at the lower end of the traced line,
+then insert the needle about one-eighth of an inch further along, and
+bring it through on the line two or three threads nearer the
+starting-point; whilst bringing it through take it also through the
+centre of the working thread, which thus splits each stitch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<img src="images/fig_38.jpg" width="442" height="450" alt="Fig. 38." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_38"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 38.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">STITCHES&mdash;(<i>continued</i>)</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Satin Stitch&mdash;Long and Short Stitch&mdash;Stem Stitch&mdash;Overcast
+Stitch&mdash;Back Stitch&mdash;Buttonhole Stitch&mdash;Tailor's Buttonhole&mdash;Fancy
+Buttonhole Edgings&mdash;Flower in Open Buttonhole Stitch&mdash;Leaf in Close
+Buttonhole Stitches&mdash;Petal in Solid Buttonholing.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>SATIN AND SIMILAR STITCHES</h4>
+
+<p>Satin stitch is perhaps the most commonly used of all stitches. It is
+more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> quickly worked by hand, but for complicated work the help of a
+frame is required. Floss silk thread is seen to greatest advantage in a
+stitch of this kind, for it shows off the glossiness of silk
+particularly well. It is straightforward in the working and needs no
+further description than is given by the diagram (<a href="#Fig_39">fig. 39</a>). The stitches
+may vary in length, they must neither be impracti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>cably long nor, on the
+other hand, too much cut up, lest the silky effect be partly lost. These
+stitches lie close together and in parallel lines; the chief difference
+between satin and several other closely allied stitches being that these
+others may radiate or vary in direction according to the space to be
+filled. The stitch is usually worked in oblique lines; stems, leaves,
+and petals would be treated in this way; sometimes it is worked
+regularly having regard to the warp and woof of the material; it would
+be treated thus when used in conjunction with cross or stroke stitch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;">
+<img src="images/fig_39.jpg" width="445" height="450" alt="Fig. 39." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_39"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 39.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen that there is as much silk at the back as on the front
+of the work. There is a method of carrying out the stitch by which this
+waste of material at the back is avoided; the thread is returned to the
+front close to where it went through instead of crossing over and coming
+up on the other side. The effect on the right side, however, is not so
+good, so this method cannot be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>One of the technical difficulties with satin stitch is to get a neat
+firm line at the edges of the filled space; this is excellently attained
+by the Chinese and Japanese, who use this satin stitch a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> deal.
+They frequently work each petal of a complicated flower separately,
+leaving as a division, between each one and the next, a fine line of
+material firmly and clearly drawn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<img src="images/fig_40.jpg" width="275" height="500" alt="Fig. 40." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_40"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 40.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The stitch is much used for raised work, and also lends itself well to
+gradation of colour. <a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a> is an example of shading in satin stitch.
+In this case each new row of stitches fits in just between those of the
+last row; this is a bold but very effective method of expressing
+gradation. A variation upon this is shown in <a href="#Fig_42">fig. 42</a>; the bands of
+different colour are here necessarily worked in a chevron pattern which
+makes the shading rather more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> gradual. An example of the same thing can
+be seen in <a href="#Fig_44">fig. 44</a> in the leaf upon which the squirrel sits. Apart from
+gradation of colour, the surface to be covered by satin stitch has often
+to be partitioned up in some way in order to make the satin stitches of
+a practical length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_41.jpg" width="450" height="393" alt="Fig. 41." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_41"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 41.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Long and short stitch is a very slight variation, if any, from satin
+stitch. The name describes the method of working, for it is carried out
+by working alternately a long and a short stitch, the stitches being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+picked up just as in satin stitch. It is useful for close fillings and
+shaded work, and also as a solid outline for any kind of open filling.
+The working of the stitch can be seen in <a href="#Fig_41">fig. 41</a>, where the band of
+lightest colour on the upper part of the leaf is worked in long and
+short stitch. The advantage of this way of working can be seen at once,
+it makes a firm outline on the one edge and a nicely broken-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>up one on
+the other, just ready for another shade to be worked in. In order to
+carry out the rest of the shading on the leaf in the same way the
+stitches can be all of the same length; this will always ensure a broken
+line at the edge, which is a necessity for this method of gradation.
+Long and short stitch used as an outline for a leaf with an open filling
+can be seen on <a href="#Page_209">page 209</a>. The <i>opus plumarium</i> or feather stitch that we
+read of in the descriptions of the old embroideries was a similar stitch
+to this, and so called, some say, because it resembled the plumage of a
+bird.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;">
+<a href="images/fig_42.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_42.jpg" width="290" height="450" alt="Fig. 42." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_42"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 42.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Stem stitch, well known and frequently in use for various purposes, such
+as for lines, outlines, gradated and flat fillings, and so on, is
+usually done in the hand, and is quite simple; <a href="#Fig_43">fig. 43</a> explains the
+working. If a broad line is required the needle is put in more
+obliquely, and a raised effect can be obtained by working over a laid
+thread. The thread must be kept to the same side of the needle, either
+to the left or to the right as better suits the purpose in hand; the
+effect is more line-like when it is kept to the right. Occasionally,
+when just a double line is to be worked, it is deliberately done in the
+two ways, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> then the line resembles a narrow plait. A solid filling
+in stem stitch should be worked in lines as illustrated in the squirrel
+in <a href="#Fig_44">fig. 44</a>. This little beast is taken from the curtain shown in <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate
+VII.</a>, and is a good example of the life and interest that the
+introduction of such things adds to embroideries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<img src="images/fig_43.jpg" width="442" height="450" alt="Fig. 43." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_43"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 43.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;">
+<a href="images/fig_44.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_44.jpg" width="449" height="600" alt="Fig. 44." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_44"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 44.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The stitches just described were largely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> used in crewel work. This is a
+rather vague name that denotes a decorative kind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> of needlework carried
+out with coloured wools upon a plain white linen ground. The design is
+usually composed of conventionally treated leaves and flowers, often
+growing from boldly curved stems. These were partly shaded in solid
+stitches, partly worked with geometrical open fillings; ornamental birds
+and beasts of all kinds were introduced, and the effect of the whole was
+very beautiful. The work is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> characteristically English, and a great
+deal of it was executed in the XVIIth century. Plates <a href="#Plate_VII">VII.</a> and <a href="#Plate_VIII">VIII.</a> are
+illustrative of the type of work, and <a href="#Fig_45">fig. 45</a> represents a detail. The
+various stitches which occur in this drawing are stem, herring-bone,
+long and short, knot, basket, buttonhole, single chain and satin
+stitches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;">
+<a href="images/fig_45.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_45.jpg" width="353" height="600" alt="Fig. 45." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_45"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 45.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Overcast stitch in embroidery is practi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>cally a very short raised satin
+stitch. It requires neat workmanship, and then makes a bold clear line
+or outline. To work it (<a href="#Fig_46">fig. 46</a>)&mdash;Run or couch down a thread on the
+traced line, then with fine thread cover this over with close upright
+stitches, picking up as little material as possible each time in order
+to make the line clear and round. The stitch is worked most perfectly in
+a frame.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;">
+<img src="images/fig_46.jpg" width="443" height="450" alt="Fig. 46." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_46"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 46.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Back stitch sometimes makes a good line or outline. To work it (<a href="#Fig_47">fig.
+47</a>)&mdash;Bring the needle through one-sixteenth of an inch from the end of
+the traced line, insert it at the commencement and bring it through
+again one-sixteenth of an inch beyond where it first came out. Each
+stitch, it will be seen, commences at the point where the last one
+finished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;">
+<img src="images/fig_47.jpg" width="460" height="450" alt="Fig. 47." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_47"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 47.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>BUTTONHOLE STITCH AND ITS APPLICATION</h4>
+
+<p>Buttonhole stitch, which is well known in plain needlework, is very
+useful also in embroidery, besides being an important stitch in
+needlepoint lace. Owing to its construction it is well suited for the
+covering of raw edges, but it is also adaptable to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> variety of other
+purposes, such as are open or close fillings of leaves and flowers, cut
+work, and the outlining of applied work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;">
+<img src="images/fig_48.jpg" width="449" height="450" alt="Fig. 48." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_48"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 48.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are two ways of forming the stitch, the common buttonhole and what
+is called tailor's buttonhole.</p>
+
+<p>To work the ordinary buttonhole stitch (<a href="#Fig_48">fig. 48</a>)&mdash;Bring the needle
+through at the left-hand end of the traced line, hold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> the thread down
+to the left with the thumb and insert the needle as shown in the
+diagram, draw it through over the held thread to complete the stitch. It
+is worked openly in the diagram, but it may, as required, be either more
+or less open or quite closed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<img src="images/fig_49.jpg" width="442" height="450" alt="Fig. 49." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_49"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 49.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tailor's buttonhole is for some purposes more satisfactory; the
+stitch is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> firmer than the other kind owing to the heading having an
+extra knot in it; this makes it also more ornamental. To work it (<a href="#Fig_49">fig.
+49</a>)&mdash;Commence in the same way as the last stitch until the needle and
+thread are in the position shown in <a href="#Fig_48">fig. 48</a> then, with the right hand
+take hold of the thread near the eye of the needle, bring it down and
+loop it under the point from right to left, draw the needle and thread
+through over these two loops, and the first stitch is made.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<img src="images/fig_50.jpg" width="263" height="500" alt="Fig. 50." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_50"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 50.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Buttonhole stitch can be varied in many ways, dependent mainly upon the
+spacing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> of the stitch and the direction that the needle takes when
+picking up the material. <a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50</a> shows four simple varieties; the first
+is the open buttonhole spaced slightly irregularly and with a thread
+slipped underneath it; any variety of spacing can be arranged, and the
+thread shown running underneath, which sometimes forms a pretty
+addition, is usually of a contrasting colour or material. The second<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+shows the stitches taken slanting-wise, so that they cross each other.
+In the third the stitches are at different angles and of unequal length.
+The fourth example shows two lines of spaced buttonhole stitch fitting
+neatly the one into the other and forming a solid line. One row is
+worked first, leaving just sufficient space between each stitch for the
+second row to fill up, which can be carried out by reversing the
+position of the material and exactly repeating the first line in the
+same or in a different colour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 413px;">
+<img src="images/fig_51.jpg" width="413" height="400" alt="Fig. 51." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_51"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 51.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A flower filled in with open buttonhole stitch is shown at <a href="#Fig_51">fig. 51</a>. The
+centre consists of a mass of French knots, and the outside line is in
+satin stitch. The innermost circle of buttonholing is worked first, the
+next row is worked over the heading of the first row as well as into the
+material; the succeeding rows are worked in the same way until the
+outside limit is reached, and there the satin stitch just covers the
+heading of the last row of buttonhole stitching. Gradation of colour can
+easily be introduced by using a different shade for each circle of
+stitches, and this produces a very pretty effect. An open method of
+filling a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> space, whether flower, leaf, drapery, or background, is
+sometimes preferable to a solid filling, and the two methods can very
+well be used together as each shows off the other. These light fillings
+give opportunity for further variety and ingenuity in the stitching, and
+prevent the work from looking heavy. A butterfly,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> carried out partly in
+open stitches, is illustrated in <a href="#Fig_52">fig. 52</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;">
+<img src="images/fig_52.jpg" width="424" height="450" alt="Fig. 52." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_52"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 52.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a> is, in the original, a gay little flower carried out in orange
+and yellow. The stitch employed here is a close buttonhole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 409px;">
+<img src="images/fig_53.jpg" width="409" height="300" alt="Fig. 53." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_53"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 53.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another example of the use of close buttonhole is shown in the ivy leaf
+in <a href="#Fig_54">fig. 54</a>. The stitch is worked in two rows, back to back, in each lobe
+of the leaf, and the resulting ridge down the centre rather happily
+suggests the veining. This method of filling in might be just reversed
+for a rose leaf; the heading of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> the stitch would then suggest the
+serrated edge, and the meeting of the two rows down the centre the line
+of the vein.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;">
+<img src="images/fig_54.jpg" width="368" height="350" alt="Fig. 54." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_54"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 54.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A cluster of berries can be very prettily worked in buttonhole stitch in
+the way shown in <a href="#Fig_55">fig. 55</a>. The stitches are so arranged that the heading
+outlines each berry, and the needle enters the material at the same
+point, always in the centre. A bullion stitch in a darker colour marks
+the eye of the berry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;">
+<img src="images/fig_55.jpg" width="395" height="600" alt="Fig. 55." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_55"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 55.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A good method of filling a space with solid buttonhole stitching is
+shown in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> <a href="#Fig_56">fig. 56</a>. Each row is worked into the heading of the preceding
+row, and the stitches do not pierce the material except in the first row
+and at the extremities of succeeding rows. They are placed rather close
+together in order to completely cover the ground. The stitch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> is worked,
+first, from left to right, then for the next row from right to left;
+this is quite easy and enables the work to be continuously carried out.
+Sometimes, when the first row is done, the thread is thrown across to
+the side where the row began, and there made fast; then the second row
+is worked with stitches which take up the thrown thread as well as the
+heading of the first row. By using a more open buttonhole and thus
+partly exposing the laid thread, a filling, both quick and effective, is
+obtained. This is a useful method to employ when the work is done over a
+padding of threads, for there is no necessity to pierce the material
+except at the edges.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/fig_56.jpg" width="440" height="500" alt="Fig. 56." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_56"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 56.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">STITCHES&mdash;(<i>continued</i>)</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Knots and Knot Stitches&mdash;Herring-bone Stitch&mdash;Feather
+Stitch&mdash;Basket Stitch&mdash;Fishbone Stitch&mdash;Cretan Stitch&mdash;Roumanian
+Stitch&mdash;Various Insertion Stitches&mdash;Picots.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>KNOTS AND KNOT STITCHES</h4>
+
+<p>It would be difficult to go far in embroidery without requiring knots
+for one purpose or another. They are useful in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> all sorts of ways, and
+make a pleasant contrast to the other stitches. For the enrichment of
+border lines and various parts of the work, both pattern and background,
+they are most serviceable, and also for solid fillings; for such places
+as centres of flowers or parts of leaves, they are again valuable. They
+have been used to form a continuous outline, but owing to their tendency
+to make a weak line, not frequently; indeed they usually show to better
+advantage when slightly separated.</p>
+
+<p>Examples are to be seen of English knotted line work in which the
+knotting was executed in the thread previously to embroidering with it.
+The knotting of thread was a pastime with ladies in the XVIIth century.
+The thread, usually a linen one and as a rule home spun, was wound upon
+a netting-needle, and by the aid of this a close series of knots was
+made upon it; when finished it somewhat resembled a string of beads.
+Balls of this prepared knotted thread may still be found, treasured up
+in old work receptacles. When prepared it was couched on to the material
+with fine thread, like a cord or braid, and made to follow out some
+prearranged pattern.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> In white linen work it was used for carrying out
+ornamental borderings on infants' robes and other dainty articles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;">
+<img src="images/fig_57.jpg" width="448" height="450" alt="Fig. 57." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_57"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 57.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>French knots can be worked in the hand or in a frame. They are easier to
+manage in the latter, and to look well they must be neatly and firmly
+made. Completed they should resemble beads lying end upwards on the
+material. To<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> work the French knot (<a href="#Fig_57">fig. 57</a>)&mdash;Bring the thread through
+the material at the required point, take hold of it with the left finger
+and thumb near the starting-point (A on plan), then let the point of the
+needle encircle the held thread twice, twist the needle round and insert
+it at point B on plan, draw the thread through to the back, not letting
+go the held thread until necessary. <a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58</a> shows some French knots
+decorating a leaf spray, and various other examples of their use can be
+found in the book.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;">
+<img src="images/fig_58.jpg" width="271" height="250" alt="Fig. 58." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_58"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 58.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bullion knots resemble tight curls of thread laid on the material. They
+can be used as a variation from French knots, and even for the
+representation of petals and small leaves. To be satisfactory they must
+be firm, stout, and tightly coiled; some knack is required to make them
+properly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> To work the bullion knot (<a href="#Fig_59">fig. 59</a>)&mdash;Bring the thread through
+at the required place, insert the needle one-eighth of an inch from this
+point and bring it through again exactly at it. Take hold of the thread
+about two inches from where it came through and twist it several times
+round the point of the needle, the number of times being dependent on
+the required<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> length of the knot. Place the left thumb upon the tight
+coil on the needle, in order to keep it in place, and draw the needle
+and thread through it, then pass the thread through to the back at the
+point where the needle was last inserted (point A on plan). The thumb
+must not be removed until it is in the way. <a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a> represents a flower,
+of which the centre is formed of bullion together with French knots.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/fig_59.jpg" width="440" height="450" alt="Fig. 59." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_59"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 59.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<img src="images/fig_60.jpg" width="357" height="450" alt="Fig. 60." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_60"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 60.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;">
+<img src="images/fig_61.jpg" width="428" height="450" alt="Fig. 61." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_61"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 61.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_61">Fig. 61</a> shows a knotted stitch that is similar in result to the knotted
+threads discussed earlier in the chapter. In this case the knotting of
+the thread and the fixing to the material is done at the same time. It
+is a useful stitch when a jagged line is wanted, and can be seen used,
+for instance, for the branching veins in open<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> work leaves, as in <a href="#Fig_62">fig.
+62</a>. The diagram explains the working of the stitch; at point A on the
+plan the left thumb holds the thread down whilst the stitch is in
+progress.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;">
+<img src="images/fig_62.jpg" width="422" height="500" alt="Fig. 62." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_62"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 62.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>MISCELLANEOUS STITCHES</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;">
+<img src="images/fig_63.jpg" width="447" height="450" alt="Fig. 63." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_63"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 63.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The stitch illustrated at <a href="#Fig_63">fig. 63</a> is very similar to the common
+herring-bone. The only practical difference is that in the plain
+needlework stitch there is usually a smaller piece of material picked up
+by the needle each time. To work it as in the diagram&mdash;Trace two
+parallel lines on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> the material and bring the thread through at the
+commencement of the lower line, insert it on the opposite line rather
+farther along and there pick up a stitch, as the needle is doing in the
+figure. Then on the opposite line pick up a similar stitch a little in
+advance of the one just finished. After this work the stitches on either
+line alternately, commencing each one at the point where the last one
+ended; this forms on the underside a double row of back stitches. It is
+quite easy to work this stitch with the back stitches on the working
+side, and when they are required to be on the surface it is advisable to
+do it in that way. When embroidering upon a semi-transparent material
+this stitch is a satisfactory one to use, the back stitching follows out
+the outline on either side of the form, and the crossing of the threads
+on the under side shows through prettily. This stitch sometimes goes by
+the name of double back stitch. It is useful in many ways, making a
+light stitch for stems, leaves, or flowers; it can be sometimes found in
+Eastern work used for an entire embroidery. When used for flowers or
+leaves the width and the closeness of the stitch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> are varied to suit the
+shape to be filled. An example of its use as a flower filling is shown
+in the carnation at <a href="#Fig_64">fig. 64</a>, which is carried out in four shades of
+colour. Considerable use is made of this stitch in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> embroidered curtain
+shown in <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII.</a>; it is there employed for all the stems and various
+flowers upon the hanging.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;">
+<img src="images/fig_64.jpg" width="489" height="600" alt="Fig. 64." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_64"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 64.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;">
+<img src="images/fig_65.jpg" width="451" height="450" alt="Fig. 65." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_65"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 65.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The feather stitch, often used to decorate plain needlework, is now to
+be discussed; although similar in name it must not be confused with the
+feather or plumage stitch that has already been mentioned. The stitch is
+so simple and so much in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> use as hardly to need description; <a href="#Fig_65">fig. 65</a>
+explains the working. There can be many slight variations of the stitch,
+the worker perhaps devising them needle in hand. Two are shown in <a href="#Fig_66">fig.
+66</a>. The one to the left is worked very like the ordinary stitch; the
+needle picks up the material in a straight line instead of slightly
+obliquely, and each stitch touches the one imme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>diately above; it is
+here made use of as a couching stitch, a bunch of threads of a
+contrasting colour is laid on the material, and the stitch worked over
+it from side to side. The right-hand example shows the ordinary feather
+stitch worked more closely and in a broader line; carried out in this
+way, it can be used for a leaf filling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 446px;">
+<img src="images/fig_66.jpg" width="446" height="450" alt="Fig. 66." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_66"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 66.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Basket stitch, useful for a solid line, shows up very clearly when
+worked with a stout twisted thread. This stitch would be appropriately
+used when applied to some representation of basket work. To carry out
+the diagram (<a href="#Fig_67">fig. 67</a>)&mdash;Trace two parallel lines on the material, and to
+commence, bring the thread through on the left-hand line, then insert
+the needle on the right-hand line about one-eighth of an inch lower down
+and bring it through on the left-hand line exactly opposite (see needle
+in <a href="#Fig_67">fig.</a>); the next stitch is worked by inserting the needle on the
+right-hand line but above the last stitch, that is at point A on
+diagram, and bringing it through at B. To continue, repeat from the
+beginning.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;">
+<img src="images/fig_67.jpg" width="432" height="450" alt="Fig. 67." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_67"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 67.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A particularly good line for a border is made by fishbone stitch. It can
+be worked in one colour, or as easily in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> chequering of two or three,
+as shown in the diagram (<a href="#Fig_68">fig. 68</a>); to carry it out in this way the
+worker must have two threads in use, bringing through each as required.
+For such purposes as the fillings of small leaves, this stitch is very
+useful (see <a href="#Fig_58">fig. 58</a>). The meeting of the stitches in the centre suggest
+the veining line, also the change in direction of the thread gives, to
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> two sides of the leaf, pleasant variation in tone. To work
+it&mdash;Trace three parallel lines upon the material and bring the thread
+through on the upper line at the left-hand end. Insert the needle and
+bring it through as in process in the diagram, then repeat the same
+stitch on the other side the reverse way, that is, insert the needle
+just over the central line<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> and bring it through on the upper one close
+to the last stitch. Care must be taken that the stitches cross well over
+each other at the centre, or the material will show through.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;">
+<img src="images/fig_68.jpg" width="451" height="450" alt="Fig. 68." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_68"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 68.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 444px;">
+<img src="images/fig_69.jpg" width="444" height="450" alt="Fig. 69." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_69"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 69.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The stitch shown in <a href="#Fig_69">fig. 69</a>, known as plait or Cretan, is commonly seen
+on Cretan and other Eastern embroideries. It can be used as a solid
+border stitch or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> as a filling, varying in width as required. To work
+it&mdash;Bring the thread through on the lower central line, then insert the
+needle on the uppermost line and bring it through on the next below as
+in process in the diagram; then, still keeping the thread to the right,
+insert the needle immediately underneath on the lowest line and bring it
+through on the line next above, in fashion similar to the last stitch,
+but in reverse direction. To continue, work the stitch alternately on
+one side and the other, always keeping the thread to the right of the
+needle. In order to make the central plait broader take up rather less
+material with the needle; this will decrease the outer and increase the
+inner lines. <a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a> is taken from a Cretan embroidery, in which this
+stitch is mainly used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/fig_70.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_70.jpg" width="370" height="600" alt="Fig. 70." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_70"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 70.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another similar but more simple stitch, often seen in Eastern work, is
+shown in <a href="#Fig_71">fig. 71</a>. It can also frequently be found employed on XVIIth
+century English wool work hangings. It is sometimes called Roumanian
+stitch, and is composed of one long stitch crossed by a short one in the
+centre. To work it&mdash;Trace two parallel lines on the material<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> and bring
+the thread through on the left-hand line at the top. Insert the needle
+on the opposite line and bring it through near the centre, as shown in
+process in the diagram. For the next half of the stitch the needle
+enters the material at point A on plan, and is brought through again on
+the left-hand line close to the last stitch, and so in position to
+commence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> again. An illustration of this stitch in use as a filling can
+be seen at <a href="#Fig_72">fig. 72</a>. It is worked in four shades of green wool, and each
+line of stitches is so arranged as to encroach slightly on the line
+before by means of setting each stitch just between two of the last row.
+This method of working has two advantages; the shading<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> is thus made
+more gradual, and a pleasant undulating effect is given to the surface
+of the leaf. This can be most easily understood by a practical trial of
+the stitch and method.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/fig_71.jpg" width="440" height="450" alt="Fig. 71." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_71"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 71.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 509px;">
+<a href="images/fig_72.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_72.jpg" width="509" height="500" alt="Fig. 72." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_72"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 72.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>INSERTION STITCHES</h4>
+
+<p>There is occasion sometimes in embroidery to join edges together
+visibly. This gives an opportunity for some additional pretty
+stitching&mdash;the addition of something like this, that is perhaps not
+absolutely necessary, has extra value from the evidence it gives of the
+worker's interest and delight in her work, a quality always appreciated;
+on the other hand, work done from the motive of getting a result with as
+little labour as possible is valued at just its worth.</p>
+
+<p>These insertion stitches are useful for joining together edges of
+cushion covers, bags, detached bands, also for the ornamentation of
+dress, and for embroideries upon which drawn thread work is not
+possible. A stout thread is usually suitable for the purpose. The raw
+edges must first be turned in and flattened, and the parts to be joined
+can if necessary be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> tacked in place on a temporary ground such as
+<i>toile cir&eacute;e</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_73">Fig. 73</a> illustrates a twisted insertion stitch that is quickly executed
+and very frequently used. The diagram sufficiently explains the working
+without further description.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 412px;">
+<img src="images/fig_73.jpg" width="412" height="250" alt="Fig. 73." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_73"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 73.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Buttonhole stitch can be turned to account for this purpose. <a href="#Fig_74">Fig. 74</a>
+shows the tailor's buttonhole used as an insertion stitch; for this
+purpose it is the better of the two kinds of buttonhole. The stitches
+could be arranged in various ways; in the present example three are
+worked closely together on either side in turn. The only difficulty with
+this buttonhole inser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>tion is that on one side the stitch has to be
+worked in direction contrary to that usual, that is from right to left
+instead of from left to right. In the diagram the needle is shown
+working in this reverse way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;">
+<img src="images/fig_74.jpg" width="425" height="225" alt="Fig. 74." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_74"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 74.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a> is a knotted insertion stitch; the knot at each side makes the
+stitch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> a very rigid one. To work it&mdash;Bring the thread through at the
+lower left-hand side, insert the needle on the upper side a little
+towards the right, draw the thread through, and then tie the knot on it
+as in process in the diagram.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 431px;">
+<img src="images/fig_75.jpg" width="431" height="225" alt="Fig. 75." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_75"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 75.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A rather more complicated joining stitch is shown in <a href="#Fig_76">fig. 76</a>. It could
+be carried out with different coloured threads. The two sides must be
+first worked with the edging, which is practically the braid stitch
+described on <a href="#Page_88">page 88</a>. Commence the stitch in exactly the same way as
+when carrying out braid stitch, but work on the edge of the material as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+in buttonholing, the working edge in this case being away from the
+worker. Let the worker, having reached the point of pulling the thread
+through to complete the stitch, draw it out in the direction away from
+her. This will draw the stitch towards the edge, where it will form a
+knot. In the diagram one of the stitches has been partly undone in order
+to show the working more clearly. When the two sides are bound with the
+stitch, they can be laced together with another thread as in the
+illustration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 455px;">
+<img src="images/fig_76.jpg" width="455" height="300" alt="Fig. 76." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_76"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 76.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>PICOTS</h4>
+
+<p>Picots are commonly in use in lace work and they are sometimes required
+for embroidery purposes, especially in the kinds of work nearly allied
+to lace, such as cut work, or for an added ornament to an edging stitch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<img src="images/fig_77.jpg" width="297" height="450" alt="Fig. 77." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_77"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 77.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77</a> shows too small picots added to a buttonhole bar, and on the
+lower bar is shown the method of working the left-hand picot. The pin
+that passes into the material behind the bar can be fixed in the bar
+itself if there happens to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> be no material underneath. After reaching
+the point illustrated in the diagram, the needle draws the thread
+through, thus making a firm knot round the loop. This completes the
+picot, the bar is then buttonholed to the end. The second picot is made
+in much the same way; instead, however, of putting the needle as the
+diagram shows, bring the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> thread up through the centre of the loop, then
+round under the pin from left to right, and it will be in position to
+make three buttonhole stitches along the loop, which completes the
+second example.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 264px;">
+<img src="images/fig_78.jpg" width="264" height="400" alt="Fig. 78." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_78"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 78.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The upper bar on <a href="#Fig_78">fig. 78</a> shows a buttonholed picot. The bar must be
+worked to the left-hand end of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> required picot; the thread is then
+from there taken back about one-eighth of an inch and threaded through
+the edge of the buttonhole. This is repeated to and fro until there is a
+loop composed of three threads ready to be buttonholed over. Upon this
+being done, the thread will have arrived at the right point to continue
+the bar.</p>
+
+<p>Bullion stitch makes another simple picot&mdash;Work the bar to the point
+where the picot is required, then, instead of taking the next stitch,
+insert the point of the needle in the heading of the last stitch. Leave
+the needle in this position, and twist the thread six or eight times
+round the point of it, just as for the bullion knot (<a href="#Fig_59">fig. 59</a>). Place the
+left thumb over the tight coil thus formed, and pull the needle and
+thread through tightly in order to make the stitch double up into a
+tight semi-circle, then continue the buttonholing to the end of the
+bar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">CANVAS WORK AND STITCHES</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Introduction&mdash;Samplers&mdash;Petit Point Pictures&mdash;Cross Stitch&mdash;Tent
+Stitch&mdash;Gobelin Stitch&mdash;Irish Stitch&mdash;Plait Stitch&mdash;Two-sided
+Italian Stitch&mdash;Holbein Stitch&mdash;Rococo Stitch.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Canvas work, known in the XIIIth century as <i>opus pulvinarium</i> or
+cushion work, is of great antiquity, and seems to have had an
+independent origin in several countries. It is sometimes given the
+misleading name of tapestry, perhaps owing to hangings of all kinds
+being called tapestries, whether loom-woven, worked with the needle, or
+painted. Large wall hangings with designs similar to those of woven
+tapestries have been most successfully carried out on canvas in cross or
+tent stitch; as a rule, however, smaller objects are worked, such as
+furniture coverings, screens or cushions, whence it is obvious canvas
+work received its ancient and descriptive Latin name. Many Eastern
+carpets are worked upon a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> strong canvas in a kind of tent stitch, and
+so come under the heading of canvas work. It is a particularly durable
+method of embroidering, and this makes it suitable for use upon anything
+subjected to hard wear.</p>
+
+<p>The work has usually a very decided and attractive character of its own.
+A familiar example of this can be seen in the XVIIIth century samplers.
+Its peculiar character is perhaps due to the fact that it cannot break
+away from a certain conventionality due to constant use of the same
+stitch, and its dependence upon the web of the fabric. This regularity
+prevents the work from showing certain faults of design that other
+methods may exaggerate. It is hardly possible to copy a natural spray of
+flowers in cross stitch and keep it very naturalistic. The stitch being
+square and alike all over gives a formality of treatment to every part
+of the design, also, some detail is perforce omitted owing to the
+impossibility of putting it in; all of this tends to a right method of
+treatment, which renders the sampler an admirable lesson not only in
+workmanship but also in design.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The XVIth and XVIIth century pictorial subjects worked upon fine canvas
+in cross or tent stitch afford instances of most interesting work in
+canvas stitches. Some of these, though, as a rule, very much smaller in
+size, equal, in their way, the finest tapestries. Most of them, if
+judged from a painter's standpoint, would be pronounced failures, but
+this effect is not what is sought after; the method of treatment belongs
+rather to the great traditions of the tapestry weaver, and is not
+governed by the canons of the painter. <a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI.</a> shows a detail of
+foliage from a particularly fine example of this work lately added to
+the Victoria and Albert Museum collection.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>In what went by the name of Berlin wool work, popular in the early XIXth
+century, we have before us a degenerate offshoot of this fine and poetic
+kind of work in which all its possibilities are missed, with a result
+that is prosaic in the extreme. Some of the canvas-work seat covers
+decorated with geometrical designs, seen on Chippendale chairs, were a
+pleasant and satisfactory variation in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> their way, but in most of the
+work after that period, the attempt at impossible naturalistic effect
+gave such unsatisfactory results as to almost deal a death blow to all
+canvas embroidery. It is, however, a method too good and useful to die
+out; it must always be more or less in vogue.</p>
+
+<p>Patterns carried out in canvas stitches are sometimes to be seen worked
+apparently upon velvet or similar ground materials. This is done by
+first laying the canvas upon the velvet and stitching through both
+materials; this would have to be carried out in a frame. The threads of
+the canvas are afterwards either withdrawn or closely cut off. In the
+former case, the stitches must be drawn tight, or the finished work will
+not look well. This method has the advantage of saving the labour of
+working the background, and sometimes it suits the pattern to have a
+contrast in the ground material. In old embroideries, heraldic devices
+may be seen successfully treated in this way.</p>
+
+<p>The usual canvas stitches can be worked upon other fabrics that have an
+even and square mesh, such as various kinds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> linen; also other
+embroidery stitches, such as stem, satin, or chain, can be used upon
+canvas; they are then always worked with a certain regularity, following
+the web of the material.</p>
+
+<p>Canvas work can be done in the hand or in a frame, but the technique is
+often better in work done in a frame. In all-over work it is important
+that not even a suggestion of the ground fabric should be allowed to
+show through; for this reason work in light colours should be done on
+white canvas, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>, as far as possible, also the thread used
+must suit in thickness the mesh of the canvas. To work a plain ground
+well is less easy than to work the pattern, though it may sound more
+simple. The back of the work, though not necessarily similar to the
+front, must be alike in stitch all over, for the direction the stitch
+takes at the back affects the regularity of appearance of the front. The
+stitch must not be commenced in exactly the same place in each row, lest
+a ridge should appear upon the surface; this can be avoided by using
+threads of different lengths. A ground is usually commenced at the lower
+left-hand corner, and a pattern, if a complicated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> one, from the centre
+outwards. These technical points are of importance, but they are of
+little value unless the stitches are at the same time expressing an
+interesting and suitable design.</p>
+
+<p>The stitches used are exceedingly numerous; those described in the
+following pages are the varieties most commonly seen.</p>
+
+<p>Cross stitch, the best known in this group, can be worked in slightly
+different ways, according to the purpose for which it is required. On
+the surface it is always the same, but it can vary at the back. For
+instance, when used for marking purposes it should form on the reverse
+side either a cross or a square, to do either of which demands some
+ingenuity on the part of the worker. For ordinary work the really
+correct method is to complete each stitch before going on to the next,
+though grounding is frequently done by working the first half of the
+stitch along an entire line, and completing the cross upon a return
+journey. In any case, the crossing must always be worked in the same
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>Cross stitch is a double stitch worked diagonally over two threads of
+the canvas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> each way. It can, however, be taken over more or fewer
+threads if required larger or smaller. To work it (<a href="#Fig_79">fig. 79</a>)&mdash;Bring the
+needle through on the upper left side of the threads to be covered, and
+take it back again on the lower right, then bring it through on the
+upper right side and return it to the back on the lower left, which
+completes the first stitch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;">
+<img src="images/fig_79.jpg" width="445" height="225" alt="Fig. 79." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_79"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 79.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tent stitch (<a href="#Fig_80">fig. 80</a>) is the finest canvas stitch, and is therefore
+suitable for work involving much detail. Pictorial and heraldic subjects
+are frequently carried out in it. It is worked diagonally over a
+perpendicular and horizontal thread of the canvas. The diagram shows
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> method of working both back and front. It will be noticed that
+though the line goes alternately from left to right and from right to
+left, the stitch is always the same at the back as well as the same upon
+the front; if this were not so, alternate rows would have a different
+appearance upon the right side. The diagram does not show the connection
+between the first and the second row, but it is evident that it must be
+a short upright line.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 473px;">
+<img src="images/fig_80.jpg" width="473" height="225" alt="Fig. 80." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_80"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 80.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gobelin stitch is a useful variety; it lends itself to shading better
+than cross stitch. It is most often worked upon a fine single canvas,
+and it can be used as a raised stitch. <a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a> represents the stitch; it
+is worked similarly to tent stitch but over two threads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> in height and
+one in width, no matter whether the single or double thread canvas is
+used. In order to work it as a raised stitch, a line of some kind of
+padding is thrown across the canvas, and the stitch taken over it. This
+line can be arranged to show in part, in which case the material must be
+one presentable, such as a gold cord or narrow braid. The padding would
+be covered with stitching to form the background, and left exposed for
+the pattern, which would probably be a simple repeating form of some
+kind. Gobelin stitch is sometimes worked quite perpendicularly just over
+two threads in height.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;">
+<img src="images/fig_81.jpg" width="480" height="225" alt="Fig. 81." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_81"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 81.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Irish stitch is pretty and quickly worked. It is usually taken
+perpendicularly over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> four threads of the canvas (<a href="#Fig_82">fig. 82</a>), though the
+number over which it is taken may vary. It is worked in such a way as to
+make the stitches of each succeeding row fit between those of the last
+row, and can be carried out either diagonally or in horizontal lines.
+What is known as Florentine work is carried out in a stitch of this
+kind. The pattern in this kind of work is taken horizontally across the
+ground in a succession of shaded zigzag lines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;">
+<img src="images/fig_82.jpg" width="397" height="600" alt="Fig. 82." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_82"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 82.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Plait stitch is often used for grounding. It resembles a simple plait
+laid in close rows to and fro on the ground. It can frequently be seen
+used upon the Italian XVIth century linen work, that in which the
+pattern is left in plain linen, and the ground worked in some colour.
+The diagram in <a href="#Fig_83">fig. 83</a> shows the method of working the stitch. If
+carried out correctly, the back of the material should show a row of
+short perpendicular lines, each composed of two threads.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 476px;">
+<img src="images/fig_83.jpg" width="476" height="300" alt="Fig. 83." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_83"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 83.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two-sided Italian stitch is descriptively named, for it is alike on both
+sides. This is frequently seen on XVIth and XVIIth century Italian linen
+work, similar to that mentioned above. A loosely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> woven linen makes a
+suitable ground material, for in the working the stitches must be pulled
+firmly, so as to draw the threads of the fabric together; this gives
+over the ground a squared open-work effect, which is very pretty. <a href="#Fig_84">Fig.
+84</a> explains the working of the stitch; it is shown in four stages, and
+is quite simple; the final result is a cross surrounded by a square. The
+lowest figure in the diagram shows the last stage, for the upper side of
+the square is filled in when the row above is worked. The drawing
+together of the web is not shown, but at a trial it should be done, for
+in that lies the special character<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> of the stitch. The silk used must be
+just thick enough to well cover the linen, but not too thick, for then
+the work would be clumsy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 209px;">
+<img src="images/fig_84.jpg" width="209" height="600" alt="Fig. 84." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_84"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 84.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 263px;">
+<img src="images/fig_85.jpg" width="263" height="600" alt="Fig. 85." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_85"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 85.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 210px;">
+<a href="images/fig_86.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_86.jpg" width="210" height="600" alt="Fig. 86." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_86"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 86.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Holbein stitch (<a href="#Fig_85">fig. 85</a>), also known as stroke or line stitch, is alike
+on both sides, and is often used in conjunction with cross and satin
+stitch, as well as alone. Very intricate and interesting patterns can be
+devised to be carried out with these three stitches, worked always with
+regard to the web<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> of the linen. Squared paper could be used for
+planning the design, as the stitches would all be practically of the
+same length, and the pattern must be one that can be easily carried out
+alike on both sides. The stitch is worked as follows: An even running
+stitch, picking up as much material as it leaves, is taken all round the
+pattern. This does half the work on either side; the gaps are then
+filled up by the running stitch being taken in a contrary direction,
+which completes the pattern. Occasionally stitches go off at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> an angle
+from the running pattern; these are completed on the first journey by a
+satin stitch being made at the necessary point. The present diagram is a
+zigzag line, with one of these stitches going off at each angle. <a href="#Fig_86">Fig. 86</a>
+is an example of a border design carried out in Holbein stitch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 453px;">
+<img src="images/fig_87.jpg" width="453" height="300" alt="Fig. 87." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_87"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 87.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The stitch illustrated in <a href="#Fig_87">fig. 87</a> is known as rococo stitch. It is a
+useful one for carrying out a conventional design, such as, to give a
+simple illustration, a flower sprig repeating in the spaces formed by a
+trellis pattern. The effect of the stitch when worked cannot be judged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+from this diagram; to see this properly a piece of canvas must be worked
+entirely over with it. The pattern chosen is usually one that lends
+itself to being worked in diagonal lines, as this stitch is best worked
+in that way. It entirely hides the canvas background, and is carried out
+very similarly to the oriental stitch in <a href="#Fig_71">fig. 71</a>. By the help of that
+diagram and description and the present one, which gives various steps,
+the worker will easily master the stitch, which is quite simple. The
+ordinary carrying out of the stitch is shown where the needle is at
+work, and in another part the diagram, by some loosened stitches,
+illustrates how to pass from one cluster to the next.</p>
+
+<p>Some fine examples of canvas work design, introducing a variety of
+stitches, may be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. These are large
+panels filled with foliage and flowers growing about architectural
+columns.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">METHODS OF WORK</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Couching&mdash;Braid Work&mdash;Laid Work&mdash;Applied Work&mdash;Inlaid Work&mdash;Patch
+Work.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>COUCHING</h4>
+
+<p>Couching is the name given to a method of embroidery in which one thread
+is attached to the material by another one. Sometimes not only one
+thread but a number of threads are couched down together; or it may be
+cord, braid, or metal thread that is attached to the material in this
+way. <a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a> shows some couching in progress. The method probably arose
+through the difficulty experienced in passing either coarse or very
+delicate threads through a material. Couching is constantly in use with
+gold thread embroidery, and it is further discussed in the chapter upon
+that subject, where also is described an entirely different method,
+which is to be recommended for couching other as well as for gold
+threads.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 461px;">
+<img src="images/fig_88.jpg" width="461" height="400" alt="Fig. 88." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_88"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 88.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Couching is useful in a variety of ways, <i>e.g.</i> for carrying out work in
+line or for outlining other embroidery, applied work for instance, which
+is frequently finished off by means of a couched thread; in the case of
+a difficult ground material, it is one of the most manageable methods of
+working. The geometrical open fillings of leaves and backgrounds are
+often composed of lines of thread thrown across and couched down at
+regular intervals. <a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a> is an example<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> of a favourite filling of this
+kind. Embroidery stitches can be made use of for couching down other
+threads; a bunch of threads may be laid upon the material, and an open
+chain, buttonhole, or feather stitch worked over in order to fix it in
+place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 146px;">
+<img src="images/fig_89.jpg" width="146" height="225" alt="Fig. 89." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_89"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 89.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Braid work is quickly and easily executed; it needs only a suitable
+pattern and a pretty braid for couching down to be most successful.
+There are a few points to be observed about the technique&mdash;the cut edge
+of a braid is awkward to manage, for it must, with a special needle, be
+taken through to the back of the material and there made secure and
+flat; for this reason the design should be so planned as to have as few
+breaks as possible. Interlacing strap work designs, of which a simple
+example is given in <a href="#Fig_90">fig. 90</a>, are very suitable for braid work. The
+thread that couches down the braid may be quite invisible, or, on the
+other hand, it may be made use of to further decorate the braid by being
+placed visibly across it,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> perhaps forming a chequering or other simple
+pattern, as shown in <a href="#Fig_91">fig. 91</a>. Ravellings of the braid may be used as
+invisible couching threads for stitching it down. Curves and sharp
+corners need special attention by way of extra stitches. The completed
+work is much improved by several hours' pressure under a weight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;">
+<img src="images/fig_90.jpg" width="436" height="400" alt="Fig. 90." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_90"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 90.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>LAID WORK</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/fig_91.jpg" width="400" height="155" alt="Fig. 91." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_91"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 91.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Laid work might be described as couching on a more extended scale&mdash;a
+given space is covered with threads taken from side to side in parallel
+lines close together, fixed at either extremity by entering the
+material. Further security is usually given by small couching stitches
+dotted down at intervals over the laid threads, or by throwing single
+lines of thread across in a contrary direction and tying these down at
+intervals with couching stitches. Yet another way is, to work a split or
+stem stitch over the laid threads, and thus fix them down. <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a> shows
+a flower carried out in laid work. The tying-down threads can often be
+made use of in one way or another to further decorate, or to explain
+form, by means of contrasting colour, change in direction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> and so on.
+The laid stitches in this flower are taken from the centre outwards and
+fixed in place by couched circular lines of thread. The centre of the
+flower has a geometrical filling, composed of a couched lattice pattern
+with French knots between.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> Conventional centres of this and like kinds
+are very pretty for embroidery flowers; such patterns as those shown in
+<a href="#Fig_93">fig. 93</a> can often be seen in use, and they need only a trial to be
+frequently adopted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;">
+<img src="images/fig_92.jpg" width="424" height="500" alt="Fig. 92." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_92"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 92.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;">
+<img src="images/fig_93.jpg" width="183" height="350" alt="Fig. 93." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_93"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 93.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Laid work shows off the gloss and texture of silk to great advantage,
+which is due to the thread being laid upon the material without being
+cut up into small stitches. Floss silk is much used for the work; it
+must not be at all twisted in the laying down, since this mars the
+effect. The work is carried out in a frame; it is quickly executed and
+economical, the thread being practically all upon the surface. Owing to
+the length of the stitches, this is not a very durable method, so it
+should not be subjected to hard wear. The work has sometimes a flimsy,
+unsatisfactory appearance, probably because of these long stitches. It
+will be seen that the silk passing through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> to the back, and then
+immediately to the front again, takes up very little of the material. A
+method in use for giving greater strength in this way is to lay the silk
+first in alternate lines and to fill up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> the gaps thus left upon a
+second journey across the form. For added strength, use might be made of
+a linen thread at the back, as in the <i>point couch&eacute; rentr&eacute; ou retir&eacute;</i>
+method that is discussed later.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<img src="images/fig_94.jpg" width="282" height="500" alt="Fig. 94." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_94"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 94.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A gold thread outline gives a nice finish to laid work. If there is
+nothing in the way of an outline, and the pattern and ground are both
+covered with laid threads, the edges of the pattern are likely to look
+weak. <a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a> shows a leaf filled in with rather loosely laid threads
+and outlined and veined with gold passing, the veining answering the
+double purpose of fixing down the laid threads and veining the leaf at
+the same time.</p>
+
+<p>In this work, the colouring is frequently in flat tones, but if
+necessary it is quite easy to introduce gradation. Further variety can
+be obtained by a contrast in colour in the tying-down threads.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>APPLIED WORK</h4>
+
+<p>The ancient Latin term <i>opus consutum</i>, and the modern French one
+<i>appliqu&eacute;</i>, which is perhaps the name most commonly in use, both refer
+to the same kind of work; what is now called cut work is quite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+different from this, and is described elsewhere. Under the heading of
+applied work comes anything that, cut out of one material, is applied to
+another; it may have been previously embroidered, or it may be just the
+plain stuff. Both kinds can, as has been proved, be carried out with
+excellent effect, but much unsuitable and badly designed work has been
+done by this method, with the result that the very name has fallen into
+disrepute.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest kind of applied work is that in which the design, traced
+upon one material, then cut out along the outline of the pattern, is
+applied to another material, the junction of the two materials being
+hidden by a cord or suitable stitch. The applied work is most often
+flat, but it can be in slight or in strong relief. The texture of the
+materials employed may be an important factor in the result, for a
+contrast in material as well as in colour is often wanted; sometimes the
+former alone is sufficient. The choice of material depends very much
+upon the use to which the finished work will be put, but this simple
+form of applied work often relies for part of its effect upon an
+intrinsic interest in the material, so it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> usually carried out with
+such materials as velvet, satin, or silk, either plain or figured.</p>
+
+<p>The design for this kind of work should be of a bold conventional type,
+such as large foliage with the character of the heraldic mantling; any
+naturalistic flowers, figures, or animals easily become grotesque. A
+simple outline to the forms is necessary, both because of the technical
+difficulties and for the effect of the finished work. This kind of work
+is hardly suitable for expressing fine detail; oftentimes it is seen
+from a distance, and many indentations on an outline sometimes tend to
+weaken it. Heraldry can be well expressed by this method. <a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a> is an
+example from a piece of XIIIth century work, a fragment of the surcoat
+of William de Fortibus, third Earl of Albemarle, who lived in the reign
+of Henry III.; the example can be seen in the British Museum. This
+method of work is also particularly suitable for such purposes as the
+decoration of wall surfaces, for hangings of various kinds, or banners;
+it can, however, be used for many other purposes, provided the design
+and the materials are well chosen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;">
+<img src="images/fig_95.jpg" width="447" height="500" alt="Fig. 95." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_95"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 95.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing to the difficulty of working upon some ground stuffs, the method<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+has arisen of carrying out the embroidery upon an easily worked ground,
+such as linen; cutting it out, when finished, along the outline and
+applying it to the proper ground, the junction of the two materials
+being hidden by a cord or some equivalent. It is usually further
+completed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> light sprays or some other kind of finishing touches being
+placed around the applied part, these worked directly on to the proper
+ground. This prevents the embroidery from looking too bald and detached
+from its surroundings, of which there is always a danger when it is
+carried out separately and then attached; if at all possible it is
+always more satisfactory to work directly on to the right ground.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact it is almost always possible to do this; the workers
+of the XIIIth century, the period at which the art of embroidery was at
+its height, carried out the most exquisitely fine stitching and design
+on such grounds as velvet that had almost as long a pile as some
+varieties of plush. The famous cope of English work known as the Bowden
+cope, of which a detail is given in <a href="#Plate_I">Plate I.</a>, is an excellent
+illustration of this point. Upon careful examination of the work it is
+apparent that between the stitching and the velvet there is a layer of
+material, composed either of fine linen or silk. This would be of great
+help in the carrying out of the stitching. It is exceedingly probable
+that this layer of fine material was at the commencement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> of the work
+laid completely over the velvet background of the cope; for one thing,
+the design, with its finely drawn detail, could easily be perfectly
+traced upon a surface of this kind and only imperfectly upon velvet;
+another advantage of this method would be, that the background would be
+kept quite free from dust and from getting soiled by the hands during
+the lengthy process of the work. The stitching would be carried through
+all the surfaces, and when finished, the fine surface layer would be cut
+away close round the edges of the design, which would be quite easily
+done. This method of working upon a difficult ground is well worth
+trying in place of the applied method.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the discussion of applied embroidery&mdash;let us suppose the
+embroidered piece to be just completed on its linen ground, still
+stretched in the frame in which it was worked. In another frame, stretch
+the background material and trace upon it the exact outline of the piece
+to be applied. Cut out the embroidered piece carefully round the edge,
+allowing about one-sixteenth of an inch margin outside the worked part,
+leaving, if necessary, little connect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>ing ties of material here and
+there for temporary support. With fine steel pins or needles fix the
+cut-out work exactly over the tracing already made on the ground
+material, then make it secure round the edge with rather close stitches
+of silk placed at right-angles to the outline; with fine materials the
+raw edge of the applied part can be neatly tucked under and fixed in
+place by this overcast stitch. A cord is next sewn on to hide the fixing
+and give a finish to the edge. The colour of this cord is important,
+since its colour may increase the expanse of either the applied part or
+the ground. Sometimes a double cord is put round, and in this case the
+inner one is attached to the embroidery before it is cut out of the
+frame, and the second attached afterwards. The inner one is often of a
+colour predominating in the embroidery, and the outer one of the colour
+of the ground. Gold cord is very usual; if a coloured silk one is used
+it must be a perfect match. The ordinary twisted cord looks best
+attached invisibly; to do this, slightly untwist it whilst stitching,
+and insert the needle in the opening thus formed. Some kinds of flat
+braids look well with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> fixing stitches taken deliberately over them
+and forming part of the ornamentation (see <a href="#Fig_91">fig. 91</a>). Bunches of silk are
+sometimes couched round with a buttonhole or other stitch, but whatever
+the outline may consist of, it should be a firm bold line.</p>
+
+<p>The work must be perfectly flat when completed. Puckering may occur
+through want of care in the preliminary straining or in the fixing on of
+the applied parts. Some materials are more easy to manage than others.
+The difficult ones can if necessary have a preliminary backing applied,
+which is useful also if the material is inclined to fray. The backing
+may consist of a thin coating of embroidery paste, or of tissue paper or
+fine holland pasted over the part to be applied. The more all this kind
+of thing can be avoided, the better the work, for pasting of any kind is
+apt to give a stiff mechanical look; also, if the work is intended to
+hang in folds any stiffness would be most impracticable.</p>
+
+<p>Even more than simpler work applied embroidery needs the finish of some
+light work upon the ground. Gold threads and spangles, arranged in
+fashion similar to the sprays in <a href="#Fig_112">fig. 112</a>, are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> very often used.
+Sometimes, instead of this, some small pattern in outline is run all
+over the ground in order to enrich it.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>INLAID WORK</h4>
+
+<p>Inlaid work is in effect similar to the applied, and it is used for the
+same purposes. The difference with this is that both background and
+pattern are cut out and fitted into each other, instead of only one of
+them being cut out and laid on an entire ground. The method of work is
+economical, for there need be very little waste of material. What is
+left from cutting out the pattern and background for one piece can be
+used as ground and pattern for another and possibly companion piece.
+There is in Perugia a church which possesses a complete set of draperies
+of this description, that were made at a good period for this work,
+early XVIth century, and evidently were designed for the position they
+occupy. On festivals, the piers, pulpit, and parts of the wall are hung
+with these rose and gold-coloured hangings of inlaid work. The design is
+a conventional scroll-work pattern, and the various hangings have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+alternately the rose ground with gold pattern, and gold ground with rose
+pattern, the whole forming a rich and harmonious interchange of colour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 456px;">
+<img src="images/fig_96.jpg" width="456" height="400" alt="Fig. 96." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_96"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 96.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96</a> is an example of inlaid work. It is a XVth century tabard said
+to have belonged to Charles the Bold, and now in the Mus&eacute;e Historique at
+Berne. The pattern, it will be noticed, is planned on the counterchange
+principle, which is particularly well suited for this method of work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A very ancient piece of the same kind of inlaid work is the funeral tent
+of Queen Isi-em-Keb, dated about 980 <span style="font-size: small;">B.C.</span>, which is in the Boulak
+Museum, Cairo. It is composed of thousands of pieces of gazelle hide
+dyed in various colours and stitched together so as to form a wonderful
+design.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>To carry out the work&mdash;Stitch in a frame some holland to use as a
+background; this may be only temporary, being removed when the work is
+completed, or it may be left for additional strength. The materials for
+both background and pattern must first be carefully cut out. It is a
+good plan, where possible, to cut the two together so as to ensure exact
+similarity, for they have to fit together afterwards like the parts of a
+puzzle. The cut edges cannot be allowed to fray, so if there is any
+danger of this, precautions must be taken to prevent it, though the
+better way is to choose in the first place more suitable material.
+Leather is a particularly good example of one. Any pasting or backing
+which might be used for prevention of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> fraying would prevent also that
+possibility of exposing both sides of the work, which in inlay is
+sometimes a valuable quality; also, the stiffening which unavoidably
+results from pasting is rarely an improvement. When materials of
+different thicknesses are used together, the thinner one can be lined
+with fine holland so as to make it nearer equal in strength. After the
+materials are cut out the next process is to lay them in position on the
+prepared holland and tack them to it. Then, with an overcast stitch that
+must not be allowed to pierce the under surface, join all the edges
+together, and cover the stitches with a finishing cord or braid. The
+backing can now be removed if need be.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>PATCHWORK</h4>
+
+<p>Patchwork can hardly attain to a high position amongst the various
+branches of embroidery. The main object of doing patchwork frequently is
+to make good use of valuable scraps of waste material. Unless, however,
+the product shows evidence of well thought out colour and arrangement,
+it cannot come under the heading<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> of embroidery. Interesting results,
+however, of many kinds can be produced from this paint-box of brightly
+coloured scraps of material by ingenious mixing and shaping of them.
+Patchwork infers a rather more mosaic-like design than inlaid work, to
+which it is in some respects similar. The geometrically planned mosaic
+and inlay pavements that are to be seen so commonly in Italy and the
+East suggest great variety of patterns that could be applied to
+patchwork. The illustration at <a href="#Fig_97">fig. 97</a> is a simple example taken from
+this source. Too often the results are only "alarming," as the Countess
+of Wilton expressively puts it, thinking, probably, of the patterns
+frequently seen upon cushions, patterns more resembling bright-coloured
+bricks set in cornerwise than anything else. They are the most unrestful
+looking things imaginable. The important elements of the work lie in the
+colour, shape, and texture of the pieces used, for upon the right
+selection the result wholly depends. The shapes chosen must be simple
+owing to the necessity of fitting and stitching them together, but there
+is plenty of variety obtainable with simplicity. The design<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> may consist
+of one shape repeated or several. If only one, it is limited to a few
+geometrical figures, such as the square, hexagon, or shell shape; if
+more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> than one, there can be greater variety of pattern. <a href="#Fig_98">Fig. 98</a> is an
+example in which four shapes are made use of, a large and small circle,
+an octagon, and an S-like twist. Four of these twists together make the
+figure that interlaces over the surface. Embroidery stitching can be
+added to patchwork; for instance, this example might have a neat border
+pattern worked on all the S-shapes, as suggested in the diagram, which
+would probably considerably increase its interest. <a href="#Fig_99">Fig. 99</a> shows flowers
+springing from the base of the shell-form in use upon it. The embroidery
+could be simply carried out in one colour, or if a more gorgeous result
+were required, variety could be introduced in this way as well as in the
+ground, and a marvellous combination of intricate colour could be thus
+produced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;">
+<img src="images/fig_97.jpg" width="464" height="600" alt="Fig. 97." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_97"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 97.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<img src="images/fig_98.jpg" width="344" height="600" alt="Fig. 98." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_98"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 98.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the work to be made up satisfactorily it is necessary that the
+shapes be accurately cut out. To ensure this, a metal plate is cut and
+all the shapes are taken from it; sometimes, in lieu of this, a pattern
+is cut out in stiff cardboard. Lay this pattern-shape on the wrong side
+of the material and pencil it round, then carefully cut out the stuff,
+leaving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> about a quarter of an inch for turning in. Next lay the
+pattern-shape upon a piece of stiff paper or thin card-board and again
+trace off the shape, this time cutting it out exactly to the pattern,
+tack the material to the paper, and stitch down the raw edges at the
+back. Lay the prepared patches on a table and put them in place by
+referring to the design, and then commence sewing the edges together
+with an overcast stitch on the wrong side. When all are sewn, remove the
+papers and flatten the seams with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> an iron. Any braid or stitch that may
+be required to mask the join is next put on; this may be made ornamental
+by interlacing knots at the corners, or by any other device that happens
+to suit the work. The last thing to be done is to put a neat lining upon
+the back to cover and protect the numerous raw edges.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;">
+<img src="images/fig_99.jpg" width="428" height="425" alt="Fig. 99." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_99"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 99.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">METHODS OF WORK&mdash;(<i>continued</i>)</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Quilting&mdash;Raised Work&mdash;Darning&mdash;Open Fillings&mdash;Darned Netting.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Quilting is a method of working by which three materials are fixed
+together by more or less all-over stitching. It probably developed
+through the necessity of keeping the three layers in place. For
+practical purposes only, the sewing machine does the work excellently,
+but by making the stitching follow out some prearranged design, it is
+raised to the level of art. <a href="#Plate_III">Plate III.</a> is an interesting example showing
+what can be done in the way of design with the stitching over the
+surface. Embroidery may be added to the quilting,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> and this is often an
+improvement. The Eastern nations carry out marvellously intricate
+designs in quilting, and English XVIIIth century work of this kind shows
+Eastern influence strongly. A good example of this is a very interesting
+piece in the Victoria and Albert Museum.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first aim in quilting was evidently warmth, and the name denotes one
+of the chief uses to which it is put. It is made use of also for
+curtains, infants' caps or gloves (see <a href="#Fig_100">fig. 100</a>), all these things
+requiring the three layers for warmth. The materials usually consist of
+a surface one, which can be silk, fine linen or anything else; an
+interlining of some softer material having a certain amount of spring in
+it, such as flannel, cotton wadding, or wool; and for the third, an
+underneath lining of some kind. A cord is sometimes inserted instead of
+the inner layer of stuff, the lines of stitching running along either
+side to keep it in place. Occasionally there are only the top and the
+under layer, with no intervening material. The stitch usually employed
+is a running, back, or chain stitch, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> it can be of the colour of
+the surface, or a contrast to it. Gold silk is often seen upon a white
+linen ground. The chief interest in the work lies in the choice of
+pattern, such things as colour, variety of stitching, interest in
+material, are not made much of. In planning the pattern, use is made of
+the knowledge that the closely stitched parts will lie more flatly, so
+it frequently happens that the ground has a small diaper running over
+it, and the pattern part, being less worked upon, perhaps only outlined,
+stands out more and forms an effective contrast.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;">
+<img src="images/fig_100.jpg" width="404" height="600" alt="Fig. 100." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_100"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 100.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>RAISED WORK</h4>
+
+<p>In the XIVth century raised work was commonly done, but few examples are
+known of date earlier than this. The raised effect is obtained by an
+interposed layer of padding, which is a good method of getting a certain
+kind of effect. It is perhaps wise to err on the side of too little
+rather than too much relief. An example of too much and also of a wrong
+kind is the English stump work that was popular in the XVIIth century,
+when figures were stuffed like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> dolls, the clothes made separately and
+attached, even to the shoes and stockings. Germain de St. Aubin, writing
+in 1769, describes with much admiration a kind of <i>broderie en ronde
+bosse</i>, apparently much the same thing and in equally doubtful taste,
+though the skill required to carry it out must have been considerable.</p>
+
+<p>The work, usually done in a frame, must be well carried out technically;
+the padding should be quite perfect in the form required before the
+final surface layer is worked over it, for this one will not make any
+deficiency right, but will only serve to show it up the more. Another
+point to be careful about is to make the padding stop well within the
+traced line of the pattern, otherwise the finished design will turn out
+much larger than was originally intended. The outline is sometimes
+worked round at the commencement, whereby its correctness is ensured.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig_101.jpg" width="300" height="105" alt="Fig. 101." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_101"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 101.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/fig_102.jpg" width="130" height="250" alt="Fig. 102." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_102"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 102.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many different materials are brought into use for padding purposes. One
+of the simplest and most durable is a running of thread as illustrated
+in <a href="#Fig_101">fig. 101</a>. The thread can be arranged so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> as to be thicker in the
+centre than at the edges by laying some extra stitches over that part.
+If a quite flat padding is required, the shape, cut out in cloth, felt,
+or parchment, is attached by stitches to the material as shown in <a href="#Fig_102">fig.
+102</a>; the surface stitching would be taken across it. Cardboard,
+sometimes pasted on to the ground, is used for this purpose, but it is
+unsatisfactory in several ways; for instance, cardboard letters are
+procurable for embroidering initials upon linen, but they are not at all
+practical for anything that goes through the wash; moreover, the letters
+are sometimes of bad design. Cotton wool is used as a stuffing, its
+surface being usually covered over with muslin, but this again<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> would
+not stand much wear of any kind, and so could only be used under certain
+conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/fig_103.jpg" width="250" height="119" alt="Fig. 103." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_103"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 103.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another good method is to couch down a hank of threads of fine cotton or
+perhaps wool as illustrated in <a href="#Fig_103">fig. 103</a>. For raised lines there is a
+special kind of string procurable that can be couched to the ground
+material at the required places. The padding, whatever it may be
+composed of, should be as nearly as possible of the same colour as the
+surface layer, in view of any after wear and tear misplacing the
+threads.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 225px;">
+<img src="images/fig_104.jpg" width="225" height="235" alt="Fig. 104." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_104"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 104.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top layer of underlay must lie in direction contrary to the surface
+embroidery stitching, which is very often some form of satin stitch
+taken from side to side over the padding. Instead of going through the
+material it can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> be fixed on each side with a couching stitch, as in
+<a href="#Fig_104">fig. 104</a>. A stronger way than these would be that shown in <a href="#Fig_129">fig. 129</a>.
+Buttonhole is a good stitch for working over a padding; it would be
+worked solidly in the manner described and illustrated on <a href="#Page_117">page 117</a>, but
+taken, as there shown, over a padding instead of over a flat surface.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>DARNING</h4>
+
+<p>There is a most practical sound about darning; it can, however, be made
+good use of in embroidery as well as in plain needlework. There are two
+rather different kinds in use; in both the stitch is a running one and
+done in much the same way that a thin place would be darned in mending.</p>
+
+<p>One kind of darning is rather popular at the present moment, and
+examples of it may be familiar; it is a large, bold kind of work, often
+carried out with a coarse twisted silk. Upon the background, the lines
+of stitching usually run straight across or up and down, in the pattern,
+they radiate according to the shape of the form to be filled. The entire
+material<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> is covered one way or another by the running stitches, and
+just one thread of the ground fabric is picked up where necessary at
+irregular intervals; a loosely woven linen is often chosen for working
+upon, one in which it is easy to pick up the single thread. Gradation of
+colour can easily be introduced; the design chosen is most frequently
+some kind of conventional flower and leafy scroll. This method of
+embroidery is seen to best advantage when used upon large surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>The second kind is called pattern darning; in it the stitches are picked
+up in some regular order, so that they form various geometrical patterns
+over the surface. It is worked by counting the threads of the fine linen
+ground and picking up a single thread or more in some regular sequence.
+The threads are run in parallel lines close together, either
+horizontally or vertically, so as to take advantage of the web of the
+fabric. The work is particularly pretty and not difficult, requiring
+only patience and good eyesight. <a href="#Fig_105">Fig. 105</a> gives some simple examples of
+the work&mdash;The first is a chevron pattern, formed by picking up one
+thread and leaving about five each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> time; each succeeding row moves a
+step forward or backward as required to carry out the pattern. In the
+second example the darning is taken two ways of the material; in the
+centre, where it meets and crosses, it entirely covers the ground. A
+different colour might be used for each direction, which would look very
+well at the crossing in the centre. The four corners are filled up with
+a chequer darn; this each time picks up as much material as it leaves.
+The third example shows the darning stitch forming a diamond pattern.
+Samplers, dated early XIXth century, may be seen entirely filled with
+these pattern darns; they are covered with most intricate and beautiful
+sample squares showing various patterns in darning, and were possibly
+done in order to learn how to repair damask table linen. In a collection
+of early Egyptian work in the Victoria and Albert Museum, there is some
+pattern darning, dated VIth to IXth century, <span style="font-size: small;">A.D.</span>, which proves it to be
+a very early method of embroidering.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;">
+<a href="images/fig_105.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_105.jpg" width="231" height="600" alt="Fig. 105." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_105"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 105.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This pattern darning, however, is so pretty that it is often possible to
+make use of it in embroidery work for all kinds of purposes. It makes a
+very good back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>ground if there is sufficient space to show the pattern,
+if there is not, the irregular darning might be used instead, for it
+would in that case be just as good and much quicker to work. To
+pattern-darn the ground with the ornament upon it left in the plain
+material, perhaps not worked upon at all, is a very effective method of
+carrying out a design, see <a href="#Fig_106">fig. 106</a> for example. Again it might very
+well be used for the conventional carrying out of draperies in the same
+way as in <i>point couch&eacute; rentr&eacute; ou retir&eacute;</i>.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> The draperies on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+figure in the <a href="#Frontispiece">frontispiece</a> could easily be carried out with silk thread
+in the darning stitch, in fact this method of decoration more closely
+resembles the early couching than any other; it is not quite as
+satisfactory because the single threads of the background that are
+picked up prevent the ground showing nothing but silk. Bands of this
+work may be seen ornamenting needle books or work cases; it shows to
+best advantage when worked finely with floss or filosel silk, the coarse
+twisted silks are too thick for the purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 214px;">
+<a href="images/fig_106.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_106.jpg" width="214" height="600" alt="Fig. 106." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_106"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 106.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>OPEN WORK FILLINGS</h4>
+
+<p>Patterns can be carried out in line, they can be worked quite solidly,
+and there is a method that lies between these two known as open filling.
+The open and solid fillings are often used together in the same piece of
+work; examples of this can be seen on the XVIIth century wool-work
+curtains, the large scrolling leaves are sometimes partly worked openly
+and a portion, possibly reflexed, filled in with solid stitches in
+gradating colour; see for an example <a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII.</a> This has a very good
+effect, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> prevents the work looking too heavy, shows up the form more
+clearly, and allows of more variety in the stitching. With open fillings
+the outline surrounding them must always be some firm decided line, such
+as is made by a band of satin or long and short stitch, or, in the case
+of larger forms, by several rows of different line stitches worked
+closely together, one inside the other, most likely in different shades
+of colour. A filling of open work can be carried out in a variety of
+ways; it may be a decorated trellis, a regular dotting of some kind, or
+some geometrical pattern in outline, or some light stitch such as an
+open buttonhole (see<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> <a href="#Fig_107">fig. 107</a>), which would be treated each as a
+diapering over the form to be filled. It does not much matter what the
+filling is as long as it is dispersed pretty regularly over the space,
+giving the effect at a little distance of a light pervading tone, and
+when examined closely exhibiting an in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>teresting small pattern. The open
+filling method can be used entirely throughout a design with very pretty
+effect; an example of this may be seen on an embroidered coverlet and
+pillow case in the Victoria and Albert Museum.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The pattern, composed
+of vine leaves and grapes, is carried out in dark brown silk on a linen
+ground, the leaves being all outlined with satin stitch. There is
+wonderful variety in the patterns, no two alike, which form the open
+fillings of the leaves; this makes them most interesting to examine, and
+is evidence of enthusiasm in their designing. <a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108</a>, a leaf taken
+from this specimen, shows one method of filling a form with open
+work.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> <a href="#Fig_109">Fig. 109</a> shows a collection of patterns taken from the same
+piece of embroidery. It will be observed that small stitches of the same
+length compose the pattern, which can be designed upon squared paper and
+easily copied on to the linen ground by always picking up the same
+number of threads. To look well these little forms must be accurately
+worked,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> and they or similar kinds can be used upon flowers, leaves,
+beasts, draperies, or anything else quite indiscriminately. <a href="#Fig_110">Fig. 110</a>,
+from a cap in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a drawing showing the
+same kind of open filling in use upon a bird.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<img src="images/fig_107.jpg" width="270" height="600" alt="Fig. 107." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_107"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 107.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 544px;">
+<img src="images/fig_108.jpg" width="544" height="600" alt="Fig. 108." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_108"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 108.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<a href="images/fig_109.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_109.jpg" width="363" height="600" alt="Fig. 109." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_109"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 109.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 643px;">
+<img src="images/fig_110.jpg" width="643" height="600" alt="Fig. 110." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_110"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 110.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A quicker way of carrying out these geometrical fillings is by using
+such forms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> as a lattice and throwing the lines from side to side
+across the shape to be filled, fixing them down, where they cross each
+other, with couching stitches; the interstices left between the threads
+can be filled in with little stars, crosses, or dots (see <a href="#Fig_111">fig. 111</a>).
+Buttonhole stitch, if made use of as an open filling, would be taken in
+lines straight across a form, the stitches being worked possibly two or
+three closely together and then a space, and so on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;">
+<a href="images/fig_111.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_111.jpg" width="405" height="600" alt="Fig. 111." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_111"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 111.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_112">Fig. 112</a> suggests another method of lightly filling a leaf with a
+conventional veining and dotting. There is no limit to the variety which
+can be obtained in this method of working.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 342px;">
+<img src="images/fig_112.jpg" width="342" height="600" alt="Fig. 112." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_112"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 112.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Open fillings are effective for use upon any work that is intended to be
+seen with a light at the back; they make very decorative the various
+forms they fill, in such things as muslin window blinds, curtains, fire
+screens, whether hand screens or the larger type. For articles of this
+kind the patterns should be rather more solid and less lined in
+character; <a href="#Fig_113">fig. 113</a>, taken from a window blind exhibited in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum, exemplifies what is meant; most of the patterns
+illustrated in <a href="#Fig_100">fig. 100</a> could be treated in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> more solid manner if
+necessary, and would look equally well that way. When working upon
+transparent grounds special care must be taken with the reverse side as
+well as with the surface, for the work to be practically alike upon both
+sides; there must be no threads running from one form to another nor any
+visible fastening off of ends.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 703px;">
+<img src="images/fig_113.jpg" width="703" height="600" alt="Fig. 113." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_113"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 113.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>DARNED NETTING</h4>
+
+<p>Darned netting, or <i>lacis</i>, as it is sometimes called, might almost come
+under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> the heading of either lace or embroidery. It is used effectively
+with other kinds of white linen work, bands or squares of it being let
+into the linen; the contrast of the solid with the more open work gives
+a pretty effect. <a href="#Fig_114">Fig. 114</a> is an example of this work. The darning is
+done on a plain netted ground which can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> prepared by the worker if
+acquainted with netting, if not, the squares can be obtained ready for
+working upon. The pattern must be designed upon squared paper as for
+cross stitch work, then it is simply a question of following out the
+pattern upon the square net ground. Every square of the patterned part
+must be crossed in each direction by two lines of darning, which should
+about fill it up. The various lines are run in and out as continuously
+as possible, so as to avoid unnecessary fastening off or passing from
+one part to another. When a fresh thread is required, join it with a
+knot to the end of the last one (see figs. <a href="#Fig_165">165</a> and <a href="#Fig_166">166</a>), and darn the
+ends in neatly with the other threads. These knots are often used in
+embroidery, for they are both strong and small. Detached stitches and
+parts must be worked by themselves; the thread should not be carried
+from one to the other. The work must be done in a frame and carried out
+with a blunt-pointed needle. The same thread is used for the netted
+ground and for the darned pattern. A method of work that the French call
+<i>dessein r&eacute;serv&eacute;</i> is, in result, rather similar to this, but it is
+worked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> in just the reverse way. The pattern, whatever it may be, is
+left in the plain linen, and the background has certain threads in each
+direction withdrawn at regular intervals, whereby the effect of the
+squared net ground is obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 585px;">
+<img src="images/fig_114.jpg" width="585" height="600" alt="Fig. 114." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_114"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 114.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">METHODS OF WORK&mdash;(<i>continued</i>)</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Drawn Thread Work&mdash;Hem Stitching&mdash;Simple Border Patterns&mdash;Darned
+Thread Patterns&mdash;Corners&mdash;Cut or Open Work&mdash;Various Methods of
+Refilling the Open Spaces.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>This method of work is the acknowledged link between embroidery and
+lace, and was possibly the origin of the latter. Drawn work is that in
+which the threads of either the warp or the weft of the material are
+withdrawn and those remaining worked into a pattern, by either
+clustering together or working over them in some fashion. The cut or
+open work, as it is sometimes called, is that in which both warp and
+weft are in places cut away, and the open spaces thus formed are partly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+refilled with a device of one kind or another.</p>
+
+<p>The work is most often carried out in white thread on white linen, but
+coloured threads may occasionally be introduced with advantage. It is a
+durable method of work, and particularly suitable for the decoration of
+various house-linens, things that must undergo daily wear and wash; its
+rather unobtrusive character too makes it the more suitable for this
+purpose. The work is used in conjunction with other kinds of embroidery,
+perhaps making a neat finish to an edge, or lightening what would
+otherwise be too heavy in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Drawn thread and cut work can be carried out with such detail and
+fineness as to really become most delicate lace. In this chapter,
+however, it is intended to be treated rather as an adjunct to other
+embroidery, therefore only elementary work will be discussed. More
+attention might with advantage be paid to the design of this kind of
+work, for more might be done with it than sometimes is. For one thing,
+there is very little variety in the patterns, and the result often seems
+a spidery mass of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> incomprehensible threads with no very perceivable
+plan; perhaps if more attention were paid to the proportion and massing
+of the solid and open parts, a better result might be attained. Neatness
+and simplicity are good qualities in the pattern, the method of work not
+being suited to the expression of the various larger and bolder types of
+design.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>DRAWN THREAD WORK</h4>
+
+<p>In drawn work the question is how to treat the remaining warp threads
+after the weft has been withdrawn. They can be clustered in bunches in
+different ways with ornamental stitches added, or be entirely covered
+over with darning or overcast stitches in such a way as to form a
+pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of most drawn thread work is hem stitching, the two edges
+marking the limit of the withdrawn threads have usually to be hem
+stitched before any pattern can be carried out. One method of doing this
+is in progress in <a href="#Fig_115">fig. 115</a>. In order to work it, draw out three or four
+threads of the warp and tack the hem down to the top edge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> of the line
+thus made. The diagram explains the remainder of the working.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;">
+<img src="images/fig_115.jpg" width="463" height="250" alt="Fig. 115." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_115"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 115.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a> shows in the first example clusters of four threads drawn
+together at each edge by hem stitching in such a way as to form a
+ladder-like pattern. This and the one below are the ornamentations of a
+plain hem that are most commonly seen. The variation in pattern in the
+lower one is obtained by drawing together on the lower edge two threads
+from two consecutive bunches in the upper row instead of just repeating
+over again the same divisioning as before. These two examples are drawn
+to show the reverse, not the working side.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 512px;">
+<img src="images/fig_116.jpg" width="512" height="400" alt="Fig. 116." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_116"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 116.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another way of disposing of the undrawn threads is to cover them with a
+kind of darning stitch, as illustrated in <a href="#Fig_117">fig. 117</a>. This kind of work is
+more solid than the other, and is for that reason very durable. This
+example is commenced at the right-hand corner, where the threads are
+drawn loosely in order to explain the working. The needle, which should
+have a blunt point, takes the thread to and fro alternately over and
+under two clusters of warp thread, drawing them together a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> little
+during the process; half-way down, the needle leaves the first set of
+threads and continues working with the second and a new set (see needle
+in <a href="#Fig_117">diagram</a>). When this is worked down to the base the needle takes the
+thread invisibly up the centre of the worked part to the point where it
+is required for the continuation of the pattern. The working of this
+simple pattern explains the principle upon which all kinds of pretty and
+more complicated designs can be carried out. The darning thread may be
+coloured; in a more intricate design two or three different colours
+might be introduced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<img src="images/fig_117.jpg" width="442" height="225" alt="Fig. 117." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_117"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 117.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;">
+<img src="images/fig_118.jpg" width="464" height="225" alt="Fig. 118." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_118"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 118.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_118">Fig. 118</a> shows another pattern in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> same kind of work. The darning
+stitch begins by working to and fro over and under four clusters of warp
+threads, part way down it continues over the two central ones only,
+leaving the outside clusters alone for the present. It finishes up, as
+at the beginning, to and fro over the four. The threads that were left
+are next covered with an overcast stitch, the adjoining ones in each
+case are caught together in the centre in order to form the X shape that
+recurs along the pattern. This darning kind of work is very closely
+allied to weaving, and especially the kind often seen in Coptic work, in
+which bands of the woof threads are purposely omitted in places, whilst
+the fabric is being made,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> in order that a pattern may be hand-woven in
+afterwards to take their place. Many beautiful examples of this work are
+on view in the Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/fig_119.jpg" width="250" height="468" alt="Fig. 119." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_119"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 119.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In working a drawn thread border round a square shape, at each corner
+there comes an open space that requires a filling. <a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119</a> shows two
+wheels that are commonly used to ornament such places. The square in the
+first one has a preliminary groundwork of threads thrown across from
+corner to corner and from side to side, all meeting and crossing in the
+centre. The working thread is brought through at this point and the
+wheel commenced by taking a kind of back stitch over a bar and bringing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+the needle up beyond the next bar. It then takes the thread a step back
+and over the same bar and brings it up beyond the next; this goes on
+until the circle is of sufficient size, the stitches growing a little
+longer in each succeeding row. In the diagram the thread is loosened at
+the end to explain the working. The lower example is a commonly used
+wheel, which is made by the thread running round alternately over and
+under a bar until the wheel is completed. It should be as solid as the
+upper one, but is purposely left loose in the diagram. Either of the
+wheels could have a line of buttonhole stitching worked round the edge
+as a finish. This figure shows also the two usual ways of making firm
+the raw edges in cut work&mdash;the square shape is bound by an overcast
+stitch, and the round one by buttonholing.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>CUT OR OPEN WORK</h4>
+
+<p>Cut work can be most interesting both to look at and to carry out. In
+the XVIIth century Italy was famous for its <i>punto tagliato</i> or cut
+work. John Taylor mentions "rare Italian cutworke" in "The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> Praise of
+the Needle." This poem may perhaps be of interest to some; it was
+prefixed to a book of embroidery patterns of cut work named "The
+Needle's Excellency." It ran through twelve editions, the first of which
+was printed in 1621, and sold at "the signe of the Marigold in Paules
+Churchyard." Copies may be seen in the British Museum Library; in the
+Bodleian, Oxford, in the Ryland's Library, Manchester, and occasionally
+elsewhere. <a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a> shows a pattern taken from this book.</p>
+
+<p>There are several distinct varieties of cut work, for instance, that
+known as renaissance embroidery, which is usually composed of an
+arabesque design from which the background is cut away, leaving the
+pattern in the linen; the cut edges are outlined and protected by an
+overcast stitch. The pattern has to be specially planned with the idea
+of holding strongly together, but, if necessary, buttonholed bars can be
+added to form strengthening ties in any weak part.</p>
+
+<p>Another kind of cut work is that known as <i>broderie anglaise</i>, and
+sometimes as Madeira work, over which our grandmothers spent much time,
+perhaps with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>out adequate result. The pattern is followed out by round
+holes pierced in the linen with a stiletto and then overcast round the
+edges. At the present day the work is done mostly by machinery, though
+hand work also is procurable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 446px;">
+<img src="images/fig_120.jpg" width="446" height="450" alt="Fig. 120." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_120"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 120.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perhaps the prettiest kind of cut work is that in which various-shaped
+spaces are cut out of the linen, and these filled in, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> part, with
+some design built up with stitches. There are various methods of
+refilling the spaces cut out, one of the simplest is a diapering formed
+by some lace stitch, such as an open buttonhole. As a rule, the
+decoration of the open spaces is based upon bars of thread that are
+either composed of warp or woof threads left, instead of being cut away,
+or else upon fresh threads thrown across in various directions. The
+pattern is planned on and about these strengthening ties, and where
+necessary receiving support from them. An ingenious worker will soon
+devise ways of refilling the spaces by all kinds of interesting
+patterns, which can be geometrical or floral, or any kinds of objects
+that can be attractively represented in conventional fashion, such as
+figures, birds, insects, ships in full sail, or anything else. It must,
+however, be remembered that the various forms filling the spaces are for
+use in the way of strength as well as for ornament, and that the work is
+often put upon objects that have to endure daily wear.</p>
+
+<p>Open work is frequently mixed with other, and especially with white
+embroidery, and such things as counterpanes may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> seen arranged with a
+chequering of alternate squares of embroidered linen and open work.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a> shows in progress a simple method of filling a space, mainly
+making use of the strengthening threads that have been left at regular
+intervals over the cut part. The threads are covered with an overcast
+stitch, and alternate squares of those that recur over the space are
+decorated with a cross. This is made by the working thread, after
+reaching the right point at the centre of an overcast line, being thrown
+across the space and then twisted back over itself to the
+starting-point, where it is in the right position for continuing the
+overcast line. The crosses being put in at the same time as the
+overcasting of the bars renders some forethought necessary to get each
+in at just the right time and place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 434px;">
+<img src="images/fig_121.jpg" width="434" height="600" alt="Fig. 121." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_121"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 121.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another kind of filling can be seen in progress in <a href="#Fig_122">fig. 122</a>. The
+stitches used in it are overcast and buttonhole. With the help of this
+last-mentioned stitch patterns of all kinds can be carried out, for each
+succeeding row of the stitch can be worked into the heading of the last
+row, and in this way it is possible to build up any required shape. This
+figure is a working<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> diagram of a piece of cut work of which the
+completed square with its surrounding decoration can be seen in <a href="#Fig_34">fig. 34</a>.
+After overcasting the raw edges a diagonal thread is thrown across (E D
+on plan), upon which the pattern shall be built up; the thread is taken
+once to and fro and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> then twisted back again for a third crossing.
+Commence by overcasting the threads from point D, and upon reaching the
+part where the pattern is widened out, change the stitch to an open
+buttonholing (as shown on line B). It is worked openly in this way in
+order to leave space for another row of the same kind of stitching to be
+fitted in from the opposite side, which is the next thing to be done.
+Then an outer row of buttonhole stitch is worked on each side of the
+central bar and into the heading of the first row of stitching; this is
+shown in progress where the needle is at work. The entire pattern is
+carried out in this way, first laying down foundation threads in the
+necessary places and then covering them up with either overcasting or
+buttonhole stitch as required. It is easily possible to carry out
+flowers and all kinds of other things sufficiently well to make them
+pleasantly recognisable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;">
+<img src="images/fig_122.jpg" width="445" height="450" alt="Fig. 122." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_122"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 122.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">EMBROIDERY WITH GOLD AND SILVER THREADS</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Introduction&mdash;Materials&mdash;Precautions for the Prevention of
+Tarnish&mdash;Ancient Method of Couching&mdash;Its various Good
+Points&mdash;Description of Working Diagram&mdash;Working a Raised
+Bar&mdash;Examples of Patterns Employed in Old Work&mdash;Illustrations upon
+Draped Figures&mdash;Usual Method of Couching&mdash;Couching
+Patterns&mdash;Outline Work&mdash;Raised Work&mdash;The Use of Purls, Bullions,
+&amp;c.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Gold and silver threads have always played an important part in
+embroidered work, and are a most valuable addition to the worker's stock
+of materials, for they give a splendour and richness that is not
+obtainable in any other way. They have been utilised from the earliest
+times in both embroidery and weaving; in scripture and other ancient
+historical writings there is abundant proof of this fact.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest form of gold thread in use was the pure metal beaten into
+thin plates and then cut into long narrow strips; that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> it was sometimes
+rounded into wire form is very probable. The first wire-drawing machine
+is said to have been invented by a workman at Nuremberg, but it was not
+until two centuries later that the drawing-mills were introduced into
+England.</p>
+
+<p>Gold thread, similar to that we now use, entwined about a silk one, is
+mentioned in a XIVth century Latin poem; also, it is known that in the
+XIIIth century our English ladies prepared their own gold thread before
+working it in, and it was of the same type as ours, the gold being
+spirally twisted round a thread of silk or flax.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>To be a skilled worker with gold thread needs considerable application
+and practice. There is much variety in the work, some branches of it
+being more simple to manipulate than others. It is desirable for all
+workers to understand something of gold work, for it is frequently
+employed in conjunction with other embroidery, as well as alone. <a href="#Fig_123">Fig.
+123</a> shows a couched line of gold thread outlining some silk embroidery,
+which gives a pretty jewel-like effect of something precious in a
+setting of gold.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 269px;">
+<img src="images/fig_123.jpg" width="269" height="250" alt="Fig. 123." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_123"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 123.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gold embroidery may be divided roughly into three main classes, outline
+work, solid flat work, and raised work. Outline work is, as far as
+technique is concerned, one of the simplest forms of gold embroidery.
+The pattern is followed round with a gold cord or double thread of
+passing, fixed either visibly or invisibly with a couching stitch; the
+work needs but an interesting design and suitable background to be most
+successful. <a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124</a> illustrates a portion of a design, carried out with
+gold cord upon a velvet ground, which has been further enriched by the
+addition of little applied white flowers. The raised work, and that
+which introduces the use of purls and bullions, is at once more
+complicated, and perhaps hardly as pleasing as the simpler flat work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;">
+<img src="images/fig_124.jpg" width="414" height="600" alt="Fig. 124." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_124"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 124.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The method of applying the gold to the material is usually by couching
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> one form or another, for most of the threads are too inflexible to
+be stitched through. The ground, if it shows at all, is usually a rich
+stuff, such as velvet, satin, or silk, in order to be in keeping with
+the valuable thread. If the ground chosen is difficult to work upon, the
+embroidery is carried out upon linen, and the finished work afterwards
+applied to the ground. If both background and pattern are solidly
+embroidered, linen can be used as the permanent ground. It is usual to
+have two layers of material for working upon, for gold threads are heavy
+and require the support of the double ground. There are several
+advantages in this double material, as the old workers knew, for we find
+they commonly used two. The under-layer can be a strong linen, and the
+surface one silk, satin, or a fine linen, as required.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>MATERIALS</h4>
+
+<p>A variety of metal threads are manufactured for embroidery purposes, and
+they are all obtainable in gold, silver, or imitations of these;
+aluminium thread has been made lately, and has the advantage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> of being
+untarnishable, but its colour and quality do not seem quite
+satisfactory, and it is not popular. The imitation threads are never
+worth the using; they tarnish to a worse colour, and are more difficult
+in manipulation; what goes by the name of real gold, is silver or
+copper, plated with the more valuable metal. The pure gold thread is
+said not to be so practical as this, being too brittle; but somehow or
+other it was more successfully manufactured in the past than nowadays,
+for some gold work six centuries old exhibits beautifully bright
+threads.</p>
+
+<p>The following list comprises the chief threads used in this work:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Passing.</i>&mdash;This is a bright smooth thread, resembling in appearance a
+gold wire; it consists of a narrow flat strip of gold spirally twisted
+round a silken thread. It can be obtained in different sizes, the finest
+qualities going by the name of tambour. Most passing has to be couched
+on to the material, but it is possible to stitch in the tambour like
+ordinary thread.</p>
+
+<p><i>Purl.</i>&mdash;This resembles a smooth round hollow tube of metal, very
+pliable and elastic; when pulled lengthways it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> found to be
+constructed like a closely coiled spiral spring. It is manufactured in
+lengths of about one yard, and for use it is cut into small sections of
+any required size with scissors or a knife. There are several varieties
+of purl, namely, the smooth, rough, check, and wire check. The smooth
+has a bright polished appearance, which is obtained by a flat gold wire
+being spun spirally round; the rough has a duller and more yellow
+appearance, which is owing to the wire having been rounded; the check is
+bright and sparkling, and consists of the flattened wire spun in a
+different way, so that parts of it catch the light and sparkle; the wire
+check is the same thing, but duller and of a deeper yellow, owing again
+to its being made of the round wire.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bullion.</i>&mdash;This is the name given to the larger sizes of purl.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pearl Purl.</i>&mdash;This is manufactured in the same spiral tube-like fashion
+as the other purl, but the gold wire is previously hollowed out in this&nbsp;
+<img src="images/u_shape.jpg" width="20" height="19" alt="inverted U symbol" title="" />
+&nbsp;shape, the convex side being the one exposed.
+This, when spun round, has the appearance of a string of tiny gold
+beads. It is frequently used as an outlining thread.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Various gold twists and cords can be obtained; they are composed of
+several threads twisted up in the usual cord fashion, each ply
+consisting of gold spun round a silk thread.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plate</i> is a flat strip of metal commonly about one-sixteenth of an inch
+wide; it can be obtained in different widths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spangles.</i>&mdash;These are small variously shaped pieces of thin metal,
+usually pierced with a hole in the centre for fixing on to the material.
+They are frequently circular in shape, and either flat or slightly
+concave; the latter are the prettier. Many fancy shapes also are
+obtainable, but they are inclined to look tawdry, and suggestive of the
+pantomime.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cloth of Gold and Silver.</i>&mdash;This is a fabric manufactured of silk, with
+gold or silver thread inwoven in the making. It is not now so much used
+as formerly, when it was in great request for robes of kings and other
+high dignitaries of church or state.</p>
+
+<p>A special make of silk for couching down gold thread is obtainable in
+various colours. It is called horsetail or sewings, and is both fine and
+strong.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Padding for use in raised gold work is usually yellow, and for silver,
+white or grey. Yellow soft cotton, linen thread, or silk, are all used
+for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Various precautions can and must be taken to keep the gold thread
+bright, for under unfavourable circumstances it rapidly assumes a bad
+colour; the silver thread is even more liable to tarnish than the gold,
+and it turns a worse colour, going black. There is a special paper
+manufactured to wrap threads in, and the stock supply should be kept in
+a tin or air-tight bottle; this is in order to protect the metal from
+damp, which is most injurious; to do this is a difficult matter in the
+English climate. Linen used for working upon, or as backing, is best
+unbleached, for sometimes the chemicals used in the bleaching process
+have a deleterious effect upon the gold; a piece of gold embroidery
+wrapped up in cotton wool for preservation has been found completely
+spoiled by some chemical in this wool, which proved more disastrous than
+exposure to air would have been. Gas, strong scents, handling
+(especially with hot hands), all have an evil effect, and so should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+avoided as much as possible. Work even whilst in progress should be kept
+covered as much as is practicable, and should not be allowed to hang
+about; the quicker it is done the better. A piece of finished work can
+be polished up with a leather pad or a brush, similar to a housemaid's
+brush for silver-cleaning purposes; this of course, must be used with
+care.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>ANCIENT METHOD OF COUCHING</h4>
+
+<p>Gold thread can be couched on to the material in two distinct ways, one
+of them in use at the present day, the other one that was commonly
+practised in the XIIIth and XIVth centuries. About the second half of
+the last-named century the earlier method was supplanted by the present
+one. Almost every example of early gold thread work exhibits this
+obsolete and ingenious method of couching. The Syon cope and the Jesse
+cope in the Victoria and Albert Museum may be mentioned as famous
+examples. M. Louis de Farcy<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> draws especial attention<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> to this
+beautiful method of working, to which he gives the name <i>point couch&eacute;
+rentr&eacute; ou retir&eacute;</i>, and strongly urges its revival; he points out many
+distinct advantages it has over the method now in use.</p>
+
+<p>The durability is very great, owing to the couching thread being upon
+the reverse side, where it is protected from wear and tear, and being
+out of sight can be made strong and durable. If a thread is accidentally
+broken it does not necessarily give way along an entire line, as may
+easily happen in the present method. A proof of this point can be seen
+upon the beautiful Ascoli cope lately in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+about which there has been so much discussion of late as to in what
+country it originated, and who was the rightful owner. The early
+couching worked entirely over the background of the cope is in a state
+of perfect preservation; portions of the gold thread drapery have here
+and there been couched by the other method, the tying down threads have,
+in those parts, mostly disappeared, and the gold hangs loose and ragged
+upon the surface.</p>
+
+<p>By the way in which it is worked, there results a particularly pleasing
+and even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> surface, agreeably varied by play of light and shade. Another
+advantage of the ancient method is that the completed work is very
+flexible; this point will appeal to those who have experienced the
+extreme stiffness of a large surface of ordinarily couched metal
+threads. Flexibility is an invaluable quality for any work destined,
+like copes and curtains, to hang in folds.</p>
+
+<p>Representations of draperies upon figures are well expressed, for by the
+way in which they are worked there comes an indentation along the lines
+marking the folds; this emphasises them rather happily, and also breaks
+up the surface in a satisfactory manner.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_125">Fig. 125</a> is a diagram that will aid in explaining the working, it gives
+both the front and the reverse side. This has been found to be the
+simplest and the most practical method of obtaining a result similar to
+the early examples; there is, however, no means other than examination
+of result whereby to get at this obsolete method. To all appearance
+there is upon the surface a kind of satin stitch worked in gold passing,
+the stitches carrying out some geometrical pattern, such as a chevron or
+lattice; but at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> the back a linen thread is seen running to and fro in
+close parallel lines in the same direction as the surface thread, and at
+regular intervals encircled by the gold passing, just as if this was
+intended to couch down the linen thread.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"><a name="Fig_125"></a>
+<img src="images/fig_125.jpg" width="392" height="300" alt="Fig. 125. Front. Back." title="" />
+<span class="caption smcap">Fig. 125.<br />
+Front.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Back.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ingenuity and satisfactoriness of the method must be admitted by all
+who give it a trial, and it is interesting to conjecture how it may have
+arisen. Possibly weaving suggested it to the embroiderers, for, take
+away the intervening material, and it is not unlike<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> woven work, and
+these two arts would very likely be the accomplishment of the same
+person. Perhaps the commonly used method of taking a coarse thread
+through to the back (see <a href="#Fig_167">fig. 167</a>) suggested it, for this is briefly the
+whole process.</p>
+
+<p>In order to try the couching, a two-fold ground material must be firmly
+stretched in an embroidery frame, a strong linen underneath and a
+thinner closely woven one upon the upper side. Some fine gold passing
+and some strong linen thread, well waxed, are required to work with,
+also an embroidery needle with long eye and sharp point, the size, which
+is important, depending upon the threads in use; the needle has to
+pierce the two-fold ground material, making a hole only just large
+enough for the passage of a double gold thread.</p>
+
+<p>If the linen has a regular even thread the drawn pattern shown in the
+diagram can be worked by counting the threads of the ground fabric, but
+if this is difficult or impossible, as in the case say of a twilled
+surface, a careful tracing must be made upon the linen; a beginner may
+find this the easier way in any case.</p>
+
+<p>The end of the gold thread, which by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> now, in readiness for working,
+will be wound upon the bobbin or spindle, must be passed through to the
+back at the starting-point, the top left-hand corner in the diagram. The
+linen thread secures it at the back and then comes through to the front
+upon the traced line exactly beneath (see arrow on <a href="#Fig_125">plan</a>). It now
+encircles the gold thread which the left hand draws out rather tautly,
+and then returns by the same hole to the back, pulling the metal thread
+through with it. There is knack in taking the gold thread only just
+through and leaving the completed stitch straight and flat upon the
+surface. The process is now repeated, the linen thread coming through to
+the front again upon the next traced line, and so on. When the base of
+the pattern is reached the gold thread is taken through once upon that
+line, and then commences a like journey upwards.</p>
+
+<p>This practically explains the couching; variety is obtained by change of
+pattern, but the method of carrying it out is always the same. Figs.
+<a href="#Fig_126">126</a>, <a href="#Fig_127">127</a>, and <a href="#Fig_128">128</a> show three patterns taken from old examples of this
+couching.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px; height: 350px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 270px;">
+<img src="images/fig_126.jpg" width="270" height="300" alt="Fig. 126." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_126"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 126.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 276px;">
+<img src="images/fig_127.jpg" width="276" height="300" alt="Fig. 127." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_127"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 127.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The difficulties in technique are easily overcome; an important aid in
+this matter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> is the use of materials exactly right; this means needles
+and threads of the correct size, the ground composed of suitable
+fabrics, and properly strained in a frame. The aim in the working is to
+get each stitch perfectly flat and straight in its correct place in
+spite of the obstinacy of the metal thread; to avoid making the
+perforation larger than necessary, for this makes the work clumsy; to
+make each succeeding line lie closely beside the last one, for the
+surface must be of solid gold, and if the ground showed through in
+places it would impoverish the effect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<img src="images/fig_128.jpg" width="268" height="300" alt="Fig. 128." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_128"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 128.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The direction of the couched thread is usually either vertical or
+horizontal, and it may be both of these in the same piece of work. The
+reason of this may be because it is worked by counting the threads of
+the fabric, or because the pattern is always treated as a diaper and
+placed upon the surface without regard to contour. The exception to this
+rule of direction is when the couching is taken along a stem or the
+narrow hem of a robe to form the border, or along a girdle, it then
+follows the direction of the band, this being evidently the most
+straightforward and satisfactory method to use for the purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/fig_129.jpg" width="800" height="194" alt="Fig. 129. Front. Back." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_129"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 129.<br />
+Front.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Back.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>point couch&eacute; rentr&eacute; ou retir&eacute;</i> is an excellent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> method to use for
+working a raised bar. <a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a> shows the front and reverse sides of a
+bar worked by it. The gold thread comes cleanly through from the back of
+the material instead of being clumsily doubled upon the surface, and the
+durability is evidently great. The linen thread, it will be seen, runs
+to and fro at the back, at each turn securing the gold thread.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<a href="images/fig_130.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_130.jpg" width="310" height="600" alt="Fig. 130." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_130"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 130.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_130">fig. 130</a> this couching is to be seen in use upon drapery. It is taken
+entirely over the exterior surface of the cloak, and upon the crown,
+sceptre, and model of the church. The lines expressing the folds of
+drapery are in this case shown by the couching at these places being
+taken in a different direction. Fine gold passing is used for the
+couched thread, much finer than can possibly be shown in the drawing,
+and the pattern chosen for the couching down is a chevron. The other
+parts of the work are done with silk thread in a fine chain or split
+stitch. The play of light upon the varied surface of the golden cloak is
+very beautiful; the drawing of the figure is perhaps primitive, and,
+regarded from the draughtsman's point of view, somewhat ludicrous; it is
+however sufficiently good to express all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> that its author intended, and
+there is something very human in this dignified little king who would
+not have you forget that he founded a church. The king who is
+personified here is Edward the Confessor, so the church is Westminster
+Abbey, of which he was the founder.</p>
+
+<p>The Madonna and child forming the <a href="#Frontispiece">frontispiece</a> of the work is another
+example of this couching. The method of expressing the folds of drapery
+is slightly different from that employed upon the king's robes. All
+drapery carried out in this stitch is worked in somewhat the same
+fashion, that is, the couching running to and fro between the lines
+marks each fold as roughly shown at <a href="#Fig_131">fig. 131</a>. This method leaves an
+indented line to express the drapery, which is a more satisfactory way
+than a simple line of dark colour worked over the gold, as in more
+modern work. The indented line is often further emphasised by a line of
+dark silk stitched<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> along it, which is done in this case. The figures
+are taken from the Jesse cope in the Victoria and Albert Museum;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+this vestment, with its red silk background and its finely coloured and
+drawn ancestors of Christ posed amongst encircling vine branches, is a
+most beautiful, though sadly mutilated, example of XIIIth century design
+and workmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;">
+<img src="images/fig_131.jpg" width="175" height="250" alt="Fig. 131." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_131"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 131.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>MODERN METHOD OF COUCHING</h4>
+
+<p>In the usual form of couching the gold thread is attached to the
+material by fine strong silk. The thread is fastened down as a rule
+two-fold, sometimes even three-fold; this method is both quicker and
+more effective than couching each thread separately. As the couching
+thread is necessarily in evidence, decorative use is often made of it as
+well as practical; the stitches, for instance, may be planned so as to
+carry out some pattern (see <a href="#Fig_132">fig. 132</a>) instead of being put down at
+random. There is no limit to the variety of the patterns that can be
+devised in this way.</p>
+
+<p>Decorative use can be made of the colour<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> of the couching thread; a hot
+colour warms the tone of the gold and a cool one does the reverse; and
+the more contrasting the colour the more it is in evidence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; height: 300px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 243px;">
+<img src="images/fig_132.jpg" width="243" height="250" alt="Fig. 132." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_132"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 132.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;"><a name="Fig_133"></a>
+<img src="images/fig_133.jpg" width="251" height="250" alt="Fig. 133." title="" />
+<span class="caption smcap">Fig. 133.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The gold thread may be couched solidly in straight lines, as the above
+figure shows, or it may be arranged in wavy lines either close or open,
+as in <a href="#Fig_133">fig. 133</a>. The thread is waved by bending it round the pointed end
+of a piercer just before fixing down. This waving line is particularly
+suitable for the gold thread, since the slight change in direction
+allows the light to play upon the metal very prettily. For this reason
+gold is often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> couched solidly in circular or shell form over a ground.
+In gold embroidery, therefore, the direction of the thread is a
+specially important matter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/fig_134.jpg" width="250" height="77" alt="Fig. 134." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_134"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 134.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the end of a line a technical difficulty sometimes arises in the
+turning of the thread, which is apt to be clumsy. This difficulty is
+overcome in various ways; the most usual is to return the doubled thread
+as neatly as possible and continue the next line; another is to cut the
+thread sharp off, secure it close to the end with a double stitch, and
+recommence in like fashion; the thread can sometimes be passed through
+to the back and brought up in position for working the next line. The
+fine point of a leaf may present difficulties in the same way; sometimes
+one of the two threads is temporarily let slip and the point completed
+with the single one, the left thread being picked up upon the return
+(see <a href="#Fig_134">fig. 134</a>). For such occasions as this it is more practical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> to wind
+the two threads of passing upon separate bobbins, and bring them
+together at the working. Another way of overcoming the point difficulty
+is shown at <a href="#Fig_135">fig. 135</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/fig_135.jpg" width="250" height="117" alt="Fig. 135." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_135"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 135.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>RAISED WORK</h4>
+
+<p>The couched gold threads may be raised in parts by means of some kind of
+padding interposed between it and the ground. They are very effective so
+treated, since the raised metal catches and reflects the light in a
+pleasing manner. This raising of the thread, however, has been carried
+to such extremes as to resemble goldsmith's work rather than embroidery,
+and it is then hardly in good taste.</p>
+
+<p>A simple method of raising the gold is to lay down lines of string at
+stated intervals over the ground. The well-known form called basket
+stitch is done in this way; <a href="#Fig_136">fig. 136</a> illustrates this stitch, a part of
+the square is left unworked in order to expose the under-layer of
+string. To carry out the diagram&mdash;First couch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> down the lines of string
+at regular intervals over the surface, then commence laying on the gold
+by carrying a doubled thread of passing over two bars of string, and
+there fixing it down to the material, then over two more and fixing it
+down again, and so on to the end of the line. This is exactly repeated
+for a second line of passing, then, for the next two lines, commence by
+carrying the passing for the first stitch over one bar only, and for the
+remainder of the line over the two as before. This process repeated
+makes the wicker-like pattern so frequently seen in gold work. It can be
+used as a filling or as a border. It is evident that with the same
+arrangement of strings many other patterns could be carried out by
+varying the points of couching down.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;">
+<img src="images/fig_136.jpg" width="249" height="250" alt="Fig. 136." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_136"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 136.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another way in which string is used for padding the gold is illustrated
+in <a href="#Fig_137">fig. 137</a>. The pattern, which in the first part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> is two diamond shapes
+and a border line, is laid down in string. The doubled gold thread is
+then taken horizontally to and fro in close parallel lines over the part
+to be worked, and fixed by couching stitches at necessary intervals;
+wherever else these stitches may be put, one must always be placed upon
+each side of a raised line to make it sharp and clear. Other kinds of
+padding are used in this method of work; for instance, a lozenge shape
+may be stuffed with layers of soft cotton, as shown in the second part
+of this same diagram. Sometimes most complicated patterns are laid down
+in string and covered with gold thread in this way, <i>e.g.</i>:&mdash;<a href="#Fig_138">fig. 138</a>
+shows an interlacing pattern taken from the border of an orphrey upon a
+XVth century chasuble.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;">
+<img src="images/fig_137.jpg" width="249" height="250" alt="Fig. 137." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_137"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 137.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>THE USE OF FANCY GOLD THREADS</h4>
+
+<p>A cursory glance must be given to the use of purls and other fancy
+threads, but these are mostly used nowadays for badges on uniforms, or
+for masonic purposes, and are carried out by the trade. These threads,
+when tarnished, are very difficult to clean, they easily turn a bad
+colour and catch the dust, and for real embroidery purposes are not as
+satisfactory as the plainer threads.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 306px;">
+<img src="images/fig_138.jpg" width="306" height="300" alt="Fig. 138." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_138"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 138.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Purl and bullion must be cut very accurately into pieces of the required
+size, and attached to the material as a bead would be. The metal must be
+as little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> as possible touched with the fingers; the cut pieces can be
+placed upon a tray lined with some soft springy substance, such as felt,
+in order to be easily picked up with the point of the needle, and they
+can be adjusted to their right position upon the work by the aid of the
+flat end of the piercer; unnecessary handling may be avoided in this
+way.</p>
+
+<p>These threads, laid over padding either straight across or at an angle,
+may be used for the stems or petals of conventional flowers. The various
+kinds, dull, bright, and check, may perhaps be used in succession.</p>
+
+<p>Plate is frequently taken to and fro over the same kind of forms over a
+prepared padding, being caught down by a stitch on each side by a method
+the French call <i>le guip&eacute;</i>. It needs skill and practice to do this well.
+Crinkled plate used to be couched on to work, but now is not much used
+in this way.</p>
+
+<p>Pearl purl is most often seen outlining a form filled in with the other
+threads; an enlarged example of this thread lies vertically down the
+centre of <a href="#Fig_139">fig. 139</a>, the end of it is pulled out, in order to show the
+formation of the thread.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 477px;">
+<img src="images/fig_139.jpg" width="477" height="400" alt="Fig. 139." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_139"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 139.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Spangles are usually sewn down separately; they may be attached by
+stitches from the centre outwards or by the thread being passed through
+a piece of purl and then returning to the back through the hole in the
+centre of the spangle. <a href="#Fig_139">Fig. 139</a> illustrates another way of using these
+spangles to form a long tail shape. Here again they are attached with
+the help of pieces of purl. In the same figure are given some
+illustrations of the use of the fancy threads;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> to learn more about them
+the student should examine XVIth to XVIIIth century gold work during
+which period they were in popular use.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">LETTERING, HERALDRY, AND EMBLEMS</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Uses of Lettering&mdash;Marking&mdash;Monograms&mdash;Heraldry&mdash;Emblems.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Lettering of one kind or another is frequently in request. It is useful
+for inscriptions, verses, names attached to figures, the signing and
+dating of work, and for the more ordinary purposes of marking linen and
+so forth. Signed and dated work has peculiar attractiveness: it can be
+placed amidst definite historical associations: an authenticated piece
+of embroidery, say of the reign of King Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion, Queen
+Anne, or George III., would be an historical document and a standard to
+gauge the period of any uninscribed examples. Although few of us are
+likely to possess treasures of the XIIIth century, signed and dated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
+pieces of our great-grandmothers' embroideries are interesting personal
+landmarks in family history, so for this reason, amongst others,
+unostentatious marks of identification are by no means out of place.
+Descriptive names or verses are also a means of amplifying the story and
+so enlivening our curiosity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/fig_140.jpg" width="800" height="265" alt="Fig. 140." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_140"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 140.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lettering can answer a further purpose still; it can enrich the design,
+for, if rightly chosen and employed, letters are very decorative. They
+may be seen forming a border to a piece of work. The three letters in
+<a href="#Fig_140">fig. 140</a> were taken from an XIth century embroidered cope, which has a
+fine inscription running round the entire lower margin.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The names of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> saints and martyrs standing in rows in the columned arcades,
+affected at certain periods, are sometimes inscribed in the mouldings of
+the arches above them or along the base; kneeling donors can be seen
+na&iuml;vely presenting a little scroll inscribed with prayers, and many
+other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> interesting uses of lettering might be recalled. The names St.
+Luke and St. John, shown in <a href="#Fig_141">fig. 141</a>, are taken from a beautiful
+embroidered example of Gothic lettering.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 469px;">
+<img src="images/fig_141.jpg" width="469" height="500" alt="Fig. 141." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_141"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 141.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Illuminated manuscripts supply fine examples of initial letters and
+writing. A visit to the show-cases in the King's Library at the British
+Museum will be of great interest to the student; the illustrations also
+to be seen there, the beautifully composed and coloured figure-subjects,
+would be equally suitable for carrying out in embroidery; indeed it is
+very probable that many of the figure compositions on the old copes and
+chasubles were derived from such a source. <a href="#Fig_142">Fig. 142</a> gives as an example
+of an alphabet one taken from a Benedictionale of late XVth century
+date.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
+<a href="images/fig_142.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_142.jpg" width="381" height="600" alt="Fig. 142." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_142"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 142.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A practical purpose to which lettering is often put is the marking of
+linen. To learn how to do this used to be a recognised part of a girl's
+education, and was one of the objects of the sampler. Marking can be
+anything from a simple cross-stitch initial to an elaborately worked
+monogram. For simple work the corner to be marked can be tacked upon
+<i>toile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> cir&eacute;e</i>, a material not unlike American cloth. Tambour frames
+also are useful for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a> shows the stitches most used for working simple letters such as
+those seen upon the old samplers. The first is cross stitch, which for
+marking purposes should be worked so as to be alike on both sides. To do
+this requires some forethought whilst the work progresses, and
+necessitates an occasional doubling of one of the crossed stitches, in
+order to reach the point for commencing the next one and at the same
+time preserving a cross on each side.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 158px;">
+<img src="images/fig_143.jpg" width="158" height="450" alt="Fig. 143." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_143"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 143.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second stitch in the diagram shows a square on one side and is a
+cross upon the reverse. This makes a good stitch for the purpose, is
+quite simple to manipulate, and is easier to manage than the cross on
+both sides.</p>
+
+<p>The third example is made use of when a larger letter is required. It is
+known as blanket stitch, and is used for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> marking of such things. It
+may be further completed by a neat back stitch just fitting along the
+outside edges of the other stitches.</p>
+
+<p>Many embroidery stitches are suitable for marking purposes, such as
+satin, chain, stem, back, rope, basket, and others. The Oriental stitch
+which carries out the letter in <a href="#Fig_144">fig. 144</a> is a good one when both sides
+can be seen, for though these are quite different, it is presentable
+upon either. The diagram shows the appearance of the stitch on the front
+and on the back.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<img src="images/fig_144.jpg" width="270" height="450" alt="Fig. 144." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_144"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 144.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A simple initial letter may be made interesting by enriching the ground
+behind it with some form of diaper patterning. An example of this is
+shown in <a href="#Fig_145">fig. 145</a>. The letter could be worked in a plain satin stitch
+over a padding of threads, and the pattern on the ground<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> in a darning
+stitch and French knots, or in any other suitable way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 221px;">
+<img src="images/fig_145.jpg" width="221" height="225" alt="Fig. 145." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_145"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 145.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A monogram carried out in embroidery can be a very pretty thing; there
+is scope in it for ingenuity both of design and of stitching. The
+letters may be decorated and tied up with a floral spray, strap work or
+a combination of several <i>motifs</i>. <a href="#Fig_146">Fig. 146</a> shows a monogram composed of
+the letters I. G. ornamented and bound together by a ribbon-like
+interlacing band. The letters are worked in a raised satin stitch, and a
+running stitch in another colour threads in and out down the centre of
+each letter. The outline is stem stitch in a darker colour. The band is
+outlined on both sides with an overcast stitch, which always makes a
+particularly neat edging for anything of this sort. The centre is filled
+with a row of French knots, the tassels are worked in close lines of
+stem stitch,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> and the petals of the small flowers in satin stitch,
+finished off with a French knot at the centre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 418px;">
+<a href="images/fig_146.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_146.jpg" width="418" height="600" alt="Fig. 146." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_146"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 146.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Another mark of proprietorship and origin was the shield of arms of the
+owner, which introduces the subject of heraldry. A shield executed with
+the needle is often seen, and looks particularly rich. Heraldry is an
+intricate science, full of pitfalls for the unwary, and demands an
+earnest study of its complex rules and regulations. Every one should
+know at least some fine examples of great national shields such as the
+Lions of England, the Fleur de Lys of France, and the Imperial Eagle.
+Examples of shields surmounted by helmets and crests with quaint and
+flowing mantling are to be seen in all kinds of art work.</p>
+
+<p>Various stitches and methods specially lend themselves to the expression
+of heraldry. Those which, like cross stitch, impose a certain
+simplicity, are very good. Another suitable medium is applied work, of
+which an illustration can be seen on <a href="#Page_95">page 95</a>. Gold and silver thread are
+very useful here, and look exceptionally rich when couched in the XIIIth
+century method. <a href="#Fig_147">Fig. 147</a> is an embroidered coat of arms dated the first
+half of the XIVth century. It is executed almost entirely in the <i>point
+couch&eacute;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> rentr&eacute; ou retir&eacute;</i>. The arms are those of the Clinton and
+Leyburne families&mdash;<i>argent, 6 cross crosslets fitch&eacute;e 3, 2 and 1 on a
+chief azure, two mullets or</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 543px;">
+<a href="images/fig_147.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_147.jpg" width="543" height="600" alt="Fig. 147." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_147"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 147.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In designing heraldic work care must be taken to introduce no debased
+forms such as were current after the XVth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> century. The XIIIth and XIVth
+centuries are the periods considered best for the study of this subject.
+Heraldry sometimes adds historic interest to embroideries; owners or
+donors may be traced by their coat of arms appearing upon some part of
+the work.</p>
+
+<p>Allied to heraldry and marking are a number of decorative objects that
+have acquired peculiar traditional significance of an emblematic or
+symbolical nature, hard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> to define. The Cross of Christianity may be
+instanced, the olive branch of peace, the mirror of truth, and the snake
+of eternity. The name of a saint is frequently declared by an emblem
+accompanying the figure. In appropriate surroundings emblems may often
+be used effectively. For knowledge about these things the student must
+go to various books that deal with the special subject. <a href="#Fig_148">Fig. 148</a> is an
+illustration of the well-known emblem, the Pelican in her piety.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;">
+<img src="images/fig_148.jpg" width="463" height="450" alt="Fig. 148." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_148"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 148.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">THE GARNITURE OF WORK</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Finishing off&mdash;Making up&mdash;Edges&mdash;Use of Cord-making Appliance&mdash;Cord
+Twisted by Hand&mdash;Knotted Cord&mdash;Fringes&mdash;Tassels&mdash;Knots.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>When the embroidery is completed, the making up, the addition of
+tasteful finishing touches, and such things as fringes, tassels, and
+linings, must all be considered. These will, if judiciously made use of,
+give a distinction and character to the work that might be missed if due
+care and thought were not expended upon such details.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> This part of the
+work might be compared to the garnishing of a boiled fowl with lemon and
+parsley, a minor detail, but a very effective one.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible, by the help of such expedients, to emphasise certain
+colours and bring out points of the design, as well as to give
+completeness and finish. Such things as fringes, cords, and tassels are
+often more satisfactory when made by the worker and with materials like
+those used in the embroidery, for such will be more likely to be in
+keeping with the character of the rest, and to be more interesting in
+detail. In the finishing off the same taste and neatness of execution is
+required as in the embroidery. Good work can be very much marred in the
+making up; on the other hand, a little extra interest added on a part
+not often seen renders it doubly valuable.</p>
+
+<p>The mounting of certain things should not be attempted at home; boxes
+should be handed over to the cabinetmaker, books to the bookbinder, and
+so on, for it is not possible for any one not an expert to do these
+things properly, and even good work can look poor if badly set.</p>
+
+<p>The question how to appropriately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> finish off an edge often arises; let
+it be hem stitched rather than plain hemmed; or a narrow line of drawn
+thread work may be inserted, for an open-work border is frequently a
+set-off to the rest of the embroidery. If a binding is placed over the
+edge this can be fixed with a pretty stitch, or the stitch alone can
+bind the edge, one such as buttonhole, overcast, or that shown in <a href="#Fig_76">fig.
+76</a>. With some stitches the edge of the material can be rolled over a
+piping cord and the stitch worked over the thus emphasised margin.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of procuring cord suitable for use with embroidered work
+makes the appliance illustrated at <a href="#Fig_149">fig. 149</a> a useful possession.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> The
+cords made upon this wheel can be of any thickness, according to the
+number of plies and the substance in each. Different colours and
+materials can be twisted up together, such as a gold and silk thread.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/fig_149.jpg" width="800" height="475" alt="Fig. 149." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_149"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 149.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To make a three-plied cord, cut three equal lengths of thread rather
+longer than the required cord is to be, as it shortens<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> in the
+twisting. Make a loop at each end of the thread, or, better still,
+attach tiny metal rings at the ends. Hook the threads in position as
+shown in the diagram, and place the instrument far enough from the
+clamped block of wood to make the threads that are stretched between
+quite taut. Now commence the twisting by turning the large wheel quickly
+with an even motion in the direction that continues to twist up the
+threads, keeping the left hand on the instrument to steady it, for it
+gradually slides towards the block as the twisting continues. When
+corkscrew-like knots begin to come in the threads, stop revolving the
+wheel, unhook the two outer threads and place them both on the central
+hooks together with the third thread, keeping them taut during the
+process. Revolve the large wheel again, in the direction opposite to
+that in which it has been working, and continue turning until the cord
+is tightly twisted up. It is now made, and can be removed from the
+machine. The second twisting had better be over-done rather than not
+sufficiently, since if over-twisted the cord rights itself upon being
+removed from the machine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> A two-ply cord is made in like manner, by
+using first the two outer hooks only, and then placing both threads
+together on the central hooks.</p>
+
+<p>There is a simple way of making this cord without the help of any
+instrument, but it is not possible to get the perfect result that the
+machine gives. It is most easily carried out by two persons, though one
+can do it. In order to make a two-plied cord, by hand, take a thread
+rather more than twice the length of the required cord. Let each worker
+take an end of the thread in the right hand and commence to twist it
+between the thumb and finger, each working in direction opposite to the
+other and keeping the thread at tension. When twisted as much as
+possible without getting corkscrew-like knots in the thread, the cord
+must be doubled in half by holding it at the centre and bringing
+together the two ends, which are then knotted. During the entire process
+the thread must be kept under tension. If one end of the cord is now let
+go it should immediately twist itself up tight, and remain in that
+position. If any small knots form during the process run the cord
+sharply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> through the fingers once or twice to straighten it out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+<img src="images/fig_150.jpg" width="399" height="250" alt="Fig. 150." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_150"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 150.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<img src="images/fig_151.jpg" width="372" height="250" alt="Fig. 151." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_151"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 151.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 413px;">
+<img src="images/fig_152.jpg" width="413" height="250" alt="Fig. 152." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_152"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 152.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another pretty kind of cord is a knotted one. It is made in the hand in
+most primitive fashion by using the two first fingers as crochet hooks.
+The thread used for making it should be stout and firm. To commence
+making the cord, knot two pieces of thread together and place the
+threads in position as shown in <a href="#Fig_150">fig. 150</a>. The next step is shown in <a href="#Fig_151">fig.
+151</a>, which is the index finger of the left hand bringing the darker
+thread through the loop. <a href="#Fig_152">Fig. 152</a> shows this thread looped on the
+finger, the cord held in the left hand instead of the right,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> and the
+right hand in process of drawing the lighter thread, which was the last
+loop, tight. The next move, <a href="#Fig_153">fig. 153</a>, shows the right-hand first finger
+making the new loop with the lighter thread, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> <a href="#Fig_154">fig. 154</a> shows the
+loop on the finger, the cord passed over to be held in the right hand
+again, and the left hand this time pulling the last loop tight. Continue
+making the cord by following out the last four positions consecutively.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 441px;">
+<img src="images/fig_153.jpg" width="441" height="250" alt="Fig. 153." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_153"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 153.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 469px;">
+<img src="images/fig_154.jpg" width="469" height="250" alt="Fig. 154." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_154"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 154.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A very usual finish to an edge is a fringe. This can be made either by
+fraying out the material or by adding a detached fringe, either knotting
+it in or attaching it in some other way. If the fringe is to be a
+frayed-out one, the best way to do it is to first draw out a few warp
+threads where the head of the fringe is to come, then hem stitch the
+upper edge of this, see the right-hand end of <a href="#Fig_155">fig. 155</a>; this makes the
+heading of the fringe secure, after which the remainder of the warp
+threads can be withdrawn. When fringing a square in this fashion, it is
+well to save some of the frayings out to knot in at the four corners
+where otherwise there would be gaps.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;">
+<img src="images/fig_155.jpg" width="470" height="250" alt="Fig. 155." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_155"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 155.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To knot an added fringe into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> border is a very simple matter. Begin
+by cutting the threads that are to compose it all to one length, about
+double that of the required fringe. Take a few together to form a bunch
+and double it in half. With a stiletto make a hole near the edge of the
+material; then bring from the back a crochet hook through this hole, and
+draw the loop formed by the doubling of the bunch a little way through,
+then take the ends of the bunch through the loop and draw them tight in
+order to make the knotting firm.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/fig_156.jpg" width="800" height="247" alt="Fig. 156." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_156"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 156.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are many ways of patterning a plain fringe, sometimes a change of
+colour in the knotted-in threads is sufficient, as shown in <a href="#Fig_156">fig. 156</a>.
+Another very usual way is to divide the bunches and refasten them
+together in some way to form a pattern. <a href="#Fig_157">Fig. 157</a> is an example of this;
+they may be either knotted together, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> in the first half of the
+diagram, or bound with thread as in the second half, the needle reaching
+the required places by running in zigzag fashion up the thread and down
+again.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 291px;">
+<img src="images/fig_157.jpg" width="291" height="250" alt="Fig. 157." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_157"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 157.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A simple fringe can be made of strands twisted together, as in the first
+half of <a href="#Fig_158">fig. 158</a>. This is made upon the same principle as the twisted
+cord already described. About three threads of the fringe are twisted up
+tight, and an adjoining three treated in the same fashion. These threes
+are then twisted together in the direction opposite to that which has
+just been used, and thus are securely locked together. The ends of the
+completed fringe may require a little trimming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> off to make all of an
+equal length. The second half of the diagram shows a durable and simple
+fringe made by a close series of knots down the thread.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 356px;">
+<img src="images/fig_158.jpg" width="356" height="250" alt="Fig. 158." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_158"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 158.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a> suggests two methods by which a stitching of coloured thread
+near the margin can help to decorate a plain fringed edge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;">
+<img src="images/fig_159.jpg" width="416" height="300" alt="Fig. 159." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_159"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 159.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A row of tassels makes a pretty finish to various things. Complicated
+tassel-making requires a professional hand; even a simple tassel
+requires making properly. The first proceeding is to wind some thread
+round a piece of card<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>board, which should be a little wider than the
+tassel is to be long; then double a piece of the same thread and thread
+the two ends into a needle, thus leaving a loop at the usual knot end.
+Slip the needle through the centre of the wound thread close to the
+cardboard, then through the loop and draw the thread tight; this will
+bind the threads securely at that point. They can then be cut exactly
+opposite this on the other side, which will release the cardboard. Give
+the binding thread another tightening pull, and then take the needle and
+thread<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> straight through the centre, as shown in <a href="#Fig_160">fig. 160</a>, and fasten it
+off with a good knot. This knot will be in the ball part of the tassel
+and will help to make it round. Next, double the tassel into shape ready
+for the collar. Thread the needle as before and make the thread encircle
+the tassel, as shown in the second figure in the diagram, drawing the
+thread quite tight, and, if necessary, winding it several times round
+the neck of the tassel until the collar is of sufficient width, then
+take the needle and thread straight through the centre, bringing it out
+at the top, where it can be made use of to fix the tassel in its place
+upon the work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> With sharp scissors trim the edge of the tassel which
+now is complete. The ball part can be further decorated by covering it
+with an open network of stitches in some contrasting colour; buttonhole
+and various lace stitches can be used for the purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;">
+<img src="images/fig_160.jpg" width="435" height="250" alt="Fig. 160." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_160"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 160.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>KNOTS</h4>
+
+<p>Knots, which can be very pretty, are at times required in embroidery;
+anything that requires a fastening may give an opportunity for some
+pretty interlacing strap work or knotting. Also knots may be practically
+useful in both weaving and embroidery, for sometimes a finishing thread
+must be knotted on to a new one, since there may be no opportunity of
+making a firm commencement with the aid of the material.</p>
+
+<p>The knot shown in <a href="#Fig_161">fig. 161</a> is called the girdle knot; it might be made
+use of in many other ways. To carry it out, make a loop with one end of
+the cord and hold it between the left finger and thumb, the looped part
+being towards the right, and the end that points downwards to the left
+passing over the other end. Take up the other piece of cord, pass it
+diagonally across the surface of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> the loop, commencing from the
+right-hand lower side, then round under one end and over the other, then
+up into the loop from underneath, over its own end that crosses the loop
+there, and then out under the loop at the top right-hand corner.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;">
+<img src="images/fig_161.jpg" width="401" height="250" alt="Fig. 161." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_161"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 161.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Chinese knot, which is used for a sailor's collar, is shown in <a href="#Fig_162">fig.
+162</a>. The looped end can be left as large as necessary. To work it the
+first part of the knot is laid in position on the table, commencing at
+point A; for the latter part (from point C) the thread is interlaced
+through to the finish. It can then be pulled tight, taking care in the
+drawing-together process that the various loops are adjusted in right
+position.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<img src="images/fig_162.jpg" width="333" height="600" alt="Fig. 162." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_162"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 162.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;">
+<img src="images/fig_163.jpg" width="424" height="225" alt="Fig. 163." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_163"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 163.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another ornamental knot is shown at <a href="#Fig_163">fig. 163</a>. To make it&mdash;Form a loop
+and hold it between the left thumb and finger, the loop pointing to the
+right, the longer end pointing upwards and passing over the end that
+points downwards. Take hold of the end pointing upwards, pass it
+perpendicularly downwards across the surface of the loop, then round
+under the other end, up over its own end, under the side of the loop,
+over its own end that lies across the loop, and out under the loop at
+the right-hand end. Pull as tight as required. All these knots may be
+made of double cord by running a second through, following the lead of
+the first, just before tightening up the knot. The one last described
+may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> made of doubled cord from the commencement, the looped end being
+used as the working end: the knot will then finish off with a loop at
+one end, which can be used as a loop or cut if required.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;">
+<img src="images/fig_164.jpg" width="432" height="400" alt="Fig. 164." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_164"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 164.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_164">Fig. 164</a> is an example of a pretty piece of interlacing strap work
+attached to a fastening.</p>
+
+<p>The weavers' knot (<a href="#Fig_165">fig. 165</a>) is useful for practical purposes in both
+weaving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> and embroidery; this knot is universally employed by the cotton
+weavers when the warp breaks. It is made as follows&mdash;Place the two ends
+that are to be knotted together between the thumb and first finger of
+the left hand in such a way that they cross each other at right angles,
+the end that points towards the left passing under the one pointing
+towards the right. Pass the long end of thread that hangs down towards
+the right, and which is the newly attaching piece, over the thumb, round
+the back of the end pointing to the left in front of the other end, and
+let it hang down again towards the right, holding the loop thus made
+between the thumb and finger; then pass the end pointing towards the
+right down through this loop and out on the opposite side. To draw the
+knot tight, pull the end which hangs down towards the right, which will
+tighten the loop and so complete the knot.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/fig_165.jpg" width="400" height="163" alt="Fig. 165." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_165"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 165.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The reef knot (<a href="#Fig_166">fig. 166</a>) is another useful one, and it has this
+advantage over the weaver's knot, that both short ends return parallel
+to the long ones instead of going off at an angle; this makes it neater
+for some purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/fig_166.jpg" width="250" height="121" alt="Fig. 166." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_166"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 166.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Transferring Patterns&mdash;Paste for Embroidery Purposes&mdash;Protection
+and Preservation of Work&mdash;Washing Embroidery&mdash;Prevention and Cure
+of Puckered Work&mdash;Points about the Thread&mdash;Dressing the Frame.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The best method of getting the pattern on to the material is to draw it
+on directly with a brush; since this, however, is not always possible,
+other ways of doing it can be employed.</p>
+
+<p>The pattern can be transferred to the background by a process called
+pouncing. To do this fix some tracing-paper over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> the design and
+carefully take the outline; a good margin of plain paper should be left
+round the outside in order to prevent any of the pounce getting
+accidentally rubbed on to the embroidery. The next process is the
+perforation of the pattern. Lay the tracing upon some substance of the
+nature of thick felt, then with a pricker or a needle, held in an
+upright position, pierce tiny holes all round the outline of the
+pattern, very close together. This completed, attach the perforated
+tracing securely to the material, the smooth side of the perforations
+towards the stuff. Both material and tracing paper may be fixed to a
+board with drawing pins. Next, rub the pounce, which consists of finely
+powdered charcoal or of white chalk, lightly over the perforated parts
+with a soft pad, keeping the rubbing always in the same direction; once
+or twice at the most over the surface is quite sufficient, often too
+much is rubbed through, which afterwards is only in the way. The pad,
+first dipped into the pounce, is rubbed preparatorily upon some paper to
+remove the superfluous powder, and then upon the actual work. Carefully
+remove the tracing-paper; there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> should now be visible upon the surface
+of the material, in charcoal dust, a perfectly clear reproduction of the
+pattern. Should, however, the impression be blurred, it is quite easy to
+flick everything away with a duster and repeat the process. The causes
+of failure would most probably be that the perforations were too large
+or too far apart, or that there was some movement of either paper or
+material during the process. It is necessary for the pattern to be
+permanently fixed upon the ground material; blow lightly to remove any
+superfluous powder, then, with a brush dipped in light red oil-paint
+moistened with turpentine, trace a fine clear line over the powdered
+pattern. When this is dry, what is left of the charcoal can be lightly
+dusted away. Red is in most cases a good colour to use for tracing
+purposes, for if by chance any tracing should show or come off on the
+thread it will be a clean-looking colour, and one comparatively easily
+removed in any after cleaning.</p>
+
+<p>Red or blue carbonised paper is used for tracing patterns; it is not a
+good medium though it may be an expeditious one. If it is used, an after
+painting over the outline will make the marking permanent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When pouncing or painting is difficult, a method of indicating the
+pattern upon the stuff is to trace the design on tissue paper, and tack
+it to the ground material with cotton, the stitching of which should
+follow the outline of the design, and be kept as much as possible upon
+the front. The thin paper is then torn away, and there will be some
+suggestion of pattern left upon the material.</p>
+
+<p>Transparent ground stuffs need only be laid upon the pattern; then the
+tracing can be taken directly on the stuff.</p>
+
+<p>Paste is sometimes in request for embroidery purposes; the following is
+a good recipe&mdash;Pour rather less than half a pint of cold water into a
+saucepan, add to this a piece of carpenter's glue about the size of a
+small filbert and place it on the fire to heat. Put three teaspoonfuls
+of flour into a basin, and with cold water mix to a smooth paste; when
+the water in the saucepan boils add it to the paste, stirring well all
+the time; then place the mixture in the saucepan and boil for about two
+minutes. When cold it is ready for use. It may be required as a
+preservative; for instance, canvas work when finished can have a thin
+coating of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> paste rubbed over the back in order to preserve the stitches
+from giving or running; when the work is to be used for such things as
+furniture coverings this may be a good thing to do. Applied work is
+sometimes pasted on to its new ground, and a backing may be fixed to the
+surface material by paste. The more all this can be avoided the better,
+for its tendency is to give a stiff mechanical look to work;
+professional people, however, are rather fond of the paste pot. Paste,
+if used, must be of the right kind, or it will do more harm than good.
+It should be very fresh, and have no acid in its ingredients, of which
+gum arabic must not be one if any after stitching has to take place
+through the stuff, for gum makes it hard and less penetrable. The paste
+must be applied and allowed to dry thoroughly before the work is removed
+from the frame. A finger makes a good brush for the purpose. The paste
+should be put on as thinly and evenly as possible, care being taken not
+to rub on the cross of the material, since this might stretch it
+unevenly.</p>
+
+<p>Shoemakers' paste is easily procured, and can be used for embroidery
+purposes. This is made from rye flour, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> is very strong. It is
+harmless if perfectly fresh.</p>
+
+<p>A good many things go to the keeping of work fresh and orderly, which is
+a very important matter. The work must be kept carefully covered up when
+not in use; finished parts can sometimes be covered whilst the work is
+going on, for the covering is easily raised when comparison with the
+part in progress is necessary. The work should have some protection if
+the hand rests on it; the worker should wear a white apron with sleeves.
+The worker's hand should be cool, dry, and smooth; hot hands should
+frequently be washed. The use of pumice stone cures slight roughness,
+but fine work cannot be attempted if the fingers are for any reason
+constantly rough. Wools and silks need a case to keep them orderly and
+clean. The best way to preserve valuable embroidery is to frame it,
+which, of course, is not always practicable, but it is a sure safeguard
+against moth and dust.</p>
+
+<p>For washing embroidery special soap should be procured. It is not well
+to use any ordinary soap, for this may contain alkali, which would
+injure the colours in the work. Dissolve the soap in boiling water,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> and
+add cold to make it just warm and of the required strength. Immerse the
+embroidery in the lather thus made, and work it about gently, avoiding
+any friction. When clean, rinse first in warm water, afterwards in cold,
+to which a little salt may be added. The water must be squeezed out
+carefully and the material quickly dried. If ironing is necessary it
+must be done on the wrong side, but if the work can be pinned out on a
+board to dry, and in this way stretched and smoothed without any
+ironing, so much the better, for the embroidery will not be flattened at
+all. Another way of ironing embroidery that is not harmful is to do it
+from underneath while some one holds out the material.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to prevent the puckering of work when it is carried out in
+the frame; there is, however, no necessity for it to occur in hand work.
+Certain stitches are more inclined to draw up the material than others,
+and extra care has to be taken in working upon the cross of the fabric.
+The work should be held in convex fashion over the fingers of the left
+hand. Weights are occasionally attached to the corners of the work to
+prevent any unconscious drawing of it up.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are remedies for the cure of slightly puckered work. Place on a
+drawing-board some clean blotting-paper, damp it evenly over with a wet
+handkerchief, and then lay the work, right side up, upon it. Fix the
+work down to the board with drawing-pins, inserted at regular short
+intervals round the edge, endeavouring during the process to stretch the
+material to its original shape. This needs doing carefully, for it is
+quite possible to stretch it to a wrong shape, and it will remain as now
+pinned out. Next, lay some white paper or a handkerchief upon the
+surface of the work, and then place upon it a flat weight that presses
+equally on every part of the embroidery. Leave it undisturbed for a
+night, and the puckering will probably be cured. Work, if not puckered,
+may be improved by going through this process, which practically amounts
+to a mild ironing, but without any injurious effects.</p>
+
+<p>There are various points about the thread that should be known. To
+commence a new thread run a few stitches in the material upon the right
+side upon a part that will afterwards be covered by the working. This is
+a better way than a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> fastening on the wrong side, for it is both neater
+and more secure. A knot made at the beginning is fairly safe, but it is
+undesirable for several reasons. The needleful should not be lengthy
+lest it gets worn before it is all worked in. With some threads it is
+important to thread only the proper end into the eye of the needle,
+since one way they will work in roughly and the other way smoothly. An
+end of a coarse thread can be taken through to the back of the material
+by the help of a fine one; the fine thread is brought through from the
+back by the needle, it then encircles the coarse one, and returns to the
+back by the same hole, pulling the coarse thread with it, as in process
+in <a href="#Fig_167">fig. 167</a>. Taking it through by the aid of a thick needle would make
+too large a hole. Thread can be knotted into the eye of the needle if
+for any reason it is required to be quite safe from accidental
+unthreading. The neatest way of doing this is to pass the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> needle
+through the centre of the thread and draw it tight; this is a useful
+trick for any unskilled worker with needles and thread, for re-threading
+also may be a difficulty. When work has to be unpicked it is better to
+cut the threads rather than do any drawing out, for they are in any case
+unfit for further use, and this method wears the material less; a
+beginner must not shirk unpicking if first-rate results are to be
+obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 208px;">
+<img src="images/fig_167.jpg" width="208" height="250" alt="Fig. 167." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_167"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 167.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>FRAME WORK</h4>
+
+<p>Certain stitches and methods of work cannot be carried out except with
+the help of a frame, others are hand stitches, and some few can be
+worked either way. Work done in a frame takes longer than that done by
+hand, and is rather more fatiguing. Each method has its advantages; in
+the frame it is perhaps easier to get good technique, for difficulties
+such as puckering the material, irregular stitching, and so on, are more
+easily avoided, also it is more possible to see the effect of the whole
+whilst the part progresses. In frame work a thimble is required for each
+hand, for one pushes the needle through from above and one from below.
+It is a rest to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> be able to reverse the hands, so both should be equally
+dexterous in either position.</p>
+
+<p>To dress the frame correctly is an important preliminary, for unless
+done well the effect of much after labour may be spoiled. In the chapter
+upon tools and appliances in <a href="#Fig_9">fig. 9</a> is shown a piece of linen stretched
+in the frame ready for commencing work.</p>
+
+<p>The square of material that is seen to be inserted in the centre of the
+stretched linen is to show how a very small piece or a portion of a
+large surface could be stretched in the same sized frame. A corner may
+require marking or a small detail of embroidery carrying out upon it. A
+portion is cut out of the centre of the stretched linen, and the piece
+or part of the material to be worked stitched securely to it, as
+illustrated in the diagram. The remainder of the material, if there is
+any, can be folded up and pinned out of the way over the rollers.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the dressing of the frame&mdash;the linen to be stretched,
+before being fixed in place, must be hemmed or herring-boned down at the
+top and base and then sewn with overcast stitches to the webbings,
+inclining during the process to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> pucker the webbing rather than the
+material. The side pieces can now be put through the holes at the ends
+of the rollers and the metal pins inserted, or nuts adjusted, as the
+case may be, in order to stretch the material to the right tension. The
+raw edges at the sides must now be turned in or bound with tape, and a
+string securely attached at intervals along the edge; this is for lacing
+the string through that now braces the material to the sides of the
+frame (see <a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>). The screw-sided frame has an advantage over the side
+pieces shown in <a href="#Fig_9">fig. 9</a>, in that in the former an extra turn can, at this
+point, be given to the nuts to still further stretch the material; on
+the other hand, some workers prefer the flat side pieces, thinking that
+they make the frame more rigid.</p>
+
+<p>If the material, when fixed to the two webbings, is too long for the
+frame, it must be wound round one of the rollers until of the correct
+size. This must be done carefully, for a delicate fabric might get
+damaged in the process; the roller can be padded with soft paper, and an
+interlining of tissue paper can be inserted and wound up with the
+material. It may not always be desirable to do this wind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>ing round the
+rollers; in that case fine glazed holland can be stretched in the frame,
+and the part to be first embroidered fixed to it. When the first part of
+the work is completed, the holland is cut out of the frame and fresh
+pieces substituted as the work goes on. If it is not wished that the
+stitches should be taken through both surfaces, as would here be the
+case, it would be possible to cut the linen partly away underneath, and
+use it only as a kind of inner frame for stretching the material on, in
+a way somewhat like that already described (see <a href="#Fig_9">fig. 9</a>).</p>
+
+<p>A backing to the material, however, is often a necessity&mdash;perhaps heavy
+work may be put on it or the stuff itself is fragile; in such cases
+there must be a backing of some kind. This usually consists of fine
+holland or linen, which is first stretched in the frame and then has the
+surface material securely stitched to it with overcast stitches, care
+being taken that both materials are equally strained.</p>
+
+<p>To frame velvet, sew it to the webbing by the selvedges or that way of
+the material, since the pile with that arrangement is more manageable
+when the embroidery is in progress.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/fig_168.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_fig_168.jpg" width="361" height="600" alt="Fig. 168." title="" /></a>
+<a name="Fig_168"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 168.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">TAPESTRY WEAVING</span></h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">INTRODUCTION</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Weaving, a most ancient art, naturally precedes embroidery, for this
+necessitates an already existing ground stuff, which is generally some
+kind of woven material. All varieties of weaving are done by one
+little-varied method, that of the weft passing to and fro in and out of
+the warp, and thus binding the whole into a fabric or web.</p>
+
+<p>The kind of weaving which demands from the worker the greatest artistic
+skill is that which produced the great masterpieces of Flanders, once
+known as Arras, from the town of that name, and now commonly called
+Gobelins tapestry, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> named from the <i>Manufacture des Gobelins</i> in
+Paris, at which establishment, founded over three hundred years ago, it
+is still produced.</p>
+
+<p>It is this kind of weaving that is now to be discussed, but without the
+least suggestion that the pupil should work upon a scale so large as is
+usually followed, though there is no reason against doing so if it is
+practicable. Tapestry weaving is so constantly associated with objects
+of large size, such as wall hangings, that it is scarcely realised as an
+art in this smaller way and as an alternative to embroidery. Yet it can
+be work of a most interesting kind even when produced in pieces only six
+inches square, as is well shown by existing specimens of the work of the
+weavers in Egypt who flourished in the early centuries of the Christian
+era. Examples of this work can be seen in many museums; they consist
+frequently of decorative panels of tapestry work inlaid in linen tunics
+and stuffs that have been used as grave clothes. These early Coptic
+examples are, like all tapestry, built up by interweaving various
+threads upon warp-strings stretched in close parallel lines. By varying
+the colour of the threads that are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> thus manipulated upon the warp,
+patterns of any degree of complexity can be built up directly by hand,
+and without the assistance of any further mechanical contrivance. The
+peculiarity of this ancient weaving is that the patterns are frequently
+woven upon the warp-threads of some fabric, from which the weft either
+has been removed, or, what is perhaps more probable, been purposely left
+out when the material was made, to leave space for this decorative
+pattern weaving to be added to it.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin name for the workman who in this way wove in the ornamental
+patterns was <i>Plumarius</i>, which is a name known to be applied to an
+embroiderer also. This weaving of small subjects is certainly very
+little removed from embroidery; it may fairly be called needlework, for
+it is as often carried out with needles as with bobbins, the former
+being frequently better suited to the size of the work.</p>
+
+<p>In execution weaving is not more difficult than embroidered work; it can
+be done in an ordinary room and upon a simple loom that is not more
+cumbersome than an embroidery frame; in fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> an embroidery frame can
+sometimes be used in the place of a loom.</p>
+
+<p>Weaving takes about as long in doing as finely stitched solid
+needlework, for in weaving the entire fabric is made, both pattern and
+ground. The speed with which the work can be done of course varies
+considerably, being mainly dependent upon the design that is being
+carried out. Also the quality of the materials used affects the rate of
+working; for instance, the thickness of the warp-strings and the placing
+of them nearer together or further apart. Moreover the weft may be
+composed of one strand or of several strands together.</p>
+
+<p>In weaving, unless the materials used are very fine, it is impossible to
+get minute detail in drawing; fortunately it is seldom necessary to
+attempt much of this. The simpler and more direct work is as good as,
+and sometimes better than, that with finely gradated colour, shading,
+and form. On the other hand, work, small in scale, even though simply
+treated, does not look well when carried out with very coarse materials,
+for they seem out of proportion to the size of it.</p>
+
+<p>The main difficulty in the technique of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> the work lies in the attainment
+of good draughtsmanship, which of course includes light and shade as
+well as outline. It is naturally more difficult to draw by means of
+bobbin and thread, in horizontal lines, than to work unrestrictedly with
+a pencil, or even with an embroidery needle.</p>
+
+<p>There is a great deal in the preparation of the design; as in all other
+crafts this must be suited to the method of work; otherwise the
+difficulties of execution will be greatly increased and the result will
+be less satisfactory. This is even more important in weaving than in
+embroidery, for in the latter the stitch and method may possibly be
+chosen to suit the design, but in weaving no variation of stitch is
+possible; all must be carried out in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>Tapestry weaving, whether for wall hangings or for small objects, has
+the same technical difficulties, and certain restrictions govern all
+work of the kind. One point to be observed is, the main lines of the
+design should go as little as possible in the same direction as the warp
+threads. This is because with each change of colour in the weft that
+occurs in the direction of the warp, there comes an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> inevitable
+separation in the woven material, which, oft repeated, would materially
+impair the strength of the fabric. The less frequently this occurs, of
+course, the better, since it entails additional labour, either a
+joining-together stitch at the time of working or an after-sewing up
+from the back. Long lines made by change of colour going straight or at
+a slight angle across the warp-threads, are perfectly simple to manage,
+and the hatching lines of shading, as well as the outline, should be
+taken as much as possible in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that most tapestries have the ribbed lines of warp
+going horizontally across; in the loom these lines are perpendicular, so
+this means that the design has been placed and carried out sideways upon
+it. This is for the reason just under discussion, for the long lines of
+a design are most frequently perpendicular, take, for instance, lines of
+figures, draperies, or architecture, and so by placing the design
+sideways in the loom, most of the important lines will come in the
+direction most easy for the working of them.</p>
+
+<p>With small pieces it frequently does<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> not matter which way it is carried
+out, but it is useful to know when making the design that there is the
+alternative of placing it either way upon the warp-threads. If this
+matter were not considered and arranged, there might come a good deal of
+twisting round one or two warp-threads which would be most
+unsatisfactory in working and in appearance. A band of plain colour
+framing a square piece of work will be found to be completely detached
+from the centre part upon each side of the square, although working in
+very straightforwardly at the top and base; if, instead of being a
+straight band, the inner edge was vandyked, the work would be well
+knitted together upon all sides (see <a href="#Fig_169">fig. 169</a>). In such ways as this the
+technical pitfalls can be somewhat avoided by a designer who understands
+the method of the work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 91px;">
+<img src="images/fig_169.jpg" width="91" height="450" alt="Fig. 169." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_169"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 169.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To lay down definite rules for designing is practically impossible;
+right and wrong depend upon so many circumstances. The study of fine
+tapestries of the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> periods is one of the most satisfactory ways of
+learning what one may or may not attempt; the beautifully flowered
+grounds in many of these show what excellent motives flowers make, and
+how they should be treated. It is not usually a good plan to introduce
+in any part of the work much plain ground, for it is inclined to look
+poor; this is very likely the reason why the grass in tapestry-land is
+often covered with such profusion of flowers. Tapestry calls for
+beautiful colour, richness, and plenty of interesting detail; it is
+essentially decorative work, and must be treated as such. The
+arrangement of colours and tones need to be sharply defined; if by
+chance a dark leaf comes against another dark one, a line of light
+colour is sometimes deliberately run between, perhaps shading or
+outlining one of the forms; a flower may even change its colour as it
+passes over different backgrounds; what is more remarkable is that this
+change, unless sought for, is imperceptible.</p>
+
+<p>The work may be applied to all kinds of uses, such as coverings for
+furniture, mats, curtains, bell-pulls, book-covers, bags, boxes, and so
+forth. Anything<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> that hangs upon a wall is particularly suitable for
+working in tapestry, for at a little distance this kind of work shows up
+more effectively than embroidered work does. A great many articles, such
+as alms-bags, frontals of all kinds, stoles and book-markers, for use in
+churches could most excellently be carried out in tapestry.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">NECESSARY APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Loom&mdash;Mirror&mdash;Bobbins and Needles&mdash;The Comb&mdash;Embroidery Frame
+treated as a Loom&mdash;Warp&mdash;Wools&mdash;Silk&mdash;Gold and Silver Thread.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>TOOLS AND APPLIANCES</h4>
+
+<p>The chief requisite for weaving is the loom; this can be made by a
+carpenter from a working drawing. In the Victoria and Albert Museum
+there is a model of a small tapestry loom, presented by William Morris,
+which a novice will do well to examine. It is quite possible to carry
+out a small piece of weaving upon an embroidery frame, but to work in a
+loom which has all the proper appliances is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> always quicker, better, and
+absolutely necessary with work of any size.</p>
+
+<p>There are two main varieties of tapestry loom, one in which the
+warp-threads are horizontal, and another in which they are vertical. The
+latter kind is considered to give the best results, mainly owing to the
+possibility of the worker's seeing the right side of the work whilst it
+is in progress. This is a great advantage, for tapestry is woven with
+the reverse side towards the worker, and progresses by such gradual
+steps that the weaver is prone to lose sight of the whole whilst paying
+attention to the part in progress, and it will be easily understood that
+to be able to go round and view the entire piece is of immense help. A
+detail may perhaps be corrected during the progress of the work, but
+afterwards this would be an awkward matter. It is one of the
+difficulties of weaving to have to finish completely each step as it
+comes up. Working from the wrong side is not so hard as it might seem,
+for both sides are practically alike; the side towards the worker,
+however, shows ends of thread and thread passing from one place to
+another, which make it somewhat unpresentable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;">
+<img src="images/fig_170.jpg" width="410" height="600" alt="Fig. 170." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_170"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 170.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_171.jpg" width="450" height="74" alt="Fig. 171." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_171"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 171.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_170">Fig. 170</a> shows a drawing of a small loom with some warp stretched upon
+it in readiness for commencing work. It stands upon the ground, and is
+about 4 feet high by 2&frac12; feet wide. It is made of beechwood; a hard
+wood like this is best, for there must be no possibility of the rollers
+bending with the strain of the warp. The loom consists of two uprights
+standing upon heavy feet; these uprights are joined together at the top
+and base by strengthening cross bars. Two wooden rollers are fixed into
+the uprights (see A and B in <a href="#Fig_170">fig. 170</a>) and in the surface of each of
+these a narrow groove is hollowed out lengthwise (see <a href="#Fig_171">fig. 171</a>); this is
+for the purpose of holding a long metal pin, by means of which the
+warp-threads are kept in place. The rollers are fitted at one extremity
+with a handle for turning them round, and at the other with a ratchet
+and toothed wheel to prevent unwinding. The pur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>pose of the upper roller
+is to hold the supply of warp-thread and unwind it as required; the
+lower one is for winding up the web as the work progresses, so that upon
+a loom of this size a piece of work of considerable length can easily be
+carried out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_172.jpg" width="450" height="112" alt="Fig. 172." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_172"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 172.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The warp soon after it passes from the top roller is divided into two
+leaves by a cylindrical wooden bar about one inch in diameter, called
+the cross stave (see <a href="#Fig_172">fig. 172</a>). The cross stave may be oval or round in
+section; if it is oval the warp-threads may be moved more widely apart
+when required by turning the stave round, but this is not often
+necessary. The upper part of the cross stave can be seen in position in
+the loom diagram, which shows also how the stave divides the threads,
+which pass alternately one in front and one behind the bar. After this
+the threads are passed through a comb-like instru<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>ment, having about
+fourteen divisions to the inch (see <a href="#Fig_173">fig. 173</a>). This extends from side to
+side of the loom, and lies in a groove made in the bar that fixes the
+coat-stave (C in <a href="#Fig_170">fig. 170</a>) in position at either extremity. It can be
+taken out and exchanged for another with a different divisioning, if
+necessary; without doing this, however, it is quite possible to put at
+intervals two threads through one division, or to pass over one
+occasionally if need be. The threads are next fixed in the lower roller.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 112px;">
+<img src="images/fig_173.jpg" width="112" height="600" alt="Fig. 173." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_173"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 173.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The coat-stave can be seen projecting from near the top of the loom. A
+number of looped threads called coats are fixed to it, and each one of
+these encircles a thread of the warp. They are attached only to those
+threads that were passed behind the cross stave and form the back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> leaf
+of the warp, and they are for the purpose of pulling these forward when
+required.</p>
+
+<p>Underneath the lower roller is fixed a wooden tray, which is useful for
+holding bobbins, comb, or scissors.</p>
+
+<p>On the loom is hung a small mirror facing the right side of the work
+(see <a href="#Fig_170">fig. 170</a>). This enables the weaver to glance now and then through
+the warp-strings at any detail that is in progress.</p>
+
+<p>Smaller looms can be made, suitable for placing upon a table; these,
+standing about two feet in height, must in some way be firmly fixed to
+the table, in order to be properly rigid for work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_174.jpg" width="450" height="125" alt="Fig. 174." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_174"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 174.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The thread composing the woof is wound upon a wooden bobbin or shuttle,
+such as that shown in <a href="#Fig_174">fig. 174</a>. The chief point about this is, that it
+may not have sharp angles that might catch in the warp whilst passing to
+and fro. The pointed end is sometimes made use of to poke between the
+warp-threads and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> press down the weft. A fresh bobbin is employed for
+each colour, and the wool is wound upon it two or three strands
+together, just as may happen to be required for the work. Large
+blunt-pointed needles about three inches long (<a href="#Fig_175">fig. 175</a>) are often used
+in place of bobbins, for with small pieces of work sometimes so little
+of a colour is required as to make it unnecessary to wind a quantity on
+a bobbin, which is, after all, only a needle with an extra long thread.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_175.jpg" width="450" height="61" alt="Fig. 175." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_175"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 175.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 203px;">
+<img src="images/fig_176.jpg" width="203" height="200" alt="Fig. 176." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_176"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 176.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A comb is necessary for pressing down the weft whilst the work is in
+progress. Combs vary in size and shape; <a href="#Fig_176">fig. 176</a> shows one suitable for
+this type of work; it is 1&frac12; inches square, slightly wedge-shaped, and
+about one-eighth of an inch thick. Boxwood is the most suitable wood to
+make them from, since it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> particularly hard and fine in the grain.
+They are sometimes made of metal, ivory, or bone; for large work, metal
+combs of a heavier type are used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 772px;">
+<img src="images/fig_177.jpg" width="772" height="600" alt="Fig. 177." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_177"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 177.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>An embroidery frame, which has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> already mentioned as a possible
+substitute for the loom, is oftentimes an article more easily procured.
+<a href="#Fig_177">Fig. 177</a> illustrates how a frame of this kind may be prepared with
+warp-threads for weaving. One with the screw side pieces is the best,
+for these enable the tension of the warp to be slightly adjusted if the
+working shows any tendency to slacken the thread.</p>
+
+<p>To prepare the frame for weaving&mdash;Place the parts together at the
+required distance from each other; secure the end of some warp-thread to
+some part of the frame, and then commence to wind it round and round
+over the two rollers, placing the threads at approximately the right
+distance apart, taking into account when doing this that the two leaves
+thus formed will eventually be brought into the same plane. When the
+required width of warp-thread is wound upon the rollers, secure the end
+of the string and proceed to bring the front and back leaves together by
+darning a knitting-needle or some similar article in and out of the
+threads at the centre. Then slide it up close to the top roller and
+secure it by tying it with string at each end<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> (see <a href="#Fig_177">diagram</a>). The same
+process is gone through with a second pin, which is tied to the lower
+roller.</p>
+
+<p>The warp-threads can now be adjusted to their proper distance apart, as
+they will probably be a little irregularly spaced. The next process is
+to weave two or three courses of warp-thread close to the knitting-pins
+at either end; this brings the warp still nearer to being in the one
+plane, and enables the threads to be arranged in perfect order by the
+aid of the point of the bobbin or a needle, and they will remain as now
+placed.</p>
+
+<p>The frame is now ready for work. A piece of plain web, about half an
+inch in width, is usually woven before the actual design is begun; this
+serves as a selvedge for turning in when the completed work is mounted,
+and also gets the warp into condition much better for working upon.</p>
+
+<p>A thick knitting-needle can be passed between the alternate threads of
+the warp and placed towards the top of the frame, as shown in the
+diagram. This takes the place of the cross-stave in the loom, and, by
+thus dividing the warp into two leaves, is of assistance when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>
+shuttle goes in one direction. Coats cannot easily be applied to an
+embroidery frame.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite possible upon a frame of this kind to weave a long narrow
+band of any kind. The warp must be wound on and arranged in position at
+the necessary length by separating the rollers and temporarily fixing
+them apart at the distance required for the band. The surplus warp is
+then wound up on the upper roller until the side pieces will fit into
+the ends. As it gets worked upon, the completed part is wound upon the
+lower roller. A piece both long and wide would be impracticable,
+especially if any winding on and off the rollers were necessary.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<h4>MATERIALS</h4>
+
+<p>There are very few materials required for tapestry weaving; they consist
+of, string for warp, wools, silks, and maybe gold and silver thread for
+the weft.</p>
+
+<p>The warp is usually composed of a smooth, strong, evenly twisted thread,
+specially made for the purpose. It can be procured of various
+thicknesses. It happens sometimes that in parts the warp shows, as a
+fringe or in some other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> way; in this case it could be made of a strong
+silk thread, such as purse silk, though for edges of mats, the ordinary
+string warp fringed out is quite suitable. Occasionally weaving is
+carried out in such a way as to expose the warp in various parts of the
+work, the pattern being woven, but the ground left altogether unworked.
+In a case of this kind the colour and composition of the warp is
+naturally important, and must be considered. In a show-case in the
+British Museum there can be seen a small book with an interesting woven
+binding carried out after this manner. The warp is composed of gold
+passing, and the effect of this with a pattern carried out in brightly
+coloured silks is very pretty indeed, the gold adding a rich glow to the
+whole.</p>
+
+<p>Wool and silk are the chief materials used for the woof. It is well to
+choose those of fine texture, for several strands can then be wound
+together upon one bobbin, which, with coarse materials, would be too
+clumsy a method. When working in this way there is more opportunity of
+varying colour and texture, for three shades may be wound upon the
+bobbin together to get a required colour,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> and this has often a prettier
+effect than the use of an unblended colour; also, silk and wool are very
+satisfactory wound and worked in together, each texture showing the
+other to advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Fine gold or silver threads are frequently used in tapestry weaving.
+They can be woven in alone, which gives a metallic look, or they may be
+mixed with strands of silk. Both ways are very good, and the use of the
+metal thread adds great richness to the work. These threads make fine
+backgrounds, and they can be used in many ways upon the design; it is a
+common practice to carry out the lighting of draperies and of other
+parts in real gold, just as they are treated in illuminated manuscripts.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">PREPARATIONS FOR WORK</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Warping the Loom&mdash;Dressing the Coat-Stave&mdash;Tracing the Pattern upon
+the Threads.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Upon commencing the warping of the loom the first matter to be decided
+is the length of the threads. Some extra length must be measured off
+besides that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> actually used for weaving, to allow for what is taken up
+in fixing the threads and winding them round the rollers, and as it is
+not convenient to work more than about half-way up the loom, this also
+has to be allowed for in the length. The threads must all be cut to one
+size, and since they have to be doubled in halves when placed on the
+loom, this should be twice the required length.</p>
+
+<p>Another question for early decision is the number of warp-threads that
+may be allowed per inch. This varies with the coarseness of the strings
+and the thickness of the weft that will have to pass to and fro between
+them; what governs both of these points is the design, whether there is
+much detail or not, for if the drawing is complicated the warp-strings
+must be fine in order to be able to carry it out; this point will be
+better understood after some experience of working. Fourteen to sixteen
+threads to the inch is a very usual number.</p>
+
+<p>The fixing of the threads in the upper roller is a very simple matter.
+It is done by doubling each in halves and placing the loop thus formed
+over the metal pin, which for this purpose may be temporarily suspended
+by string to the frame of the top<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> of the loom just above the roller. It
+can be dropped into its place in the groove when all the threads are
+looped upon it, and made secure there for the moment by tying some
+string round the extremities of the roller.</p>
+
+<p>Each thread is now taken separately through the comb-like instrument.
+The cross-stave is laid upon this, so it is well to put it in place now,
+and carry the threads alternately in front and behind it, whilst passing
+them through the comb. The threading of the strings through the comb
+decides the number there will be to the inch, so they must be put
+through at the required distance apart.</p>
+
+<p>The upper roller is next given a complete turn, which will make the
+metal pin and the threads that are round it secure in the groove. The
+winding up must be continued until only about three inches of the
+warp-string hang below the lower roller. Some kind of tension must be
+applied to the threads whilst this winding is going on, or it will be
+done irregularly; a hand, or several hands, holding it, answers the
+purpose well enough.</p>
+
+<p>The next process is to fix the threads securely in the lower roller. The
+diffi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>culty here lies in getting the placing and tension of the threads
+between the two rollers exactly regular and even. If some were slack and
+others tight it would be very awkward to correct afterwards, and
+impossible to weave upon properly if incorrect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 547px;">
+<img src="images/fig_178.jpg" width="547" height="600" alt="Fig. 178." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_178"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 178.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_178">Fig. 178</a> shows a practical method by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> which the warp may be fixed in the
+lower roller, but any contrivance will do that gains the required
+result. To carry out the fixing as in the diagram, the roller must be
+turned so that the groove comes just at the centre in the front. Four
+lines of warp-thread are then fixed from end to end of the roller, two
+above and two below the groove. Each warp-string in turn is now threaded
+in and out of these cross lines, as shown in the diagram. This places
+them in regular order, at the correct distance apart, and keeps them at
+very nearly the same tension throughout. The metal pin is now placed in
+the groove and pushes the threads before it. It must be temporarily made
+firm there by string tied round the roller at intervals.</p>
+
+<p>The next process is to tie the warp-threads in knots, either two or four
+together, just where they emerge below the pin. This prevents any giving
+way, and if the threads are pulled just equally tight immediately before
+the knotting, the tension of the entire warp will be the same. The lower
+roller is next turned round until the metal pin is made quite firm in
+its place by the warp-threads passing across the face of the groove.
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> warp will now be fixed in the loom as shown in the drawing in <a href="#Fig_170">fig.
+170</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The placing of the coats upon the coat-stave is the next part of the
+preparatory work. Commence by fixing a line of warp-thread along the
+exterior side of the coat-stave, making it secure to the bar at both
+ends. The coats, encircling the stave and a thread of warp, are fixed to
+this string by a kind of buttonhole stitch (see <a href="#Fig_179">fig. 179</a>). It is
+important that each loop should be of exactly the same size; this can be
+ensured by temporarily fixing a rod across the loom at the point where
+the loops will encircle the warp-thread, and then taking the loop round
+this bar as well as round the thread.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 434px;">
+<img src="images/fig_179.jpg" width="434" height="600" alt="Fig. 179." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_179"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 179.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To commence making the coats, take a long needleful of warp-thread and
+secure the end of it to the string at the right-hand end, and then make
+about three small looped stitches upon it (see needle in progress in the
+diagram); next, instead of making another of the same stitches, take the
+thread down below the stave, let it encircle the first thread of the
+back leaf and then be brought up over the coat-stave and string and be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
+looped under the thread to complete the stitch (see B). Usually a long
+and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> short stitch are taken alternately, but the number of short ones
+may be varied. This process is continued until all the threads of the
+back leaf are encircled each by a loop.</p>
+
+<p>A new length of thread must be knotted on to the last one as it gets
+used up. The weavers' knot, which is shown on <a href="#Page_291">p. 291</a>, might be used for
+the purpose. It would be made use of also if by chance the warp-thread
+were broken, for it is a knot specially good for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>When the coats are completed there are still one or two preparations to
+be made before actually commencing to weave. Either a metal rod or a
+long narrow piece of wood must now be threaded in and out of the
+warp-strings and placed in position at the base. This rod can be seen
+properly placed in position in <a href="#Fig_179">fig. 179</a> in front of the lower cylinder.
+This is put there to keep the lines of the woof horizontal when they are
+being beaten down by the comb.</p>
+
+<p>Next wind on a bobbin some warp-thread similar to that already on the
+loom, or, if that happens to be very coarse, let this be a little finer.
+Now weave two courses with this warp-thread and beat it down with the
+comb, leaving the woof during the process rather loose. The technique of
+weaving with all its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> difficulties is discussed in <a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">Chapter XVIII</a>. When
+two of the warp-thread courses are complete, insert either the pointed
+end of the bobbin or a blunt needle between the warp-threads below the
+woven portion, and if necessary move the warp-strings a little to or fro
+until they are equally separated each from the other all along the line.
+Next weave about four more courses of the woof; these will serve to keep
+the arranged warp-threads still more firmly in place. Then with a red
+pencil rule a horizontal line straight across the warp-strings about
+one-third of an inch above the woven portion. Wind on another bobbin
+some wool and weave it to and fro until the space between the woven
+portion and the red line is filled in. Between each course the comb must
+beat the woof-threads firmly down. It is often necessary to weave over
+some portions of the surface more than over others as the threads pack
+down tighter in some parts. The loom should be now in perfect order for
+commencing work. The preparatory weaving that has been done is often
+useful afterwards as a selvedge.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to have a coloured drawing of the design for frequent
+reference whilst the work is in progress; also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> a tracing of the outline
+must be marked upon the warp-threads for the worker's further guidance.
+The tracing upon the threads must be a reflection of the pattern owing
+to the fact that the work is done from the back. It does not affect the
+matter if the design is a symmetrical one, but to find the lions of
+England facing the wrong way in some completed piece of heraldic work
+would be most annoying. In order to get a tracing of the design upon the
+threads, a sheet of paper, with a distinct outline of the pattern upon
+it, must be attached, possibly by pinning, to the further side of the
+warp-threads, exactly where the weaving is to take place. The outline
+will be clearly perceivable through the threads, and the next process is
+to take pen and Indian ink and make a dot upon each warp-thread in
+sequence round the outline of the pattern. When this is completed, the
+tracing-paper can be removed, and the dots upon the warp must be taken
+all round each thread instead of marking one side only. The marking
+round is done by holding a warp-thread between the finger and thumb,
+placing the side of the nib against one of the dots, and then twisting
+the thread to and fro against it. All the marks upon the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> thread
+are treated in succession in this way, then the next thread is taken up
+and treated in similar fashion, and so on until all are done. <a href="#Fig_180">Fig. 180</a>
+shows a leaf marked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> upon the warp-threads in readiness for working.
+This marking should be clear, sharp, and decided, all the lines being
+taken horizontally round, as in <a href="#Fig_180">fig. 180</a>; if the pattern seems to run up
+a thread, a mark just half-way up is sufficient guide. In a piece of
+work of any size the tracing must be done, a part at a time, for the
+threads moving slightly when the warp is unwound and the web wound up
+may displace the marks and make the guiding lines incorrect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;">
+<img src="images/fig_180.jpg" width="460" height="600" alt="Fig. 180." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_180"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 180.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: 75%;">THE TECHNIQUE OF WEAVING</span></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Weaving&mdash;Commencing and Fastening Off&mdash;The Interlocking
+Stitch&mdash;Fine Drawing&mdash;Shading&mdash;Added After-stitches.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The way in which the woof threading in and out of the warp makes the web
+is shown at C, <a href="#Fig_179">fig. 179</a>. Here the woof has been taken once to and fro; a
+movement called a weft or a course, one way only, goes by the name of a
+half pass or a shoot. By the use of the cross stave for one direction,
+and of the coats for the other, the tediousness of the process of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>
+darning in and out and so picking up the right threads is avoided. It is
+not always practical to make use of these appliances; for instance, in
+working over only two or three threads it may not be worth while, but
+when they can be made use of the work is done twice as rapidly by their
+help.</p>
+
+<p>The bobbin enters the loom rather high up, for there the division of
+threads is greatest. One hand starts the bobbin upon its journey, the
+other hand, entering between the divided warp-threads, takes it on and
+out as required. Sometimes the bobbin has to go the entire way between
+the leaves, and at others it may be only over two or three threads, this
+depending upon the pattern. To enable the bobbin to make the return
+passage, the warp must be redivided, the threads that are at the back
+must be brought to the front; this is managed by the help of the
+coats&mdash;a bunch of them is taken in the hand in order to pull forward the
+threads to which they are attached. This can be done by sections all
+along the line, or just in one part of it if it be so required.</p>
+
+<p>The weft is almost always taken in horizontal lines to and fro. The
+exceptions to this rule occur when it is very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> evident that to run up
+and down a narrow slanting line from end to end is far simpler than to
+work up in a horizontal zigzag fashion along it.</p>
+
+<p>About an inch of thread is left at the end and at the commencement of
+each length of weft; these are secured by the tight packing down of the
+threads above them, so there is as a rule no need for any knot or
+fastening off, which would be necessary only in the case of commencing
+or ending off round a single thread, but it is important for the future
+durability of the work to see that the ends are secured. Sometimes a
+commencement or a finish is made just where a natural division of the
+fabric occurs; in this case, the end of thread would not be secure, for
+it might work loose or appear upon the right side. This can usually be
+avoided by commencing a little further along the line. The few times
+that fastening off or on is necessary, the thread can be run into the
+part already woven with a smaller needle, or else be knotted on to a
+loose end of wool.</p>
+
+<p>The bobbins not actually in use hang down fixed as in lace work by a
+half-hitch. <a href="#Fig_181">Fig. 181</a> shows this in process of making; the loop is passed
+from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> finger on to the bobbin; it will unwind as wanted and yet hold
+firm whilst hanging down. The thread is always carried, if practicable,
+from one place to where it is next required, in order to avoid
+unnecessary breaking off. Tapestry is sometimes woven with both sides
+alike, which means only that all the ends must be cut close off. It is
+said that work so treated is quite durable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<img src="images/fig_181.jpg" width="360" height="250" alt="Fig. 181." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_181"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 181.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Special care must be taken that the weft is turned neatly round at the
+margins, because if it is at all loose there the work has a ragged,
+untidy appearance. This applies also to any turnings that may occur in
+other parts due to the carrying out of the pattern;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> if in these places
+the thread is too loose upon the warp, the fabric will be uneven and
+pushed out of place; if on the other hand the thread there is too tight,
+the slits will gape, and if these are afterwards closed by stitching,
+the entire material will be drawn in. A new thread is never commenced
+actually at the margin, for it would then be seen upon the right side;
+it is quite easy to avoid this happening by commencing an inch further
+in. This may entail beginning in a direction which is apparently wrong
+for picking up the proper threads, that is, those not picked up in the
+row below; but this must happen at times, and the work packs down and
+quite prevents the warp showing, as it might be inclined to do in such a
+case. It is sometimes at the margin a good plan to pick up two
+warp-threads together, for this emphasises the edge rather pleasantly;
+this might be advisable in carrying out a long ribbon-like border of any
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>After each shoot, the point of the bobbin, the comb, or maybe the
+fingers, should press down the woof to make it lie close upon the row
+before, and so entirely cover up the warp. <a href="#Fig_182">Fig. 182</a> shows the comb in
+action, and also the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> bobbins hanging. The weft must be left a little
+slack along the line for this purpose, and some experience is required
+in order to leave just the right slackness. The turn at the edge is
+arranged first, and then the thread eased evenly along its length in
+readiness for being pressed down; it must have the appearance not of
+running straight across the warp-strings, but of lying loosely round
+them. For packing down a long line, much more play of weft is required
+than for a short one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 483px;">
+<img src="images/fig_182.jpg" width="483" height="400" alt="Fig. 182." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_182"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 182.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The usual fault with beginners is to draw the web too tight here and
+there. This is a fault to be specially avoided, for it causes the fabric
+to be drawn in, and to vary in width, spoiling its appearance and making
+the threads difficult to work upon; also the packing down of the weft
+could not be properly done, which would cause the warp-threads to be
+exposed in parts.</p>
+
+<p>The thoroughness of this packing down of the weft is for several reasons
+very important. The durability of the work is much affected by it, both
+for the securing of the ends of wool already mentioned, and for the
+making of a strong, well-knit piece of fabric. Another reason is, that
+the drawing of the various forms in the design may be made incorrect, in
+this way: suppose an apple were woven in, apparently correctly, but the
+wefts were not pressed down thoroughly, the weaving and packing down of
+the wefts above it would be sure to press the part underneath closer
+together, and the effect of this would be to make the round apple assume
+a flattened oval shape, and cause similar changes throughout the work.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been mentioned that wher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>ever a change of colour occurs
+vertically, that is, in the direction of the warp-threads, there results
+of necessity a division or slit in the web; the slit, which may be of
+any length, if noticeable, must be closed. This can be done whilst the
+weaving is in progress by a method of interlocking the two wefts as they
+meet, or else by stitching up at the back when the work is finished. The
+latter way is called fine drawing, and must be very carefully done,
+especially with large tapestries.</p>
+
+<p>Both methods are used; the first takes longer, but is the most durable.
+Old and worn tapestries will usually be seen to have given way where
+this stitching up at the back has taken place. In small pieces of work,
+however, there is not much likelihood of strain, so the oversewing at
+the back answers fairly well. The two ways can be used in conjunction.
+Supposing a border, owing to its being of a different colour, had to be
+joined the entire length of the work, the interlocking stitches might be
+made at intervals of about half an inch, and when the work was finished
+the oversewing at the back might be taken the entire length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<img src="images/fig_183.jpg" width="369" height="250" alt="Fig. 183." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_183"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 183.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_183">Fig. 183</a> is a diagram illustrating the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> way in which the wefts may be
+interlocked whilst the weaving goes on. Examination of the drawing will
+probably be sufficient explanation; however, interlocking is effected
+thus: Commencing at the base, run a weft of the darker wool to and fro,
+leaving it slack at the turning point. A half pass of the
+lighter-coloured woof is then run through, it is threaded in an upward
+direction through the slack loop of the darker wool, waits there whilst
+another weft of the darker colour is worked, and then is threaded down
+through the second loop that has been formed, and returns to the
+starting-point. It then comes back again and is threaded upwards through
+this same loop, and waits, as before, for another to be formed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
+returns back through it&mdash;and so on. If this is done properly, no change
+is visible on the right side. The joined weft will last as long as any
+other part of the weaving.</p>
+
+<p>The process of stitching up at the back is simply an oversewing with
+silk or other strong thread. The stitches must be rather close, drawing
+the edges just sufficiently together, and they must not show through to
+the right side. The stitching together should be done while the work is
+on the loom, since the web would then be in less danger of pulling out
+of shape.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/fig_184.jpg" width="450" height="147" alt="Fig. 184." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_184"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 184.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shading in tapestry weaving is carried out by a hatching process which
+is most simply explained by a diagram (<a href="#Fig_184">fig. 184</a>). The difficulty is not
+in the working, but in getting the form of the shadow or light correctly
+expressed. There is no need for fine gradation of colour and tone,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> for
+the shading looks best when carried out simply and boldly, but the
+drawing of it should be decided and good. The above figure gives but one
+intermediary tone in shading from one colour to another, which is the
+ancient method of working; at the present day the weavers in the
+<i>Manufacture des Gobelins</i> employ several other intermediary tones, thus
+allowing of finer gradation; possibly however these fine gradations are
+not of such great importance, and so need not have an unnecessary amount
+of attention and time devoted to their accomplishment.</p>
+
+<p>The student will do well to examine fine examples and make careful
+drawings from them, since this will teach the right way of going to work
+better than anything else can. <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a> is simply a shaded leaf taken at
+random from a piece of weaving; the same leaf was shown in outline in
+<a href="#Fig_180">fig. 180</a>, so the two show the commencement and completion of the same
+piece. It will be noticed upon studying tapestry that usually all the
+light parts of a work are hatched with the same colour, often a buff
+shade, those of rich tapestries with gold thread. This sameness of
+colour throughout gives unity to the work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 457px;">
+<img src="images/fig_185.jpg" width="457" height="500" alt="Fig. 185." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_185"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 185.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sometimes after the weaving is completed a few finishing touches can be
+satisfactorily put in by means of single stitches taken through the
+fabric with a sharp-pointed embroidery needle. The dots representing the
+seeds upon a strawberry could be stitched in afterwards in this way, for
+to insert them while the work is going on would be very tedious. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
+kind of thing must not be overdone, however, for the stitches are apt,
+unless very deftly treated, to have a laid-on look, and care must be
+taken not to mar the evenly ribbed effect, which is one of the
+characteristics of tapestry.</p>
+
+<p>This weaving is a most fascinating kind of work, as will be found upon a
+trial. The simplest patterns look very interesting when woven, and, on
+the other hand, the work can be carried to any degree of complexity that
+the worker desires. For a first trial a piece might<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> be done with no
+attempt at shading; even one such as that illustrated at <a href="#Fig_186">fig. 186</a> would
+be suitable. This example happens to be a form particularly easy for
+carrying out in weaving. The worker should begin at the lower right-hand
+corner and work the successive flights of steps diagonally, as shown by
+the unfinished portion of the diagram.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 417px;">
+<img src="images/fig_186.jpg" width="417" height="325" alt="Fig. 186." title="" />
+<a name="Fig_186"></a><span class="caption smcap">Fig. 186.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the way of actual technique there is in the art of tapestry weaving
+not nearly as much to be learnt as there is in embroidery, for there are
+no varieties of methods and of stitch to be acquired; still for a person
+to become a skilled weaver, capable of carrying out large wall hangings,
+is a thing very difficult of attainment&mdash;indeed it is said that it takes
+as long as fifteen years of constant application to acquire the
+necessary knowledge and skill. To carry out designs of less magnitude
+and intricacy is a very different matter; success in this smaller way is
+far more easily attained, and is well within the reach of unprofessional
+people.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="NOTES_ON_THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES" id="NOTES_ON_THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES"></a>NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_I_notes" id="Plate_I_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_I">Plate I.</a></span>&mdash;<i>A Detail from a XIVth Century English Cope.</i>&mdash;The figure of
+Christ which is shown in this plate is taken from a central group,
+representing the coronation of the Virgin, in a famous cope in the
+possession of Colonel J. E. Butler-Bowdon. The ground is of rich red
+silk velvet; the face, hands, and linings of the draperies are worked in
+silk in split stitch; the drapery, crown, and surrounding architectural
+decoration are in gold thread couched by the early method. The twisted
+column with oak leaves and the five lobed arch are both characteristic
+of English work of this period. Note the use of pearls in the lion's
+head and in the acorns, also the charmingly drawn bird. An interesting
+technical point displayed in this example<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> is that the work is done
+directly on to the velvet ground, instead of being first worked upon
+linen and afterwards as a completed piece of embroidery applied to the
+velvet. The method in use here, if at all possible, is always the most
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Size of detail, about eleven inches by six.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_II_notes" id="Plate_II_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_II">Plate II.</a></span>&mdash;<i>Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope preserved at
+Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire.</i>&mdash;The cope is not now in its original state,
+for it has been divided into two parts and used for the decoration of
+the altar. The background is composed of a thin greyish white silk
+backed with a stronger material. The white may have been originally some
+other colour; it is, however, in its present state, very beautiful and
+harmonious. The drawing of the features in this cope is remarkably
+refined and true to nature (the reproduction does not do full justice to
+the original). The ancient method, of working the faces in split stitch
+commencing with the middle of the cheek and continuing spirally round,
+then afterwards pressing the centre down by some mechanical means, is
+plainly to be observed here.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> The effective drawing of the tresses of
+hair in alternate lines of two colours is well seen in the left-hand
+example. The gold thread which is freely made use of all over the cope,
+upon the draperies, nimbi, and surrounding foliage, is marvellously
+bright and sparkling, although nearly six hundred years old. The
+manufacture of untarnishable gold for embroidery purposes seems beyond
+present day enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>Width of nimbus, two and a half inches.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_III_notes" id="Plate_III_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_III">Plate III.</a></span>&mdash;<i>A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet, probably of Sicilian
+work. Date about 1400.</i>&mdash;In this interesting example of quilting, which
+is exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum, the ground is composed
+of a buff-coloured linen. The raised effect is obtained by an
+interpadding of wool. The background is run over irregularly with white
+thread, in order to keep it more or less flat, and the design, which is
+in fairly high relief, is outlined with brown thread. The entire
+coverlet is embroidered with scenes from the life of Tristan. Tristan
+frequently engaged in battle against King Languis, the oppressor of his
+country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> This detail represents "How King Languis (of Ireland) sent to
+Cornwall for the tribute."</p>
+
+<p>Size of detail, two feet by three.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_IV_notes" id="Plate_IV_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV.</a></span>&mdash;<i>A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered in coloured
+silk threads upon a white linen ground.</i>&mdash;This is a piece of German XVth
+century work exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is
+embroidered almost entirely in one stitch, which might be described as a
+variety of herring-bone. The design is made up of two motives which
+repeat alternately along the band&mdash;a square shaped tree and a circle,
+the latter decorated with floral sprays and, in the centre of it, a
+group of emblems. Down the middle of the design runs a series of names
+in fine Gothic lettering&mdash;"Ursula" and "Augustinus" being the two that
+occur in this plate.</p>
+
+<p>Width of embroidered band, four and a half inches.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_V_notes" id="Plate_V_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_V">Plate V.</a></span>&mdash;<i>A portion of a late XVth century Orphrey, embroidered with
+the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham.</i>&mdash;The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> ground is of red
+velvet, and is embroidered with gold thread and coloured silks. The two
+shields here represented bear the arms of the families of de Bohun and
+Fitzwalter. Each shield has for supporters two swans, and is surrounded
+by floral sprays. The Stafford knot unites the sprays between the
+shields. The chasuble upon which this orphrey is placed is made of a
+lovely brocaded silk decorated with falcons, peahens, and roses.</p>
+
+<p>Width of embroidered orphrey, about eight inches.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_VI_notes" id="Plate_VI_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI.</a></span>&mdash;<i>A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth century
+Embroidered Picture representing the story of Daphne.</i>&mdash;The picture is
+worked in coloured wools and silks in cross stitch upon canvas, and is
+an admirable example of this kind of work, and this particular detail is
+a good illustration of a very satisfactory treatment of foliage. The
+whole panel measures about seven feet by two, and is exhibited in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Height of detail, ten and a half inches.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_VII_notes" id="Plate_VII_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII.</a></span>&mdash;<i>An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth century Wool-work
+Curtain.</i>&mdash;This curtain, the property of Miss Killick, is a pretty
+example of a small crewel-work hanging. The design is of a type that was
+often used upon hangings of that period. It is embroidered with brightly
+coloured wools upon a white linen ground, and is in a good state of
+preservation. Much ingenuity as well as variety of stitching are shown
+in the execution of the work.</p>
+
+<p>Size of curtain, about five feet by three.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_VIII_notes" id="Plate_VIII_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII.</a></span>&mdash;<i>A portion of a large XVIIth century Linen Hanging
+embroidered with coloured wools.</i>&mdash;In both design and execution this
+curtain is remarkably fine. The entire hanging is about eighteen feet in
+width by seven in height. It is embroidered with a conventional
+representation of a forest; in the branches of the trees lodge all kinds
+of birds and beasts. The type of design shown in this plate and in the
+last is derived from Eastern work; its introduction into England was due
+to the increase of trade with oriental nations, which developed about
+this time.</p>
+
+<p>Size of detail, about six feet by four.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_IX_notes" id="Plate_IX_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX.</a></span>&mdash;<i>Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth century English
+Sampler.</i>&mdash;The letters and surrounding decoration shown in this example
+of cut or open work are built up on a square network of warp and weft
+threads that were left at regular intervals throughout the space, when
+the unnecessary threads were withdrawn, and then covered with a kind of
+darning stitch. The letters are worked in buttonhole stitch, each fresh
+line being taken into the heading of the last one. The other parts of
+the work are carried out in either buttonhole or overcast stitch. The
+complete sampler is a long narrow strip of linen, across which run
+specimen bands of various kinds of work. It is exhibited in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Width of cutwork detail, six inches.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_X_notes" id="Plate_X_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_X">Plate X.</a></span>&mdash;<i>An Embroidered Sampler.</i>&mdash;The work is carried out in coloured
+silks in minute cross-stitch and occasional rows of satin stitch, upon a
+ground of fine single-thread canvas. It is dated 1798, and was worked by
+Alice Knight, the author's great-grandmother. The birds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> trees, and
+flowers, the charming little border patterns, and the comical cats
+standing on either hillocks or housetops, are all characteristic of
+sampler work. Working the sampler was once the regular introduction to
+mending, marking, and embroidery, and one was done by almost every
+XVIIIth century child as a part of education, indeed the practice of
+working samplers was continued some decades into the XIXth century.</p>
+
+<p>Actual size of original, eighteen inches by twelve.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_XI_notes" id="Plate_XI_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI.</a></span>&mdash;<i>An Example of Persian Embroidery.</i>&mdash;Formerly in the
+collection of Lord Leighton, and now in that of the London County
+Council's Central School of Arts and Crafts. The embroidery is carried
+out almost entirely in chain stitch with brilliantly coloured silks,
+upon a fine semi-transparent ground. The flowers that appear dark in the
+reproduction are worked in a bright rosy red, others are yellow and
+orange, and the leaves are in pale grey green outlined with a dark
+myrtle shade of the same.</p>
+
+<p>Size of panel, about five feet by four.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_XII_notes" id="Plate_XII_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII.</a></span>&mdash;<i>A Detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth.</i>&mdash;The entire
+surface of this fine white linen cloth is strewn with a profusion of
+beautiful flowers, worked in floss silk in bright colours. The flowers
+were all drawn directly from nature by the worker, Mrs. W. R. Lethaby.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_XIII_notes" id="Plate_XIII_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_XIII">Plate XIII.</a></span>&mdash;<i>An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by Miss May Morris,
+designed by Mr. Philip Webb.</i>&mdash;The work is carried out with floss silk
+in bright colours and gold thread, both background and pattern being
+embroidered. The five crosses, that are placed at regular intervals
+between the vine leaves, are couched in gold passing upon a silvery silk
+ground.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_XIV_notes" id="Plate_XIV_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_XIV">Plate XIV.</a></span>&mdash;<i>Two Pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from Tombs in
+Egypt.</i>&mdash;These are exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The
+upper example is about five inches square, dated IIIrd to VIIth century,
+Egypto-Roman work, and is said to have decorated a child's tunic. It is
+woven in coloured silks upon a green ground; the colours are still
+wonderfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> fresh and bright. Weavers may see various interesting
+technical as well as other points in this early work. For instance, how
+the difficulty of the narrow detached vertical lines, necessitated by
+change of colour in the weft, has been overcome by using surface
+stitching instead, the easier horizontal lines being woven in the usual
+way. A good deal of this surface stitching can be seen in the ancient
+weaving; sometimes an entire pattern is picked out by this method, the
+ground having been first woven all over in some plain colour.</p>
+
+<p>The lower border pattern is a band of weaving about two inches in width,
+Saracenic work. It is woven in coloured silks and linen thread upon the
+actual warp threads of the garment that it decorates. The weft threads
+were probably omitted for the space of one and a half inches when the
+fabric was being made in order that some ornamentation might be put in,
+in this way. Some of the weft threads have perished, leaving the warp
+exposed to sight; this enables the student to understand better the
+manner in which it was carried out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_XV_notes" id="Plate_XV_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_XV">Plate XV.</a></span>&mdash;<i>An Example of a Tapestry Field strewn with Flowers.</i>&mdash;This
+kind of decoration is characteristic of many tapestry grounds, for the
+style is particularly suited to the method of work, and very happy in
+result. The detail shown in this plate is taken from a piece of late
+XVIth century Flemish work; it carries on, however, a much earlier
+tradition. The ground is of a dark blue colour, and the flowers varied
+as in nature.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Plate_XVI_notes" id="Plate_XVI_notes"></a><a href="#Plate_XVI">Plate XVI.</a></span>&mdash;<i>A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and gold thread by
+the Author.</i>&mdash;The ground is woven with black silk, decorated with gold
+at the top and base. The centre panel is carried out in brightly
+coloured silks and gold thread. The various compartments are filled with
+representations of flowers, birds, and fishes, upon an alternating
+purple and blue background. The dividing lines are of gold thread.</p>
+
+<p>Size of bag, ten inches by six.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES" id="THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES"></a>THE COLLOTYPE PLATES</h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;"><a name="Plate_I"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_i.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_i.jpg" width="367" height="600" alt="Plate I.&mdash;A detail from a XIVth Century English Cope." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate I.&mdash;A detail from a XIVth Century English Cope.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_I_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"><a name="Plate_II" id="Plate_II"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_ii.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_ii.jpg" width="800" height="507" alt="Plate II.&mdash;Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope
+preserved at Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate II.&mdash;Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope
+preserved at Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_II_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"><a name="Plate_III" id="Plate_III"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_iii.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_iii.jpg" width="402" height="600" alt="Plate III.&mdash;A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet,
+probably of Sicilian work. Date about 1400." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate III.&mdash;A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet,
+probably of Sicilian work. Date about 1400.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_III_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"><a name="Plate_IV" id="Plate_IV"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_iv.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_iv.jpg" width="800" height="431" alt="Plate IV.&mdash;A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered
+in coloured silk threads upon a white linen ground." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate IV.&mdash;A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered
+in coloured silk threads upon a white linen ground.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_IV_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Plate_V" id="Plate_V"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_v.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_v.jpg" width="350" height="600" alt="Plate V.&mdash;A portion of a late XVth Century Orphrey,
+embroidered with the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate V.&mdash;A portion of a late XVth Century Orphrey,
+embroidered with the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_V_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"><a name="Plate_VI" id="Plate_VI"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_vi.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_vi.jpg" width="402" height="600" alt="Plate VI.&mdash;A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth
+Century Embroidered Picture, representing the story of Daphne." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate VI.&mdash;A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth
+Century Embroidered Picture, representing the story of Daphne.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_VI_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"><a name="Plate_VII" id="Plate_VII"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_vii.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_vii.jpg" width="388" height="600" alt="Plate VII.&mdash;An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth Century
+Wool-work Curtain." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate VII.&mdash;An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth Century
+Wool-work Curtain.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_VII_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;"><a name="Plate_VIII" id="Plate_VIII"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_viii.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_viii.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="Plate VIII.&mdash;A portion of a large XVIIth Century Linen
+Hanging, embroidered with coloured wools." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate VIII.&mdash;A portion of a large XVIIth Century Linen
+Hanging, embroidered with coloured wools.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_VIII_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"><a name="Plate_IX" id="Plate_IX"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_ix.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_ix.jpg" width="800" height="560" alt="Plate IX.&mdash;Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth Century
+English Sampler." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate IX.&mdash;Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth Century
+English Sampler.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_IX_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;"><a name="Plate_X"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_x.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_x.jpg" width="427" height="600" alt="Plate X.&mdash;An Embroidered Sampler." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate X.&mdash;An Embroidered Sampler.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_X_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 502px;"><a name="Plate_XI"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_xi.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_xi.jpg" width="502" height="600" alt="Plate XI.&mdash;An example of Persian Embroidery." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate XI.&mdash;An example of Persian Embroidery.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_XI_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"><a name="Plate_XII" id="Plate_XII"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_xii.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_xii.jpg" width="800" height="502" alt="Plate XII.&mdash;A detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth.
+Designed and executed by Mrs. W. R. Lethaby." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate XII.&mdash;A detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth.
+Designed and executed by Mrs. W. R. Lethaby.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_XII_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"><a name="Plate_XIII" id="Plate_XIII"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_xiii.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_xiii.jpg" width="800" height="398" alt="Plate XIII.&mdash;An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by
+Miss May Morris, designed by Mr. Philip Webb." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate XIII.&mdash;An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by
+Miss May Morris, designed by Mr. Philip Webb.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_XIII_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"><a name="Plate_XIV" id="Plate_XIV"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_xiv.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_xiv.jpg" width="388" height="600" alt="Plate XIV.&mdash;Two pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from
+Tombs in Egypt." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate XIV.&mdash;Two pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from
+Tombs in Egypt.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_XIV_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 358px;"><a name="Plate_XV" id="Plate_XV"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_xv.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_xv.jpg" width="358" height="600" alt="Plate XV.&mdash;An example of a Tapestry Field strewn with
+Flowers." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate XV.&mdash;An example of a Tapestry Field strewn with
+Flowers.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_XV_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"><a name="Plate_XVI" id="Plate_XVI"></a>
+<a href="images/plate_xvi.jpg"><img src="images/thumb_plate_xvi.jpg" width="370" height="600" alt="Plate XVI.&mdash;A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and
+gold thread by the Author." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate XVI.&mdash;A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and
+gold thread by the Author.<br />
+<a href="#Plate_XVI_notes">Notes.</a></span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> No. 184, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> No. 879, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> No. 517-522, 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> For further information see "The Funeral Tent of an
+Egyptian Queen," by Villiers Stuart.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> No. 1564, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> For description of this method, see <a href="#Page_238">page 238</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> A piece belonging to Lord Falkland.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <a href="#Figs_18_and_19">Fig. 18</a> is a drawing from the border of the same example.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> No. 308, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See Dr. Rock's "Textile Fabrics."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> In <i>La Broderie du Onzi&egrave;me Si&egrave;cle jusqu'&agrave; Nos Jours</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> No. 175, 1889.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> This cope is full of interest in every detail. See M.
+Louis de Farcy, <i>La Broderie du Onzi&egrave;me Si&egrave;cle jusqu'&agrave; Nos Jours</i>. Plate
+II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> This will be found described in detail in <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapter II</a>.
+There is an interesting drawing of a neat little machine, similar to
+this, but worked by cogwheels, in <i>L'Art du Brodeur</i>, by Germain de St.
+Aubin (1770).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Altar-cloth band (<a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV.</a>)</li>
+
+<li>Altar frontal (<a href="#Plate_XIII">Plate XIII.</a>)</li>
+
+<li>Appliances, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Appliances and materials for tapestry weaving, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li>Applied embroidery, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Applied work, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Background, the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li>Bag, tapestry (<a href="#Plate_XVI">Plate XVI.</a>)</li>
+
+<li>Beads, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>Bobbins, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li>Braid work, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Broderie anglaise</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Bullions, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Canvas work, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li>Coat-stave, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li>Collotypes, descriptive notes on, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li>Colour, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li>Comb, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+
+<li>Cope at Steeple Aston (<a href="#Plate_II">Plate II.</a>), <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li>Cope, detail from XIVth century English (<a href="#Plate_I">Plate I.</a>), <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li>Cord, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Cord-making appliance, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li>Cotton, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Couching, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li>Couching gold, ancient method of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>Couching gold, usual method, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Coverlet, quilted Sicilian (<a href="#Plate_III">Plate III.</a>), <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+
+<li>Crewel work, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Curtain, XVIIth century (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII.</a>), <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li>Curtain, XVIIth century wool-work (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII.</a>), <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li>Cutwork, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Darned netting, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Darning, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Darning, pattern, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>Design, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Design for tapestry, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+<li>Designing, pattern, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Directions, practical, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawn thread work, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Dressing the coat-stave, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Egyptian weaving (<a href="#Plate_XIV">Plate XIV.</a>), <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+<li>Emblems, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Embroidery frame used as a loom, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+<li>Embroidery, washing, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li>Embroidery with gold and silver threads, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Figure work, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Fine drawing, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li>Flax threads, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Foliage, detail of (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI.</a>), <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+<li>Frames, embroidery, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Frame work, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Fringes, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Garniture of work, the, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Gold and silver threads, embroidery with, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Gold thread embroidery, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Heraldry, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Inlaid work, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Interlocking stitch, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Knife, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Knots, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>Knotted cord, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Knotted thread, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Laid work, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Lettering, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Lettering, cutwork, XVIIth century (<a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX.</a>), <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li>Linen, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li>Loom, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Madeira work, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Marking, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>Materials, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li>Materials and appliances for tapestry weaving, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li>Materials for gold work, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Methods of work, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li>Monograms, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Needles, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Objects to work, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li>Open-work fillings, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Opus plumarium</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>Orphrey, XVth century (<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V.</a>), <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Past work, study of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>Paste, embroidery, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Patch work, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li>Pattern darning, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>Pattern designing, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Pattern tracing, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+<li>Patterns, transference of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Persian embroidery (<a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI.</a>), <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Petit point</i> pictures, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Picots, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li>Piercer, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Practical directions, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Precious stones, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>Pricker, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Puckered work, cure of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li>Purls, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Quilting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Raised gold work, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>Raised work, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Sampler, embroidered (<a href="#Plate_X">Plate X.</a>), <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li>Samplers, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Satin, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Scissors, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Shading, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+
+<li>Silk, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li>Silk threads, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Silver and gold threads, embroidery with, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Spindle, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Stands, embroidery frame, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitches, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, back, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, basket, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, braid, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, bullion, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, buttonhole, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, cable chain, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, chain, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, chequered chain, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, Cretan, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, cross, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, double back stitch, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, feather stitch, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, fishbone, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, French knot, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, Gobelin, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, herring-bone, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, Holbein, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, insertion, various, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, interlocking, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, Irish, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, knot, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, knotted chain, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, long and short, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, open chain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, overcast, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, plait, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, rococo, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, rope, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, Roumanian, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, satin, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, split, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, stem, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, stroke, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, tailor's buttonhole, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, tambour, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, tent, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, twisted chain, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, two-sided Italian, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Stitch, zigzag chain, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Tablecloth, embroidered (<a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII.</a>), <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+<li>Tambour frame, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li>Tapestry bag (<a href="#Plate_XVI">Plate XVI.</a>), <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li>Tapestry, example (<a href="#Plate_XV">Plate XV.</a>), <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+
+<li>Tapestry weaving, introduction to, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li>Tassels, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Tarnish of gold and silver threads, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>Thimbles, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Threads, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li>Threads, gold and silver, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Tools, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Tools for tapestry weaving, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li>Tracing patterns, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+<li>Tracing patterns on warp, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li>Transferring patterns, methods of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Transferring patterns, requisites for, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Velvet, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Warp, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li>Warping the loom, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+<li>Washing embroidery, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li>Weaving, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li>Weaving, Egyptian (<a href="#Plate_XIV">Plate XIV.</a>), <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+<li>Weaving, tapestry, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Work, garniture of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Work, methods of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li>Work, preparations for, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+<li>Work, protection and preservation of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Wools, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<p class='center'>
+Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson &amp; Co</span>.<br />
+Edinburgh &amp; London<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h3>EMBROIDERY MATERIALS</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'>GEORGE KENNING &amp; SON, <span class="smcap">Goldsmiths,
+Gold Lacemen, and Embroiderers</span>, are the
+actual manufacturers of all materials that are best
+for Embroidery of any and every description.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ad_1.jpg" width="450" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The following are a few articles from the great
+variety they manufacture: Threads, Tambours,
+Braids, Laces, and Cords in Gold, Silver,
+Tinsel, and Aluminium; also Spangles, Sequins,
+Ornaments, and Beads of every possible variety.</p>
+
+<p>Please insist on your Draper or Fancy Warehouseman
+supplying only materials manufactured
+by <span class="smcap">George Kenning &amp; Son</span>.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">Manufactory</span>: 1/4 LITTLE BRITAIN, E.C.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>And at Liverpool, Glasgow, and Manchester.</i></p>
+
+<p class='center'>RIBBON WEAVING FACTORY, COVENTRY</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><span class="smcap">J. MAYGROVE &amp; CO. Ltd</span>.</h3>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>MILLS</i>&mdash;</td><td align='center'><i>WAREHOUSE</i>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>ST. ALBANS.</td><td align='center'>51 ALDERSGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Manufacturers of Silks for Weaving and Embroidery.</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><i>For REALLY RELIABLE BOILING and UNFADING DYES.</i></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Maygrove's</span> DUCHESSE FLOSS.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">    <span class="smcap">Maygrove's</span> TWISTED EMBROIDERY.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;">        <span class="smcap">Maygrove's</span> FILOSELLE, &amp;c.</span></p>
+
+<p class='center'>UNEQUALLED FOR LUSTRE, PERMANENCE, AND
+ARTISTIC GRADUATIONS OF COLOUR.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'>READY FOR USE.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>CHINA TRAM</td><td align='left'>1000 Shades.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>FOR</td><td align='left'>TUSSAH TRAM AND ORGANZINE</td><td align='left'>500 Shades.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>WEAVING.</td><td align='left'>ORIENTAL FLOCHE</td><td align='left'>500 Shades.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>WORSTED YARNS&mdash;COTTON YARNS.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><i>STOCKED READY FOR DYEING.</i></p>
+
+<p>Organzines, Sewings, Flosses, Twists, and SPUN SILKS.
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">WORSTED Cords, Genappes, Mohairs, &amp;c. &amp;c.</span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h3>PLASTER CASTS</h3>
+
+<p class='center'>LETTERING FOR LETTER CUTTERS BY A. E. R. GILL</p>
+
+<p>Plaster Casts of the Stones shown on the Collotype Plates, numbers
+13, 14, and 15, in the Portfolio, "Manuscript and Inscription Letters,"
+by Edward Johnston, price 3s. 6d. net, are obtainable from the
+Publisher, or direct from Messrs. C. <span class="smcap">Smith &amp; Sons</span>, Moulders, 15
+Kentish Town Road, London, N.W., at the following prices:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Roman Capital Letters</i> (<i>Incised</i>).</td><td align='left'>}</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>"Lower-case" Italics, &amp;c.</i> (<i>Incised</i>).</td><td align='left'>}</td><td align='left'>12s. <i>net per set of three.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>"Raised" Letters, Capitals, &amp;c.</i></td><td align='left'>}</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class='center'>PACKED&mdash;DELIVERED FREE IN LONDON&mdash;CARRIAGE FORWARD
+FOR COUNTRY</p>
+
+<p>These Casts being facsimiles of the actual stones make the best kind of
+models for Letter Cutters and Sculptors, and all who have to do with
+Inscriptions. Being small, they are easily handled.</p>
+
+<p>The Portfolio, "Manuscript and Inscription Letters," by Edward
+Johnston, is intended as a working supplement to his handbook, "Writing
+and Illuminating, and Lettering," price 6s. 6d. net. It contains 16 plates
+in all, measuring 9-7/8 &times; 12-3/8 inches, with full descriptions and notes.</p>
+
+<p class='center'>JOHN HOGG, <i>Publisher</i>, 13 <span class="smcap">Paternoster Row, London</span>, E.C.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h3>ROBERT S. RONALD</h3>
+
+<p class='center'>Decorator and Upholsterer</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/ad_2.jpg" width="300" height="310" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class='center'>Loom Maker to the Royal School
+of Art, South Kensington</p>
+
+<p class='center'>Table or Pedestal Looms to Order<br />
+Prices on Application</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'>Office and Works&mdash;<br />
+ST. ANN'S HILL, WANDSWORTH,<br />
+LONDON, S.W.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS
+SERIES</h3>
+
+
+<p>BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF
+BOOKS. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL.
+Third Edition. 122 Drawings by NOEL
+ROOKE. 8 Pages Collotype Reproductions.
+352 pp. 5s. net.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">Extract from</span> <i>The Times</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"... A capital proof of the reasoned thoroughness in workmanship,
+which is the first article in the creed of those who ... are
+attempting to carry into practice the industrial teaching of Ruskin and
+William Morris."</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<p>SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY. By
+H. WILSON. Second Edition. 280 Diagrams
+by the Author. 32 Pages of Collotype Reproductions.
+500 pp. 6s. 6d. net.</p>
+
+<p>Containing special chapters, fully illustrated, based on demonstrations
+and with notes by Professor <span class="smcap">Unno Bisei</span> and Professor <span class="smcap">T. Kobayashi</span>,
+of the Imperial Fine Art College at Tokyo, giving the traditional method
+of Casting, Damascening, Incrustation, Inlaying, Engraving, and
+Metal Colouring still practised in Japan, also on Niello, the Making
+of Boxes and Card Cases, with chapters on Egyptian and Oriental
+methods of work.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<p>WOODCARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP.
+By GEORGE JACK. 79
+Drawings by the Author. 16 Pages of Collotype
+Reproductions. 320 pp. 5s. net.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">Extract from</span> <i>The Builders' Journal</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Undoubtedly the best guide to Woodcarving extant.... A
+practical work, written with clearness and literary power by a
+practical man ... of great artistic talent.... The illustrations
+are excellent."</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+
+<p>STAINED GLASS WORK. By C. W.
+WHALL. 73 Diagrams by Two of His Apprentices.
+16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions.
+392 pp. 5s. net.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">Extract from</span> <i>The Scotsman</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It provides an exposition at once instructive and interesting of
+the workshop practice of the craft ... of Stained Glass, animated
+throughout by an encouraging and cheerful sense of the dignity and
+the elevating influence of such an occupation."</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING.
+By Mrs. A. H. CHRISTIE. 178
+Diagrams and Illustrations by the Author. 16
+Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 320 pp.
+6s. net. (<i>Third Edition.</i>)</p>
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">Extract from</span> <i>The Pall Mall Gazette</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Mrs. Christie has performed her task to admiration, ... and
+her lucid explanations of various kinds of stitches ... should be
+of value to all workers at embroidery or tapestry weaving and to
+novices anxious to learn."</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>WRITING AND ILLUMINATING, AND
+LETTERING. By EDWARD JOHNSTON.
+227 Illustrations and Diagrams by the
+Author and NOEL ROOKE. 8 Pages of
+Examples in Red and Black. 24 Pages of Collotype
+Reproductions. 512 pp. (<i>Fifth Edition.</i>)</p>
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">Extract from</span> <i>The Athen&aelig;um</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"... This book belongs to that extremely rare class in which
+every line bears the impress of complete mastery of the subject.
+We congratulate Mr. Johnston on having produced a work at once
+original and complete."</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>HAND-LOOM WEAVING. By LUTHER
+HOOPER. 125 Drawings by the Author and
+NOEL ROOKE. Coloured and Collotype
+Reproductions. 368 pp. 6s. net.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">Extract from</span> <i>The Morning Post</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"... Every phase and process in weaving is described with so
+clear and careful an exactitude, that, helped as the text is by the
+Author's sketches and diagrams, the reader should have no difficulty
+in conquering with its aid the rudiments of the craft."</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p class='center'>PORTFOLIOS (in the Series) already issued.</p>
+
+<p>SCHOOL COPIES AND EXAMPLES.
+Selected by W. R. LETHABY and A. H.
+CHRISTIE. 12 Drawing Copies (1 in colours),
+with Descriptive Letterpress. 3s. 6d. net.</p>
+
+<p>MANUSCRIPT AND INSCRIPTION
+LETTERS. For Schools and Classes and the
+Use of Craftsmen. By EDWARD JOHNSTON.
+With 5 Plates by A. E. R. GILL, 16
+Plates in all. Full Notes and Descriptions by the
+Author. 3s. 6d. net. (<i>Second Edition.</i>)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<p class='center' style="font-size: 75%;">NEW VOLUME IN THE PRESS</p>
+
+<p class='center'>HERALDRY FOR CRAFTSMEN
+AND DESIGNERS<br />
+<br />
+BY<br />
+<br />
+W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><i>Further Volumes and Portfolios in preparation.</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p class='center'>ON WORKMANSHIP<br />
+<br />
+A LECTURE BY H. WILSON<br />
+<span style="font-size: 50%;">AUTHOR OF "SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY"</span><br />
+<br />
+1s. 6d. net</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class='center'>JOHN HOGG,<br />
+<span class="smcap">13 Paternoster Row, London</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 20386-h.txt or 20386-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving, by Grace
+Christie
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving
+
+
+Author: Grace Christie
+
+
+
+Release Date: January 16, 2007  [eBook #20386]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Susan Skinner and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/c/)
+
+
+
+Note: The reader is strongly advised to use Project Gutenberg's
+      HTML version of this book because it includes almost 200
+      illustrations which cannot be incorporated in this text
+      version.
+      See 20386-h.htm or 20386-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/3/0/20386/20386-h/20386-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/3/0/20386/20386-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+    _"Flowers, Plants and Fishes, Birds, Beasts, Flyes, and Bees,
+    Hils, Dales, Plaines, Pastures, Skies, Seas, Rivers, Trees,
+    There's nothing neere at hand, or farthest sought,
+    But with the needle may be shap'd and wrought."_
+
+        --JOHN TAYLOR ("The Praise of the Needle").
+
+
+The Artistic Crafts Series of Technical Handbooks
+Edited by W. R. Lethaby
+
+EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING
+
+A Practical Text-Book of
+Design and Workmanship
+
+by
+
+MRS. ARCHIBALD H. CHRISTIE
+
+With Drawings by the Author and Other Illustrations
+
+Second Edition Revised
+(A reprint of the First Edition, with various slight alterations in
+text)
+
+Third Edition Revised
+(A reprint of the Second Edition)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Published by John Hogg
+13 Paternoster Row
+London 1912
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece  See page 249._]
+
+
+
+Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.
+at the Ballantyne Press, Edinburgh
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+Needlework, which is still practised traditionally in every house, was
+once a splendid art, an art in which English workers were especially
+famous, so that, early in the XIIIth century, vestments embroidered in
+England were eagerly accepted in Rome, and the kind of work wrought here
+was known over Europe as "English Work." Embroideries _facon
+d'Angleterre_ often occupy the first place in foreign inventories.
+
+At Durham are preserved some beautiful fragments of embroidery worked in
+the Xth century, and many examples, belonging to the great period of the
+XIIIth and XIVth centuries, are preserved at the South Kensington
+Museum, which is particularly rich in specimens of this art. In order to
+judge of what were then its possibilities it is worth while to go and
+see there three notable copes, the blue cope, the Sion cope, and the
+rose-colour Jesse-tree cope, the last two of which are certainly
+English, and the former probably so. The Sion cope bears a remnant of an
+inscription which has unfortunately been cut down and otherwise injured,
+so that all that I have been able to read is as follows: DAVN PERS : DE
+: V ...; probably the name of the donor.
+
+In the XIIIth century the craft of embroidery was practised both by men
+and women.
+
+That great art patron, Henry the Third, chiefly employed for his
+embroideries, says Mr. Hudson Turner, "a certain Mabel of Bury St.
+Edmund's, whose skill as an embroideress seems to have been remarkable,
+and many interesting records of her curious performances might be
+collected." And I have found a record of an embroidered chasuble made
+for the king by "Mabilia" of St. Edmund's in 1242. The most splendid
+piece of embroidery produced for this king must have been the altar
+frontal of Westminster Abbey, completed about 1269. It was silk,
+garnished with pearls, jewels, and translucent enamels. Four
+embroideresses worked on it for three years and three-quarters, and it
+seems to have cost a sum equal to about L3000 of our money.
+
+"The London Broderers" did not receive a formal charter of incorporation
+until 1561, but they must have been a properly organised craft centuries
+before. In 2 Henry IV. it was reported to Parliament that divers persons
+of the "Craft of Brauderie" made unfit work of inferior materials,
+evading the search of "the Wardens of Brauderie" in the said City of
+London.
+
+In Paris, in the year 1295, there were ninety-three embroiderers and
+embroideresses registered as belonging to the trade. The term of
+apprenticeship to the craft was for eight years, and no employer might
+take more than one apprentice at a time. In the XVIth century the Guild
+was at the height of its power, and embroideries were so much in demand
+that the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was established to furnish
+flower-subjects for embroidery design. It was founded by the gardener,
+Jean Robin, and by Pierre Vallet, "brodeur" to Henry IV. In the XVIIIth
+century the company numbered 250 past-masters.
+
+To this craft the present volume forms, I believe, an admirable
+introduction and text-book, not only on the side of workmanship, but
+also on that difficult subject, "design"--difficult, that is, from its
+having been so much discussed in books, yet entirely simple when
+approached, as here, as a necessary part of workmanship. It is fortunate
+that we have not as yet learned to bother our cooks as to which part of
+their work is designing and which is merely mechanical. Of course the
+highest things of design, as well as of workmanship, come only after
+long practice and to the specially gifted, but none the less every human
+creature must in some sort be a designer, and it has caused immense harm
+to raise a cloud of what Morris called "sham technical twaddle" between
+the worker and what should be the spontaneous inspiration of his work.
+What such combination has produced in past times, may perhaps best be
+understood by some reading in old church inventories of the simply
+infinite store of magnificent embroidered vestments which once adorned
+our churches. In an inventory of Westminster Abbey I find mentioned
+such patterns as roses and birds, fleur-de-luces and lybardes, angels on
+branches of gold, roses and ships, eagles and angels of gold, castles
+and lions, white harts, swans, dogs, and antelopes.
+
+W. R. LETHABY.
+
+_September 1906._
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In the following pages the practical sides of Embroidery and Tapestry
+Weaving are discussed, their historical development being only
+incidentally touched upon.
+
+The drawings illustrating design and the practical application of
+stitches have been taken almost without exception from actual Embroidery
+or Tapestry; the exceptions, where it has been impossible to consult
+originals, from photographic representations obtained from various
+sources, among which the collection of M. Louis de Farcy should be
+mentioned.
+
+I have to thank Miss May Morris and Mrs. W. R. Lethaby for permission to
+reproduce pieces of their work, and Miss Killick, Colonel J. E.
+Butler-Bowdon, the Viscount Falkland, and the Reverend F. J. Brown of
+Steeple Aston for permission to reproduce work in their possession. Also
+I must thank the authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum for help
+in various ways, and Mr. J. H. Taylor, M.A. Oxf. and Cam., for his
+kindness in reading the proofs.
+
+GRACE CHRISTIE.
+
+_Ewell,
+September 1906._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+EDITOR'S PREFACE                                                      xi
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE                                                    xvii
+
+
+PART I
+
+EMBROIDERY
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                          27
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TOOLS, APPLIANCES, AND MATERIALS
+
+Needles--Scissors--Thimbles--Frames--Stand and Frame combined--Tambour
+Frame--Cord-making Appliance--Requisites for Transferring
+Patterns--Pricker--Knife--Spindle--Piercer--Materials suitable for
+Embroidering upon--Threads of all Kinds--Stones, Beads, &c.           34
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PATTERN DESIGNING
+
+The Difficulties of Pattern Making--A Stock-in-Trade--Some Principles
+upon which Patterns are Built Up--Spacing-Out--Nature and
+Convention--Shading--Figure Work--Limitations--Colour                 51
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+STITCHES
+
+Introduction--Chain Stitch--Zigzag Chain--Chequered Chain--Twisted
+Chain--Open Chain--Braid Stitch--Cable Chain--Knotted Chain--Split
+Stitch                                                                75
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+STITCHES--(_continued_)
+
+Satin Stitch--Long and Short Stitch--Stem Stitch--Overcast Stitch--Back
+Stitch--Buttonhole Stitch--Tailor's Buttonhole--Fancy Buttonhole
+Edgings--Flower in Open Buttonhole Stitch--Leaf in Close Buttonhole
+Stitches--Petal in Solid Buttonholing                                 95
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+STITCHES--(_continued_)
+
+Knots and Knot Stitches--Herring-bone Stitch--Feather Stitch--Basket
+Stitch--Fishbone Stitch--Cretan Stitch--Roumanian Stitch--Various
+Insertion Stitches--Picots                                           118
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CANVAS WORK AND STITCHES
+
+Introduction--Samplers--Petit Point Pictures--Cross Stitch--Tent
+Stitch--Gobelin Stitch--Irish Stitch--Plait Stitch--Two-sided Italian
+Stitch--Holbein Stitch--Rococo Stitch                                147
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+METHODS OF WORK
+
+Couching--Braid Work--Laid Work--Applied Work--Inlaid Work--Patch Work
+                                                                     164
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_)
+
+Quilting--Raised Work--Darning--Open Fillings--Darned Netting        189
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Methods of work--(_continued_)
+
+Drawn Thread Work--Hem Stitching--Simple Border Patterns--Darned Thread
+Patterns--Corners--Cut or Open Work--Various Methods of Refilling the
+Open Spaces                                                          213
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+EMBROIDERY WITH GOLD AND SILVER THREADS
+
+Introduction--Materials--Precautions for the Prevention of
+Tarnish--Ancient Method of Couching--Its various Good
+Points--Description of Working Diagram--Working a Raised Bar--Examples
+of Patterns Employed in Old Work--Illustrations upon Draped
+Figures--Usual Method of Couching--Couching Patterns--Outline
+Work--Raised Work--The Use of Purls, Bullions, &c.                   229
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+LETTERING, HERALDRY, AND EMBLEMS
+
+The Uses of Lettering--Marking--Monograms--Heraldry--Emblems         259
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE GARNITURE OF WORK
+
+Finishing off--Making up--Edges--Use of Cord-making Appliance--Cord
+Twisted by Hand--Knotted Cord--Fringes--Tassels--Knots               271
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS
+
+Transferring Patterns--Paste for Embroidery Purposes--Protection and
+Preservation of Work--Washing Embroidery--Prevention and Cure of
+Puckered Work--Points about the Thread--Dressing the Frame           292
+
+
+PART II
+
+TAPESTRY WEAVING
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                         307
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+NECESSARY APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS
+
+The Loom--Mirror--Bobbins and Needles--The Comb--Embroidery Frame
+treated as a Loom--Warp--Wools--Silk--Gold and Silver Thread         315
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PREPARATIONS FOR WORK
+
+Warping the Loom--Dressing the Coat-Stave--Tracing the Pattern upon the
+Threads                                                              328
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE TECHNIQUE OF WEAVING
+
+Weaving--Commencing and Fastening Off--The Interlocking Stitch--Fine
+Drawing--Shading--Added After-stitches                               339
+
+
+NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                        355
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                                 369
+
+INDEX                                                                402
+
+
+
+
+PART I--EMBROIDERY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In the practice of embroidery the needlewoman has an advantage not now
+shared by workers in any other craft, in that the technical processes
+are almost a matter of inherited skill. Every woman can sew, and it is
+with little more than the needle and thread, which she habitually
+employs, that the greatest masterpieces of the art have been stitched.
+The art of embroidery, however, is not merely an affair of stitches;
+they are but the means by which ideas can be expressed in intelligible
+form, and memories of all kinds of things be pictured on stuffs.
+
+To laboriously train the hand is scarcely worth while unless it is
+capable of expressing something that is at least pretty. Nowadays much
+embroidery is done with the evident intent of putting into it the
+minimum expenditure of both thought and labour, and such work furnishes
+but a poor ideal to fire the enthusiasm of the novice; happily, there
+still exist many fine examples showing what splendid results may be
+achieved; without some knowledge of this work we cannot obtain a just
+idea of the possibilities of the art.
+
+It is obvious that much advantage can be gained from studying the
+accumulated experience of the past in addition to that current in our
+own day. To do this intelligently, the history of embroidery must be
+followed in order that the periods richest in the various kinds of work
+may be ascertained. Museums afford useful hunting-grounds for the study
+of past work; other sources are private collections, churches, costume
+in pictures or on engraved brasses, and manuscript inventories such as
+those of cathedral treasuries, which sometimes contain interesting
+detailed descriptions of their embroidered vestments and hangings.
+
+Blind copying of old work is not of much value; it is not possible or
+desirable to imitate XIIIth century work now, but much can be learned
+by examining fine examples in an appreciative and analytical spirit. In
+what way the design has been built up can be discovered; the most
+complicated result may often be resolved into quite elementary lines.
+The student must find out wherein lie the attraction and interest, note
+good schemes of colour, and learn about stitches and methods of work by
+close examination of the embroidery, both front and back.
+
+Every one knows what embroidery is, and a formal definition seems
+unnecessary. As a matter of fact, it would be a difficult task to give
+one, since weaving, lace-making, and embroidery are but subtle
+variations of the same art.
+
+This art may be of the highest or the most homely character, and the
+latter is by no means to be despised. Simple unaffected work decorating
+the things of every-day use can give a great deal of pleasure in its
+way. This should surely be the accomplishment of every woman, for though
+she may not have the skill to attain to the highest branches, it would
+at least enable her to decorate her home with such things as the
+counterpanes, curtains, and other objects that set such a personal
+stamp upon the English domestic work of several centuries, and which
+nowadays can hardly be found except stored up in museums.
+
+It is advisable as a general rule that the design be both made and
+carried out by the same person. From the worker's own point of view the
+interest must be much greater when working out her own ideas than when
+merely acting as amanuensis to another. The idea is more likely to be
+expressed with spirit; further there is the possibility of adding to or
+altering, and thereby improving, the work as it progresses. The designer
+must in any case be well acquainted with stitches and materials, for
+they play an important part in achieving good results. The individuality
+of the worker should be evident in her work; indeed it generally is, for
+even plain hems by two people bear quite different characters; the
+degree of individuality present, varies with each one, but in any case
+it will be much more marked if the design and stitching bear the stamp
+of the same personality.
+
+The difference between good and unsatisfactory results should be
+carefully thought out, for it is often but a small matter. The best
+kind of work is that which appeals to the intelligence as well as to the
+eye, which is another way of saying there should be evidence of mind
+upon the material. Work must be interesting in some way if it is to be
+attractive; it had better almost be faulty and interesting than dull,
+dry, and correct. It can interest by reminding us of pleasant things,
+such as familiar flowers, shady woods, or green lawns; birds, beasts,
+and so forth can be depicted in their characteristic attitudes, or a
+story can be told; in fact, work can be made attractive in a hundred
+different ways. It must not show signs of having wearied the worker in
+the doing; variety and evidence of thought lavishly expended upon it
+will prevent this, and enthusiasm will quicken it with life.
+
+The selection of the object to work comes at an early stage, and is a
+matter to be well considered, for it is a pity to spend time and labour
+upon unsuitable objects when there are many excellent ones to choose
+from. In thinking over what to work it should be realised that it takes
+no longer to execute one rather important piece than several of a less
+ambitious character, and that the former is generally more worth the
+doing. Whether the subject is a suitable one for embroidery or not
+sometimes depends upon the method chosen for carrying it out; for
+instance, anything that has to endure hard wear must be treated in such
+a way as to stand it well.
+
+Dress is a fine subject for embroidery; but, for the decoration to be
+satisfactory, the art of designing dress must be understood, and the
+dress must also be well cut, or the embroidery will be quite wasted upon
+it. What is termed "art dress," proverbially bad, well deserves its
+reputation. There is a great difference in the quantity of work that may
+be put into dress decoration; this may be simply an embroidered vest,
+collar, and cuffs, or it may be actually an integral part of the
+costume, which as a much bigger and more difficult undertaking is
+correspondingly finer in effect when successfully carried out.
+
+Amongst larger objects that well repay the labour of embroidery,
+hangings of various kinds, quilts, screens, furniture coverings, altar
+frontals, church vestments, may be mentioned; amongst smaller, are bags,
+boxes, book-covers, gloves or mittens, bell-pulls, cushions, mirror
+frames, all kinds of household linen, infants' robes, and so on, and for
+church use such things as alms-bags, book-markers, stoles, pulpit and
+lectern frontals. Then a panel may be worked with the deliberate
+intention of framing it to hang on a wall. There is no reason why the
+painter should have the monopoly of all the available wall space, for
+decorative work is undoubtedly in place there; a piece of embroidered
+work might well fill a panel over a mantel-piece. There is no need to
+discuss what not to do, but, if the attraction to embroider a tea-cosy
+is too strong to resist, it should surely be of washable materials.
+
+Embroidery has distinct practical advantages over some other crafts
+practised nowadays--no special studio need be devoted to its use, for
+most work can be done in any well-lighted room, which indeed will be
+rendered more attractive by the presence of an embroidery frame, for
+this is in itself a characteristic and dainty piece of furniture. It
+need but seldom interfere with one of our pleasant traditions, genial
+converse with, and about, our neighbours, for it is a distinctly
+sociable occupation. Work of this kind can be put down and taken up at
+leisure; the necessary outlay in materials need not be extravagant, and
+so on. Many other points might be thought of, but the claims of the art
+do not demand any special pleading, for it is pleasant in the actual
+working, and can produce an infinite variety of most interesting
+results.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TOOLS, APPLIANCES, AND MATERIALS
+
+  Needles--Scissors--Thimbles--Frames--Stand and Frame
+  combined--Tambour Frame--Cord-making Appliance--Requisites for
+  Transferring Patterns--Pricker--Knife--Spindle--Piercer--Suitable
+  Materials for Embroidering upon--Threads of all Kinds--Stones,
+  Beads, &c.
+
+
+Good workmanship takes a prominent, though not the first, place.
+Technical excellence in needlework, as in all other artistic crafts, is
+a question of the worker's perseverance and her ability in the use of
+tools. In embroidery these are few and simple, and are as follows:--
+
+_Needles._--For most purposes needles known as long-eyed sharps are
+used. Tapestry needles, similar to these, but with blunt points, are
+useful for canvas work and darned netting. For gold work a special
+needle can be procured with sharp point and long wide eye. A bent needle
+makes a crooked stitch; but needles if made of good steel should not
+bend; they break if used unfairly. The eye should be cleanly cut, or it
+roughens the thread. The needle must be just stout enough to prepare for
+the thread an easy passage through the material.
+
+_Scissors._--Three pairs may be necessary; for ordinary work a small
+pair with fine sharp points, for gold work small ones with strong points
+similar to nail scissors, and for cutting-out purposes a large pair with
+one rounded and one sharp point.
+
+_Thimbles._--Steel ones are said to be most serviceable, silver are most
+usual; but whatever the material they must be neatly made in order not
+to wear the thread.
+
+_Frames._--A common type of frame is shown at fig. 1. It is made in
+various sizes; the one here represented measures 18 inches across. It
+consists of four pieces of wood, two rollers for the top and base and
+two side pieces. Each of the rollers has a piece of webbing securely
+nailed along it, and its extremities are pierced with holes to receive
+the side pieces. These are formed of two long wooden screws, fitted with
+movable nuts, which adjust the width of the frame and the tautness of
+the stretched work. The piece of material that is stretched between is
+the link that keeps the frame together, for the screw ends fit just
+loosely in the holes of the rollers. The side pieces are sometimes made
+of flat laths of wood pierced with holes at regular intervals; in these
+are inserted metal pins, by means of which the work is kept stretched.
+Fig. 9 represents a frame of this type. If the frame is a very large one
+it can have a strengthening bar fixed across the centre from roller to
+roller.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+The frame is most convenient for work when fixed in a stand, although it
+can be used leaning against a table or the back of a chair. A very large
+frame would be supported upon trestles, but for ordinary purposes, a
+stand, such as the one shown in fig. 2, is practical. It consists of two
+upright wooden posts, a little over 2 feet in height, which are
+connected near the base by a strengthening cross piece. Both this and
+the uprights are adjustable; the centre part of the posts is arranged to
+slide up and down, and can be fixed at any convenient height by the
+insertion of a long metal pin; the width of the cross piece is regulated
+in similar fashion, being made firm, by a screw, at the required width,
+thus allowing various sized frames to be used in the same stand. The
+frame is fixed in place by metal clamps, and a wooden pivot is arranged
+so as to permit the stretched work to be inclined at any angle
+convenient. Both stand and frame should be well made and of good wood,
+for they must be able to stand strain and be perfectly firm and true
+when fixed for work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+A small circular frame, such as is shown in fig. 3, is useful for
+marking linen or for any small work. This, formed of two hoops fitting
+closely one within the other, can be procured in wood, ivory, or bone,
+of various sizes, the one illustrated being about 6 inches in diameter.
+The material to be worked upon is stretched between these hoops like the
+parchment on a drum. These tambour frames, as they are called, are
+sometimes fixed into a small stand or fitted with a wooden clamp for
+fastening to a table; this frees both hands for work. These tambours
+cannot well be recommended; the material is apt to stretch unevenly, and
+a worked part, if flattened between the hoops, is liable to be damaged.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+The illustration at fig. 4 shows a simple little instrument for making
+a twisted cord. It is interesting to note that Etienne Binet, who wrote
+on embroidery about 1620, when discussing some necessary equipment for
+an embroideress mentions "_un rouet pour faire les cordons_."
+
+There is sometimes a difficulty in procuring the cord just right to suit
+the finished work; the texture may be too coarse to put beside fine
+embroidery, it may not be a good match, and, even if so at first, it may
+fade quite differently from the worked silks. For these and other
+reasons it is a safe method to make the cord one's self, possibly with
+some materials of the kind already used in the embroidery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+This appliance enables the worker to make any kind of twisted cord; it
+is as simple as a toy to handle, and gives excellent results. It is a
+metal instrument about 8 inches in height. The three small discs are
+wheels, supported on the arms of an upright cross which has a heavy
+circular base. These three wheels are connected by a cord with a larger
+wheel below that has a handle attached to it. The cord runs in a groove
+round the circumference of each wheel, and must be held taut in
+position. By turning the handle of the large wheel the three small ones
+are set in motion. Three hooks, attached to the axles of the small
+wheels, are therefore rotated with them. One end of each ply of the cord
+in making is looped on to one of these hooks, the other ends are
+attached to three similar hooks fixed into a block of wood which, when
+in use, is firmly clamped to the table. Further instruction in the
+making of cords is given in Chapter XIII.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+To trace the pattern on to the material the following articles may be
+required: Indian ink, a small finely-pointed sable brush, a tube of oil
+paint, flake white or light red, according to the colour of the ground
+material, turpentine, powdered charcoal or white chalk for pounce,
+tracing paper, drawing-pins, and a pricker. This last-mentioned tool is
+shown in fig. 5. It is about 5 inches long, and is like a needle with
+the blunt end fitted into a handle. For rubbing on the pounce some soft
+clinging material rolled into a ball is necessary. A piece of old silk
+hose tightly rolled up makes an excellent pad for the purpose.
+
+The knife shown in fig. 6 is useful for cutting out at times when the
+use of scissors is not practical. It is used in an upright position,
+with the point outwards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+A spindle for winding gold thread upon whilst working is shown in fig.
+7. It is about 8 inches long. A soft padding of cotton thread is first
+placed round (between A and B, fig. 7), and the gold thread wound upon
+that. The end of the thread passes through the forked piece at the top
+on its way to being worked into the material. The use of this or some
+similar appliance enables the worker to avoid much touching of the metal
+threads.
+
+A small tool called a piercer is represented by fig. 8; it is used in
+gold work; the flat end assists in placing the gold in position, and
+also in making the floss silk lie quite flat; the pointed end is used
+for piercing holes in the material for passing coarse thread to the
+back, and for other purposes. This little tool, made of steel, is about
+5 inches in length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+
+MATERIALS
+
+The surface is a matter of special interest in embroidery work. This
+makes the choice of materials of great importance. Besides the question
+of appearance, these must be suitable to the purpose, durable, and, if
+possible, pleasant to work with and upon. The materials chosen should
+be the best of their kind, for time and labour are too valuable to be
+spent upon poor stuffs; occasionally a piece of old work is seen with
+the ground material in shreds and the embroidery upon it in a good state
+of preservation, which is a pity, for a newly applied ground of any kind
+is never as satisfactory as the original one. Still another plea for the
+use of good materials is the moral effect they may have upon the worker,
+inciting her to put forth her best efforts in using them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+The purpose to which the work is to be put usually decides the ground
+material, besides governing pattern, stitches, and everything else. A
+background is chosen, as a rule, to show to advantage and preserve what
+is to be placed upon it, though sometimes it is the other way about, and
+the pattern is planned to suit an already existing ground.
+
+A background must take its right place, and not be too much in evidence,
+although if of the right kind it may be full of interest. There are,
+roughly speaking, three ways of treating the ground, leaving the
+material just as it is, covering part of it with stitching, or working
+entirely over it.
+
+If there is no work upon the ground the choice of material becomes more
+important. Texture, colour, tone, and possibly pattern, have all to be
+considered, though the problem is often best solved by the selection of
+a plain white linen. The question of texture is sometimes one of its
+suitability for stitching upon; colour and tone may be of all kinds and
+degrees from white to black; these two, as a rule, being particularly
+happy ones. If the ground stuff is patterned, as in the case of a
+damasked silk, it must be specially chosen to suit the work to be placed
+upon it; small diaper patterns are frequently very good, since they
+break up the surface pleasantly without being too evident.
+
+Linen, which well answers all the usual requirements, is, for this
+reason, very frequently chosen for a ground material. It can be procured
+in great variety, the handmade linens being the best of all. Of kinds
+besides the ordinary are twilled linens, of which one named Kirriemuir
+twill is similar to the material used in the fine old embroidered
+curtains. Some damask linens look very well as backgrounds for
+embroidery; the pattern is sometimes a slightly raised diaper, which
+forms a pleasantly broken surface. Loosely woven linens can be obtained
+specially suitable for drawn thread work. In any case, if there is
+dressing in the new material, it must be well boiled before the
+embroidery is commenced: this makes it much softer for stitching
+through. Coloured linens are rarely satisfactory, a certain kind of blue
+being almost the only exception. The safest plan is to keep to pure
+white, or to the unbleached varieties that have a slightly grey or warm
+tone about them. Wools, silks, and flax threads all look well upon a
+linen ground; it is not usually in good taste to embroider with poor
+thread upon a rich ground material, and, upon the other hand, gold
+thread and floss demand silk or velvet rather than linen, though any
+rule of this kind may on occasion be broken.
+
+Velvet and satin make excellent backgrounds for rich work; they should
+not be used unless of good quality. The pile of the best velvet is
+shorter than that of poorer kinds, and so is easier to manipulate, which
+is a further reason for using the best. It is in any case a difficult
+material, so much so that work is often carried out on linen and
+afterwards applied to a velvet ground. The modern velvets, even the best
+of them, are for quality or colour not comparable with the old ones.
+
+Silk of different kinds is largely employed, since it makes a suitable
+ground for many kinds of embroidery. Twilled and damasked silks are much
+used; in the last-named kind, patterns must be carefully chosen to suit
+the particular purpose. A thick ribbed silk is rarely satisfactory for
+embroidery purposes.
+
+For working with silk thread, an untwisted floss takes the first place,
+but it needs some skill in manipulation. Filofloss is somewhat similar,
+but it has a slight twist in it, making it easier to work, though
+producing a less satisfactory result. Filosel is useful for some kinds
+of work, but it is a poorer quality of silk. The purse silks, and what
+is called embroidery silk, are all excellent; they are tightly twisted
+varieties of fine quality. There are various others in use; a visit to a
+good embroidery depot will probably be the best means of finding out
+about these and about materials in general.
+
+Wools can be obtained in various thicknesses and twistings, each good in
+their way. Some workers prefer a but slightly twisted wool; however,
+examples of old wool work are to be found in which a finely twisted
+variety is used with most satisfactory effect.
+
+Flax threads can be obtained in very good colours, and are to be highly
+recommended. There are various cottons procurable, either coloured or
+white, that are good for marking and other embroidery purposes where an
+evenly twisted thread is desirable.
+
+Pearls and precious stones take their place in rich embroideries, also
+various less expensive but pretty stones may often be made use of
+effectively.
+
+Beads are a fascinating material to work with; all kinds of pretty
+things can be done with them, either sewing them upon a ground, knitting
+or crocheting, or making use of a small bead loom. A good deal of the
+ready-made bought bead work, that only requires a monotonous ground to
+be filled in around an already worked pattern of sorts, is not at all
+suggestive of its possibilities. Beads of both paste and glass can be
+obtained in much greater variety than is usually known, from the most
+minute in size to large varieties of all kinds of shapes and patterns,
+the colours of most of them being particularly good. The larger
+ornamental beads are useful in many ways, sometimes taking the place of
+tassels or fringes.
+
+Many kinds of most curious materials are at times brought into the
+service of embroidery, but the above-mentioned ones are the most usual.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PATTERN DESIGNING
+
+  The Difficulties of Pattern Making--A Stock-in-Trade--Some
+  Principles upon which Patterns are Built Up--Spacing-Out--Nature and
+  Convention--Shading--Figure Work--Limitations--Colour.
+
+
+A beginner sometimes experiences difficulty in preparing her own
+patterns. A designer needs a wide knowledge of many subjects, which
+necessitates much time being given to study; also drawing ability is
+necessary to enable the worker to set down her ideas upon paper. For
+much simple and pretty work, however, a slight acquaintance with drawing
+and design is sufficient, and any one who can master the requisite
+stitches can also acquire some knowledge of these two subjects.
+
+The word design frightens some who do not know quite what it means or
+entails. Perhaps they do not realise that the design has already been
+begun when the object to be worked has been settled, and the material,
+thread, and stitches have been decided upon--the rest comes in much the
+same way, partly by a system of choice; as it is necessary to know what
+materials there are which can be used, so must the chief varieties of
+pattern be known from which choice can be made. All patterns are built
+up on some fundamental plan, of which the number is comparatively small.
+The ability to choose, plan, and arrange is in a greater or less degree
+inherent in every one, so there should be, after all, no great
+difficulty in the design. The necessary underlying qualities are--a nice
+taste, freedom from affectation, an eye for colour and form, and, it
+might be added, a fair share of common sense.
+
+A pattern maker requires some stock-in-trade, and it is wise to collect
+together a store of some well-classified design material of ascertained
+value, ready to be drawn upon when required. A good knowledge of plants
+and flowers is very necessary. This is best acquired by making careful
+drawings from nature. In choosing flowers for embroidery purposes, the
+best-known ones, such as the daisy, rose, or carnation, give more
+pleasure to the observer than rare unrecognisable varieties. Figures,
+birds, beasts, and such things as inscriptions, monograms, shields of
+arms and emblems, all demand study and drawing, both from miscellaneous
+examples and from embroideries.
+
+The treatment of all these should be studied in old work, in order that
+the curious conventions and all kinds of amusing and interesting ideas
+that have gradually grown up in the past may still be made use of and
+added to, instead of being cast aside in a wild endeavour after
+something original. The student who collects a supply of the foregoing
+materials will find she has considerably widened her knowledge during
+the process, and is better prepared to make designs.
+
+In making a pattern the first thing to be decided upon is some main
+idea, the detail that is to carry it out must then be considered. This
+latter may be of various types, such as flowers, foliage, figures,
+animals, geometrical forms, interlacing strapwork, quatrefoils, &c.,
+&c.; perhaps several of these _motifs_ may be combined together in the
+same design.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+One of the simplest plans upon which a pattern can be arranged is that
+of some form recurring at regular intervals over the surface. The
+principle involved is repetition; an example of it is shown at fig. 10.
+The form that is used here is a sprig of flower, but the repeating
+element admits of infinite variation, it may be anything from a dot to
+an angel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+Copes and chasubles, bedspreads and curtains, are often to be seen
+decorated with some repeating form. Fig. 11 shows in outline a
+conventional sprig that is repeated in this fashion over the surface of
+a famous cope in Ely Cathedral. Fig. 12 is an example of a sprig of
+flower taken from a XVIIth century embroidered curtain; similar bunches,
+but composed of different flowers, recur at intervals over this hanging.
+
+It may interest the practical worker to know what are the different
+stitches used upon this figure. The petals of the top flower are in
+chain stitch in gradated colouring, the centre is an open crossing of
+chain surrounded by stamens in stem stitch in varied colour, the
+outermost leaves are outlined in stem stitch with an open filling of
+little crossed stitches. The petals of the lower flower are worked
+similarly, and the centre is carried out in chain stitch and French
+knots. The leaves are filled in with ingenious variations of these
+stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+The repeating element is perhaps a symbolical figure, a heraldic shield,
+or it may be some geometrical form that supplies the motive. Fig. 13 is
+a conventional sprig of hawthorn that ornaments in this way an altar
+frontal at Zanthen. It is by no means necessary that the element which
+repeats should be always identical; so long as it is similar in size,
+form, and general character it will probably be the more interesting if
+variety is introduced.
+
+The principle of repetition is again found in fig. 14, but with an
+additional feature; a sprig of flower is used, with the further
+introduction of diagonal lines, expressed by leaf sprays, which are
+arranged so as to surround each flower and divide it from the adjoining
+ones.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+It is advisable to space out the required surface in some way before
+commencing to draw out a pattern; for carrying out fig. 14 it would be
+well to pencil out the surface as in fig. 15; a connection between these
+two will be perceived at a glance. This spacing-out of the required
+surface in one way or another is of great assistance, and may even prove
+suggestive in the planning of the design. It helps the regularity of the
+work, and order is essential in design as in most other things in life.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+Another very usual expedient is that of introducing a main central form,
+with others branching out on either side and symmetrically balancing
+each other. An example of this is given in fig. 16. The symmetry may be
+much more free than this; a tree is symmetrical taken as a whole, but
+the two sides do not exactly repeat each other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+A plan very commonly employed is that of radiating main lines all
+diverging from one central point. Fig. 17 shows a design following this
+principle; there is infinite variety in the ways in which this may be
+carried out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+Another method would be to plan a continuous flowing line with forms
+branching out on one side or on both. Figs. 18 and 19 are border
+designs, for which purpose this arrangement is often used, though it can
+also well form an all-over pattern; sometimes these lines used over a
+surface are made to cross each other, tartan wise, by running in two
+directions, producing an apparently complicated design by very simple
+means.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 18 and 19.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+Designs may be planned on the counterchange principle. This is a system
+of mass designing that involves the problem of making a pattern out of
+one shape, continually repeated, and fitting into itself in such a way
+as to leave no interstices. The simplest example of this is to be found
+in the chess board, and it will easily be seen that a great number of
+shapes might be used instead of the square. Fig. 20 is an example of a
+counterchange design carried out in inlay; for this method of work
+counterchange is very suitable. On reference to the chapter upon this
+work another example will be found (page 181). Fig. 21 illustrates the
+same principle, further complicated by the repetition of the form in
+three directions instead of in two only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+A method of further enriching a straightforward pattern, covering a
+plain surface, is to work a subsidiary pattern upon the background. This
+is usually of a monotonous and formal character in order not to clash
+with the primary decoration, though this relationship may sometimes be
+found reversed. It has the appearance of being some decoration belonging
+to the ground rather than to the primary pattern; in its simplest form
+it appears as a mere repeating dot or a lattice (see fig. 22), but it
+may be so elaborated as to cover with an intricate design every portion
+of the exposed ground not decorated with the main pattern.
+
+Many other distinct kinds of work might be mentioned, such as needlework
+pictures, the story-telling embroideries that can be made so
+particularly attractive. Embroidered landscapes, formal gardens,
+mysterious woods, views of towns and palaces, are, if rightly treated,
+very fine. In order to learn the way to work such subjects we must go to
+the XVIth and XVIIth century _petit point_ pictures, and to the detail
+in fine tapestries. The wrong method of going to work is to imitate the
+effect sought after by the painter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+It is a mistake in embroidery design to be too naturalistic. In painting
+it may be the especial aim to exactly imitate nature, but here are
+wanted embroidery flowers, animals and figures, possessing the character
+and likeness of the things represented, but in no way trying to make us
+believe that they are real. The semblance of a bumble bee crawling upon
+the tea cloth gives a hardly pleasant sensation and much savours of
+the practical joke, which is seldom in good taste; the needle, however,
+adds convention to almost anything, and will usually manage the bee all
+right unless the worker goes out of the way to add a shadow and a high
+light. Such things as perspective, light and shade or modelling of form,
+should all be very much simplified if not avoided, for embroidery
+conforms to the requirements of decoration and must not falsify the
+surface that it ornaments. Shading is made use of in order to give more
+variety to, and exhibit the beauty of, colour by means of gradation, to
+explain more clearly the design, and so on; it is not employed for the
+purpose of fixing the lighting of the composition from one point by
+means of systematically adjusted light and shade, or of making a form
+stand out so realistically as to almost project from the background.
+
+In avoiding too much resemblance to natural forms it is not necessary to
+make things ugly; a conventional flower implies no unmeaning
+straightness or impossible curve, it may keep all its interesting
+characteristics, but it has to obey other requirements specially
+necessary in the particular design. Another point to be noted is that,
+since there is freedom of choice of flowers and other objects, only
+those perfect and well-formed should be chosen; all accidents of growth
+and disease may, happily, be omitted; if anything of this kind is put in
+it helps to give the naturalistic look which is to be avoided. Both
+sides of a leaf should match, though it may happen in nature, through
+misfortune, that one is deformed and small.
+
+In figure work, which, though ambitious, is one of the most interesting
+kinds of embroidery, the figures, like all other things, must be treated
+with a certain amount of simplicity; very little attempt must be made to
+obtain flesh tones, roundness of form, perspective, or foreshortening.
+The work should be just sufficiently near to nature to be a good
+embroidery rendering of it. However, without overstepping the limits
+there is a great deal that may be expressed, such things as character,
+gesture, grace, colour, and so on, matters which are after all of first
+importance. Detail, if of the right kind, may be filled in, but it is
+wrong to attempt what is to the craft very laborious to obtain, for
+this would be misdirected energy, which is great waste. A right use of
+the figure can be seen in the XIIIth century embroidery pictures, which,
+covering mediaeval church vestments, often display episodes from the
+lives of the saints. These are some of the masterpieces of the art of
+embroidery; observation of nature is carried to a marvellous pitch, but
+the execution never sinks into commonplace realism.
+
+Certain restrictions are always present, in making a design, that must
+be conformed to, such as, the limit of space, the materials with which
+the work is to be carried out, the use to which it will be put, and so
+on. These, instead of being difficulties, can afford help in the way of
+suggestion and limitation. A bad design may look as if it obeyed them
+unwillingly--a form is perhaps cramped, perhaps stretched out in order
+to fit its place, instead of looking as if it naturally fitted it
+whether the confining lines were there or not. In the early herbals,
+illustrated with woodcuts, examples can be found over and over again of
+a flower filling a required space simply and well; fig. 23 is taken from
+the herbal of Carolus Clusius, printed at Antwerp in 1601 by the great
+house of Plantin. The draughtsman in this case had to draw a plant to
+fit a standard-sized engraver's block, and he had a certain number of
+facts to tell about it; he drew the plant as simply and
+straightforwardly as possible, making good use of all the available
+space, the result being a well-planned and balanced piece of work, with
+no affectation or unnecessary lines about it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+Fine colour is a quality appreciated at first sight, though often
+unconsciously. It is a difficult subject to speak of very definitely; an
+eye for colour is natural to some, but in any case the faculty can be
+cultivated and developed. By way of studying the subject, we can go to
+nature and learn as much as we are capable of appreciating; even such
+things as butterflies, shells, and birds' eggs are suggestive. Again,
+embroideries, illuminated manuscripts, pictures, painted decoration, may
+be studied, and so on; in fact, colour is so universal that it is not
+possible to get away from it. Unfortunately we are sometimes forced to
+learn what to avoid as well as what to emulate.
+
+Colour is entirely relative, that is to say it depends upon its
+immediate surroundings for what it appears to be. Also it has effects
+varying with the material which it dyes; wool is of an absorbent nature,
+whereas silk has powers of reflection. It is a safe plan to use true
+colours, real blue, red or green, not slate, terra cotta, and olive.
+Gold, silver, white and black, are valuable additions to the colour
+palette; it should be remembered about the former that precious things
+must be used with economy or they become cheap and perhaps vulgar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+For getting satisfactory colour there is a useful method which can at
+times be made use of; this is to stitch it down in alternate lines of
+two different tints, which, seen together at a little distance, give the
+desired effect. Backgrounds can be covered over with some small
+geometrical pattern carried out in this way, such as is shown in fig.
+24, perhaps using in alternation bright blue and black instead of a
+single medium tint of blue all over. At a slight distance the tone may
+be the same in either case, but this method gives a pleasantly varied
+and refined effect, which avoids muddiness, and shows up the pattern
+better. This same method is used for expressing form more clearly as
+well as for colour; waves of hair, for instance, are much more clearly
+expressed when worked in this way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+STITCHES
+
+  Introduction--Chain Stitch--Zigzag Chain--Chequered Chain--Twisted
+  Chain--Open Chain--Braid Stitch--Cable Chain--Knotted Chain--Split
+  Stitch.
+
+
+It is necessary for every worker to have a certain amount of knowledge
+of stitches, for they are, so to speak, the language of the art, and
+though not of first importance, still there is a great deal in
+stitchery. The needlewoman should be absolute master of her needle, for
+there is a great charm in beautifully carried out stitching; also a good
+design can be made mechanical and uninteresting by a wrong method of
+execution. The simplest and most common stitches are the best, and are
+all that are necessary for the doing of good work. Work carried out
+entirely in one stitch has a certain unity and character that is very
+pleasing. There are a great number of stitches in existence, that is, if
+each slight variation has a different name assigned to it. The names
+are sometimes misleading, for often the same stitch is known by several
+different ones; descriptive names have where possible been chosen for
+those discussed in the following pages.
+
+A worker may find it useful to keep by her a sampler with the most
+characteristic stitches placed upon it; a glance at this will be
+suggestive when she is in doubt as to which to use, for it is often
+difficult to recollect just the right and most suitable one at a
+moment's notice. It is necessary to learn only the main varieties, for
+each individual worker can adapt, combine, and invent variations to suit
+a special purpose.
+
+The direction of the stitch is important; tone, if not colour, can be
+very much altered by change in direction; also growth and form can be
+suggested by it; for instance, lines going across a stem are not usually
+so satisfactory as those running the length of it; these suggesting
+growth better. Folds of drapery are often explained by direction of the
+lines of stitching quite as much as by gradation of colour.
+
+With reference to the stitches described in the following chapters, the
+worker is advised to try to work them by simply examining the diagrams,
+and, if in any difficulty, then to refer to the printed description, for
+such directions are apt to be tedious. The simplest way to master these
+is to let some one read them out step by step, and to work from
+dictation. It should be remembered that the use of a particular thread
+often makes or mars a stitch, some requiring soft silks to show them to
+advantage, whilst others may need a stoutly twisted thread.
+
+Chain stitch is universal, and one of the most ancient of stitches. It
+is the most commonly used of a group that might be described as linked
+stitches. Much beautiful work has been carried out entirely in it, and
+when a monotonous even line is required, this is a most suitable stitch
+to employ. It is equally in request for outline and filling in, and its
+chain-like adaptability makes it specially good for following out curved
+forms or spiral lines. Tambour stitch is practically the same in result,
+though worked in quite a different manner, for it is carried out in a
+frame with a fine crochet hook, instead of with a needle. This makes it
+quicker in execution, but more mechanical in appearance, so it is not to
+be as much recommended.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+To work chain stitch (fig. 25) bring the needle through at the top of
+the traced line, hold the working thread down towards the left with the
+thumb, insert the needle at the point where the thread has just come
+through and bring it up on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an
+inch further along, draw the thread through over the held down thread.
+It should show a neat line of back-stitching on the reverse side. The
+chain can be made broader by inserting the needle a little to the right,
+instead of at the exact point where the last thread came through. Care
+must be taken in the working not to draw the thread too tightly, as this
+stitch is inclined to pucker the material, especially when it is worked
+in curved lines.
+
+A flower and leaf worked with a solid filling of chain stitch are shown
+in fig. 26. The dark outline of the flower is in back stitch, the centre
+a mass of French knots, and the stem in stem stitch. By working the
+petals in curved lines in this way the shape is well suggested, and the
+play of light on the curves is particularly happy, especially if the
+thread used is silk or gold. Another slight variation from this would be
+to work the lines of chain stitch in different shades of colour, and so
+get each petal gradually either lighter or darker towards its base; this
+gives a very pretty effect. Fig. 27 shows an oak leaf carried out in
+this way, the lines upon it indicate the way in which the stitches
+would be worked. The rule in solid fillings is to work from the outside
+inwards where possible, and thus make sure of a good outline.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+In the Victoria and Albert Museum there is a white linen dress[1]
+daintily embroidered in chain stitch. It is an excellent example of a
+kind of design suitable to this stitch; the leaves and flowers are
+carried out in lines of chain stitch following the outline, and in these
+lines use is made of strongly contrasting colour to both show up the
+form better, and also decorate it. The leaf in fig. 28 is in style
+somewhat similar to this, and is intended to be carried out in two
+distinct colours.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+Chain stitches can be worked singly; they are used in this way as a
+powdering over a background. Sometimes they may be seen conventionally
+suggesting the small feathers on the shoulder of a bird's wing by being
+dotted over it at regular intervals. Fig. 29 shows how they might be
+used to carry out a tiny flower, five separate stitches represent the
+petals, and two more the leaves at the base; this is a simpler and more
+satisfactory method than to attempt very minute forms with satin
+stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+The common chain makes a particularly neat border stitch taken in zigzag
+fashion. To work this (fig. 30)--Trace two parallel lines on the
+material and work the chain across from side to side at an angle of 45 deg.
+to the traced lines. For further security it is well to catch down the
+end of the stitch just completed with the needle as it commences the
+following one. The line can be further decorated by placing a French
+knot, perhaps in a contrasting colour, in each little triangular space
+left by working the stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+There is an ingenious method of working ordinary chain stitch in a
+chequering of two colours (fig. 31). It is quite simple to work. Thread
+a needle with two different coloured threads, commence the chain stitch
+in the usual way until the thread has to be placed under the point of
+the needle for forming the loop. Place only one of the two threads
+underneath, leaving the other on one side out of the way, then draw the
+needle and thread through over the one held down. A chain stitch will
+have been formed with the thread that was looped under the needle. For
+the next stitch, the alternate thread is placed under, and so on, taking
+each thread in turn. The thread not in use each time usually requires a
+little adjustment to make it entirely disappear from the surface.
+
+Twisted chain is worked very similarly to the ordinary chain stitch. It
+has not such a decidedly looped appearance, which is sometimes an
+advantage. To work it (fig. 32)--Bring the thread through at the top of
+the line, hold it down under the thumb to the left, and insert the
+needle to the left of the traced line, slightly below the point where
+the thread has come through. Bring it out again on the traced line,
+about one-eighth of an inch lower down, and draw it through over the
+held down thread.
+
+An entirely different effect can be obtained by working this stitch
+much closer together, but in exactly the same way. It will then
+resemble a satin stitch slightly raised on one side. This is known as
+rope stitch and is at times very useful.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+Open chain stitch makes a good broad line; it looks best when worked
+with a stout thread. To carry out the stitch (fig. 33)--Trace two
+parallel lines upon the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart,
+and bring the thread through at the top of the left-hand one. Hold the
+thread down with the thumb and insert the needle exactly opposite on the
+other line, bring it up one-eighth of an inch lower down and draw the
+thread through over the held down part, leaving a rather slack loop upon
+the material. Then insert the needle on the first line again, inside
+the slack loop, and bring it out one-eighth of an inch below. Repeat
+this on each side alternately. Fig. 34 is a drawing from a piece of
+white linen work in which the open chain stitch is used in combination
+with other stitches. This figure, with its open-work centre, is repeated
+diagonally over a white linen cloth exhibited in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+Braid stitch rather resembles a fancy braid laid upon the material. It
+looks best when carried out with a stoutly twisted thread. To work it
+(fig. 35)--Trace two parallel lines upon the material about one-eighth
+of an inch apart, and bring the thread through at the right-hand end of
+the lower line. Throw the thread across to the left and hold it slackly
+under the thumb. Place the needle pointing towards the worker under this
+held thread, then twist it round towards the left and over the held
+thread until it points in the opposite direction. It will now have the
+thread twisted loosely over it. Next, insert the needle on the upper
+line one-eighth of an inch from the starting-point, and bring it
+through on the lower line exactly underneath. Place the thumb over the
+stitch in process of making and draw the thread through as the diagram
+shows. It can be worked openly or more closely as preferred.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+Cable chain is descriptively named, for, when worked with a stoutly
+twisted thread, it has very much the appearance of a chain laid upon
+the material, rather too much so perhaps to be a pretty embroidery
+stitch. To work it (fig. 36)--Bring the needle through at the top of the
+traced line, throw the thread round to the left and hold it down with
+the thumb near where it has come through the material. Pass the needle
+under the held down thread from left to right and draw it through until
+there is only a small loop left. Insert the needle in the centre of this
+loop, on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an inch below the
+starting-point. Bring it out a quarter of an inch below and outside the
+loop. Take the thread in the right hand and tighten the loop that has
+now been formed, and then pass the thread under the point of the needle
+towards the left (see diagram). Place the left thumb over the stitch in
+process of making and draw the thread through; this will complete the
+first two links of the chain; to continue, repeat from the beginning.
+
+Knotted chain is a pretty stitch; to look well it must be worked with a
+stout thread. To carry it out (fig. 37)--Trace two parallel lines upon
+the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart. Bring the thread
+through at the right hand end in the centre between the two lines, then
+insert the needle on the upper line one-sixteenth of an inch further
+along, and bring it through on the lower line immediately below. Draw
+the thread through and there will be a short slanting line left upon the
+material. Throw the thread round to the left and hold it under the
+thumb, then pass the needle and thread through the slanting line from
+above downwards, leaving the thread a little slack. Place the thread
+again under the thumb, then in the same way as before, from above
+downwards, pass the needle and thread through this slack loop. This
+makes the first two links of the chain; the last one will not be
+properly fixed in place until the next stitch is taken. The dotted
+vertical line on the diagram shows the piece of material taken up by the
+needle upon commencing the next stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+Split stitch is a most useful one for many purposes. It is difficult to
+distinguish from a fine chain when done, but in the working it much more
+resembles stem stitch. It can be carried out in the hand or in a frame.
+This stitch, frequently seen upon ancient work, was much used for both
+draperies and features; the lines of the stitching usually, by their
+direction, expressing moulding of form or folds of drapery. To work it
+(fig. 38)--Bring the thread through at the lower end of the traced line,
+then insert the needle about one-eighth of an inch further along, and
+bring it through on the line two or three threads nearer the
+starting-point; whilst bringing it through take it also through the
+centre of the working thread, which thus splits each stitch.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] No. 184, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+STITCHES--(_continued_)
+
+  Satin Stitch--Long and Short Stitch--Stem Stitch--Overcast
+  Stitch--Back Stitch--Buttonhole Stitch--Tailor's Buttonhole--Fancy
+  Buttonhole Edgings--Flower in Open Buttonhole Stitch--Leaf in Close
+  Buttonhole Stitches--Petal in Solid Buttonholing.
+
+
+SATIN AND SIMILAR STITCHES
+
+Satin stitch is perhaps the most commonly used of all stitches. It is
+more quickly worked by hand, but for complicated work the help of a
+frame is required. Floss silk thread is seen to greatest advantage in a
+stitch of this kind, for it shows off the glossiness of silk
+particularly well. It is straightforward in the working and needs no
+further description than is given by the diagram (fig. 39). The stitches
+may vary in length, they must neither be impracticably long nor, on the
+other hand, too much cut up, lest the silky effect be partly lost. These
+stitches lie close together and in parallel lines; the chief difference
+between satin and several other closely allied stitches being that these
+others may radiate or vary in direction according to the space to be
+filled. The stitch is usually worked in oblique lines; stems, leaves,
+and petals would be treated in this way; sometimes it is worked
+regularly having regard to the warp and woof of the material; it would
+be treated thus when used in conjunction with cross or stroke stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+It will be seen that there is as much silk at the back as on the front
+of the work. There is a method of carrying out the stitch by which this
+waste of material at the back is avoided; the thread is returned to the
+front close to where it went through instead of crossing over and coming
+up on the other side. The effect on the right side, however, is not so
+good, so this method cannot be recommended.
+
+One of the technical difficulties with satin stitch is to get a neat
+firm line at the edges of the filled space; this is excellently attained
+by the Chinese and Japanese, who use this satin stitch a great deal.
+They frequently work each petal of a complicated flower separately,
+leaving as a division, between each one and the next, a fine line of
+material firmly and clearly drawn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+The stitch is much used for raised work, and also lends itself well to
+gradation of colour. Fig. 40 is an example of shading in satin stitch.
+In this case each new row of stitches fits in just between those of the
+last row; this is a bold but very effective method of expressing
+gradation. A variation upon this is shown in fig. 42; the bands of
+different colour are here necessarily worked in a chevron pattern which
+makes the shading rather more gradual. An example of the same thing can
+be seen in fig. 44 in the leaf upon which the squirrel sits. Apart from
+gradation of colour, the surface to be covered by satin stitch has often
+to be partitioned up in some way in order to make the satin stitches of
+a practical length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Long and short stitch is a very slight variation, if any, from satin
+stitch. The name describes the method of working, for it is carried out
+by working alternately a long and a short stitch, the stitches being
+picked up just as in satin stitch. It is useful for close fillings and
+shaded work, and also as a solid outline for any kind of open filling.
+The working of the stitch can be seen in fig. 41, where the band of
+lightest colour on the upper part of the leaf is worked in long and
+short stitch. The advantage of this way of working can be seen at once,
+it makes a firm outline on the one edge and a nicely broken-up one on
+the other, just ready for another shade to be worked in. In order to
+carry out the rest of the shading on the leaf in the same way the
+stitches can be all of the same length; this will always ensure a broken
+line at the edge, which is a necessity for this method of gradation.
+Long and short stitch used as an outline for a leaf with an open filling
+can be seen on page 209. The _opus plumarium_ or feather stitch that we
+read of in the descriptions of the old embroideries was a similar stitch
+to this, and so called, some say, because it resembled the plumage of a
+bird.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+Stem stitch, well known and frequently in use for various purposes, such
+as for lines, outlines, gradated and flat fillings, and so on, is
+usually done in the hand, and is quite simple; fig. 43 explains the
+working. If a broad line is required the needle is put in more
+obliquely, and a raised effect can be obtained by working over a laid
+thread. The thread must be kept to the same side of the needle, either
+to the left or to the right as better suits the purpose in hand; the
+effect is more line-like when it is kept to the right. Occasionally,
+when just a double line is to be worked, it is deliberately done in the
+two ways, and then the line resembles a narrow plait. A solid filling
+in stem stitch should be worked in lines as illustrated in the squirrel
+in fig. 44. This little beast is taken from the curtain shown in Plate
+VII., and is a good example of the life and interest that the
+introduction of such things adds to embroideries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+The stitches just described were largely used in crewel work. This is a
+rather vague name that denotes a decorative kind of needlework carried
+out with coloured wools upon a plain white linen ground. The design is
+usually composed of conventionally treated leaves and flowers, often
+growing from boldly curved stems. These were partly shaded in solid
+stitches, partly worked with geometrical open fillings; ornamental birds
+and beasts of all kinds were introduced, and the effect of the whole was
+very beautiful. The work is characteristically English, and a great
+deal of it was executed in the XVIIth century. Plates VII. and VIII. are
+illustrative of the type of work, and fig. 45 represents a detail. The
+various stitches which occur in this drawing are stem, herring-bone,
+long and short, knot, basket, buttonhole, single chain and satin
+stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+Overcast stitch in embroidery is practically a very short raised satin
+stitch. It requires neat workmanship, and then makes a bold clear line
+or outline. To work it (fig. 46)--Run or couch down a thread on the
+traced line, then with fine thread cover this over with close upright
+stitches, picking up as little material as possible each time in order
+to make the line clear and round. The stitch is worked most perfectly in
+a frame.
+
+Back stitch sometimes makes a good line or outline. To work it (fig.
+47)--Bring the needle through one-sixteenth of an inch from the end of
+the traced line, insert it at the commencement and bring it through
+again one-sixteenth of an inch beyond where it first came out. Each
+stitch, it will be seen, commences at the point where the last one
+finished.
+
+
+BUTTONHOLE STITCH AND ITS APPLICATION
+
+Buttonhole stitch, which is well known in plain needlework, is very
+useful also in embroidery, besides being an important stitch in
+needlepoint lace. Owing to its construction it is well suited for the
+covering of raw edges, but it is also adaptable to a variety of other
+purposes, such as are open or close fillings of leaves and flowers, cut
+work, and the outlining of applied work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+There are two ways of forming the stitch, the common buttonhole and what
+is called tailor's buttonhole.
+
+To work the ordinary buttonhole stitch (fig. 48)--Bring the needle
+through at the left-hand end of the traced line, hold the thread down
+to the left with the thumb and insert the needle as shown in the
+diagram, draw it through over the held thread to complete the stitch. It
+is worked openly in the diagram, but it may, as required, be either more
+or less open or quite closed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+The tailor's buttonhole is for some purposes more satisfactory; the
+stitch is firmer than the other kind owing to the heading having an
+extra knot in it; this makes it also more ornamental. To work it (fig.
+49)--Commence in the same way as the last stitch until the needle and
+thread are in the position shown in fig. 48 then, with the right hand
+take hold of the thread near the eye of the needle, bring it down and
+loop it under the point from right to left, draw the needle and thread
+through over these two loops, and the first stitch is made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+Buttonhole stitch can be varied in many ways, dependent mainly upon the
+spacing of the stitch and the direction that the needle takes when
+picking up the material. Fig. 50 shows four simple varieties; the first
+is the open buttonhole spaced slightly irregularly and with a thread
+slipped underneath it; any variety of spacing can be arranged, and the
+thread shown running underneath, which sometimes forms a pretty
+addition, is usually of a contrasting colour or material. The second
+shows the stitches taken slanting-wise, so that they cross each other.
+In the third the stitches are at different angles and of unequal length.
+The fourth example shows two lines of spaced buttonhole stitch fitting
+neatly the one into the other and forming a solid line. One row is
+worked first, leaving just sufficient space between each stitch for the
+second row to fill up, which can be carried out by reversing the
+position of the material and exactly repeating the first line in the
+same or in a different colour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
+
+A flower filled in with open buttonhole stitch is shown at fig. 51. The
+centre consists of a mass of French knots, and the outside line is in
+satin stitch. The innermost circle of buttonholing is worked first, the
+next row is worked over the heading of the first row as well as into the
+material; the succeeding rows are worked in the same way until the
+outside limit is reached, and there the satin stitch just covers the
+heading of the last row of buttonhole stitching. Gradation of colour can
+easily be introduced by using a different shade for each circle of
+stitches, and this produces a very pretty effect. An open method of
+filling a space, whether flower, leaf, drapery, or background, is
+sometimes preferable to a solid filling, and the two methods can very
+well be used together as each shows off the other. These light fillings
+give opportunity for further variety and ingenuity in the stitching, and
+prevent the work from looking heavy. A butterfly, carried out partly in
+open stitches, is illustrated in fig. 52.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
+
+Fig. 53 is, in the original, a gay little flower carried out in orange
+and yellow. The stitch employed here is a close buttonhole.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
+
+Another example of the use of close buttonhole is shown in the ivy leaf
+in fig. 54. The stitch is worked in two rows, back to back, in each lobe
+of the leaf, and the resulting ridge down the centre rather happily
+suggests the veining. This method of filling in might be just reversed
+for a rose leaf; the heading of the stitch would then suggest the
+serrated edge, and the meeting of the two rows down the centre the line
+of the vein.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
+
+A cluster of berries can be very prettily worked in buttonhole stitch in
+the way shown in fig. 55. The stitches are so arranged that the heading
+outlines each berry, and the needle enters the material at the same
+point, always in the centre. A bullion stitch in a darker colour marks
+the eye of the berry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
+
+A good method of filling a space with solid buttonhole stitching is
+shown in fig. 56. Each row is worked into the heading of the preceding
+row, and the stitches do not pierce the material except in the first row
+and at the extremities of succeeding rows. They are placed rather close
+together in order to completely cover the ground. The stitch is worked,
+first, from left to right, then for the next row from right to left;
+this is quite easy and enables the work to be continuously carried out.
+Sometimes, when the first row is done, the thread is thrown across to
+the side where the row began, and there made fast; then the second row
+is worked with stitches which take up the thrown thread as well as the
+heading of the first row. By using a more open buttonhole and thus
+partly exposing the laid thread, a filling, both quick and effective, is
+obtained. This is a useful method to employ when the work is done over a
+padding of threads, for there is no necessity to pierce the material
+except at the edges.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+STITCHES--(_continued_)
+
+  Knots and Knot Stitches--Herring-bone Stitch--Feather Stitch--Basket
+  Stitch--Fishbone Stitch--Cretan Stitch--Roumanian Stitch--Various
+  Insertion Stitches--Picots.
+
+
+KNOTS AND KNOT STITCHES
+
+It would be difficult to go far in embroidery without requiring knots
+for one purpose or another. They are useful in all sorts of ways, and
+make a pleasant contrast to the other stitches. For the enrichment of
+border lines and various parts of the work, both pattern and background,
+they are most serviceable, and also for solid fillings; for such places
+as centres of flowers or parts of leaves, they are again valuable. They
+have been used to form a continuous outline, but owing to their tendency
+to make a weak line, not frequently; indeed they usually show to better
+advantage when slightly separated.
+
+Examples are to be seen of English knotted line work in which the
+knotting was executed in the thread previously to embroidering with it.
+The knotting of thread was a pastime with ladies in the XVIIth century.
+The thread, usually a linen one and as a rule home spun, was wound upon
+a netting-needle, and by the aid of this a close series of knots was
+made upon it; when finished it somewhat resembled a string of beads.
+Balls of this prepared knotted thread may still be found, treasured up
+in old work receptacles. When prepared it was couched on to the material
+with fine thread, like a cord or braid, and made to follow out some
+prearranged pattern. In white linen work it was used for carrying out
+ornamental borderings on infants' robes and other dainty articles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.]
+
+French knots can be worked in the hand or in a frame. They are easier to
+manage in the latter, and to look well they must be neatly and firmly
+made. Completed they should resemble beads lying end upwards on the
+material. To work the French knot (fig. 57)--Bring the thread through
+the material at the required point, take hold of it with the left finger
+and thumb near the starting-point (A on plan), then let the point of the
+needle encircle the held thread twice, twist the needle round and insert
+it at point B on plan, draw the thread through to the back, not letting
+go the held thread until necessary. Fig. 58 shows some French knots
+decorating a leaf spray, and various other examples of their use can be
+found in the book.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.]
+
+Bullion knots resemble tight curls of thread laid on the material. They
+can be used as a variation from French knots, and even for the
+representation of petals and small leaves. To be satisfactory they must
+be firm, stout, and tightly coiled; some knack is required to make them
+properly. To work the bullion knot (fig. 59)--Bring the thread through
+at the required place, insert the needle one-eighth of an inch from this
+point and bring it through again exactly at it. Take hold of the thread
+about two inches from where it came through and twist it several times
+round the point of the needle, the number of times being dependent on
+the required length of the knot. Place the left thumb upon the tight
+coil on the needle, in order to keep it in place, and draw the needle
+and thread through it, then pass the thread through to the back at the
+point where the needle was last inserted (point A on plan). The thumb
+must not be removed until it is in the way. Fig. 60 represents a flower,
+of which the centre is formed of bullion together with French knots.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.]
+
+Fig. 61 shows a knotted stitch that is similar in result to the knotted
+threads discussed earlier in the chapter. In this case the knotting of
+the thread and the fixing to the material is done at the same time. It
+is a useful stitch when a jagged line is wanted, and can be seen used,
+for instance, for the branching veins in open work leaves, as in fig.
+62. The diagram explains the working of the stitch; at point A on the
+plan the left thumb holds the thread down whilst the stitch is in
+progress.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS STITCHES
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+The stitch illustrated at fig. 63 is very similar to the common
+herring-bone. The only practical difference is that in the plain
+needlework stitch there is usually a smaller piece of material picked up
+by the needle each time. To work it as in the diagram--Trace two
+parallel lines on the material and bring the thread through at the
+commencement of the lower line, insert it on the opposite line rather
+farther along and there pick up a stitch, as the needle is doing in the
+figure. Then on the opposite line pick up a similar stitch a little in
+advance of the one just finished. After this work the stitches on either
+line alternately, commencing each one at the point where the last one
+ended; this forms on the underside a double row of back stitches. It is
+quite easy to work this stitch with the back stitches on the working
+side, and when they are required to be on the surface it is advisable to
+do it in that way. When embroidering upon a semi-transparent material
+this stitch is a satisfactory one to use, the back stitching follows out
+the outline on either side of the form, and the crossing of the threads
+on the under side shows through prettily. This stitch sometimes goes by
+the name of double back stitch. It is useful in many ways, making a
+light stitch for stems, leaves, or flowers; it can be sometimes found in
+Eastern work used for an entire embroidery. When used for flowers or
+leaves the width and the closeness of the stitch are varied to suit the
+shape to be filled. An example of its use as a flower filling is shown
+in the carnation at fig. 64, which is carried out in four shades of
+colour. Considerable use is made of this stitch in embroidered curtain
+shown in Plate VII.; it is there employed for all the stems and various
+flowers upon the hanging.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
+
+The feather stitch, often used to decorate plain needlework, is now to
+be discussed; although similar in name it must not be confused with the
+feather or plumage stitch that has already been mentioned. The stitch is
+so simple and so much in use as hardly to need description; fig. 65
+explains the working. There can be many slight variations of the stitch,
+the worker perhaps devising them needle in hand. Two are shown in fig.
+66. The one to the left is worked very like the ordinary stitch; the
+needle picks up the material in a straight line instead of slightly
+obliquely, and each stitch touches the one immediately above; it is
+here made use of as a couching stitch, a bunch of threads of a
+contrasting colour is laid on the material, and the stitch worked over
+it from side to side. The right-hand example shows the ordinary feather
+stitch worked more closely and in a broader line; carried out in this
+way, it can be used for a leaf filling.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
+
+Basket stitch, useful for a solid line, shows up very clearly when
+worked with a stout twisted thread. This stitch would be appropriately
+used when applied to some representation of basket work. To carry out
+the diagram (fig. 67)--Trace two parallel lines on the material, and to
+commence, bring the thread through on the left-hand line, then insert
+the needle on the right-hand line about one-eighth of an inch lower down
+and bring it through on the left-hand line exactly opposite (see needle
+in fig.); the next stitch is worked by inserting the needle on the
+right-hand line but above the last stitch, that is at point A on
+diagram, and bringing it through at B. To continue, repeat from the
+beginning.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
+
+A particularly good line for a border is made by fishbone stitch. It can
+be worked in one colour, or as easily in a chequering of two or three,
+as shown in the diagram (fig. 68); to carry it out in this way the
+worker must have two threads in use, bringing through each as required.
+For such purposes as the fillings of small leaves, this stitch is very
+useful (see fig. 58). The meeting of the stitches in the centre suggest
+the veining line, also the change in direction of the thread gives, to
+the two sides of the leaf, pleasant variation in tone. To work
+it--Trace three parallel lines upon the material and bring the thread
+through on the upper line at the left-hand end. Insert the needle and
+bring it through as in process in the diagram, then repeat the same
+stitch on the other side the reverse way, that is, insert the needle
+just over the central line and bring it through on the upper one close
+to the last stitch. Care must be taken that the stitches cross well over
+each other at the centre, or the material will show through.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
+
+The stitch shown in fig. 69, known as plait or Cretan, is commonly seen
+on Cretan and other Eastern embroideries. It can be used as a solid
+border stitch or as a filling, varying in width as required. To work
+it--Bring the thread through on the lower central line, then insert the
+needle on the uppermost line and bring it through on the next below as
+in process in the diagram; then, still keeping the thread to the right,
+insert the needle immediately underneath on the lowest line and bring it
+through on the line next above, in fashion similar to the last stitch,
+but in reverse direction. To continue, work the stitch alternately on
+one side and the other, always keeping the thread to the right of the
+needle. In order to make the central plait broader take up rather less
+material with the needle; this will decrease the outer and increase the
+inner lines. Fig. 70 is taken from a Cretan embroidery, in which this
+stitch is mainly used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.]
+
+Another similar but more simple stitch, often seen in Eastern work, is
+shown in fig. 71. It can also frequently be found employed on XVIIth
+century English wool work hangings. It is sometimes called Roumanian
+stitch, and is composed of one long stitch crossed by a short one in the
+centre. To work it--Trace two parallel lines on the material and bring
+the thread through on the left-hand line at the top. Insert the needle
+on the opposite line and bring it through near the centre, as shown in
+process in the diagram. For the next half of the stitch the needle
+enters the material at point A on plan, and is brought through again on
+the left-hand line close to the last stitch, and so in position to
+commence again. An illustration of this stitch in use as a filling can
+be seen at fig. 72. It is worked in four shades of green wool, and each
+line of stitches is so arranged as to encroach slightly on the line
+before by means of setting each stitch just between two of the last row.
+This method of working has two advantages; the shading is thus made
+more gradual, and a pleasant undulating effect is given to the surface
+of the leaf. This can be most easily understood by a practical trial of
+the stitch and method.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+
+INSERTION STITCHES
+
+There is occasion sometimes in embroidery to join edges together
+visibly. This gives an opportunity for some additional pretty
+stitching--the addition of something like this, that is perhaps not
+absolutely necessary, has extra value from the evidence it gives of the
+worker's interest and delight in her work, a quality always appreciated;
+on the other hand, work done from the motive of getting a result with as
+little labour as possible is valued at just its worth.
+
+These insertion stitches are useful for joining together edges of
+cushion covers, bags, detached bands, also for the ornamentation of
+dress, and for embroideries upon which drawn thread work is not
+possible. A stout thread is usually suitable for the purpose. The raw
+edges must first be turned in and flattened, and the parts to be joined
+can if necessary be tacked in place on a temporary ground such as
+_toile ciree_.
+
+Fig. 73 illustrates a twisted insertion stitch that is quickly executed
+and very frequently used. The diagram sufficiently explains the working
+without further description.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
+
+Buttonhole stitch can be turned to account for this purpose. Fig. 74
+shows the tailor's buttonhole used as an insertion stitch; for this
+purpose it is the better of the two kinds of buttonhole. The stitches
+could be arranged in various ways; in the present example three are
+worked closely together on either side in turn. The only difficulty with
+this buttonhole insertion is that on one side the stitch has to be
+worked in direction contrary to that usual, that is from right to left
+instead of from left to right. In the diagram the needle is shown
+working in this reverse way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
+
+Fig. 75 is a knotted insertion stitch; the knot at each side makes the
+stitch a very rigid one. To work it--Bring the thread through at the
+lower left-hand side, insert the needle on the upper side a little
+towards the right, draw the thread through, and then tie the knot on it
+as in process in the diagram.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
+
+A rather more complicated joining stitch is shown in fig. 76. It could
+be carried out with different coloured threads. The two sides must be
+first worked with the edging, which is practically the braid stitch
+described on page 88. Commence the stitch in exactly the same way as
+when carrying out braid stitch, but work on the edge of the material as
+in buttonholing, the working edge in this case being away from the
+worker. Let the worker, having reached the point of pulling the thread
+through to complete the stitch, draw it out in the direction away from
+her. This will draw the stitch towards the edge, where it will form a
+knot. In the diagram one of the stitches has been partly undone in order
+to show the working more clearly. When the two sides are bound with the
+stitch, they can be laced together with another thread as in the
+illustration.
+
+
+PICOTS
+
+Picots are commonly in use in lace work and they are sometimes required
+for embroidery purposes, especially in the kinds of work nearly allied
+to lace, such as cut work, or for an added ornament to an edging stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
+
+Fig. 77 shows too small picots added to a buttonhole bar, and on the
+lower bar is shown the method of working the left-hand picot. The pin
+that passes into the material behind the bar can be fixed in the bar
+itself if there happens to be no material underneath. After reaching
+the point illustrated in the diagram, the needle draws the thread
+through, thus making a firm knot round the loop. This completes the
+picot, the bar is then buttonholed to the end. The second picot is made
+in much the same way; instead, however, of putting the needle as the
+diagram shows, bring the thread up through the centre of the loop, then
+round under the pin from left to right, and it will be in position to
+make three buttonhole stitches along the loop, which completes the
+second example.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
+
+The upper bar on fig. 78 shows a buttonholed picot. The bar must be
+worked to the left-hand end of the required picot; the thread is then
+from there taken back about one-eighth of an inch and threaded through
+the edge of the buttonhole. This is repeated to and fro until there is a
+loop composed of three threads ready to be buttonholed over. Upon this
+being done, the thread will have arrived at the right point to continue
+the bar.
+
+Bullion stitch makes another simple picot--Work the bar to the point
+where the picot is required, then, instead of taking the next stitch,
+insert the point of the needle in the heading of the last stitch. Leave
+the needle in this position, and twist the thread six or eight times
+round the point of it, just as for the bullion knot (fig. 59). Place the
+left thumb over the tight coil thus formed, and pull the needle and
+thread through tightly in order to make the stitch double up into a
+tight semi-circle, then continue the buttonholing to the end of the
+bar.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CANVAS WORK AND STITCHES
+
+  Introduction--Samplers--Petit Point Pictures--Cross Stitch--Tent
+  Stitch--Gobelin Stitch--Irish Stitch--Plait Stitch--Two-sided
+  Italian Stitch--Holbein Stitch--Rococo Stitch.
+
+
+Canvas work, known in the XIIIth century as _opus pulvinarium_ or
+cushion work, is of great antiquity, and seems to have had an
+independent origin in several countries. It is sometimes given the
+misleading name of tapestry, perhaps owing to hangings of all kinds
+being called tapestries, whether loom-woven, worked with the needle, or
+painted. Large wall hangings with designs similar to those of woven
+tapestries have been most successfully carried out on canvas in cross or
+tent stitch; as a rule, however, smaller objects are worked, such as
+furniture coverings, screens or cushions, whence it is obvious canvas
+work received its ancient and descriptive Latin name. Many Eastern
+carpets are worked upon a strong canvas in a kind of tent stitch, and
+so come under the heading of canvas work. It is a particularly durable
+method of embroidering, and this makes it suitable for use upon anything
+subjected to hard wear.
+
+The work has usually a very decided and attractive character of its own.
+A familiar example of this can be seen in the XVIIIth century samplers.
+Its peculiar character is perhaps due to the fact that it cannot break
+away from a certain conventionality due to constant use of the same
+stitch, and its dependence upon the web of the fabric. This regularity
+prevents the work from showing certain faults of design that other
+methods may exaggerate. It is hardly possible to copy a natural spray of
+flowers in cross stitch and keep it very naturalistic. The stitch being
+square and alike all over gives a formality of treatment to every part
+of the design, also, some detail is perforce omitted owing to the
+impossibility of putting it in; all of this tends to a right method of
+treatment, which renders the sampler an admirable lesson not only in
+workmanship but also in design.
+
+The XVIth and XVIIth century pictorial subjects worked upon fine canvas
+in cross or tent stitch afford instances of most interesting work in
+canvas stitches. Some of these, though, as a rule, very much smaller in
+size, equal, in their way, the finest tapestries. Most of them, if
+judged from a painter's standpoint, would be pronounced failures, but
+this effect is not what is sought after; the method of treatment belongs
+rather to the great traditions of the tapestry weaver, and is not
+governed by the canons of the painter. Plate VI. shows a detail of
+foliage from a particularly fine example of this work lately added to
+the Victoria and Albert Museum collection.[2]
+
+In what went by the name of Berlin wool work, popular in the early XIXth
+century, we have before us a degenerate offshoot of this fine and poetic
+kind of work in which all its possibilities are missed, with a result
+that is prosaic in the extreme. Some of the canvas-work seat covers
+decorated with geometrical designs, seen on Chippendale chairs, were a
+pleasant and satisfactory variation in their way, but in most of the
+work after that period, the attempt at impossible naturalistic effect
+gave such unsatisfactory results as to almost deal a death blow to all
+canvas embroidery. It is, however, a method too good and useful to die
+out; it must always be more or less in vogue.
+
+Patterns carried out in canvas stitches are sometimes to be seen worked
+apparently upon velvet or similar ground materials. This is done by
+first laying the canvas upon the velvet and stitching through both
+materials; this would have to be carried out in a frame. The threads of
+the canvas are afterwards either withdrawn or closely cut off. In the
+former case, the stitches must be drawn tight, or the finished work will
+not look well. This method has the advantage of saving the labour of
+working the background, and sometimes it suits the pattern to have a
+contrast in the ground material. In old embroideries, heraldic devices
+may be seen successfully treated in this way.
+
+The usual canvas stitches can be worked upon other fabrics that have an
+even and square mesh, such as various kinds of linen; also other
+embroidery stitches, such as stem, satin, or chain, can be used upon
+canvas; they are then always worked with a certain regularity, following
+the web of the material.
+
+Canvas work can be done in the hand or in a frame, but the technique is
+often better in work done in a frame. In all-over work it is important
+that not even a suggestion of the ground fabric should be allowed to
+show through; for this reason work in light colours should be done on
+white canvas, and _vice versa_, as far as possible, also the thread used
+must suit in thickness the mesh of the canvas. To work a plain ground
+well is less easy than to work the pattern, though it may sound more
+simple. The back of the work, though not necessarily similar to the
+front, must be alike in stitch all over, for the direction the stitch
+takes at the back affects the regularity of appearance of the front. The
+stitch must not be commenced in exactly the same place in each row, lest
+a ridge should appear upon the surface; this can be avoided by using
+threads of different lengths. A ground is usually commenced at the lower
+left-hand corner, and a pattern, if a complicated one, from the centre
+outwards. These technical points are of importance, but they are of
+little value unless the stitches are at the same time expressing an
+interesting and suitable design.
+
+The stitches used are exceedingly numerous; those described in the
+following pages are the varieties most commonly seen.
+
+Cross stitch, the best known in this group, can be worked in slightly
+different ways, according to the purpose for which it is required. On
+the surface it is always the same, but it can vary at the back. For
+instance, when used for marking purposes it should form on the reverse
+side either a cross or a square, to do either of which demands some
+ingenuity on the part of the worker. For ordinary work the really
+correct method is to complete each stitch before going on to the next,
+though grounding is frequently done by working the first half of the
+stitch along an entire line, and completing the cross upon a return
+journey. In any case, the crossing must always be worked in the same
+direction.
+
+Cross stitch is a double stitch worked diagonally over two threads of
+the canvas each way. It can, however, be taken over more or fewer
+threads if required larger or smaller. To work it (fig. 79)--Bring the
+needle through on the upper left side of the threads to be covered, and
+take it back again on the lower right, then bring it through on the
+upper right side and return it to the back on the lower left, which
+completes the first stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.]
+
+Tent stitch (fig. 80) is the finest canvas stitch, and is therefore
+suitable for work involving much detail. Pictorial and heraldic subjects
+are frequently carried out in it. It is worked diagonally over a
+perpendicular and horizontal thread of the canvas. The diagram shows
+the method of working both back and front. It will be noticed that
+though the line goes alternately from left to right and from right to
+left, the stitch is always the same at the back as well as the same upon
+the front; if this were not so, alternate rows would have a different
+appearance upon the right side. The diagram does not show the connection
+between the first and the second row, but it is evident that it must be
+a short upright line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
+
+Gobelin stitch is a useful variety; it lends itself to shading better
+than cross stitch. It is most often worked upon a fine single canvas,
+and it can be used as a raised stitch. Fig. 81 represents the stitch; it
+is worked similarly to tent stitch but over two threads in height and
+one in width, no matter whether the single or double thread canvas is
+used. In order to work it as a raised stitch, a line of some kind of
+padding is thrown across the canvas, and the stitch taken over it. This
+line can be arranged to show in part, in which case the material must be
+one presentable, such as a gold cord or narrow braid. The padding would
+be covered with stitching to form the background, and left exposed for
+the pattern, which would probably be a simple repeating form of some
+kind. Gobelin stitch is sometimes worked quite perpendicularly just over
+two threads in height.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
+
+Irish stitch is pretty and quickly worked. It is usually taken
+perpendicularly over four threads of the canvas (fig. 82), though the
+number over which it is taken may vary. It is worked in such a way as to
+make the stitches of each succeeding row fit between those of the last
+row, and can be carried out either diagonally or in horizontal lines.
+What is known as Florentine work is carried out in a stitch of this
+kind. The pattern in this kind of work is taken horizontally across the
+ground in a succession of shaded zigzag lines.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.]
+
+Plait stitch is often used for grounding. It resembles a simple plait
+laid in close rows to and fro on the ground. It can frequently be seen
+used upon the Italian XVIth century linen work, that in which the
+pattern is left in plain linen, and the ground worked in some colour.
+The diagram in fig. 83 shows the method of working the stitch. If
+carried out correctly, the back of the material should show a row of
+short perpendicular lines, each composed of two threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.]
+
+Two-sided Italian stitch is descriptively named, for it is alike on both
+sides. This is frequently seen on XVIth and XVIIth century Italian linen
+work, similar to that mentioned above. A loosely woven linen makes a
+suitable ground material, for in the working the stitches must be pulled
+firmly, so as to draw the threads of the fabric together; this gives
+over the ground a squared open-work effect, which is very pretty. Fig.
+84 explains the working of the stitch; it is shown in four stages, and
+is quite simple; the final result is a cross surrounded by a square. The
+lowest figure in the diagram shows the last stage, for the upper side of
+the square is filled in when the row above is worked. The drawing
+together of the web is not shown, but at a trial it should be done, for
+in that lies the special character of the stitch. The silk used must be
+just thick enough to well cover the linen, but not too thick, for then
+the work would be clumsy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.]
+
+Holbein stitch (fig. 85), also known as stroke or line stitch, is alike
+on both sides, and is often used in conjunction with cross and satin
+stitch, as well as alone. Very intricate and interesting patterns can be
+devised to be carried out with these three stitches, worked always with
+regard to the web of the linen. Squared paper could be used for
+planning the design, as the stitches would all be practically of the
+same length, and the pattern must be one that can be easily carried out
+alike on both sides. The stitch is worked as follows: An even running
+stitch, picking up as much material as it leaves, is taken all round the
+pattern. This does half the work on either side; the gaps are then
+filled up by the running stitch being taken in a contrary direction,
+which completes the pattern. Occasionally stitches go off at an angle
+from the running pattern; these are completed on the first journey by a
+satin stitch being made at the necessary point. The present diagram is a
+zigzag line, with one of these stitches going off at each angle. Fig. 86
+is an example of a border design carried out in Holbein stitch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
+
+The stitch illustrated in fig. 87 is known as rococo stitch. It is a
+useful one for carrying out a conventional design, such as, to give a
+simple illustration, a flower sprig repeating in the spaces formed by a
+trellis pattern. The effect of the stitch when worked cannot be judged
+from this diagram; to see this properly a piece of canvas must be worked
+entirely over with it. The pattern chosen is usually one that lends
+itself to being worked in diagonal lines, as this stitch is best worked
+in that way. It entirely hides the canvas background, and is carried out
+very similarly to the oriental stitch in fig. 71. By the help of that
+diagram and description and the present one, which gives various steps,
+the worker will easily master the stitch, which is quite simple. The
+ordinary carrying out of the stitch is shown where the needle is at
+work, and in another part the diagram, by some loosened stitches,
+illustrates how to pass from one cluster to the next.
+
+Some fine examples of canvas work design, introducing a variety of
+stitches, may be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. These are large
+panels filled with foliage and flowers growing about architectural
+columns.[3]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] No. 879, 1904.
+
+[3] No. 517-522, 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+METHODS OF WORK
+
+  Couching--Braid Work--Laid Work--Applied Work--Inlaid Work--Patch
+  Work.
+
+
+COUCHING
+
+Couching is the name given to a method of embroidery in which one thread
+is attached to the material by another one. Sometimes not only one
+thread but a number of threads are couched down together; or it may be
+cord, braid, or metal thread that is attached to the material in this
+way. Fig. 88 shows some couching in progress. The method probably arose
+through the difficulty experienced in passing either coarse or very
+delicate threads through a material. Couching is constantly in use with
+gold thread embroidery, and it is further discussed in the chapter upon
+that subject, where also is described an entirely different method,
+which is to be recommended for couching other as well as for gold
+threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.]
+
+Couching is useful in a variety of ways, _e.g._ for carrying out work in
+line or for outlining other embroidery, applied work for instance, which
+is frequently finished off by means of a couched thread; in the case of
+a difficult ground material, it is one of the most manageable methods of
+working. The geometrical open fillings of leaves and backgrounds are
+often composed of lines of thread thrown across and couched down at
+regular intervals. Fig. 89 is an example of a favourite filling of this
+kind. Embroidery stitches can be made use of for couching down other
+threads; a bunch of threads may be laid upon the material, and an open
+chain, buttonhole, or feather stitch worked over in order to fix it in
+place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
+
+Braid work is quickly and easily executed; it needs only a suitable
+pattern and a pretty braid for couching down to be most successful.
+There are a few points to be observed about the technique--the cut edge
+of a braid is awkward to manage, for it must, with a special needle, be
+taken through to the back of the material and there made secure and
+flat; for this reason the design should be so planned as to have as few
+breaks as possible. Interlacing strap work designs, of which a simple
+example is given in fig. 90, are very suitable for braid work. The
+thread that couches down the braid may be quite invisible, or, on the
+other hand, it may be made use of to further decorate the braid by being
+placed visibly across it, perhaps forming a chequering or other simple
+pattern, as shown in fig. 91. Ravellings of the braid may be used as
+invisible couching threads for stitching it down. Curves and sharp
+corners need special attention by way of extra stitches. The completed
+work is much improved by several hours' pressure under a weight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
+
+
+LAID WORK
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.]
+
+Laid work might be described as couching on a more extended scale--a
+given space is covered with threads taken from side to side in parallel
+lines close together, fixed at either extremity by entering the
+material. Further security is usually given by small couching stitches
+dotted down at intervals over the laid threads, or by throwing single
+lines of thread across in a contrary direction and tying these down at
+intervals with couching stitches. Yet another way is, to work a split or
+stem stitch over the laid threads, and thus fix them down. Fig. 92 shows
+a flower carried out in laid work. The tying-down threads can often be
+made use of in one way or another to further decorate, or to explain
+form, by means of contrasting colour, change in direction, and so on.
+The laid stitches in this flower are taken from the centre outwards and
+fixed in place by couched circular lines of thread. The centre of the
+flower has a geometrical filling, composed of a couched lattice pattern
+with French knots between. Conventional centres of this and like kinds
+are very pretty for embroidery flowers; such patterns as those shown in
+fig. 93 can often be seen in use, and they need only a trial to be
+frequently adopted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93.]
+
+Laid work shows off the gloss and texture of silk to great advantage,
+which is due to the thread being laid upon the material without being
+cut up into small stitches. Floss silk is much used for the work; it
+must not be at all twisted in the laying down, since this mars the
+effect. The work is carried out in a frame; it is quickly executed and
+economical, the thread being practically all upon the surface. Owing to
+the length of the stitches, this is not a very durable method, so it
+should not be subjected to hard wear. The work has sometimes a flimsy,
+unsatisfactory appearance, probably because of these long stitches. It
+will be seen that the silk passing through to the back, and then
+immediately to the front again, takes up very little of the material. A
+method in use for giving greater strength in this way is to lay the silk
+first in alternate lines and to fill up the gaps thus left upon a
+second journey across the form. For added strength, use might be made of
+a linen thread at the back, as in the _point couche rentre ou retire_
+method that is discussed later.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
+
+A gold thread outline gives a nice finish to laid work. If there is
+nothing in the way of an outline, and the pattern and ground are both
+covered with laid threads, the edges of the pattern are likely to look
+weak. Fig. 94 shows a leaf filled in with rather loosely laid threads
+and outlined and veined with gold passing, the veining answering the
+double purpose of fixing down the laid threads and veining the leaf at
+the same time.
+
+In this work, the colouring is frequently in flat tones, but if
+necessary it is quite easy to introduce gradation. Further variety can
+be obtained by a contrast in colour in the tying-down threads.
+
+
+APPLIED WORK
+
+The ancient Latin term _opus consutum_, and the modern French one
+_applique_, which is perhaps the name most commonly in use, both refer
+to the same kind of work; what is now called cut work is quite
+different from this, and is described elsewhere. Under the heading of
+applied work comes anything that, cut out of one material, is applied to
+another; it may have been previously embroidered, or it may be just the
+plain stuff. Both kinds can, as has been proved, be carried out with
+excellent effect, but much unsuitable and badly designed work has been
+done by this method, with the result that the very name has fallen into
+disrepute.
+
+The simplest kind of applied work is that in which the design, traced
+upon one material, then cut out along the outline of the pattern, is
+applied to another material, the junction of the two materials being
+hidden by a cord or suitable stitch. The applied work is most often
+flat, but it can be in slight or in strong relief. The texture of the
+materials employed may be an important factor in the result, for a
+contrast in material as well as in colour is often wanted; sometimes the
+former alone is sufficient. The choice of material depends very much
+upon the use to which the finished work will be put, but this simple
+form of applied work often relies for part of its effect upon an
+intrinsic interest in the material, so it is usually carried out with
+such materials as velvet, satin, or silk, either plain or figured.
+
+The design for this kind of work should be of a bold conventional type,
+such as large foliage with the character of the heraldic mantling; any
+naturalistic flowers, figures, or animals easily become grotesque. A
+simple outline to the forms is necessary, both because of the technical
+difficulties and for the effect of the finished work. This kind of work
+is hardly suitable for expressing fine detail; oftentimes it is seen
+from a distance, and many indentations on an outline sometimes tend to
+weaken it. Heraldry can be well expressed by this method. Fig. 95 is an
+example from a piece of XIIIth century work, a fragment of the surcoat
+of William de Fortibus, third Earl of Albemarle, who lived in the reign
+of Henry III.; the example can be seen in the British Museum. This
+method of work is also particularly suitable for such purposes as the
+decoration of wall surfaces, for hangings of various kinds, or banners;
+it can, however, be used for many other purposes, provided the design
+and the materials are well chosen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
+
+Owing to the difficulty of working upon some ground stuffs, the method
+has arisen of carrying out the embroidery upon an easily worked ground,
+such as linen; cutting it out, when finished, along the outline and
+applying it to the proper ground, the junction of the two materials
+being hidden by a cord or some equivalent. It is usually further
+completed by light sprays or some other kind of finishing touches being
+placed around the applied part, these worked directly on to the proper
+ground. This prevents the embroidery from looking too bald and detached
+from its surroundings, of which there is always a danger when it is
+carried out separately and then attached; if at all possible it is
+always more satisfactory to work directly on to the right ground.
+
+As a matter of fact it is almost always possible to do this; the workers
+of the XIIIth century, the period at which the art of embroidery was at
+its height, carried out the most exquisitely fine stitching and design
+on such grounds as velvet that had almost as long a pile as some
+varieties of plush. The famous cope of English work known as the Bowden
+cope, of which a detail is given in Plate I., is an excellent
+illustration of this point. Upon careful examination of the work it is
+apparent that between the stitching and the velvet there is a layer of
+material, composed either of fine linen or silk. This would be of great
+help in the carrying out of the stitching. It is exceedingly probable
+that this layer of fine material was at the commencement of the work
+laid completely over the velvet background of the cope; for one thing,
+the design, with its finely drawn detail, could easily be perfectly
+traced upon a surface of this kind and only imperfectly upon velvet;
+another advantage of this method would be, that the background would be
+kept quite free from dust and from getting soiled by the hands during
+the lengthy process of the work. The stitching would be carried through
+all the surfaces, and when finished, the fine surface layer would be cut
+away close round the edges of the design, which would be quite easily
+done. This method of working upon a difficult ground is well worth
+trying in place of the applied method.
+
+To return to the discussion of applied embroidery--let us suppose the
+embroidered piece to be just completed on its linen ground, still
+stretched in the frame in which it was worked. In another frame, stretch
+the background material and trace upon it the exact outline of the piece
+to be applied. Cut out the embroidered piece carefully round the edge,
+allowing about one-sixteenth of an inch margin outside the worked part,
+leaving, if necessary, little connecting ties of material here and
+there for temporary support. With fine steel pins or needles fix the
+cut-out work exactly over the tracing already made on the ground
+material, then make it secure round the edge with rather close stitches
+of silk placed at right-angles to the outline; with fine materials the
+raw edge of the applied part can be neatly tucked under and fixed in
+place by this overcast stitch. A cord is next sewn on to hide the fixing
+and give a finish to the edge. The colour of this cord is important,
+since its colour may increase the expanse of either the applied part or
+the ground. Sometimes a double cord is put round, and in this case the
+inner one is attached to the embroidery before it is cut out of the
+frame, and the second attached afterwards. The inner one is often of a
+colour predominating in the embroidery, and the outer one of the colour
+of the ground. Gold cord is very usual; if a coloured silk one is used
+it must be a perfect match. The ordinary twisted cord looks best
+attached invisibly; to do this, slightly untwist it whilst stitching,
+and insert the needle in the opening thus formed. Some kinds of flat
+braids look well with the fixing stitches taken deliberately over them
+and forming part of the ornamentation (see fig. 91). Bunches of silk are
+sometimes couched round with a buttonhole or other stitch, but whatever
+the outline may consist of, it should be a firm bold line.
+
+The work must be perfectly flat when completed. Puckering may occur
+through want of care in the preliminary straining or in the fixing on of
+the applied parts. Some materials are more easy to manage than others.
+The difficult ones can if necessary have a preliminary backing applied,
+which is useful also if the material is inclined to fray. The backing
+may consist of a thin coating of embroidery paste, or of tissue paper or
+fine holland pasted over the part to be applied. The more all this kind
+of thing can be avoided, the better the work, for pasting of any kind is
+apt to give a stiff mechanical look; also, if the work is intended to
+hang in folds any stiffness would be most impracticable.
+
+Even more than simpler work applied embroidery needs the finish of some
+light work upon the ground. Gold threads and spangles, arranged in
+fashion similar to the sprays in fig. 112, are very often used.
+Sometimes, instead of this, some small pattern in outline is run all
+over the ground in order to enrich it.
+
+
+INLAID WORK
+
+Inlaid work is in effect similar to the applied, and it is used for the
+same purposes. The difference with this is that both background and
+pattern are cut out and fitted into each other, instead of only one of
+them being cut out and laid on an entire ground. The method of work is
+economical, for there need be very little waste of material. What is
+left from cutting out the pattern and background for one piece can be
+used as ground and pattern for another and possibly companion piece.
+There is in Perugia a church which possesses a complete set of draperies
+of this description, that were made at a good period for this work,
+early XVIth century, and evidently were designed for the position they
+occupy. On festivals, the piers, pulpit, and parts of the wall are hung
+with these rose and gold-coloured hangings of inlaid work. The design is
+a conventional scroll-work pattern, and the various hangings have
+alternately the rose ground with gold pattern, and gold ground with rose
+pattern, the whole forming a rich and harmonious interchange of colour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
+
+Fig. 96 is an example of inlaid work. It is a XVth century tabard said
+to have belonged to Charles the Bold, and now in the Musee Historique at
+Berne. The pattern, it will be noticed, is planned on the counterchange
+principle, which is particularly well suited for this method of work.
+
+A very ancient piece of the same kind of inlaid work is the funeral tent
+of Queen Isi-em-Keb, dated about 980 B.C., which is in the Boulak
+Museum, Cairo. It is composed of thousands of pieces of gazelle hide
+dyed in various colours and stitched together so as to form a wonderful
+design.[4]
+
+To carry out the work--Stitch in a frame some holland to use as a
+background; this may be only temporary, being removed when the work is
+completed, or it may be left for additional strength. The materials for
+both background and pattern must first be carefully cut out. It is a
+good plan, where possible, to cut the two together so as to ensure exact
+similarity, for they have to fit together afterwards like the parts of a
+puzzle. The cut edges cannot be allowed to fray, so if there is any
+danger of this, precautions must be taken to prevent it, though the
+better way is to choose in the first place more suitable material.
+Leather is a particularly good example of one. Any pasting or backing
+which might be used for prevention of fraying would prevent also that
+possibility of exposing both sides of the work, which in inlay is
+sometimes a valuable quality; also, the stiffening which unavoidably
+results from pasting is rarely an improvement. When materials of
+different thicknesses are used together, the thinner one can be lined
+with fine holland so as to make it nearer equal in strength. After the
+materials are cut out the next process is to lay them in position on the
+prepared holland and tack them to it. Then, with an overcast stitch that
+must not be allowed to pierce the under surface, join all the edges
+together, and cover the stitches with a finishing cord or braid. The
+backing can now be removed if need be.
+
+
+PATCHWORK
+
+Patchwork can hardly attain to a high position amongst the various
+branches of embroidery. The main object of doing patchwork frequently is
+to make good use of valuable scraps of waste material. Unless, however,
+the product shows evidence of well thought out colour and arrangement,
+it cannot come under the heading of embroidery. Interesting results,
+however, of many kinds can be produced from this paint-box of brightly
+coloured scraps of material by ingenious mixing and shaping of them.
+Patchwork infers a rather more mosaic-like design than inlaid work, to
+which it is in some respects similar. The geometrically planned mosaic
+and inlay pavements that are to be seen so commonly in Italy and the
+East suggest great variety of patterns that could be applied to
+patchwork. The illustration at fig. 97 is a simple example taken from
+this source. Too often the results are only "alarming," as the Countess
+of Wilton expressively puts it, thinking, probably, of the patterns
+frequently seen upon cushions, patterns more resembling bright-coloured
+bricks set in cornerwise than anything else. They are the most unrestful
+looking things imaginable. The important elements of the work lie in the
+colour, shape, and texture of the pieces used, for upon the right
+selection the result wholly depends. The shapes chosen must be simple
+owing to the necessity of fitting and stitching them together, but there
+is plenty of variety obtainable with simplicity. The design may consist
+of one shape repeated or several. If only one, it is limited to a few
+geometrical figures, such as the square, hexagon, or shell shape; if
+more than one, there can be greater variety of pattern. Fig. 98 is an
+example in which four shapes are made use of, a large and small circle,
+an octagon, and an S-like twist. Four of these twists together make the
+figure that interlaces over the surface. Embroidery stitching can be
+added to patchwork; for instance, this example might have a neat border
+pattern worked on all the S-shapes, as suggested in the diagram, which
+would probably considerably increase its interest. Fig. 99 shows flowers
+springing from the base of the shell-form in use upon it. The embroidery
+could be simply carried out in one colour, or if a more gorgeous result
+were required, variety could be introduced in this way as well as in the
+ground, and a marvellous combination of intricate colour could be thus
+produced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
+
+For the work to be made up satisfactorily it is necessary that the
+shapes be accurately cut out. To ensure this, a metal plate is cut and
+all the shapes are taken from it; sometimes, in lieu of this, a pattern
+is cut out in stiff cardboard. Lay this pattern-shape on the wrong side
+of the material and pencil it round, then carefully cut out the stuff,
+leaving about a quarter of an inch for turning in. Next lay the
+pattern-shape upon a piece of stiff paper or thin card-board and again
+trace off the shape, this time cutting it out exactly to the pattern,
+tack the material to the paper, and stitch down the raw edges at the
+back. Lay the prepared patches on a table and put them in place by
+referring to the design, and then commence sewing the edges together
+with an overcast stitch on the wrong side. When all are sewn, remove the
+papers and flatten the seams with an iron. Any braid or stitch that may
+be required to mask the join is next put on; this may be made ornamental
+by interlacing knots at the corners, or by any other device that happens
+to suit the work. The last thing to be done is to put a neat lining upon
+the back to cover and protect the numerous raw edges.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] For further information see "The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen,"
+by Villiers Stuart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_)
+
+   Quilting--Raised Work--Darning--Open Fillings--Darned Netting.
+
+
+Quilting is a method of working by which three materials are fixed
+together by more or less all-over stitching. It probably developed
+through the necessity of keeping the three layers in place. For
+practical purposes only, the sewing machine does the work excellently,
+but by making the stitching follow out some prearranged design, it is
+raised to the level of art. Plate III. is an interesting example showing
+what can be done in the way of design with the stitching over the
+surface. Embroidery may be added to the quilting, and this is often an
+improvement. The Eastern nations carry out marvellously intricate
+designs in quilting, and English XVIIIth century work of this kind shows
+Eastern influence strongly. A good example of this is a very interesting
+piece in the Victoria and Albert Museum.[5]
+
+The first aim in quilting was evidently warmth, and the name denotes one
+of the chief uses to which it is put. It is made use of also for
+curtains, infants' caps or gloves (see fig. 100), all these things
+requiring the three layers for warmth. The materials usually consist of
+a surface one, which can be silk, fine linen or anything else; an
+interlining of some softer material having a certain amount of spring in
+it, such as flannel, cotton wadding, or wool; and for the third, an
+underneath lining of some kind. A cord is sometimes inserted instead of
+the inner layer of stuff, the lines of stitching running along either
+side to keep it in place. Occasionally there are only the top and the
+under layer, with no intervening material. The stitch usually employed
+is a running, back, or chain stitch, and it can be of the colour of
+the surface, or a contrast to it. Gold silk is often seen upon a white
+linen ground. The chief interest in the work lies in the choice of
+pattern, such things as colour, variety of stitching, interest in
+material, are not made much of. In planning the pattern, use is made of
+the knowledge that the closely stitched parts will lie more flatly, so
+it frequently happens that the ground has a small diaper running over
+it, and the pattern part, being less worked upon, perhaps only outlined,
+stands out more and forms an effective contrast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
+
+
+RAISED WORK
+
+In the XIVth century raised work was commonly done, but few examples are
+known of date earlier than this. The raised effect is obtained by an
+interposed layer of padding, which is a good method of getting a certain
+kind of effect. It is perhaps wise to err on the side of too little
+rather than too much relief. An example of too much and also of a wrong
+kind is the English stump work that was popular in the XVIIth century,
+when figures were stuffed like dolls, the clothes made separately and
+attached, even to the shoes and stockings. Germain de St. Aubin, writing
+in 1769, describes with much admiration a kind of _broderie en ronde
+bosse_, apparently much the same thing and in equally doubtful taste,
+though the skill required to carry it out must have been considerable.
+
+The work, usually done in a frame, must be well carried out technically;
+the padding should be quite perfect in the form required before the
+final surface layer is worked over it, for this one will not make any
+deficiency right, but will only serve to show it up the more. Another
+point to be careful about is to make the padding stop well within the
+traced line of the pattern, otherwise the finished design will turn out
+much larger than was originally intended. The outline is sometimes
+worked round at the commencement, whereby its correctness is ensured.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
+
+Many different materials are brought into use for padding purposes. One
+of the simplest and most durable is a running of thread as illustrated
+in fig. 101. The thread can be arranged so as to be thicker in the
+centre than at the edges by laying some extra stitches over that part.
+If a quite flat padding is required, the shape, cut out in cloth, felt,
+or parchment, is attached by stitches to the material as shown in fig.
+102; the surface stitching would be taken across it. Cardboard,
+sometimes pasted on to the ground, is used for this purpose, but it is
+unsatisfactory in several ways; for instance, cardboard letters are
+procurable for embroidering initials upon linen, but they are not at all
+practical for anything that goes through the wash; moreover, the letters
+are sometimes of bad design. Cotton wool is used as a stuffing, its
+surface being usually covered over with muslin, but this again would
+not stand much wear of any kind, and so could only be used under certain
+conditions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
+
+Another good method is to couch down a hank of threads of fine cotton or
+perhaps wool as illustrated in fig. 103. For raised lines there is a
+special kind of string procurable that can be couched to the ground
+material at the required places. The padding, whatever it may be
+composed of, should be as nearly as possible of the same colour as the
+surface layer, in view of any after wear and tear misplacing the
+threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
+
+The top layer of underlay must lie in direction contrary to the surface
+embroidery stitching, which is very often some form of satin stitch
+taken from side to side over the padding. Instead of going through the
+material it can be fixed on each side with a couching stitch, as in
+fig. 104. A stronger way than these would be that shown in fig. 129.
+Buttonhole is a good stitch for working over a padding; it would be
+worked solidly in the manner described and illustrated on page 117, but
+taken, as there shown, over a padding instead of over a flat surface.
+
+
+DARNING
+
+There is a most practical sound about darning; it can, however, be made
+good use of in embroidery as well as in plain needlework. There are two
+rather different kinds in use; in both the stitch is a running one and
+done in much the same way that a thin place would be darned in mending.
+
+One kind of darning is rather popular at the present moment, and
+examples of it may be familiar; it is a large, bold kind of work, often
+carried out with a coarse twisted silk. Upon the background, the lines
+of stitching usually run straight across or up and down, in the pattern,
+they radiate according to the shape of the form to be filled. The entire
+material is covered one way or another by the running stitches, and
+just one thread of the ground fabric is picked up where necessary at
+irregular intervals; a loosely woven linen is often chosen for working
+upon, one in which it is easy to pick up the single thread. Gradation of
+colour can easily be introduced; the design chosen is most frequently
+some kind of conventional flower and leafy scroll. This method of
+embroidery is seen to best advantage when used upon large surfaces.
+
+The second kind is called pattern darning; in it the stitches are picked
+up in some regular order, so that they form various geometrical patterns
+over the surface. It is worked by counting the threads of the fine linen
+ground and picking up a single thread or more in some regular sequence.
+The threads are run in parallel lines close together, either
+horizontally or vertically, so as to take advantage of the web of the
+fabric. The work is particularly pretty and not difficult, requiring
+only patience and good eyesight. Fig. 105 gives some simple examples of
+the work--The first is a chevron pattern, formed by picking up one
+thread and leaving about five each time; each succeeding row moves a
+step forward or backward as required to carry out the pattern. In the
+second example the darning is taken two ways of the material; in the
+centre, where it meets and crosses, it entirely covers the ground. A
+different colour might be used for each direction, which would look very
+well at the crossing in the centre. The four corners are filled up with
+a chequer darn; this each time picks up as much material as it leaves.
+The third example shows the darning stitch forming a diamond pattern.
+Samplers, dated early XIXth century, may be seen entirely filled with
+these pattern darns; they are covered with most intricate and beautiful
+sample squares showing various patterns in darning, and were possibly
+done in order to learn how to repair damask table linen. In a collection
+of early Egyptian work in the Victoria and Albert Museum, there is some
+pattern darning, dated VIth to IXth century, A.D., which proves it to be
+a very early method of embroidering.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.]
+
+This pattern darning, however, is so pretty that it is often possible to
+make use of it in embroidery work for all kinds of purposes. It makes a
+very good background if there is sufficient space to show the pattern,
+if there is not, the irregular darning might be used instead, for it
+would in that case be just as good and much quicker to work. To
+pattern-darn the ground with the ornament upon it left in the plain
+material, perhaps not worked upon at all, is a very effective method of
+carrying out a design, see fig. 106 for example. Again it might very
+well be used for the conventional carrying out of draperies in the same
+way as in _point couche rentre ou retire_.[6] The draperies on the
+figure in the frontispiece could easily be carried out with silk thread
+in the darning stitch, in fact this method of decoration more closely
+resembles the early couching than any other; it is not quite as
+satisfactory because the single threads of the background that are
+picked up prevent the ground showing nothing but silk. Bands of this
+work may be seen ornamenting needle books or work cases; it shows to
+best advantage when worked finely with floss or filosel silk, the coarse
+twisted silks are too thick for the purpose.
+
+
+OPEN WORK FILLINGS
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+Patterns can be carried out in line, they can be worked quite solidly,
+and there is a method that lies between these two known as open filling.
+The open and solid fillings are often used together in the same piece of
+work; examples of this can be seen on the XVIIth century wool-work
+curtains, the large scrolling leaves are sometimes partly worked openly
+and a portion, possibly reflexed, filled in with solid stitches in
+gradating colour; see for an example Plate VIII. This has a very good
+effect, it prevents the work looking too heavy, shows up the form more
+clearly, and allows of more variety in the stitching. With open fillings
+the outline surrounding them must always be some firm decided line, such
+as is made by a band of satin or long and short stitch, or, in the case
+of larger forms, by several rows of different line stitches worked
+closely together, one inside the other, most likely in different shades
+of colour. A filling of open work can be carried out in a variety of
+ways; it may be a decorated trellis, a regular dotting of some kind, or
+some geometrical pattern in outline, or some light stitch such as an
+open buttonhole (see fig. 107), which would be treated each as a
+diapering over the form to be filled. It does not much matter what the
+filling is as long as it is dispersed pretty regularly over the space,
+giving the effect at a little distance of a light pervading tone, and
+when examined closely exhibiting an interesting small pattern. The open
+filling method can be used entirely throughout a design with very pretty
+effect; an example of this may be seen on an embroidered coverlet and
+pillow case in the Victoria and Albert Museum.[7] The pattern, composed
+of vine leaves and grapes, is carried out in dark brown silk on a linen
+ground, the leaves being all outlined with satin stitch. There is
+wonderful variety in the patterns, no two alike, which form the open
+fillings of the leaves; this makes them most interesting to examine, and
+is evidence of enthusiasm in their designing. Fig. 108, a leaf taken
+from this specimen, shows one method of filling a form with open
+work.[8] Fig. 109 shows a collection of patterns taken from the same
+piece of embroidery. It will be observed that small stitches of the same
+length compose the pattern, which can be designed upon squared paper and
+easily copied on to the linen ground by always picking up the same
+number of threads. To look well these little forms must be accurately
+worked, and they or similar kinds can be used upon flowers, leaves,
+beasts, draperies, or anything else quite indiscriminately. Fig. 110,
+from a cap in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a drawing showing the
+same kind of open filling in use upon a bird.[9]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
+
+A quicker way of carrying out these geometrical fillings is by using
+such forms as a lattice and throwing the lines from side to side
+across the shape to be filled, fixing them down, where they cross each
+other, with couching stitches; the interstices left between the threads
+can be filled in with little stars, crosses, or dots (see fig. 111).
+Buttonhole stitch, if made use of as an open filling, would be taken in
+lines straight across a form, the stitches being worked possibly two or
+three closely together and then a space, and so on.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
+
+Fig. 112 suggests another method of lightly filling a leaf with a
+conventional veining and dotting. There is no limit to the variety which
+can be obtained in this method of working.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
+
+Open fillings are effective for use upon any work that is intended to be
+seen with a light at the back; they make very decorative the various
+forms they fill, in such things as muslin window blinds, curtains, fire
+screens, whether hand screens or the larger type. For articles of this
+kind the patterns should be rather more solid and less lined in
+character; fig. 113, taken from a window blind exhibited in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum, exemplifies what is meant; most of the patterns
+illustrated in fig. 100 could be treated in a more solid manner if
+necessary, and would look equally well that way. When working upon
+transparent grounds special care must be taken with the reverse side as
+well as with the surface, for the work to be practically alike upon both
+sides; there must be no threads running from one form to another nor any
+visible fastening off of ends.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
+
+
+DARNED NETTING
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
+
+Darned netting, or _lacis_, as it is sometimes called, might almost come
+under the heading of either lace or embroidery. It is used effectively
+with other kinds of white linen work, bands or squares of it being let
+into the linen; the contrast of the solid with the more open work gives
+a pretty effect. Fig. 114 is an example of this work. The darning is
+done on a plain netted ground which can be prepared by the worker if
+acquainted with netting, if not, the squares can be obtained ready for
+working upon. The pattern must be designed upon squared paper as for
+cross stitch work, then it is simply a question of following out the
+pattern upon the square net ground. Every square of the patterned part
+must be crossed in each direction by two lines of darning, which should
+about fill it up. The various lines are run in and out as continuously
+as possible, so as to avoid unnecessary fastening off or passing from
+one part to another. When a fresh thread is required, join it with a
+knot to the end of the last one (see figs. 165 and 166), and darn the
+ends in neatly with the other threads. These knots are often used in
+embroidery, for they are both strong and small. Detached stitches and
+parts must be worked by themselves; the thread should not be carried
+from one to the other. The work must be done in a frame and carried out
+with a blunt-pointed needle. The same thread is used for the netted
+ground and for the darned pattern. A method of work that the French call
+_dessein reserve_ is, in result, rather similar to this, but it is
+worked in just the reverse way. The pattern, whatever it may be, is
+left in the plain linen, and the background has certain threads in each
+direction withdrawn at regular intervals, whereby the effect of the
+squared net ground is obtained.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] No. 1564, 1902.
+
+[6] For description of this method, see page 238.
+
+[7] A piece belonging to Lord Falkland.
+
+[8] Fig. 18 is a drawing from the border of the same example.
+
+[9] No. 308, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+METHODS OF WORK--(_continued_)
+
+  Drawn Thread Work--Hem Stitching--Simple Border Patterns--Darned
+  Thread Patterns--Corners--Cut or Open Work--Various Methods of
+  Refilling the Open Spaces.
+
+
+This method of work is the acknowledged link between embroidery and
+lace, and was possibly the origin of the latter. Drawn work is that in
+which the threads of either the warp or the weft of the material are
+withdrawn and those remaining worked into a pattern, by either
+clustering together or working over them in some fashion. The cut or
+open work, as it is sometimes called, is that in which both warp and
+weft are in places cut away, and the open spaces thus formed are partly
+refilled with a device of one kind or another.
+
+The work is most often carried out in white thread on white linen, but
+coloured threads may occasionally be introduced with advantage. It is a
+durable method of work, and particularly suitable for the decoration of
+various house-linens, things that must undergo daily wear and wash; its
+rather unobtrusive character too makes it the more suitable for this
+purpose. The work is used in conjunction with other kinds of embroidery,
+perhaps making a neat finish to an edge, or lightening what would
+otherwise be too heavy in appearance.
+
+Drawn thread and cut work can be carried out with such detail and
+fineness as to really become most delicate lace. In this chapter,
+however, it is intended to be treated rather as an adjunct to other
+embroidery, therefore only elementary work will be discussed. More
+attention might with advantage be paid to the design of this kind of
+work, for more might be done with it than sometimes is. For one thing,
+there is very little variety in the patterns, and the result often seems
+a spidery mass of incomprehensible threads with no very perceivable
+plan; perhaps if more attention were paid to the proportion and massing
+of the solid and open parts, a better result might be attained. Neatness
+and simplicity are good qualities in the pattern, the method of work not
+being suited to the expression of the various larger and bolder types of
+design.
+
+
+DRAWN THREAD WORK
+
+In drawn work the question is how to treat the remaining warp threads
+after the weft has been withdrawn. They can be clustered in bunches in
+different ways with ornamental stitches added, or be entirely covered
+over with darning or overcast stitches in such a way as to form a
+pattern.
+
+The beginning of most drawn thread work is hem stitching, the two edges
+marking the limit of the withdrawn threads have usually to be hem
+stitched before any pattern can be carried out. One method of doing this
+is in progress in fig. 115. In order to work it, draw out three or four
+threads of the warp and tack the hem down to the top edge of the line
+thus made. The diagram explains the remainder of the working.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
+
+Fig. 116 shows in the first example clusters of four threads drawn
+together at each edge by hem stitching in such a way as to form a
+ladder-like pattern. This and the one below are the ornamentations of a
+plain hem that are most commonly seen. The variation in pattern in the
+lower one is obtained by drawing together on the lower edge two threads
+from two consecutive bunches in the upper row instead of just repeating
+over again the same divisioning as before. These two examples are drawn
+to show the reverse, not the working side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.]
+
+Another way of disposing of the undrawn threads is to cover them with a
+kind of darning stitch, as illustrated in fig. 117. This kind of work is
+more solid than the other, and is for that reason very durable. This
+example is commenced at the right-hand corner, where the threads are
+drawn loosely in order to explain the working. The needle, which should
+have a blunt point, takes the thread to and fro alternately over and
+under two clusters of warp thread, drawing them together a little
+during the process; half-way down, the needle leaves the first set of
+threads and continues working with the second and a new set (see needle
+in diagram). When this is worked down to the base the needle takes the
+thread invisibly up the centre of the worked part to the point where it
+is required for the continuation of the pattern. The working of this
+simple pattern explains the principle upon which all kinds of pretty and
+more complicated designs can be carried out. The darning thread may be
+coloured; in a more intricate design two or three different colours
+might be introduced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.]
+
+Fig. 118 shows another pattern in the same kind of work. The darning
+stitch begins by working to and fro over and under four clusters of warp
+threads, part way down it continues over the two central ones only,
+leaving the outside clusters alone for the present. It finishes up, as
+at the beginning, to and fro over the four. The threads that were left
+are next covered with an overcast stitch, the adjoining ones in each
+case are caught together in the centre in order to form the X shape that
+recurs along the pattern. This darning kind of work is very closely
+allied to weaving, and especially the kind often seen in Coptic work, in
+which bands of the woof threads are purposely omitted in places, whilst
+the fabric is being made, in order that a pattern may be hand-woven in
+afterwards to take their place. Many beautiful examples of this work are
+on view in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.]
+
+In working a drawn thread border round a square shape, at each corner
+there comes an open space that requires a filling. Fig. 119 shows two
+wheels that are commonly used to ornament such places. The square in the
+first one has a preliminary groundwork of threads thrown across from
+corner to corner and from side to side, all meeting and crossing in the
+centre. The working thread is brought through at this point and the
+wheel commenced by taking a kind of back stitch over a bar and bringing
+the needle up beyond the next bar. It then takes the thread a step back
+and over the same bar and brings it up beyond the next; this goes on
+until the circle is of sufficient size, the stitches growing a little
+longer in each succeeding row. In the diagram the thread is loosened at
+the end to explain the working. The lower example is a commonly used
+wheel, which is made by the thread running round alternately over and
+under a bar until the wheel is completed. It should be as solid as the
+upper one, but is purposely left loose in the diagram. Either of the
+wheels could have a line of buttonhole stitching worked round the edge
+as a finish. This figure shows also the two usual ways of making firm
+the raw edges in cut work--the square shape is bound by an overcast
+stitch, and the round one by buttonholing.
+
+
+CUT OR OPEN WORK
+
+Cut work can be most interesting both to look at and to carry out. In
+the XVIIth century Italy was famous for its _punto tagliato_ or cut
+work. John Taylor mentions "rare Italian cutworke" in "The Praise of
+the Needle." This poem may perhaps be of interest to some; it was
+prefixed to a book of embroidery patterns of cut work named "The
+Needle's Excellency." It ran through twelve editions, the first of which
+was printed in 1621, and sold at "the signe of the Marigold in Paules
+Churchyard." Copies may be seen in the British Museum Library; in the
+Bodleian, Oxford, in the Ryland's Library, Manchester, and occasionally
+elsewhere. Fig. 120 shows a pattern taken from this book.
+
+There are several distinct varieties of cut work, for instance, that
+known as renaissance embroidery, which is usually composed of an
+arabesque design from which the background is cut away, leaving the
+pattern in the linen; the cut edges are outlined and protected by an
+overcast stitch. The pattern has to be specially planned with the idea
+of holding strongly together, but, if necessary, buttonholed bars can be
+added to form strengthening ties in any weak part.
+
+Another kind of cut work is that known as _broderie anglaise_, and
+sometimes as Madeira work, over which our grandmothers spent much time,
+perhaps without adequate result. The pattern is followed out by round
+holes pierced in the linen with a stiletto and then overcast round the
+edges. At the present day the work is done mostly by machinery, though
+hand work also is procurable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.]
+
+Perhaps the prettiest kind of cut work is that in which various-shaped
+spaces are cut out of the linen, and these filled in, in part, with
+some design built up with stitches. There are various methods of
+refilling the spaces cut out, one of the simplest is a diapering formed
+by some lace stitch, such as an open buttonhole. As a rule, the
+decoration of the open spaces is based upon bars of thread that are
+either composed of warp or woof threads left, instead of being cut away,
+or else upon fresh threads thrown across in various directions. The
+pattern is planned on and about these strengthening ties, and where
+necessary receiving support from them. An ingenious worker will soon
+devise ways of refilling the spaces by all kinds of interesting
+patterns, which can be geometrical or floral, or any kinds of objects
+that can be attractively represented in conventional fashion, such as
+figures, birds, insects, ships in full sail, or anything else. It must,
+however, be remembered that the various forms filling the spaces are for
+use in the way of strength as well as for ornament, and that the work is
+often put upon objects that have to endure daily wear.
+
+Open work is frequently mixed with other, and especially with white
+embroidery, and such things as counterpanes may be seen arranged with a
+chequering of alternate squares of embroidered linen and open work.
+
+Fig. 121 shows in progress a simple method of filling a space, mainly
+making use of the strengthening threads that have been left at regular
+intervals over the cut part. The threads are covered with an overcast
+stitch, and alternate squares of those that recur over the space are
+decorated with a cross. This is made by the working thread, after
+reaching the right point at the centre of an overcast line, being thrown
+across the space and then twisted back over itself to the
+starting-point, where it is in the right position for continuing the
+overcast line. The crosses being put in at the same time as the
+overcasting of the bars renders some forethought necessary to get each
+in at just the right time and place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
+
+Another kind of filling can be seen in progress in fig. 122. The
+stitches used in it are overcast and buttonhole. With the help of this
+last-mentioned stitch patterns of all kinds can be carried out, for each
+succeeding row of the stitch can be worked into the heading of the last
+row, and in this way it is possible to build up any required shape. This
+figure is a working diagram of a piece of cut work of which the
+completed square with its surrounding decoration can be seen in fig. 34.
+After overcasting the raw edges a diagonal thread is thrown across (E D
+on plan), upon which the pattern shall be built up; the thread is taken
+once to and fro and then twisted back again for a third crossing.
+Commence by overcasting the threads from point D, and upon reaching the
+part where the pattern is widened out, change the stitch to an open
+buttonholing (as shown on line B). It is worked openly in this way in
+order to leave space for another row of the same kind of stitching to be
+fitted in from the opposite side, which is the next thing to be done.
+Then an outer row of buttonhole stitch is worked on each side of the
+central bar and into the heading of the first row of stitching; this is
+shown in progress where the needle is at work. The entire pattern is
+carried out in this way, first laying down foundation threads in the
+necessary places and then covering them up with either overcasting or
+buttonhole stitch as required. It is easily possible to carry out
+flowers and all kinds of other things sufficiently well to make them
+pleasantly recognisable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+EMBROIDERY WITH GOLD AND SILVER THREADS
+
+  Introduction--Materials--Precautions for the Prevention of
+  Tarnish--Ancient Method of Couching--Its various Good
+  Points--Description of Working Diagram--Working a Raised
+  Bar--Examples of Patterns Employed in Old Work--Illustrations upon
+  Draped Figures--Usual Method of Couching--Couching Patterns--Outline
+  Work--Raised Work--The Use of Purls, Bullions, &c.
+
+
+Gold and silver threads have always played an important part in
+embroidered work, and are a most valuable addition to the worker's stock
+of materials, for they give a splendour and richness that is not
+obtainable in any other way. They have been utilised from the earliest
+times in both embroidery and weaving; in scripture and other ancient
+historical writings there is abundant proof of this fact.
+
+The earliest form of gold thread in use was the pure metal beaten into
+thin plates and then cut into long narrow strips; that it was sometimes
+rounded into wire form is very probable. The first wire-drawing machine
+is said to have been invented by a workman at Nuremberg, but it was not
+until two centuries later that the drawing-mills were introduced into
+England.
+
+Gold thread, similar to that we now use, entwined about a silk one, is
+mentioned in a XIVth century Latin poem; also, it is known that in the
+XIIIth century our English ladies prepared their own gold thread before
+working it in, and it was of the same type as ours, the gold being
+spirally twisted round a thread of silk or flax.[10]
+
+To be a skilled worker with gold thread needs considerable application
+and practice. There is much variety in the work, some branches of it
+being more simple to manipulate than others. It is desirable for all
+workers to understand something of gold work, for it is frequently
+employed in conjunction with other embroidery, as well as alone. Fig.
+123 shows a couched line of gold thread outlining some silk embroidery,
+which gives a pretty jewel-like effect of something precious in a
+setting of gold.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.]
+
+Gold embroidery may be divided roughly into three main classes, outline
+work, solid flat work, and raised work. Outline work is, as far as
+technique is concerned, one of the simplest forms of gold embroidery.
+The pattern is followed round with a gold cord or double thread of
+passing, fixed either visibly or invisibly with a couching stitch; the
+work needs but an interesting design and suitable background to be most
+successful. Fig. 124 illustrates a portion of a design, carried out with
+gold cord upon a velvet ground, which has been further enriched by the
+addition of little applied white flowers. The raised work, and that
+which introduces the use of purls and bullions, is at once more
+complicated, and perhaps hardly as pleasing as the simpler flat work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.]
+
+The method of applying the gold to the material is usually by couching
+of one form or another, for most of the threads are too inflexible to
+be stitched through. The ground, if it shows at all, is usually a rich
+stuff, such as velvet, satin, or silk, in order to be in keeping with
+the valuable thread. If the ground chosen is difficult to work upon, the
+embroidery is carried out upon linen, and the finished work afterwards
+applied to the ground. If both background and pattern are solidly
+embroidered, linen can be used as the permanent ground. It is usual to
+have two layers of material for working upon, for gold threads are heavy
+and require the support of the double ground. There are several
+advantages in this double material, as the old workers knew, for we find
+they commonly used two. The under-layer can be a strong linen, and the
+surface one silk, satin, or a fine linen, as required.
+
+
+MATERIALS
+
+A variety of metal threads are manufactured for embroidery purposes, and
+they are all obtainable in gold, silver, or imitations of these;
+aluminium thread has been made lately, and has the advantage of being
+untarnishable, but its colour and quality do not seem quite
+satisfactory, and it is not popular. The imitation threads are never
+worth the using; they tarnish to a worse colour, and are more difficult
+in manipulation; what goes by the name of real gold, is silver or
+copper, plated with the more valuable metal. The pure gold thread is
+said not to be so practical as this, being too brittle; but somehow or
+other it was more successfully manufactured in the past than nowadays,
+for some gold work six centuries old exhibits beautifully bright
+threads.
+
+The following list comprises the chief threads used in this work:--
+
+_Passing._--This is a bright smooth thread, resembling in appearance a
+gold wire; it consists of a narrow flat strip of gold spirally twisted
+round a silken thread. It can be obtained in different sizes, the finest
+qualities going by the name of tambour. Most passing has to be couched
+on to the material, but it is possible to stitch in the tambour like
+ordinary thread.
+
+_Purl._--This resembles a smooth round hollow tube of metal, very
+pliable and elastic; when pulled lengthways it is found to be
+constructed like a closely coiled spiral spring. It is manufactured in
+lengths of about one yard, and for use it is cut into small sections of
+any required size with scissors or a knife. There are several varieties
+of purl, namely, the smooth, rough, check, and wire check. The smooth
+has a bright polished appearance, which is obtained by a flat gold wire
+being spun spirally round; the rough has a duller and more yellow
+appearance, which is owing to the wire having been rounded; the check is
+bright and sparkling, and consists of the flattened wire spun in a
+different way, so that parts of it catch the light and sparkle; the wire
+check is the same thing, but duller and of a deeper yellow, owing again
+to its being made of the round wire.
+
+_Bullion._--This is the name given to the larger sizes of purl.
+
+_Pearl Purl._--This is manufactured in the same spiral tube-like fashion
+as the other purl, but the gold wire is previously hollowed out in this
+[inverted U] shape, the convex side being the one exposed. This, when
+spun round, has the appearance of a string of tiny gold beads. It is
+frequently used as an outlining thread.
+
+Various gold twists and cords can be obtained; they are composed of
+several threads twisted up in the usual cord fashion, each ply
+consisting of gold spun round a silk thread.
+
+_Plate_ is a flat strip of metal commonly about one-sixteenth of an inch
+wide; it can be obtained in different widths.
+
+_Spangles._--These are small variously shaped pieces of thin metal,
+usually pierced with a hole in the centre for fixing on to the material.
+They are frequently circular in shape, and either flat or slightly
+concave; the latter are the prettier. Many fancy shapes also are
+obtainable, but they are inclined to look tawdry, and suggestive of the
+pantomime.
+
+_Cloth of Gold and Silver._--This is a fabric manufactured of silk, with
+gold or silver thread inwoven in the making. It is not now so much used
+as formerly, when it was in great request for robes of kings and other
+high dignitaries of church or state.
+
+A special make of silk for couching down gold thread is obtainable in
+various colours. It is called horsetail or sewings, and is both fine and
+strong.
+
+Padding for use in raised gold work is usually yellow, and for silver,
+white or grey. Yellow soft cotton, linen thread, or silk, are all used
+for the purpose.
+
+Various precautions can and must be taken to keep the gold thread
+bright, for under unfavourable circumstances it rapidly assumes a bad
+colour; the silver thread is even more liable to tarnish than the gold,
+and it turns a worse colour, going black. There is a special paper
+manufactured to wrap threads in, and the stock supply should be kept in
+a tin or air-tight bottle; this is in order to protect the metal from
+damp, which is most injurious; to do this is a difficult matter in the
+English climate. Linen used for working upon, or as backing, is best
+unbleached, for sometimes the chemicals used in the bleaching process
+have a deleterious effect upon the gold; a piece of gold embroidery
+wrapped up in cotton wool for preservation has been found completely
+spoiled by some chemical in this wool, which proved more disastrous than
+exposure to air would have been. Gas, strong scents, handling
+(especially with hot hands), all have an evil effect, and so should be
+avoided as much as possible. Work even whilst in progress should be kept
+covered as much as is practicable, and should not be allowed to hang
+about; the quicker it is done the better. A piece of finished work can
+be polished up with a leather pad or a brush, similar to a housemaid's
+brush for silver-cleaning purposes; this of course, must be used with
+care.
+
+
+ANCIENT METHOD OF COUCHING
+
+Gold thread can be couched on to the material in two distinct ways, one
+of them in use at the present day, the other one that was commonly
+practised in the XIIIth and XIVth centuries. About the second half of
+the last-named century the earlier method was supplanted by the present
+one. Almost every example of early gold thread work exhibits this
+obsolete and ingenious method of couching. The Syon cope and the Jesse
+cope in the Victoria and Albert Museum may be mentioned as famous
+examples. M. Louis de Farcy[11] draws especial attention to this
+beautiful method of working, to which he gives the name _point couche
+rentre ou retire_, and strongly urges its revival; he points out many
+distinct advantages it has over the method now in use.
+
+The durability is very great, owing to the couching thread being upon
+the reverse side, where it is protected from wear and tear, and being
+out of sight can be made strong and durable. If a thread is accidentally
+broken it does not necessarily give way along an entire line, as may
+easily happen in the present method. A proof of this point can be seen
+upon the beautiful Ascoli cope lately in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+about which there has been so much discussion of late as to in what
+country it originated, and who was the rightful owner. The early
+couching worked entirely over the background of the cope is in a state
+of perfect preservation; portions of the gold thread drapery have here
+and there been couched by the other method, the tying down threads have,
+in those parts, mostly disappeared, and the gold hangs loose and ragged
+upon the surface.
+
+By the way in which it is worked, there results a particularly pleasing
+and even surface, agreeably varied by play of light and shade. Another
+advantage of the ancient method is that the completed work is very
+flexible; this point will appeal to those who have experienced the
+extreme stiffness of a large surface of ordinarily couched metal
+threads. Flexibility is an invaluable quality for any work destined,
+like copes and curtains, to hang in folds.
+
+Representations of draperies upon figures are well expressed, for by the
+way in which they are worked there comes an indentation along the lines
+marking the folds; this emphasises them rather happily, and also breaks
+up the surface in a satisfactory manner.
+
+Fig. 125 is a diagram that will aid in explaining the working, it gives
+both the front and the reverse side. This has been found to be the
+simplest and the most practical method of obtaining a result similar to
+the early examples; there is, however, no means other than examination
+of result whereby to get at this obsolete method. To all appearance
+there is upon the surface a kind of satin stitch worked in gold passing,
+the stitches carrying out some geometrical pattern, such as a chevron or
+lattice; but at the back a linen thread is seen running to and fro in
+close parallel lines in the same direction as the surface thread, and at
+regular intervals encircled by the gold passing, just as if this was
+intended to couch down the linen thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Front. Back.]
+
+The ingenuity and satisfactoriness of the method must be admitted by all
+who give it a trial, and it is interesting to conjecture how it may have
+arisen. Possibly weaving suggested it to the embroiderers, for, take
+away the intervening material, and it is not unlike woven work, and
+these two arts would very likely be the accomplishment of the same
+person. Perhaps the commonly used method of taking a coarse thread
+through to the back (see fig. 167) suggested it, for this is briefly the
+whole process.
+
+In order to try the couching, a two-fold ground material must be firmly
+stretched in an embroidery frame, a strong linen underneath and a
+thinner closely woven one upon the upper side. Some fine gold passing
+and some strong linen thread, well waxed, are required to work with,
+also an embroidery needle with long eye and sharp point, the size, which
+is important, depending upon the threads in use; the needle has to
+pierce the two-fold ground material, making a hole only just large
+enough for the passage of a double gold thread.
+
+If the linen has a regular even thread the drawn pattern shown in the
+diagram can be worked by counting the threads of the ground fabric, but
+if this is difficult or impossible, as in the case say of a twilled
+surface, a careful tracing must be made upon the linen; a beginner may
+find this the easier way in any case.
+
+The end of the gold thread, which by now, in readiness for working,
+will be wound upon the bobbin or spindle, must be passed through to the
+back at the starting-point, the top left-hand corner in the diagram. The
+linen thread secures it at the back and then comes through to the front
+upon the traced line exactly beneath (see arrow on plan). It now
+encircles the gold thread which the left hand draws out rather tautly,
+and then returns by the same hole to the back, pulling the metal thread
+through with it. There is knack in taking the gold thread only just
+through and leaving the completed stitch straight and flat upon the
+surface. The process is now repeated, the linen thread coming through to
+the front again upon the next traced line, and so on. When the base of
+the pattern is reached the gold thread is taken through once upon that
+line, and then commences a like journey upwards.
+
+This practically explains the couching; variety is obtained by change of
+pattern, but the method of carrying it out is always the same. Figs.
+126, 127, and 128 show three patterns taken from old examples of this
+couching.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.]
+
+The difficulties in technique are easily overcome; an important aid in
+this matter is the use of materials exactly right; this means needles
+and threads of the correct size, the ground composed of suitable
+fabrics, and properly strained in a frame. The aim in the working is to
+get each stitch perfectly flat and straight in its correct place in
+spite of the obstinacy of the metal thread; to avoid making the
+perforation larger than necessary, for this makes the work clumsy; to
+make each succeeding line lie closely beside the last one, for the
+surface must be of solid gold, and if the ground showed through in
+places it would impoverish the effect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.]
+
+The direction of the couched thread is usually either vertical or
+horizontal, and it may be both of these in the same piece of work. The
+reason of this may be because it is worked by counting the threads of
+the fabric, or because the pattern is always treated as a diaper and
+placed upon the surface without regard to contour. The exception to this
+rule of direction is when the couching is taken along a stem or the
+narrow hem of a robe to form the border, or along a girdle, it then
+follows the direction of the band, this being evidently the most
+straightforward and satisfactory method to use for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129. Front. Back.]
+
+The _point couche rentre ou retire_ is an excellent method to use for
+working a raised bar. Fig. 129 shows the front and reverse sides of a
+bar worked by it. The gold thread comes cleanly through from the back of
+the material instead of being clumsily doubled upon the surface, and the
+durability is evidently great. The linen thread, it will be seen, runs
+to and fro at the back, at each turn securing the gold thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
+
+In fig. 130 this couching is to be seen in use upon drapery. It is taken
+entirely over the exterior surface of the cloak, and upon the crown,
+sceptre, and model of the church. The lines expressing the folds of
+drapery are in this case shown by the couching at these places being
+taken in a different direction. Fine gold passing is used for the
+couched thread, much finer than can possibly be shown in the drawing,
+and the pattern chosen for the couching down is a chevron. The other
+parts of the work are done with silk thread in a fine chain or split
+stitch. The play of light upon the varied surface of the golden cloak is
+very beautiful; the drawing of the figure is perhaps primitive, and,
+regarded from the draughtsman's point of view, somewhat ludicrous; it is
+however sufficiently good to express all that its author intended, and
+there is something very human in this dignified little king who would
+not have you forget that he founded a church. The king who is
+personified here is Edward the Confessor, so the church is Westminster
+Abbey, of which he was the founder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
+
+The Madonna and child forming the frontispiece of the work is another
+example of this couching. The method of expressing the folds of drapery
+is slightly different from that employed upon the king's robes. All
+drapery carried out in this stitch is worked in somewhat the same
+fashion, that is, the couching running to and fro between the lines
+marks each fold as roughly shown at fig. 131. This method leaves an
+indented line to express the drapery, which is a more satisfactory way
+than a simple line of dark colour worked over the gold, as in more
+modern work. The indented line is often further emphasised by a line of
+dark silk stitched along it, which is done in this case. The figures
+are taken from the Jesse cope in the Victoria and Albert Museum;[12]
+this vestment, with its red silk background and its finely coloured and
+drawn ancestors of Christ posed amongst encircling vine branches, is a
+most beautiful, though sadly mutilated, example of XIIIth century design
+and workmanship.
+
+
+MODERN METHOD OF COUCHING
+
+In the usual form of couching the gold thread is attached to the
+material by fine strong silk. The thread is fastened down as a rule
+two-fold, sometimes even three-fold; this method is both quicker and
+more effective than couching each thread separately. As the couching
+thread is necessarily in evidence, decorative use is often made of it as
+well as practical; the stitches, for instance, may be planned so as to
+carry out some pattern (see fig. 132) instead of being put down at
+random. There is no limit to the variety of the patterns that can be
+devised in this way.
+
+Decorative use can be made of the colour of the couching thread; a hot
+colour warms the tone of the gold and a cool one does the reverse; and
+the more contrasting the colour the more it is in evidence.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.]
+
+The gold thread may be couched solidly in straight lines, as the above
+figure shows, or it may be arranged in wavy lines either close or open,
+as in fig. 133. The thread is waved by bending it round the pointed end
+of a piercer just before fixing down. This waving line is particularly
+suitable for the gold thread, since the slight change in direction
+allows the light to play upon the metal very prettily. For this reason
+gold is often couched solidly in circular or shell form over a ground.
+In gold embroidery, therefore, the direction of the thread is a
+specially important matter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+At the end of a line a technical difficulty sometimes arises in the
+turning of the thread, which is apt to be clumsy. This difficulty is
+overcome in various ways; the most usual is to return the doubled thread
+as neatly as possible and continue the next line; another is to cut the
+thread sharp off, secure it close to the end with a double stitch, and
+recommence in like fashion; the thread can sometimes be passed through
+to the back and brought up in position for working the next line. The
+fine point of a leaf may present difficulties in the same way; sometimes
+one of the two threads is temporarily let slip and the point completed
+with the single one, the left thread being picked up upon the return
+(see fig. 134). For such occasions as this it is more practical to wind
+the two threads of passing upon separate bobbins, and bring them
+together at the working. Another way of overcoming the point difficulty
+is shown at fig. 135.
+
+
+RAISED WORK
+
+The couched gold threads may be raised in parts by means of some kind of
+padding interposed between it and the ground. They are very effective so
+treated, since the raised metal catches and reflects the light in a
+pleasing manner. This raising of the thread, however, has been carried
+to such extremes as to resemble goldsmith's work rather than embroidery,
+and it is then hardly in good taste.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
+
+A simple method of raising the gold is to lay down lines of string at
+stated intervals over the ground. The well-known form called basket
+stitch is done in this way; fig. 136 illustrates this stitch, a part of
+the square is left unworked in order to expose the under-layer of
+string. To carry out the diagram--First couch down the lines of string
+at regular intervals over the surface, then commence laying on the gold
+by carrying a doubled thread of passing over two bars of string, and
+there fixing it down to the material, then over two more and fixing it
+down again, and so on to the end of the line. This is exactly repeated
+for a second line of passing, then, for the next two lines, commence by
+carrying the passing for the first stitch over one bar only, and for the
+remainder of the line over the two as before. This process repeated
+makes the wicker-like pattern so frequently seen in gold work. It can be
+used as a filling or as a border. It is evident that with the same
+arrangement of strings many other patterns could be carried out by
+varying the points of couching down.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.]
+
+Another way in which string is used for padding the gold is illustrated
+in fig. 137. The pattern, which in the first part is two diamond shapes
+and a border line, is laid down in string. The doubled gold thread is
+then taken horizontally to and fro in close parallel lines over the part
+to be worked, and fixed by couching stitches at necessary intervals;
+wherever else these stitches may be put, one must always be placed upon
+each side of a raised line to make it sharp and clear. Other kinds of
+padding are used in this method of work; for instance, a lozenge shape
+may be stuffed with layers of soft cotton, as shown in the second part
+of this same diagram. Sometimes most complicated patterns are laid down
+in string and covered with gold thread in this way, _e.g._:--fig. 138
+shows an interlacing pattern taken from the border of an orphrey upon a
+XVth century chasuble.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.]
+
+
+THE USE OF FANCY GOLD THREADS
+
+A cursory glance must be given to the use of purls and other fancy
+threads, but these are mostly used nowadays for badges on uniforms, or
+for masonic purposes, and are carried out by the trade. These threads,
+when tarnished, are very difficult to clean, they easily turn a bad
+colour and catch the dust, and for real embroidery purposes are not as
+satisfactory as the plainer threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.]
+
+Purl and bullion must be cut very accurately into pieces of the required
+size, and attached to the material as a bead would be. The metal must be
+as little as possible touched with the fingers; the cut pieces can be
+placed upon a tray lined with some soft springy substance, such as felt,
+in order to be easily picked up with the point of the needle, and they
+can be adjusted to their right position upon the work by the aid of the
+flat end of the piercer; unnecessary handling may be avoided in this
+way.
+
+These threads, laid over padding either straight across or at an angle,
+may be used for the stems or petals of conventional flowers. The various
+kinds, dull, bright, and check, may perhaps be used in succession.
+
+Plate is frequently taken to and fro over the same kind of forms over a
+prepared padding, being caught down by a stitch on each side by a method
+the French call _le guipe_. It needs skill and practice to do this well.
+Crinkled plate used to be couched on to work, but now is not much used
+in this way.
+
+Pearl purl is most often seen outlining a form filled in with the other
+threads; an enlarged example of this thread lies vertically down the
+centre of fig. 139, the end of it is pulled out, in order to show the
+formation of the thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.]
+
+Spangles are usually sewn down separately; they may be attached by
+stitches from the centre outwards or by the thread being passed through
+a piece of purl and then returning to the back through the hole in the
+centre of the spangle. Fig. 139 illustrates another way of using these
+spangles to form a long tail shape. Here again they are attached with
+the help of pieces of purl. In the same figure are given some
+illustrations of the use of the fancy threads; to learn more about them
+the student should examine XVIth to XVIIIth century gold work during
+which period they were in popular use.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] See Dr. Rock's "Textile Fabrics."
+
+[11] In _La Broderie du Onzieme Siecle jusqu'a Nos Jours_.
+
+[12] No. 175, 1889.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+LETTERING, HERALDRY, AND EMBLEMS
+
+  The Uses of Lettering--Marking--Monograms--Heraldry--Emblems.
+
+
+Lettering of one kind or another is frequently in request. It is useful
+for inscriptions, verses, names attached to figures, the signing and
+dating of work, and for the more ordinary purposes of marking linen and
+so forth. Signed and dated work has peculiar attractiveness: it can be
+placed amidst definite historical associations: an authenticated piece
+of embroidery, say of the reign of King Richard Coeur de Lion, Queen
+Anne, or George III., would be an historical document and a standard to
+gauge the period of any uninscribed examples. Although few of us are
+likely to possess treasures of the XIIIth century, signed and dated
+pieces of our great-grandmothers' embroideries are interesting personal
+landmarks in family history, so for this reason, amongst others,
+unostentatious marks of identification are by no means out of place.
+Descriptive names or verses are also a means of amplifying the story and
+so enlivening our curiosity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.]
+
+Lettering can answer a further purpose still; it can enrich the design,
+for, if rightly chosen and employed, letters are very decorative. They
+may be seen forming a border to a piece of work. The three letters in
+fig. 140 were taken from an XIth century embroidered cope, which has a
+fine inscription running round the entire lower margin.[13] The names of
+the saints and martyrs standing in rows in the columned arcades,
+affected at certain periods, are sometimes inscribed in the mouldings of
+the arches above them or along the base; kneeling donors can be seen
+naively presenting a little scroll inscribed with prayers, and many
+other interesting uses of lettering might be recalled. The names St.
+Luke and St. John, shown in fig. 141, are taken from a beautiful
+embroidered example of Gothic lettering.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.]
+
+Illuminated manuscripts supply fine examples of initial letters and
+writing. A visit to the show-cases in the King's Library at the British
+Museum will be of great interest to the student; the illustrations also
+to be seen there, the beautifully composed and coloured figure-subjects,
+would be equally suitable for carrying out in embroidery; indeed it is
+very probable that many of the figure compositions on the old copes and
+chasubles were derived from such a source. Fig. 142 gives as an example
+of an alphabet one taken from a Benedictionale of late XVth century
+date.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.]
+
+A practical purpose to which lettering is often put is the marking of
+linen. To learn how to do this used to be a recognised part of a girl's
+education, and was one of the objects of the sampler. Marking can be
+anything from a simple cross-stitch initial to an elaborately worked
+monogram. For simple work the corner to be marked can be tacked upon
+_toile ciree_, a material not unlike American cloth. Tambour frames
+also are useful for this purpose.
+
+Fig. 143 shows the stitches most used for working simple letters such as
+those seen upon the old samplers. The first is cross stitch, which for
+marking purposes should be worked so as to be alike on both sides. To do
+this requires some forethought whilst the work progresses, and
+necessitates an occasional doubling of one of the crossed stitches, in
+order to reach the point for commencing the next one and at the same
+time preserving a cross on each side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.]
+
+The second stitch in the diagram shows a square on one side and is a
+cross upon the reverse. This makes a good stitch for the purpose, is
+quite simple to manipulate, and is easier to manage than the cross on
+both sides.
+
+The third example is made use of when a larger letter is required. It is
+known as blanket stitch, and is used for the marking of such things. It
+may be further completed by a neat back stitch just fitting along the
+outside edges of the other stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
+
+Many embroidery stitches are suitable for marking purposes, such as
+satin, chain, stem, back, rope, basket, and others. The Oriental stitch
+which carries out the letter in fig. 144 is a good one when both sides
+can be seen, for though these are quite different, it is presentable
+upon either. The diagram shows the appearance of the stitch on the front
+and on the back.
+
+A simple initial letter may be made interesting by enriching the ground
+behind it with some form of diaper patterning. An example of this is
+shown in fig. 145. The letter could be worked in a plain satin stitch
+over a padding of threads, and the pattern on the ground in a darning
+stitch and French knots, or in any other suitable way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.]
+
+A monogram carried out in embroidery can be a very pretty thing; there
+is scope in it for ingenuity both of design and of stitching. The
+letters may be decorated and tied up with a floral spray, strap work or
+a combination of several _motifs_. Fig. 146 shows a monogram composed of
+the letters I. G. ornamented and bound together by a ribbon-like
+interlacing band. The letters are worked in a raised satin stitch, and a
+running stitch in another colour threads in and out down the centre of
+each letter. The outline is stem stitch in a darker colour. The band is
+outlined on both sides with an overcast stitch, which always makes a
+particularly neat edging for anything of this sort. The centre is filled
+with a row of French knots, the tassels are worked in close lines of
+stem stitch, and the petals of the small flowers in satin stitch,
+finished off with a French knot at the centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.]
+
+Another mark of proprietorship and origin was the shield of arms of the
+owner, which introduces the subject of heraldry. A shield executed with
+the needle is often seen, and looks particularly rich. Heraldry is an
+intricate science, full of pitfalls for the unwary, and demands an
+earnest study of its complex rules and regulations. Every one should
+know at least some fine examples of great national shields such as the
+Lions of England, the Fleur de Lys of France, and the Imperial Eagle.
+Examples of shields surmounted by helmets and crests with quaint and
+flowing mantling are to be seen in all kinds of art work.
+
+Various stitches and methods specially lend themselves to the expression
+of heraldry. Those which, like cross stitch, impose a certain
+simplicity, are very good. Another suitable medium is applied work, of
+which an illustration can be seen on page 95. Gold and silver thread are
+very useful here, and look exceptionally rich when couched in the XIIIth
+century method. Fig. 147 is an embroidered coat of arms dated the first
+half of the XIVth century. It is executed almost entirely in the _point
+couche rentre ou retire_. The arms are those of the Clinton and
+Leyburne families--_argent, 6 cross crosslets fitchee 3, 2 and 1 on a
+chief azure, two mullets or_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.]
+
+In designing heraldic work care must be taken to introduce no debased
+forms such as were current after the XVth century. The XIIIth and XIVth
+centuries are the periods considered best for the study of this subject.
+Heraldry sometimes adds historic interest to embroideries; owners or
+donors may be traced by their coat of arms appearing upon some part of
+the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.]
+
+Allied to heraldry and marking are a number of decorative objects that
+have acquired peculiar traditional significance of an emblematic or
+symbolical nature, hard to define. The Cross of Christianity may be
+instanced, the olive branch of peace, the mirror of truth, and the snake
+of eternity. The name of a saint is frequently declared by an emblem
+accompanying the figure. In appropriate surroundings emblems may often
+be used effectively. For knowledge about these things the student must
+go to various books that deal with the special subject. Fig. 148 is an
+illustration of the well-known emblem, the Pelican in her piety.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[13] This cope is full of interest in every detail. See M. Louis de
+Farcy, _La Broderie du Onzieme Siecle jusqu'a Nos Jours_. Plate II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE GARNITURE OF WORK
+
+  Finishing off--Making up--Edges--Use of Cord-making Appliance--Cord
+  Twisted by Hand--Knotted Cord--Fringes--Tassels--Knots.
+
+
+When the embroidery is completed, the making up, the addition of
+tasteful finishing touches, and such things as fringes, tassels, and
+linings, must all be considered. These will, if judiciously made use of,
+give a distinction and character to the work that might be missed if due
+care and thought were not expended upon such details. This part of the
+work might be compared to the garnishing of a boiled fowl with lemon and
+parsley, a minor detail, but a very effective one.
+
+It is possible, by the help of such expedients, to emphasise certain
+colours and bring out points of the design, as well as to give
+completeness and finish. Such things as fringes, cords, and tassels are
+often more satisfactory when made by the worker and with materials like
+those used in the embroidery, for such will be more likely to be in
+keeping with the character of the rest, and to be more interesting in
+detail. In the finishing off the same taste and neatness of execution is
+required as in the embroidery. Good work can be very much marred in the
+making up; on the other hand, a little extra interest added on a part
+not often seen renders it doubly valuable.
+
+The mounting of certain things should not be attempted at home; boxes
+should be handed over to the cabinetmaker, books to the bookbinder, and
+so on, for it is not possible for any one not an expert to do these
+things properly, and even good work can look poor if badly set.
+
+The question how to appropriately finish off an edge often arises; let
+it be hem stitched rather than plain hemmed; or a narrow line of drawn
+thread work may be inserted, for an open-work border is frequently a
+set-off to the rest of the embroidery. If a binding is placed over the
+edge this can be fixed with a pretty stitch, or the stitch alone can
+bind the edge, one such as buttonhole, overcast, or that shown in fig.
+76. With some stitches the edge of the material can be rolled over a
+piping cord and the stitch worked over the thus emphasised margin.
+
+The difficulty of procuring cord suitable for use with embroidered work
+makes the appliance illustrated at fig. 149 a useful possession.[14] The
+cords made upon this wheel can be of any thickness, according to the
+number of plies and the substance in each. Different colours and
+materials can be twisted up together, such as a gold and silk thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.]
+
+To make a three-plied cord, cut three equal lengths of thread rather
+longer than the required cord is to be, as it shortens in the
+twisting. Make a loop at each end of the thread, or, better still,
+attach tiny metal rings at the ends. Hook the threads in position as
+shown in the diagram, and place the instrument far enough from the
+clamped block of wood to make the threads that are stretched between
+quite taut. Now commence the twisting by turning the large wheel quickly
+with an even motion in the direction that continues to twist up the
+threads, keeping the left hand on the instrument to steady it, for it
+gradually slides towards the block as the twisting continues. When
+corkscrew-like knots begin to come in the threads, stop revolving the
+wheel, unhook the two outer threads and place them both on the central
+hooks together with the third thread, keeping them taut during the
+process. Revolve the large wheel again, in the direction opposite to
+that in which it has been working, and continue turning until the cord
+is tightly twisted up. It is now made, and can be removed from the
+machine. The second twisting had better be over-done rather than not
+sufficiently, since if over-twisted the cord rights itself upon being
+removed from the machine. A two-ply cord is made in like manner, by
+using first the two outer hooks only, and then placing both threads
+together on the central hooks.
+
+There is a simple way of making this cord without the help of any
+instrument, but it is not possible to get the perfect result that the
+machine gives. It is most easily carried out by two persons, though one
+can do it. In order to make a two-plied cord, by hand, take a thread
+rather more than twice the length of the required cord. Let each worker
+take an end of the thread in the right hand and commence to twist it
+between the thumb and finger, each working in direction opposite to the
+other and keeping the thread at tension. When twisted as much as
+possible without getting corkscrew-like knots in the thread, the cord
+must be doubled in half by holding it at the centre and bringing
+together the two ends, which are then knotted. During the entire process
+the thread must be kept under tension. If one end of the cord is now let
+go it should immediately twist itself up tight, and remain in that
+position. If any small knots form during the process run the cord
+sharply through the fingers once or twice to straighten it out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.]
+
+Another pretty kind of cord is a knotted one. It is made in the hand in
+most primitive fashion by using the two first fingers as crochet hooks.
+The thread used for making it should be stout and firm. To commence
+making the cord, knot two pieces of thread together and place the
+threads in position as shown in fig. 150. The next step is shown in fig.
+151, which is the index finger of the left hand bringing the darker
+thread through the loop. Fig. 152 shows this thread looped on the
+finger, the cord held in the left hand instead of the right, and the
+right hand in process of drawing the lighter thread, which was the last
+loop, tight. The next move, fig. 153, shows the right-hand first finger
+making the new loop with the lighter thread, and fig. 154 shows the
+loop on the finger, the cord passed over to be held in the right hand
+again, and the left hand this time pulling the last loop tight. Continue
+making the cord by following out the last four positions consecutively.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.]
+
+A very usual finish to an edge is a fringe. This can be made either by
+fraying out the material or by adding a detached fringe, either knotting
+it in or attaching it in some other way. If the fringe is to be a
+frayed-out one, the best way to do it is to first draw out a few warp
+threads where the head of the fringe is to come, then hem stitch the
+upper edge of this, see the right-hand end of fig. 155; this makes the
+heading of the fringe secure, after which the remainder of the warp
+threads can be withdrawn. When fringing a square in this fashion, it is
+well to save some of the frayings out to knot in at the four corners
+where otherwise there would be gaps.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.]
+
+To knot an added fringe into the border is a very simple matter. Begin
+by cutting the threads that are to compose it all to one length, about
+double that of the required fringe. Take a few together to form a bunch
+and double it in half. With a stiletto make a hole near the edge of the
+material; then bring from the back a crochet hook through this hole, and
+draw the loop formed by the doubling of the bunch a little way through,
+then take the ends of the bunch through the loop and draw them tight in
+order to make the knotting firm.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156.]
+
+There are many ways of patterning a plain fringe, sometimes a change of
+colour in the knotted-in threads is sufficient, as shown in fig. 156.
+Another very usual way is to divide the bunches and refasten them
+together in some way to form a pattern. Fig. 157 is an example of this;
+they may be either knotted together, as in the first half of the
+diagram, or bound with thread as in the second half, the needle reaching
+the required places by running in zigzag fashion up the thread and down
+again.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157.]
+
+A simple fringe can be made of strands twisted together, as in the first
+half of fig. 158. This is made upon the same principle as the twisted
+cord already described. About three threads of the fringe are twisted up
+tight, and an adjoining three treated in the same fashion. These threes
+are then twisted together in the direction opposite to that which has
+just been used, and thus are securely locked together. The ends of the
+completed fringe may require a little trimming off to make all of an
+equal length. The second half of the diagram shows a durable and simple
+fringe made by a close series of knots down the thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158.]
+
+Fig. 159 suggests two methods by which a stitching of coloured thread
+near the margin can help to decorate a plain fringed edge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.]
+
+A row of tassels makes a pretty finish to various things. Complicated
+tassel-making requires a professional hand; even a simple tassel
+requires making properly. The first proceeding is to wind some thread
+round a piece of cardboard, which should be a little wider than the
+tassel is to be long; then double a piece of the same thread and thread
+the two ends into a needle, thus leaving a loop at the usual knot end.
+Slip the needle through the centre of the wound thread close to the
+cardboard, then through the loop and draw the thread tight; this will
+bind the threads securely at that point. They can then be cut exactly
+opposite this on the other side, which will release the cardboard. Give
+the binding thread another tightening pull, and then take the needle and
+thread straight through the centre, as shown in fig. 160, and fasten it
+off with a good knot. This knot will be in the ball part of the tassel
+and will help to make it round. Next, double the tassel into shape ready
+for the collar. Thread the needle as before and make the thread encircle
+the tassel, as shown in the second figure in the diagram, drawing the
+thread quite tight, and, if necessary, winding it several times round
+the neck of the tassel until the collar is of sufficient width, then
+take the needle and thread straight through the centre, bringing it out
+at the top, where it can be made use of to fix the tassel in its place
+upon the work. With sharp scissors trim the edge of the tassel which
+now is complete. The ball part can be further decorated by covering it
+with an open network of stitches in some contrasting colour; buttonhole
+and various lace stitches can be used for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160.]
+
+
+KNOTS
+
+Knots, which can be very pretty, are at times required in embroidery;
+anything that requires a fastening may give an opportunity for some
+pretty interlacing strap work or knotting. Also knots may be practically
+useful in both weaving and embroidery, for sometimes a finishing thread
+must be knotted on to a new one, since there may be no opportunity of
+making a firm commencement with the aid of the material.
+
+The knot shown in fig. 161 is called the girdle knot; it might be made
+use of in many other ways. To carry it out, make a loop with one end of
+the cord and hold it between the left finger and thumb, the looped part
+being towards the right, and the end that points downwards to the left
+passing over the other end. Take up the other piece of cord, pass it
+diagonally across the surface of the loop, commencing from the
+right-hand lower side, then round under one end and over the other, then
+up into the loop from underneath, over its own end that crosses the loop
+there, and then out under the loop at the top right-hand corner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.]
+
+The Chinese knot, which is used for a sailor's collar, is shown in fig.
+162. The looped end can be left as large as necessary. To work it the
+first part of the knot is laid in position on the table, commencing at
+point A; for the latter part (from point C) the thread is interlaced
+through to the finish. It can then be pulled tight, taking care in the
+drawing-together process that the various loops are adjusted in right
+position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.]
+
+Another ornamental knot is shown at fig. 163. To make it--Form a loop
+and hold it between the left thumb and finger, the loop pointing to the
+right, the longer end pointing upwards and passing over the end that
+points downwards. Take hold of the end pointing upwards, pass it
+perpendicularly downwards across the surface of the loop, then round
+under the other end, up over its own end, under the side of the loop,
+over its own end that lies across the loop, and out under the loop at
+the right-hand end. Pull as tight as required. All these knots may be
+made of double cord by running a second through, following the lead of
+the first, just before tightening up the knot. The one last described
+may be made of doubled cord from the commencement, the looped end being
+used as the working end: the knot will then finish off with a loop at
+one end, which can be used as a loop or cut if required.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.]
+
+Fig. 164 is an example of a pretty piece of interlacing strap work
+attached to a fastening.
+
+The weavers' knot (fig. 165) is useful for practical purposes in both
+weaving and embroidery; this knot is universally employed by the cotton
+weavers when the warp breaks. It is made as follows--Place the two ends
+that are to be knotted together between the thumb and first finger of
+the left hand in such a way that they cross each other at right angles,
+the end that points towards the left passing under the one pointing
+towards the right. Pass the long end of thread that hangs down towards
+the right, and which is the newly attaching piece, over the thumb, round
+the back of the end pointing to the left in front of the other end, and
+let it hang down again towards the right, holding the loop thus made
+between the thumb and finger; then pass the end pointing towards the
+right down through this loop and out on the opposite side. To draw the
+knot tight, pull the end which hangs down towards the right, which will
+tighten the loop and so complete the knot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.]
+
+The reef knot (fig. 166) is another useful one, and it has this
+advantage over the weaver's knot, that both short ends return parallel
+to the long ones instead of going off at an angle; this makes it neater
+for some purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.]
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[14] This will be found described in detail in Chapter II. There is an
+interesting drawing of a neat little machine, similar to this, but
+worked by cogwheels, in _L'Art du Brodeur_, by Germain de St. Aubin
+(1770).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS
+
+  Transferring Patterns--Paste for Embroidery Purposes--Protection and
+  Preservation of Work--Washing Embroidery--Prevention and Cure of
+  Puckered Work--Points about the Thread--Dressing the Frame.
+
+
+The best method of getting the pattern on to the material is to draw it
+on directly with a brush; since this, however, is not always possible,
+other ways of doing it can be employed.
+
+The pattern can be transferred to the background by a process called
+pouncing. To do this fix some tracing-paper over the design and
+carefully take the outline; a good margin of plain paper should be left
+round the outside in order to prevent any of the pounce getting
+accidentally rubbed on to the embroidery. The next process is the
+perforation of the pattern. Lay the tracing upon some substance of the
+nature of thick felt, then with a pricker or a needle, held in an
+upright position, pierce tiny holes all round the outline of the
+pattern, very close together. This completed, attach the perforated
+tracing securely to the material, the smooth side of the perforations
+towards the stuff. Both material and tracing paper may be fixed to a
+board with drawing pins. Next, rub the pounce, which consists of finely
+powdered charcoal or of white chalk, lightly over the perforated parts
+with a soft pad, keeping the rubbing always in the same direction; once
+or twice at the most over the surface is quite sufficient, often too
+much is rubbed through, which afterwards is only in the way. The pad,
+first dipped into the pounce, is rubbed preparatorily upon some paper to
+remove the superfluous powder, and then upon the actual work. Carefully
+remove the tracing-paper; there should now be visible upon the surface
+of the material, in charcoal dust, a perfectly clear reproduction of the
+pattern. Should, however, the impression be blurred, it is quite easy to
+flick everything away with a duster and repeat the process. The causes
+of failure would most probably be that the perforations were too large
+or too far apart, or that there was some movement of either paper or
+material during the process. It is necessary for the pattern to be
+permanently fixed upon the ground material; blow lightly to remove any
+superfluous powder, then, with a brush dipped in light red oil-paint
+moistened with turpentine, trace a fine clear line over the powdered
+pattern. When this is dry, what is left of the charcoal can be lightly
+dusted away. Red is in most cases a good colour to use for tracing
+purposes, for if by chance any tracing should show or come off on the
+thread it will be a clean-looking colour, and one comparatively easily
+removed in any after cleaning.
+
+Red or blue carbonised paper is used for tracing patterns; it is not a
+good medium though it may be an expeditious one. If it is used, an after
+painting over the outline will make the marking permanent.
+
+When pouncing or painting is difficult, a method of indicating the
+pattern upon the stuff is to trace the design on tissue paper, and tack
+it to the ground material with cotton, the stitching of which should
+follow the outline of the design, and be kept as much as possible upon
+the front. The thin paper is then torn away, and there will be some
+suggestion of pattern left upon the material.
+
+Transparent ground stuffs need only be laid upon the pattern; then the
+tracing can be taken directly on the stuff.
+
+Paste is sometimes in request for embroidery purposes; the following is
+a good recipe--Pour rather less than half a pint of cold water into a
+saucepan, add to this a piece of carpenter's glue about the size of a
+small filbert and place it on the fire to heat. Put three teaspoonfuls
+of flour into a basin, and with cold water mix to a smooth paste; when
+the water in the saucepan boils add it to the paste, stirring well all
+the time; then place the mixture in the saucepan and boil for about two
+minutes. When cold it is ready for use. It may be required as a
+preservative; for instance, canvas work when finished can have a thin
+coating of paste rubbed over the back in order to preserve the stitches
+from giving or running; when the work is to be used for such things as
+furniture coverings this may be a good thing to do. Applied work is
+sometimes pasted on to its new ground, and a backing may be fixed to the
+surface material by paste. The more all this can be avoided the better,
+for its tendency is to give a stiff mechanical look to work;
+professional people, however, are rather fond of the paste pot. Paste,
+if used, must be of the right kind, or it will do more harm than good.
+It should be very fresh, and have no acid in its ingredients, of which
+gum arabic must not be one if any after stitching has to take place
+through the stuff, for gum makes it hard and less penetrable. The paste
+must be applied and allowed to dry thoroughly before the work is removed
+from the frame. A finger makes a good brush for the purpose. The paste
+should be put on as thinly and evenly as possible, care being taken not
+to rub on the cross of the material, since this might stretch it
+unevenly.
+
+Shoemakers' paste is easily procured, and can be used for embroidery
+purposes. This is made from rye flour, and is very strong. It is
+harmless if perfectly fresh.
+
+A good many things go to the keeping of work fresh and orderly, which is
+a very important matter. The work must be kept carefully covered up when
+not in use; finished parts can sometimes be covered whilst the work is
+going on, for the covering is easily raised when comparison with the
+part in progress is necessary. The work should have some protection if
+the hand rests on it; the worker should wear a white apron with sleeves.
+The worker's hand should be cool, dry, and smooth; hot hands should
+frequently be washed. The use of pumice stone cures slight roughness,
+but fine work cannot be attempted if the fingers are for any reason
+constantly rough. Wools and silks need a case to keep them orderly and
+clean. The best way to preserve valuable embroidery is to frame it,
+which, of course, is not always practicable, but it is a sure safeguard
+against moth and dust.
+
+For washing embroidery special soap should be procured. It is not well
+to use any ordinary soap, for this may contain alkali, which would
+injure the colours in the work. Dissolve the soap in boiling water, and
+add cold to make it just warm and of the required strength. Immerse the
+embroidery in the lather thus made, and work it about gently, avoiding
+any friction. When clean, rinse first in warm water, afterwards in cold,
+to which a little salt may be added. The water must be squeezed out
+carefully and the material quickly dried. If ironing is necessary it
+must be done on the wrong side, but if the work can be pinned out on a
+board to dry, and in this way stretched and smoothed without any
+ironing, so much the better, for the embroidery will not be flattened at
+all. Another way of ironing embroidery that is not harmful is to do it
+from underneath while some one holds out the material.
+
+It is easy to prevent the puckering of work when it is carried out in
+the frame; there is, however, no necessity for it to occur in hand work.
+Certain stitches are more inclined to draw up the material than others,
+and extra care has to be taken in working upon the cross of the fabric.
+The work should be held in convex fashion over the fingers of the left
+hand. Weights are occasionally attached to the corners of the work to
+prevent any unconscious drawing of it up.
+
+There are remedies for the cure of slightly puckered work. Place on a
+drawing-board some clean blotting-paper, damp it evenly over with a wet
+handkerchief, and then lay the work, right side up, upon it. Fix the
+work down to the board with drawing-pins, inserted at regular short
+intervals round the edge, endeavouring during the process to stretch the
+material to its original shape. This needs doing carefully, for it is
+quite possible to stretch it to a wrong shape, and it will remain as now
+pinned out. Next, lay some white paper or a handkerchief upon the
+surface of the work, and then place upon it a flat weight that presses
+equally on every part of the embroidery. Leave it undisturbed for a
+night, and the puckering will probably be cured. Work, if not puckered,
+may be improved by going through this process, which practically amounts
+to a mild ironing, but without any injurious effects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.]
+
+There are various points about the thread that should be known. To
+commence a new thread run a few stitches in the material upon the right
+side upon a part that will afterwards be covered by the working. This is
+a better way than a fastening on the wrong side, for it is both neater
+and more secure. A knot made at the beginning is fairly safe, but it is
+undesirable for several reasons. The needleful should not be lengthy
+lest it gets worn before it is all worked in. With some threads it is
+important to thread only the proper end into the eye of the needle,
+since one way they will work in roughly and the other way smoothly. An
+end of a coarse thread can be taken through to the back of the material
+by the help of a fine one; the fine thread is brought through from the
+back by the needle, it then encircles the coarse one, and returns to the
+back by the same hole, pulling the coarse thread with it, as in process
+in fig. 167. Taking it through by the aid of a thick needle would make
+too large a hole. Thread can be knotted into the eye of the needle if
+for any reason it is required to be quite safe from accidental
+unthreading. The neatest way of doing this is to pass the needle
+through the centre of the thread and draw it tight; this is a useful
+trick for any unskilled worker with needles and thread, for re-threading
+also may be a difficulty. When work has to be unpicked it is better to
+cut the threads rather than do any drawing out, for they are in any case
+unfit for further use, and this method wears the material less; a
+beginner must not shirk unpicking if first-rate results are to be
+obtained.
+
+
+FRAME WORK
+
+Certain stitches and methods of work cannot be carried out except with
+the help of a frame, others are hand stitches, and some few can be
+worked either way. Work done in a frame takes longer than that done by
+hand, and is rather more fatiguing. Each method has its advantages; in
+the frame it is perhaps easier to get good technique, for difficulties
+such as puckering the material, irregular stitching, and so on, are more
+easily avoided, also it is more possible to see the effect of the whole
+whilst the part progresses. In frame work a thimble is required for each
+hand, for one pushes the needle through from above and one from below.
+It is a rest to be able to reverse the hands, so both should be equally
+dexterous in either position.
+
+To dress the frame correctly is an important preliminary, for unless
+done well the effect of much after labour may be spoiled. In the chapter
+upon tools and appliances in fig. 9 is shown a piece of linen stretched
+in the frame ready for commencing work.
+
+The square of material that is seen to be inserted in the centre of the
+stretched linen is to show how a very small piece or a portion of a
+large surface could be stretched in the same sized frame. A corner may
+require marking or a small detail of embroidery carrying out upon it. A
+portion is cut out of the centre of the stretched linen, and the piece
+or part of the material to be worked stitched securely to it, as
+illustrated in the diagram. The remainder of the material, if there is
+any, can be folded up and pinned out of the way over the rollers.
+
+To return to the dressing of the frame--the linen to be stretched,
+before being fixed in place, must be hemmed or herring-boned down at the
+top and base and then sewn with overcast stitches to the webbings,
+inclining during the process to pucker the webbing rather than the
+material. The side pieces can now be put through the holes at the ends
+of the rollers and the metal pins inserted, or nuts adjusted, as the
+case may be, in order to stretch the material to the right tension. The
+raw edges at the sides must now be turned in or bound with tape, and a
+string securely attached at intervals along the edge; this is for lacing
+the string through that now braces the material to the sides of the
+frame (see fig. 1). The screw-sided frame has an advantage over the side
+pieces shown in fig. 9, in that in the former an extra turn can, at this
+point, be given to the nuts to still further stretch the material; on
+the other hand, some workers prefer the flat side pieces, thinking that
+they make the frame more rigid.
+
+If the material, when fixed to the two webbings, is too long for the
+frame, it must be wound round one of the rollers until of the correct
+size. This must be done carefully, for a delicate fabric might get
+damaged in the process; the roller can be padded with soft paper, and an
+interlining of tissue paper can be inserted and wound up with the
+material. It may not always be desirable to do this winding round the
+rollers; in that case fine glazed holland can be stretched in the frame,
+and the part to be first embroidered fixed to it. When the first part of
+the work is completed, the holland is cut out of the frame and fresh
+pieces substituted as the work goes on. If it is not wished that the
+stitches should be taken through both surfaces, as would here be the
+case, it would be possible to cut the linen partly away underneath, and
+use it only as a kind of inner frame for stretching the material on, in
+a way somewhat like that already described (see fig. 9).
+
+A backing to the material, however, is often a necessity--perhaps heavy
+work may be put on it or the stuff itself is fragile; in such cases
+there must be a backing of some kind. This usually consists of fine
+holland or linen, which is first stretched in the frame and then has the
+surface material securely stitched to it with overcast stitches, care
+being taken that both materials are equally strained.
+
+To frame velvet, sew it to the webbing by the selvedges or that way of
+the material, since the pile with that arrangement is more manageable
+when the embroidery is in progress.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.]
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+TAPESTRY WEAVING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Weaving, a most ancient art, naturally precedes embroidery, for this
+necessitates an already existing ground stuff, which is generally some
+kind of woven material. All varieties of weaving are done by one
+little-varied method, that of the weft passing to and fro in and out of
+the warp, and thus binding the whole into a fabric or web.
+
+The kind of weaving which demands from the worker the greatest artistic
+skill is that which produced the great masterpieces of Flanders, once
+known as Arras, from the town of that name, and now commonly called
+Gobelins tapestry, so named from the _Manufacture des Gobelins_ in
+Paris, at which establishment, founded over three hundred years ago, it
+is still produced.
+
+It is this kind of weaving that is now to be discussed, but without the
+least suggestion that the pupil should work upon a scale so large as is
+usually followed, though there is no reason against doing so if it is
+practicable. Tapestry weaving is so constantly associated with objects
+of large size, such as wall hangings, that it is scarcely realised as an
+art in this smaller way and as an alternative to embroidery. Yet it can
+be work of a most interesting kind even when produced in pieces only six
+inches square, as is well shown by existing specimens of the work of the
+weavers in Egypt who flourished in the early centuries of the Christian
+era. Examples of this work can be seen in many museums; they consist
+frequently of decorative panels of tapestry work inlaid in linen tunics
+and stuffs that have been used as grave clothes. These early Coptic
+examples are, like all tapestry, built up by interweaving various
+threads upon warp-strings stretched in close parallel lines. By varying
+the colour of the threads that are thus manipulated upon the warp,
+patterns of any degree of complexity can be built up directly by hand,
+and without the assistance of any further mechanical contrivance. The
+peculiarity of this ancient weaving is that the patterns are frequently
+woven upon the warp-threads of some fabric, from which the weft either
+has been removed, or, what is perhaps more probable, been purposely left
+out when the material was made, to leave space for this decorative
+pattern weaving to be added to it.
+
+The Latin name for the workman who in this way wove in the ornamental
+patterns was _Plumarius_, which is a name known to be applied to an
+embroiderer also. This weaving of small subjects is certainly very
+little removed from embroidery; it may fairly be called needlework, for
+it is as often carried out with needles as with bobbins, the former
+being frequently better suited to the size of the work.
+
+In execution weaving is not more difficult than embroidered work; it can
+be done in an ordinary room and upon a simple loom that is not more
+cumbersome than an embroidery frame; in fact an embroidery frame can
+sometimes be used in the place of a loom.
+
+Weaving takes about as long in doing as finely stitched solid
+needlework, for in weaving the entire fabric is made, both pattern and
+ground. The speed with which the work can be done of course varies
+considerably, being mainly dependent upon the design that is being
+carried out. Also the quality of the materials used affects the rate of
+working; for instance, the thickness of the warp-strings and the placing
+of them nearer together or further apart. Moreover the weft may be
+composed of one strand or of several strands together.
+
+In weaving, unless the materials used are very fine, it is impossible to
+get minute detail in drawing; fortunately it is seldom necessary to
+attempt much of this. The simpler and more direct work is as good as,
+and sometimes better than, that with finely gradated colour, shading,
+and form. On the other hand, work, small in scale, even though simply
+treated, does not look well when carried out with very coarse materials,
+for they seem out of proportion to the size of it.
+
+The main difficulty in the technique of the work lies in the attainment
+of good draughtsmanship, which of course includes light and shade as
+well as outline. It is naturally more difficult to draw by means of
+bobbin and thread, in horizontal lines, than to work unrestrictedly with
+a pencil, or even with an embroidery needle.
+
+There is a great deal in the preparation of the design; as in all other
+crafts this must be suited to the method of work; otherwise the
+difficulties of execution will be greatly increased and the result will
+be less satisfactory. This is even more important in weaving than in
+embroidery, for in the latter the stitch and method may possibly be
+chosen to suit the design, but in weaving no variation of stitch is
+possible; all must be carried out in the same way.
+
+Tapestry weaving, whether for wall hangings or for small objects, has
+the same technical difficulties, and certain restrictions govern all
+work of the kind. One point to be observed is, the main lines of the
+design should go as little as possible in the same direction as the warp
+threads. This is because with each change of colour in the weft that
+occurs in the direction of the warp, there comes an inevitable
+separation in the woven material, which, oft repeated, would materially
+impair the strength of the fabric. The less frequently this occurs, of
+course, the better, since it entails additional labour, either a
+joining-together stitch at the time of working or an after-sewing up
+from the back. Long lines made by change of colour going straight or at
+a slight angle across the warp-threads, are perfectly simple to manage,
+and the hatching lines of shading, as well as the outline, should be
+taken as much as possible in this direction.
+
+It will be noticed that most tapestries have the ribbed lines of warp
+going horizontally across; in the loom these lines are perpendicular, so
+this means that the design has been placed and carried out sideways upon
+it. This is for the reason just under discussion, for the long lines of
+a design are most frequently perpendicular, take, for instance, lines of
+figures, draperies, or architecture, and so by placing the design
+sideways in the loom, most of the important lines will come in the
+direction most easy for the working of them.
+
+With small pieces it frequently does not matter which way it is carried
+out, but it is useful to know when making the design that there is the
+alternative of placing it either way upon the warp-threads. If this
+matter were not considered and arranged, there might come a good deal of
+twisting round one or two warp-threads which would be most
+unsatisfactory in working and in appearance. A band of plain colour
+framing a square piece of work will be found to be completely detached
+from the centre part upon each side of the square, although working in
+very straightforwardly at the top and base; if, instead of being a
+straight band, the inner edge was vandyked, the work would be well
+knitted together upon all sides (see fig. 169). In such ways as this the
+technical pitfalls can be somewhat avoided by a designer who understands
+the method of the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169.]
+
+To lay down definite rules for designing is practically impossible;
+right and wrong depend upon so many circumstances. The study of fine
+tapestries of the best periods is one of the most satisfactory ways of
+learning what one may or may not attempt; the beautifully flowered
+grounds in many of these show what excellent motives flowers make, and
+how they should be treated. It is not usually a good plan to introduce
+in any part of the work much plain ground, for it is inclined to look
+poor; this is very likely the reason why the grass in tapestry-land is
+often covered with such profusion of flowers. Tapestry calls for
+beautiful colour, richness, and plenty of interesting detail; it is
+essentially decorative work, and must be treated as such. The
+arrangement of colours and tones need to be sharply defined; if by
+chance a dark leaf comes against another dark one, a line of light
+colour is sometimes deliberately run between, perhaps shading or
+outlining one of the forms; a flower may even change its colour as it
+passes over different backgrounds; what is more remarkable is that this
+change, unless sought for, is imperceptible.
+
+The work may be applied to all kinds of uses, such as coverings for
+furniture, mats, curtains, bell-pulls, book-covers, bags, boxes, and so
+forth. Anything that hangs upon a wall is particularly suitable for
+working in tapestry, for at a little distance this kind of work shows up
+more effectively than embroidered work does. A great many articles, such
+as alms-bags, frontals of all kinds, stoles and book-markers, for use in
+churches could most excellently be carried out in tapestry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+NECESSARY APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS
+
+  The Loom--Mirror--Bobbins and Needles--The Comb--Embroidery Frame
+  treated as a Loom--Warp--Wools--Silk--Gold and Silver Thread.
+
+
+TOOLS AND APPLIANCES
+
+The chief requisite for weaving is the loom; this can be made by a
+carpenter from a working drawing. In the Victoria and Albert Museum
+there is a model of a small tapestry loom, presented by William Morris,
+which a novice will do well to examine. It is quite possible to carry
+out a small piece of weaving upon an embroidery frame, but to work in a
+loom which has all the proper appliances is always quicker, better, and
+absolutely necessary with work of any size.
+
+There are two main varieties of tapestry loom, one in which the
+warp-threads are horizontal, and another in which they are vertical. The
+latter kind is considered to give the best results, mainly owing to the
+possibility of the worker's seeing the right side of the work whilst it
+is in progress. This is a great advantage, for tapestry is woven with
+the reverse side towards the worker, and progresses by such gradual
+steps that the weaver is prone to lose sight of the whole whilst paying
+attention to the part in progress, and it will be easily understood that
+to be able to go round and view the entire piece is of immense help. A
+detail may perhaps be corrected during the progress of the work, but
+afterwards this would be an awkward matter. It is one of the
+difficulties of weaving to have to finish completely each step as it
+comes up. Working from the wrong side is not so hard as it might seem,
+for both sides are practically alike; the side towards the worker,
+however, shows ends of thread and thread passing from one place to
+another, which make it somewhat unpresentable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.]
+
+Fig. 170 shows a drawing of a small loom with some warp stretched upon
+it in readiness for commencing work. It stands upon the ground, and is
+about 4 feet high by 2-1/2 feet wide. It is made of beechwood; a hard
+wood like this is best, for there must be no possibility of the rollers
+bending with the strain of the warp. The loom consists of two uprights
+standing upon heavy feet; these uprights are joined together at the top
+and base by strengthening cross bars. Two wooden rollers are fixed into
+the uprights (see A and B in fig. 170) and in the surface of each of
+these a narrow groove is hollowed out lengthwise (see fig. 171); this is
+for the purpose of holding a long metal pin, by means of which the
+warp-threads are kept in place. The rollers are fitted at one extremity
+with a handle for turning them round, and at the other with a ratchet
+and toothed wheel to prevent unwinding. The purpose of the upper roller
+is to hold the supply of warp-thread and unwind it as required; the
+lower one is for winding up the web as the work progresses, so that upon
+a loom of this size a piece of work of considerable length can easily be
+carried out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.]
+
+The warp soon after it passes from the top roller is divided into two
+leaves by a cylindrical wooden bar about one inch in diameter, called
+the cross stave (see fig. 172). The cross stave may be oval or round in
+section; if it is oval the warp-threads may be moved more widely apart
+when required by turning the stave round, but this is not often
+necessary. The upper part of the cross stave can be seen in position in
+the loom diagram, which shows also how the stave divides the threads,
+which pass alternately one in front and one behind the bar. After this
+the threads are passed through a comb-like instrument, having about
+fourteen divisions to the inch (see fig. 173). This extends from side to
+side of the loom, and lies in a groove made in the bar that fixes the
+coat-stave (C in fig. 170) in position at either extremity. It can be
+taken out and exchanged for another with a different divisioning, if
+necessary; without doing this, however, it is quite possible to put at
+intervals two threads through one division, or to pass over one
+occasionally if need be. The threads are next fixed in the lower roller.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.]
+
+The coat-stave can be seen projecting from near the top of the loom. A
+number of looped threads called coats are fixed to it, and each one of
+these encircles a thread of the warp. They are attached only to those
+threads that were passed behind the cross stave and form the back leaf
+of the warp, and they are for the purpose of pulling these forward when
+required.
+
+Underneath the lower roller is fixed a wooden tray, which is useful for
+holding bobbins, comb, or scissors.
+
+On the loom is hung a small mirror facing the right side of the work
+(see fig. 170). This enables the weaver to glance now and then through
+the warp-strings at any detail that is in progress.
+
+Smaller looms can be made, suitable for placing upon a table; these,
+standing about two feet in height, must in some way be firmly fixed to
+the table, in order to be properly rigid for work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.]
+
+The thread composing the woof is wound upon a wooden bobbin or shuttle,
+such as that shown in fig. 174. The chief point about this is, that it
+may not have sharp angles that might catch in the warp whilst passing to
+and fro. The pointed end is sometimes made use of to poke between the
+warp-threads and press down the weft. A fresh bobbin is employed for
+each colour, and the wool is wound upon it two or three strands
+together, just as may happen to be required for the work. Large
+blunt-pointed needles about three inches long (fig. 175) are often used
+in place of bobbins, for with small pieces of work sometimes so little
+of a colour is required as to make it unnecessary to wind a quantity on
+a bobbin, which is, after all, only a needle with an extra long thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.]
+
+A comb is necessary for pressing down the weft whilst the work is in
+progress. Combs vary in size and shape; fig. 176 shows one suitable for
+this type of work; it is 1-1/2 inches square, slightly wedge-shaped, and
+about one-eighth of an inch thick. Boxwood is the most suitable wood to
+make them from, since it is particularly hard and fine in the grain.
+They are sometimes made of metal, ivory, or bone; for large work, metal
+combs of a heavier type are used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.]
+
+An embroidery frame, which has been already mentioned as a possible
+substitute for the loom, is oftentimes an article more easily procured.
+Fig. 177 illustrates how a frame of this kind may be prepared with
+warp-threads for weaving. One with the screw side pieces is the best,
+for these enable the tension of the warp to be slightly adjusted if the
+working shows any tendency to slacken the thread.
+
+To prepare the frame for weaving--Place the parts together at the
+required distance from each other; secure the end of some warp-thread to
+some part of the frame, and then commence to wind it round and round
+over the two rollers, placing the threads at approximately the right
+distance apart, taking into account when doing this that the two leaves
+thus formed will eventually be brought into the same plane. When the
+required width of warp-thread is wound upon the rollers, secure the end
+of the string and proceed to bring the front and back leaves together by
+darning a knitting-needle or some similar article in and out of the
+threads at the centre. Then slide it up close to the top roller and
+secure it by tying it with string at each end (see diagram). The same
+process is gone through with a second pin, which is tied to the lower
+roller.
+
+The warp-threads can now be adjusted to their proper distance apart, as
+they will probably be a little irregularly spaced. The next process is
+to weave two or three courses of warp-thread close to the knitting-pins
+at either end; this brings the warp still nearer to being in the one
+plane, and enables the threads to be arranged in perfect order by the
+aid of the point of the bobbin or a needle, and they will remain as now
+placed.
+
+The frame is now ready for work. A piece of plain web, about half an
+inch in width, is usually woven before the actual design is begun; this
+serves as a selvedge for turning in when the completed work is mounted,
+and also gets the warp into condition much better for working upon.
+
+A thick knitting-needle can be passed between the alternate threads of
+the warp and placed towards the top of the frame, as shown in the
+diagram. This takes the place of the cross-stave in the loom, and, by
+thus dividing the warp into two leaves, is of assistance when the
+shuttle goes in one direction. Coats cannot easily be applied to an
+embroidery frame.
+
+It is quite possible upon a frame of this kind to weave a long narrow
+band of any kind. The warp must be wound on and arranged in position at
+the necessary length by separating the rollers and temporarily fixing
+them apart at the distance required for the band. The surplus warp is
+then wound up on the upper roller until the side pieces will fit into
+the ends. As it gets worked upon, the completed part is wound upon the
+lower roller. A piece both long and wide would be impracticable,
+especially if any winding on and off the rollers were necessary.
+
+
+MATERIALS
+
+There are very few materials required for tapestry weaving; they consist
+of, string for warp, wools, silks, and maybe gold and silver thread for
+the weft.
+
+The warp is usually composed of a smooth, strong, evenly twisted thread,
+specially made for the purpose. It can be procured of various
+thicknesses. It happens sometimes that in parts the warp shows, as a
+fringe or in some other way; in this case it could be made of a strong
+silk thread, such as purse silk, though for edges of mats, the ordinary
+string warp fringed out is quite suitable. Occasionally weaving is
+carried out in such a way as to expose the warp in various parts of the
+work, the pattern being woven, but the ground left altogether unworked.
+In a case of this kind the colour and composition of the warp is
+naturally important, and must be considered. In a show-case in the
+British Museum there can be seen a small book with an interesting woven
+binding carried out after this manner. The warp is composed of gold
+passing, and the effect of this with a pattern carried out in brightly
+coloured silks is very pretty indeed, the gold adding a rich glow to the
+whole.
+
+Wool and silk are the chief materials used for the woof. It is well to
+choose those of fine texture, for several strands can then be wound
+together upon one bobbin, which, with coarse materials, would be too
+clumsy a method. When working in this way there is more opportunity of
+varying colour and texture, for three shades may be wound upon the
+bobbin together to get a required colour, and this has often a prettier
+effect than the use of an unblended colour; also, silk and wool are very
+satisfactory wound and worked in together, each texture showing the
+other to advantage.
+
+Fine gold or silver threads are frequently used in tapestry weaving.
+They can be woven in alone, which gives a metallic look, or they may be
+mixed with strands of silk. Both ways are very good, and the use of the
+metal thread adds great richness to the work. These threads make fine
+backgrounds, and they can be used in many ways upon the design; it is a
+common practice to carry out the lighting of draperies and of other
+parts in real gold, just as they are treated in illuminated manuscripts.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PREPARATIONS FOR WORK
+
+  Warping the Loom--Dressing the Coat-Stave--Tracing the Pattern upon
+  the Threads.
+
+
+Upon commencing the warping of the loom the first matter to be decided
+is the length of the threads. Some extra length must be measured off
+besides that actually used for weaving, to allow for what is taken up
+in fixing the threads and winding them round the rollers, and as it is
+not convenient to work more than about half-way up the loom, this also
+has to be allowed for in the length. The threads must all be cut to one
+size, and since they have to be doubled in halves when placed on the
+loom, this should be twice the required length.
+
+Another question for early decision is the number of warp-threads that
+may be allowed per inch. This varies with the coarseness of the strings
+and the thickness of the weft that will have to pass to and fro between
+them; what governs both of these points is the design, whether there is
+much detail or not, for if the drawing is complicated the warp-strings
+must be fine in order to be able to carry it out; this point will be
+better understood after some experience of working. Fourteen to sixteen
+threads to the inch is a very usual number.
+
+The fixing of the threads in the upper roller is a very simple matter.
+It is done by doubling each in halves and placing the loop thus formed
+over the metal pin, which for this purpose may be temporarily suspended
+by string to the frame of the top of the loom just above the roller. It
+can be dropped into its place in the groove when all the threads are
+looped upon it, and made secure there for the moment by tying some
+string round the extremities of the roller.
+
+Each thread is now taken separately through the comb-like instrument.
+The cross-stave is laid upon this, so it is well to put it in place now,
+and carry the threads alternately in front and behind it, whilst passing
+them through the comb. The threading of the strings through the comb
+decides the number there will be to the inch, so they must be put
+through at the required distance apart.
+
+The upper roller is next given a complete turn, which will make the
+metal pin and the threads that are round it secure in the groove. The
+winding up must be continued until only about three inches of the
+warp-string hang below the lower roller. Some kind of tension must be
+applied to the threads whilst this winding is going on, or it will be
+done irregularly; a hand, or several hands, holding it, answers the
+purpose well enough.
+
+The next process is to fix the threads securely in the lower roller. The
+difficulty here lies in getting the placing and tension of the threads
+between the two rollers exactly regular and even. If some were slack and
+others tight it would be very awkward to correct afterwards, and
+impossible to weave upon properly if incorrect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178.]
+
+Fig. 178 shows a practical method by which the warp may be fixed in the
+lower roller, but any contrivance will do that gains the required
+result. To carry out the fixing as in the diagram, the roller must be
+turned so that the groove comes just at the centre in the front. Four
+lines of warp-thread are then fixed from end to end of the roller, two
+above and two below the groove. Each warp-string in turn is now threaded
+in and out of these cross lines, as shown in the diagram. This places
+them in regular order, at the correct distance apart, and keeps them at
+very nearly the same tension throughout. The metal pin is now placed in
+the groove and pushes the threads before it. It must be temporarily made
+firm there by string tied round the roller at intervals.
+
+The next process is to tie the warp-threads in knots, either two or four
+together, just where they emerge below the pin. This prevents any giving
+way, and if the threads are pulled just equally tight immediately before
+the knotting, the tension of the entire warp will be the same. The lower
+roller is next turned round until the metal pin is made quite firm in
+its place by the warp-threads passing across the face of the groove.
+The warp will now be fixed in the loom as shown in the drawing in fig.
+170.
+
+The placing of the coats upon the coat-stave is the next part of the
+preparatory work. Commence by fixing a line of warp-thread along the
+exterior side of the coat-stave, making it secure to the bar at both
+ends. The coats, encircling the stave and a thread of warp, are fixed to
+this string by a kind of buttonhole stitch (see fig. 179). It is
+important that each loop should be of exactly the same size; this can be
+ensured by temporarily fixing a rod across the loom at the point where
+the loops will encircle the warp-thread, and then taking the loop round
+this bar as well as round the thread.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179.]
+
+To commence making the coats, take a long needleful of warp-thread and
+secure the end of it to the string at the right-hand end, and then make
+about three small looped stitches upon it (see needle in progress in the
+diagram); next, instead of making another of the same stitches, take the
+thread down below the stave, let it encircle the first thread of the
+back leaf and then be brought up over the coat-stave and string and be
+looped under the thread to complete the stitch (see B). Usually a long
+and a short stitch are taken alternately, but the number of short ones
+may be varied. This process is continued until all the threads of the
+back leaf are encircled each by a loop.
+
+A new length of thread must be knotted on to the last one as it gets
+used up. The weavers' knot, which is shown on p. 291, might be used for
+the purpose. It would be made use of also if by chance the warp-thread
+were broken, for it is a knot specially good for the purpose.
+
+When the coats are completed there are still one or two preparations to
+be made before actually commencing to weave. Either a metal rod or a
+long narrow piece of wood must now be threaded in and out of the
+warp-strings and placed in position at the base. This rod can be seen
+properly placed in position in fig. 179 in front of the lower cylinder.
+This is put there to keep the lines of the woof horizontal when they are
+being beaten down by the comb.
+
+Next wind on a bobbin some warp-thread similar to that already on the
+loom, or, if that happens to be very coarse, let this be a little finer.
+Now weave two courses with this warp-thread and beat it down with the
+comb, leaving the woof during the process rather loose. The technique of
+weaving with all its difficulties is discussed in Chapter XVIII. When
+two of the warp-thread courses are complete, insert either the pointed
+end of the bobbin or a blunt needle between the warp-threads below the
+woven portion, and if necessary move the warp-strings a little to or fro
+until they are equally separated each from the other all along the line.
+Next weave about four more courses of the woof; these will serve to keep
+the arranged warp-threads still more firmly in place. Then with a red
+pencil rule a horizontal line straight across the warp-strings about
+one-third of an inch above the woven portion. Wind on another bobbin
+some wool and weave it to and fro until the space between the woven
+portion and the red line is filled in. Between each course the comb must
+beat the woof-threads firmly down. It is often necessary to weave over
+some portions of the surface more than over others as the threads pack
+down tighter in some parts. The loom should be now in perfect order for
+commencing work. The preparatory weaving that has been done is often
+useful afterwards as a selvedge.
+
+It is necessary to have a coloured drawing of the design for frequent
+reference whilst the work is in progress; also a tracing of the outline
+must be marked upon the warp-threads for the worker's further guidance.
+The tracing upon the threads must be a reflection of the pattern owing
+to the fact that the work is done from the back. It does not affect the
+matter if the design is a symmetrical one, but to find the lions of
+England facing the wrong way in some completed piece of heraldic work
+would be most annoying. In order to get a tracing of the design upon the
+threads, a sheet of paper, with a distinct outline of the pattern upon
+it, must be attached, possibly by pinning, to the further side of the
+warp-threads, exactly where the weaving is to take place. The outline
+will be clearly perceivable through the threads, and the next process is
+to take pen and Indian ink and make a dot upon each warp-thread in
+sequence round the outline of the pattern. When this is completed, the
+tracing-paper can be removed, and the dots upon the warp must be taken
+all round each thread instead of marking one side only. The marking
+round is done by holding a warp-thread between the finger and thumb,
+placing the side of the nib against one of the dots, and then twisting
+the thread to and fro against it. All the marks upon the first thread
+are treated in succession in this way, then the next thread is taken up
+and treated in similar fashion, and so on until all are done. Fig. 180
+shows a leaf marked upon the warp-threads in readiness for working.
+This marking should be clear, sharp, and decided, all the lines being
+taken horizontally round, as in fig. 180; if the pattern seems to run up
+a thread, a mark just half-way up is sufficient guide. In a piece of
+work of any size the tracing must be done, a part at a time, for the
+threads moving slightly when the warp is unwound and the web wound up
+may displace the marks and make the guiding lines incorrect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE TECHNIQUE OF WEAVING
+
+  Weaving--Commencing and Fastening Off--The Interlocking Stitch--Fine
+  Drawing--Shading--Added After-stitches.
+
+
+The way in which the woof threading in and out of the warp makes the web
+is shown at C, fig. 179. Here the woof has been taken once to and fro; a
+movement called a weft or a course, one way only, goes by the name of a
+half pass or a shoot. By the use of the cross stave for one direction,
+and of the coats for the other, the tediousness of the process of
+darning in and out and so picking up the right threads is avoided. It is
+not always practical to make use of these appliances; for instance, in
+working over only two or three threads it may not be worth while, but
+when they can be made use of the work is done twice as rapidly by their
+help.
+
+The bobbin enters the loom rather high up, for there the division of
+threads is greatest. One hand starts the bobbin upon its journey, the
+other hand, entering between the divided warp-threads, takes it on and
+out as required. Sometimes the bobbin has to go the entire way between
+the leaves, and at others it may be only over two or three threads, this
+depending upon the pattern. To enable the bobbin to make the return
+passage, the warp must be redivided, the threads that are at the back
+must be brought to the front; this is managed by the help of the
+coats--a bunch of them is taken in the hand in order to pull forward the
+threads to which they are attached. This can be done by sections all
+along the line, or just in one part of it if it be so required.
+
+The weft is almost always taken in horizontal lines to and fro. The
+exceptions to this rule occur when it is very evident that to run up
+and down a narrow slanting line from end to end is far simpler than to
+work up in a horizontal zigzag fashion along it.
+
+About an inch of thread is left at the end and at the commencement of
+each length of weft; these are secured by the tight packing down of the
+threads above them, so there is as a rule no need for any knot or
+fastening off, which would be necessary only in the case of commencing
+or ending off round a single thread, but it is important for the future
+durability of the work to see that the ends are secured. Sometimes a
+commencement or a finish is made just where a natural division of the
+fabric occurs; in this case, the end of thread would not be secure, for
+it might work loose or appear upon the right side. This can usually be
+avoided by commencing a little further along the line. The few times
+that fastening off or on is necessary, the thread can be run into the
+part already woven with a smaller needle, or else be knotted on to a
+loose end of wool.
+
+The bobbins not actually in use hang down fixed as in lace work by a
+half-hitch. Fig. 181 shows this in process of making; the loop is passed
+from the finger on to the bobbin; it will unwind as wanted and yet hold
+firm whilst hanging down. The thread is always carried, if practicable,
+from one place to where it is next required, in order to avoid
+unnecessary breaking off. Tapestry is sometimes woven with both sides
+alike, which means only that all the ends must be cut close off. It is
+said that work so treated is quite durable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.]
+
+Special care must be taken that the weft is turned neatly round at the
+margins, because if it is at all loose there the work has a ragged,
+untidy appearance. This applies also to any turnings that may occur in
+other parts due to the carrying out of the pattern; if in these places
+the thread is too loose upon the warp, the fabric will be uneven and
+pushed out of place; if on the other hand the thread there is too tight,
+the slits will gape, and if these are afterwards closed by stitching,
+the entire material will be drawn in. A new thread is never commenced
+actually at the margin, for it would then be seen upon the right side;
+it is quite easy to avoid this happening by commencing an inch further
+in. This may entail beginning in a direction which is apparently wrong
+for picking up the proper threads, that is, those not picked up in the
+row below; but this must happen at times, and the work packs down and
+quite prevents the warp showing, as it might be inclined to do in such a
+case. It is sometimes at the margin a good plan to pick up two
+warp-threads together, for this emphasises the edge rather pleasantly;
+this might be advisable in carrying out a long ribbon-like border of any
+kind.
+
+After each shoot, the point of the bobbin, the comb, or maybe the
+fingers, should press down the woof to make it lie close upon the row
+before, and so entirely cover up the warp. Fig. 182 shows the comb in
+action, and also the bobbins hanging. The weft must be left a little
+slack along the line for this purpose, and some experience is required
+in order to leave just the right slackness. The turn at the edge is
+arranged first, and then the thread eased evenly along its length in
+readiness for being pressed down; it must have the appearance not of
+running straight across the warp-strings, but of lying loosely round
+them. For packing down a long line, much more play of weft is required
+than for a short one.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.]
+
+The usual fault with beginners is to draw the web too tight here and
+there. This is a fault to be specially avoided, for it causes the fabric
+to be drawn in, and to vary in width, spoiling its appearance and making
+the threads difficult to work upon; also the packing down of the weft
+could not be properly done, which would cause the warp-threads to be
+exposed in parts.
+
+The thoroughness of this packing down of the weft is for several reasons
+very important. The durability of the work is much affected by it, both
+for the securing of the ends of wool already mentioned, and for the
+making of a strong, well-knit piece of fabric. Another reason is, that
+the drawing of the various forms in the design may be made incorrect, in
+this way: suppose an apple were woven in, apparently correctly, but the
+wefts were not pressed down thoroughly, the weaving and packing down of
+the wefts above it would be sure to press the part underneath closer
+together, and the effect of this would be to make the round apple assume
+a flattened oval shape, and cause similar changes throughout the work.
+
+It has already been mentioned that wherever a change of colour occurs
+vertically, that is, in the direction of the warp-threads, there results
+of necessity a division or slit in the web; the slit, which may be of
+any length, if noticeable, must be closed. This can be done whilst the
+weaving is in progress by a method of interlocking the two wefts as they
+meet, or else by stitching up at the back when the work is finished. The
+latter way is called fine drawing, and must be very carefully done,
+especially with large tapestries.
+
+Both methods are used; the first takes longer, but is the most durable.
+Old and worn tapestries will usually be seen to have given way where
+this stitching up at the back has taken place. In small pieces of work,
+however, there is not much likelihood of strain, so the oversewing at
+the back answers fairly well. The two ways can be used in conjunction.
+Supposing a border, owing to its being of a different colour, had to be
+joined the entire length of the work, the interlocking stitches might be
+made at intervals of about half an inch, and when the work was finished
+the oversewing at the back might be taken the entire length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.]
+
+Fig. 183 is a diagram illustrating the way in which the wefts may be
+interlocked whilst the weaving goes on. Examination of the drawing will
+probably be sufficient explanation; however, interlocking is effected
+thus: Commencing at the base, run a weft of the darker wool to and fro,
+leaving it slack at the turning point. A half pass of the
+lighter-coloured woof is then run through, it is threaded in an upward
+direction through the slack loop of the darker wool, waits there whilst
+another weft of the darker colour is worked, and then is threaded down
+through the second loop that has been formed, and returns to the
+starting-point. It then comes back again and is threaded upwards through
+this same loop, and waits, as before, for another to be formed, and
+returns back through it--and so on. If this is done properly, no change
+is visible on the right side. The joined weft will last as long as any
+other part of the weaving.
+
+The process of stitching up at the back is simply an oversewing with
+silk or other strong thread. The stitches must be rather close, drawing
+the edges just sufficiently together, and they must not show through to
+the right side. The stitching together should be done while the work is
+on the loom, since the web would then be in less danger of pulling out
+of shape.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.]
+
+Shading in tapestry weaving is carried out by a hatching process which
+is most simply explained by a diagram (fig. 184). The difficulty is not
+in the working, but in getting the form of the shadow or light correctly
+expressed. There is no need for fine gradation of colour and tone, for
+the shading looks best when carried out simply and boldly, but the
+drawing of it should be decided and good. The above figure gives but one
+intermediary tone in shading from one colour to another, which is the
+ancient method of working; at the present day the weavers in the
+_Manufacture des Gobelins_ employ several other intermediary tones, thus
+allowing of finer gradation; possibly however these fine gradations are
+not of such great importance, and so need not have an unnecessary amount
+of attention and time devoted to their accomplishment.
+
+The student will do well to examine fine examples and make careful
+drawings from them, since this will teach the right way of going to work
+better than anything else can. Fig. 185 is simply a shaded leaf taken at
+random from a piece of weaving; the same leaf was shown in outline in
+fig. 180, so the two show the commencement and completion of the same
+piece. It will be noticed upon studying tapestry that usually all the
+light parts of a work are hatched with the same colour, often a buff
+shade, those of rich tapestries with gold thread. This sameness of
+colour throughout gives unity to the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.]
+
+Sometimes after the weaving is completed a few finishing touches can be
+satisfactorily put in by means of single stitches taken through the
+fabric with a sharp-pointed embroidery needle. The dots representing the
+seeds upon a strawberry could be stitched in afterwards in this way, for
+to insert them while the work is going on would be very tedious. This
+kind of thing must not be overdone, however, for the stitches are apt,
+unless very deftly treated, to have a laid-on look, and care must be
+taken not to mar the evenly ribbed effect, which is one of the
+characteristics of tapestry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.]
+
+This weaving is a most fascinating kind of work, as will be found upon a
+trial. The simplest patterns look very interesting when woven, and, on
+the other hand, the work can be carried to any degree of complexity that
+the worker desires. For a first trial a piece might be done with no
+attempt at shading; even one such as that illustrated at fig. 186 would
+be suitable. This example happens to be a form particularly easy for
+carrying out in weaving. The worker should begin at the lower right-hand
+corner and work the successive flights of steps diagonally, as shown by
+the unfinished portion of the diagram.
+
+In the way of actual technique there is in the art of tapestry weaving
+not nearly as much to be learnt as there is in embroidery, for there are
+no varieties of methods and of stitch to be acquired; still for a person
+to become a skilled weaver, capable of carrying out large wall hangings,
+is a thing very difficult of attainment--indeed it is said that it takes
+as long as fifteen years of constant application to acquire the
+necessary knowledge and skill. To carry out designs of less magnitude
+and intricacy is a very different matter; success in this smaller way is
+far more easily attained, and is well within the reach of unprofessional
+people.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
+
+
+PLATE I.--_A Detail from a XIVth Century English Cope._--The figure of
+Christ which is shown in this plate is taken from a central group,
+representing the coronation of the Virgin, in a famous cope in the
+possession of Colonel J. E. Butler-Bowdon. The ground is of rich red
+silk velvet; the face, hands, and linings of the draperies are worked in
+silk in split stitch; the drapery, crown, and surrounding architectural
+decoration are in gold thread couched by the early method. The twisted
+column with oak leaves and the five lobed arch are both characteristic
+of English work of this period. Note the use of pearls in the lion's
+head and in the acorns, also the charmingly drawn bird. An interesting
+technical point displayed in this example is that the work is done
+directly on to the velvet ground, instead of being first worked upon
+linen and afterwards as a completed piece of embroidery applied to the
+velvet. The method in use here, if at all possible, is always the most
+satisfactory.
+
+Size of detail, about eleven inches by six.
+
+
+PLATE II.--_Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope preserved at
+Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire._--The cope is not now in its original state,
+for it has been divided into two parts and used for the decoration of
+the altar. The background is composed of a thin greyish white silk
+backed with a stronger material. The white may have been originally some
+other colour; it is, however, in its present state, very beautiful and
+harmonious. The drawing of the features in this cope is remarkably
+refined and true to nature (the reproduction does not do full justice to
+the original). The ancient method, of working the faces in split stitch
+commencing with the middle of the cheek and continuing spirally round,
+then afterwards pressing the centre down by some mechanical means, is
+plainly to be observed here. The effective drawing of the tresses of
+hair in alternate lines of two colours is well seen in the left-hand
+example. The gold thread which is freely made use of all over the cope,
+upon the draperies, nimbi, and surrounding foliage, is marvellously
+bright and sparkling, although nearly six hundred years old. The
+manufacture of untarnishable gold for embroidery purposes seems beyond
+present day enterprise.
+
+Width of nimbus, two and a half inches.
+
+
+PLATE III.--_A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet, probably of Sicilian
+work. Date about 1400._--In this interesting example of quilting, which
+is exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum, the ground is composed
+of a buff-coloured linen. The raised effect is obtained by an
+interpadding of wool. The background is run over irregularly with white
+thread, in order to keep it more or less flat, and the design, which is
+in fairly high relief, is outlined with brown thread. The entire
+coverlet is embroidered with scenes from the life of Tristan. Tristan
+frequently engaged in battle against King Languis, the oppressor of his
+country. This detail represents "How King Languis (of Ireland) sent to
+Cornwall for the tribute."
+
+Size of detail, two feet by three.
+
+
+PLATE IV.--_A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered in coloured
+silk threads upon a white linen ground._--This is a piece of German XVth
+century work exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is
+embroidered almost entirely in one stitch, which might be described as a
+variety of herring-bone. The design is made up of two motives which
+repeat alternately along the band--a square shaped tree and a circle,
+the latter decorated with floral sprays and, in the centre of it, a
+group of emblems. Down the middle of the design runs a series of names
+in fine Gothic lettering--"Ursula" and "Augustinus" being the two that
+occur in this plate.
+
+Width of embroidered band, four and a half inches.
+
+
+PLATE V.--_A portion of a late XVth century Orphrey, embroidered with
+the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham._--The ground is of red
+velvet, and is embroidered with gold thread and coloured silks. The two
+shields here represented bear the arms of the families of de Bohun and
+Fitzwalter. Each shield has for supporters two swans, and is surrounded
+by floral sprays. The Stafford knot unites the sprays between the
+shields. The chasuble upon which this orphrey is placed is made of a
+lovely brocaded silk decorated with falcons, peahens, and roses.
+
+Width of embroidered orphrey, about eight inches.
+
+
+PLATE VI.--_A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth century
+Embroidered Picture representing the story of Daphne._--The picture is
+worked in coloured wools and silks in cross stitch upon canvas, and is
+an admirable example of this kind of work, and this particular detail is
+a good illustration of a very satisfactory treatment of foliage. The
+whole panel measures about seven feet by two, and is exhibited in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+Height of detail, ten and a half inches.
+
+
+PLATE VII.--_An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth century Wool-work
+Curtain._--This curtain, the property of Miss Killick, is a pretty
+example of a small crewel-work hanging. The design is of a type that was
+often used upon hangings of that period. It is embroidered with brightly
+coloured wools upon a white linen ground, and is in a good state of
+preservation. Much ingenuity as well as variety of stitching are shown
+in the execution of the work.
+
+Size of curtain, about five feet by three.
+
+
+PLATE VIII.--_A portion of a large XVIIth century Linen Hanging
+embroidered with coloured wools._--In both design and execution this
+curtain is remarkably fine. The entire hanging is about eighteen feet in
+width by seven in height. It is embroidered with a conventional
+representation of a forest; in the branches of the trees lodge all kinds
+of birds and beasts. The type of design shown in this plate and in the
+last is derived from Eastern work; its introduction into England was due
+to the increase of trade with oriental nations, which developed about
+this time.
+
+Size of detail, about six feet by four.
+
+
+PLATE IX.--_Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth century English
+Sampler._--The letters and surrounding decoration shown in this example
+of cut or open work are built up on a square network of warp and weft
+threads that were left at regular intervals throughout the space, when
+the unnecessary threads were withdrawn, and then covered with a kind of
+darning stitch. The letters are worked in buttonhole stitch, each fresh
+line being taken into the heading of the last one. The other parts of
+the work are carried out in either buttonhole or overcast stitch. The
+complete sampler is a long narrow strip of linen, across which run
+specimen bands of various kinds of work. It is exhibited in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum.
+
+Width of cutwork detail, six inches.
+
+
+PLATE X.--_An Embroidered Sampler._--The work is carried out in coloured
+silks in minute cross-stitch and occasional rows of satin stitch, upon a
+ground of fine single-thread canvas. It is dated 1798, and was worked by
+Alice Knight, the author's great-grandmother. The birds, trees, and
+flowers, the charming little border patterns, and the comical cats
+standing on either hillocks or housetops, are all characteristic of
+sampler work. Working the sampler was once the regular introduction to
+mending, marking, and embroidery, and one was done by almost every
+XVIIIth century child as a part of education, indeed the practice of
+working samplers was continued some decades into the XIXth century.
+
+Actual size of original, eighteen inches by twelve.
+
+
+PLATE XI.--_An Example of Persian Embroidery._--Formerly in the
+collection of Lord Leighton, and now in that of the London County
+Council's Central School of Arts and Crafts. The embroidery is carried
+out almost entirely in chain stitch with brilliantly coloured silks,
+upon a fine semi-transparent ground. The flowers that appear dark in the
+reproduction are worked in a bright rosy red, others are yellow and
+orange, and the leaves are in pale grey green outlined with a dark
+myrtle shade of the same.
+
+Size of panel, about five feet by four.
+
+
+PLATE XII.--_A Detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth._--The entire
+surface of this fine white linen cloth is strewn with a profusion of
+beautiful flowers, worked in floss silk in bright colours. The flowers
+were all drawn directly from nature by the worker, Mrs. W. R. Lethaby.
+
+
+PLATE XIII.--_An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by Miss May Morris,
+designed by Mr. Philip Webb._--The work is carried out with floss silk
+in bright colours and gold thread, both background and pattern being
+embroidered. The five crosses, that are placed at regular intervals
+between the vine leaves, are couched in gold passing upon a silvery silk
+ground.
+
+
+PLATE XIV.--_Two Pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from Tombs in
+Egypt._--These are exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The
+upper example is about five inches square, dated IIIrd to VIIth century,
+Egypto-Roman work, and is said to have decorated a child's tunic. It is
+woven in coloured silks upon a green ground; the colours are still
+wonderfully fresh and bright. Weavers may see various interesting
+technical as well as other points in this early work. For instance, how
+the difficulty of the narrow detached vertical lines, necessitated by
+change of colour in the weft, has been overcome by using surface
+stitching instead, the easier horizontal lines being woven in the usual
+way. A good deal of this surface stitching can be seen in the ancient
+weaving; sometimes an entire pattern is picked out by this method, the
+ground having been first woven all over in some plain colour.
+
+The lower border pattern is a band of weaving about two inches in width,
+Saracenic work. It is woven in coloured silks and linen thread upon the
+actual warp threads of the garment that it decorates. The weft threads
+were probably omitted for the space of one and a half inches when the
+fabric was being made in order that some ornamentation might be put in,
+in this way. Some of the weft threads have perished, leaving the warp
+exposed to sight; this enables the student to understand better the
+manner in which it was carried out.
+
+
+PLATE XV.--_An Example of a Tapestry Field strewn with Flowers._--This
+kind of decoration is characteristic of many tapestry grounds, for the
+style is particularly suited to the method of work, and very happy in
+result. The detail shown in this plate is taken from a piece of late
+XVIth century Flemish work; it carries on, however, a much earlier
+tradition. The ground is of a dark blue colour, and the flowers varied
+as in nature.
+
+
+PLATE XVI.--_A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and gold thread by
+the Author._--The ground is woven with black silk, decorated with gold
+at the top and base. The centre panel is carried out in brightly
+coloured silks and gold thread. The various compartments are filled with
+representations of flowers, birds, and fishes, upon an alternating
+purple and blue background. The dividing lines are of gold thread.
+
+Size of bag, ten inches by six.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
+
+[Illustration: Plate I.--A detail from a XIVth Century English Cope.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate II.--Two Heads from a XIVth Century English Cope
+preserved at Steeple Aston, Oxfordshire.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate III.--A small portion of a Quilted Coverlet,
+probably of Sicilian work. Date about 1400.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IV.--A portion of an Altar Cloth Band, embroidered
+in coloured silk threads upon a white linen ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate V.--A portion of a late XVth Century Orphrey,
+embroidered with the arms of Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VI.--A detail of Foliage taken from a late XVIth
+Century Embroidered Picture, representing the story of Daphne.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VII.--An Embroidered XVIIth or XVIIIth Century
+Wool-work Curtain.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VIII.--A portion of a large XVIIth Century Linen
+Hanging, embroidered with coloured wools.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IX.--Cutwork Lettering taken from a XVIIth Century
+English Sampler.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate X.--An Embroidered Sampler.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XI.--An example of Persian Embroidery.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XII.--A detail from an Embroidered Tablecloth.
+Designed and executed by Mrs. W. R. Lethaby.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XIII.--An Embroidered Altar Frontal, executed by
+Miss May Morris, designed by Mr. Philip Webb.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XIV.--Two pieces of Ancient Weaving taken from
+Tombs in Egypt.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XV.--An example of a Tapestry Field strewn with
+Flowers.]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XVI.--A Tapestry Bag, woven in coloured silk and
+gold thread by the Author.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Altar-cloth band (Plate IV.)
+
+Altar frontal (Plate XIII.)
+
+Appliances, 34
+
+Appliances and materials for tapestry weaving, 315
+
+Applied embroidery, 174
+
+Applied work, 172
+
+
+Background, the, 46
+
+Bag, tapestry (Plate XVI.)
+
+Beads, 50
+
+Bobbins, 321
+
+Braid work, 166
+
+_Broderie anglaise_, 222
+
+Bullions, 235, 256
+
+
+Canvas work, 147
+
+Coat-stave, 333
+
+Collotypes, descriptive notes on, 356
+
+Colour, 72
+
+Comb, 322, 344
+
+Cope at Steeple Aston (Plate II.), 357
+
+Cope, detail from XIVth century English (Plate I.), 356
+
+Cord, 40, 271
+
+Cord-making appliance, 39, 273
+
+Cotton, 49
+
+Couching, 164
+
+Couching gold, ancient method of, 238
+
+Couching gold, usual method, 250
+
+Coverlet, quilted Sicilian (Plate III.), 358
+
+Crewel work, 103
+
+Curtain, XVIIth century (Plate VIII.), 361
+
+Curtain, XVIIth century wool-work (Plate VII.), 361
+
+Cutwork, 213, 221
+
+
+Darned netting, 210
+
+Darning, 196
+
+Darning, pattern, 197
+
+Design, 30, 51
+
+Design for tapestry, 311
+
+Designing, pattern, 51
+
+Directions, practical, 292
+
+Drawn thread work, 213
+
+Dressing the coat-stave, 333
+
+
+Egyptian weaving (Plate XIV.), 364
+
+Emblems, 270
+
+Embroidery frame used as a loom, 323
+
+Embroidery, washing, 297
+
+Embroidery with gold and silver threads, 229
+
+
+Figure work, 69
+
+Fine drawing, 346
+
+Flax threads, 49
+
+Foliage, detail of (Plate VI.), 360
+
+Frames, embroidery, 35
+
+Frame work, 301
+
+Fringes, 280
+
+
+Garniture of work, the, 271
+
+Gold and silver threads, embroidery with, 229
+
+Gold thread embroidery, 229
+
+
+Heraldry, 268
+
+
+Inlaid work, 180
+
+Interlocking stitch, 347
+
+
+Knife, 43
+
+Knots, 118, 286
+
+Knotted cord, 277
+
+Knotted thread, 119
+
+
+Laid work, 168
+
+Lettering, 259
+
+Lettering, cutwork, XVIIth century (Plate IX.), 362
+
+Linen, 47
+
+Loom, 315
+
+
+Madeira work, 222
+
+Marking, 262
+
+Materials, 44
+
+Materials and appliances for tapestry weaving, 315
+
+Materials for gold work, 233
+
+Methods of work, 164
+
+Monograms, 259
+
+
+Needles, 35, 322
+
+
+Objects to work, 31, 314
+
+Open-work fillings, 201
+
+_Opus plumarium_, 101
+
+Orphrey, XVth century (Plate V.), 359
+
+
+Past work, study of, 28, 53
+
+Paste, embroidery, 295
+
+Patch work, 183
+
+Pattern darning, 197
+
+Pattern designing, 51
+
+Pattern tracing, 328
+
+Patterns, transference of, 42, 292
+
+Persian embroidery (Plate XI.), 363
+
+_Petit point_ pictures, 149
+
+Picots, 143
+
+Piercer, 43
+
+Practical directions, 292
+
+Precious stones, 50
+
+Pricker, 42
+
+Puckered work, cure of, 298
+
+Purls, 256
+
+
+Quilting, 189
+
+
+Raised gold work, 253
+
+Raised work, 192
+
+
+Sampler, embroidered (Plate X.), 362
+
+Samplers, 148
+
+Satin, 48
+
+Scissors, 35
+
+Shading, 68, 348
+
+Silk, 48, 327
+
+Silk threads, 49
+
+Silver and gold threads, embroidery with, 229
+
+Spindle, 43
+
+Stands, embroidery frame, 37
+
+Stitches, 75
+
+Stitch, back, 107
+
+Stitch, basket, 131
+
+Stitch, braid, 88
+
+Stitch, bullion, 121
+
+Stitch, buttonhole, 107
+
+Stitch, cable chain, 90
+
+Stitch, chain, 77
+
+Stitch, chequered chain, 84
+
+Stitch, Cretan, 134
+
+Stitch, cross, 152
+
+Stitch, double back stitch, 127
+
+Stitch, feather stitch, 129
+
+Stitch, fishbone, 131
+
+Stitch, French knot, 120
+
+Stitch, Gobelin, 154
+
+Stitch, herring-bone, 126
+
+Stitch, Holbein, 159
+
+Stitch, insertion, various, 139
+
+Stitch, interlocking, 347
+
+Stitch, Irish, 155
+
+Stitch, knot, 124
+
+Stitch, knotted chain, 92
+
+Stitch, long and short, 99
+
+Stitch, open chain, 86
+
+Stitch, overcast, 106
+
+Stitch, plait, 156
+
+Stitch, rococo, 162
+
+Stitch, rope, 86
+
+Stitch, Roumanian, 136
+
+Stitch, satin, 95
+
+Stitch, split, 94
+
+Stitch, stem, 101
+
+Stitch, stroke, 159
+
+Stitch, tailor's buttonhole, 109
+
+Stitch, tambour, 77
+
+Stitch, tent, 153
+
+Stitch, twisted chain, 85
+
+Stitch, two-sided Italian, 156
+
+Stitch, zigzag chain, 83
+
+
+Tablecloth, embroidered (Plate XII.), 364
+
+Tambour frame, 39
+
+Tapestry bag (Plate XVI.), 365
+
+Tapestry, example (Plate XV.), 366
+
+Tapestry weaving, introduction to, 307
+
+Tassels, 283
+
+Tarnish of gold and silver threads, 237
+
+Thimbles, 35
+
+Threads, 49, 299, 327
+
+Threads, gold and silver, 229
+
+Tools, 34
+
+Tools for tapestry weaving, 315
+
+Tracing patterns, 42, 328
+
+Tracing patterns on warp, 336
+
+Transferring patterns, methods of, 292
+
+Transferring patterns, requisites for, 42
+
+
+Velvet, 48
+
+
+Warp, 326
+
+Warping the loom, 328
+
+Washing embroidery, 297
+
+Weaving, 339
+
+Weaving, Egyptian (Plate XIV.), 364
+
+Weaving, tapestry, 305
+
+Work, garniture of, 271
+
+Work, methods of, 164
+
+Work, preparations for, 328
+
+Work, protection and preservation of, 292
+
+Wools, 49, 327
+
+
+Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.
+Edinburgh & London
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+EMBROIDERY MATERIALS
+
+GEORGE KENNING & SON, GOLDSMITHS, GOLD LACEMEN, AND EMBROIDERERS, are
+the actual manufacturers of all materials that are best for Embroidery
+of any and every description.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The following are a few articles from the great variety they
+manufacture: Threads, Tambours, Braids, Laces, and Cords in Gold,
+Silver, Tinsel, and Aluminium; also Spangles, Sequins, Ornaments, and
+Beads of every possible variety.
+
+Please insist on your Draper or Fancy Warehouseman supplying only
+materials manufactured by GEORGE KENNING & SON.
+
+MANUFACTORY: 1/4 LITTLE BRITAIN, E.C.
+
+_And at Liverpool, Glasgow, and Manchester._
+
+RIBBON WEAVING FACTORY, COVENTRY
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+J. MAYGROVE & CO. LTD.
+
+_MILLS_--          _WAREHOUSE_--
+ST. ALBANS.       51 ALDERSGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C.
+
+_Manufacturers of Silks for Weaving and Embroidery._
+
+_For REALLY RELIABLE BOILING and UNFADING DYES._
+
+MAYGROVE'S DUCHESSE FLOSS.
+
+    MAYGROVE'S TWISTED EMBROIDERY.
+
+        MAYGROVE'S FILOSELLE, &c.
+
+UNEQUALLED FOR LUSTRE, PERMANENCE, AND ARTISTIC GRADUATIONS OF COLOUR.
+
+READY FOR USE.
+
+
+FOR WEAVING.
+
+CHINA TRAM                 1000 Shades.
+TUSSAH TRAM AND ORGANZINE   500 Shades.
+ORIENTAL FLOCHE             500 Shades.
+WORSTED YARNS--COTTON YARNS.
+
+
+_STOCKED READY FOR DYEING._
+
+Organzines, Sewings, Flosses, Twists, and SPUN SILKS.
+WORSTED Cords, Genappes, Mohairs, &c. &c.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PLASTER CASTS
+
+LETTERING FOR LETTER CUTTERS BY A. E. R. GILL
+
+Plaster Casts of the Stones shown on the Collotype Plates, numbers 13,
+14, and 15, in the Portfolio, "Manuscript and Inscription Letters," by
+Edward Johnston, price 3s. 6d. net, are obtainable from the Publisher,
+or direct from Messrs. C. SMITH & SONS, Moulders, 15 Kentish Town Road,
+London, N.W., at the following prices:--
+
+_Roman Capital Letters (Incised)._        }
+_"Lower-case" Italics, &c. (Incised)._    }  12s. _net per set of three._
+_"Raised" Letters, Capitals, &c._         }
+
+PACKED--DELIVERED FREE IN LONDON--CARRIAGE FORWARD FOR COUNTRY
+
+These Casts being facsimiles of the actual stones make the best kind of
+models for Letter Cutters and Sculptors, and all who have to do with
+Inscriptions. Being small, they are easily handled.
+
+The Portfolio, "Manuscript and Inscription Letters," by Edward Johnston,
+is intended as a working supplement to his handbook, "Writing and
+Illuminating, and Lettering," price 6s. 6d. net. It contains 16 plates
+in all, measuring 9-7/8 x 12-3/8 inches, with full descriptions and
+notes.
+
+JOHN HOGG, _Publisher_, 13 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, E.C.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ROBERT S. RONALD
+
+Decorator and Upholsterer
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Loom Maker to the Royal School of Art, South Kensington
+
+Table or Pedestal Looms to Order
+
+Prices on Application
+
+Office and Works--
+ST. ANN'S HILL, WANDSWORTH,
+LONDON, S.W.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
+
+
+BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. Third Edition.
+122 Drawings by NOEL ROOKE. 8 Pages Collotype Reproductions. 352 pp. 5s.
+net.
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Times_.
+
+  "... A capital proof of the reasoned thoroughness in workmanship,
+  which is the first article in the creed of those who ... are
+  attempting to carry into practice the industrial teaching of Ruskin
+  and William Morris."
+
+
+SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY. By H. WILSON. Second Edition. 280 Diagrams by
+the Author. 32 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 500 pp. 6s. 6d. net.
+
+Containing special chapters, fully illustrated, based on demonstrations
+and with notes by Professor UNNO BISEI and Professor T. KOBAYASHI,
+of the Imperial Fine Art College at Tokyo, giving the traditional method
+of Casting, Damascening, Incrustation, Inlaying, Engraving, and
+Metal Colouring still practised in Japan, also on Niello, the Making
+of Boxes and Card Cases, with chapters on Egyptian and Oriental
+methods of work.
+
+
+WOODCARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. 79 Drawings by the
+Author. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 320 pp. 5s. net.
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Builders' Journal_.
+
+  "Undoubtedly the best guide to Woodcarving extant.... A practical
+  work, written with clearness and literary power by a practical man
+  ... of great artistic talent.... The illustrations are excellent."
+
+
+STAINED GLASS WORK. By C. W. WHALL. 73 Diagrams by Two of His
+Apprentices. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 392 pp. 5s. net.
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Scotsman_.
+
+  "It provides an exposition at once instructive and interesting of
+  the workshop practice of the craft ... of Stained Glass, animated
+  throughout by an encouraging and cheerful sense of the dignity and
+  the elevating influence of such an occupation."
+
+
+EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING. By Mrs. A. H. CHRISTIE. 178 Diagrams
+and Illustrations by the Author. 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions.
+320 pp. 6s. net. (_Third Edition._)
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Pall Mall Gazette_.
+
+  "Mrs. Christie has performed her task to admiration, ... and her
+  lucid explanations of various kinds of stitches ... should be of
+  value to all workers at embroidery or tapestry weaving and to
+  novices anxious to learn."
+
+
+WRITING AND ILLUMINATING, AND LETTERING. By EDWARD JOHNSTON. 227
+Illustrations and Diagrams by the Author and NOEL ROOKE. 8 Pages of
+Examples in Red and Black. 24 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 512 pp.
+(_Fifth Edition._)
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Athenaeum_.
+
+  "... This book belongs to that extremely rare class in which every
+  line bears the impress of complete mastery of the subject. We
+  congratulate Mr. Johnston on having produced a work at once original
+  and complete."
+
+
+HAND-LOOM WEAVING. By LUTHER HOOPER. 125 Drawings by the Author and NOEL
+ROOKE. Coloured and Collotype Reproductions. 368 pp. 6s. net.
+
+EXTRACT FROM _The Morning Post_.
+
+  "... Every phase and process in weaving is described with so clear
+  and careful an exactitude, that, helped as the text is by the
+  Author's sketches and diagrams, the reader should have no difficulty
+  in conquering with its aid the rudiments of the craft."
+
+
+PORTFOLIOS (in the Series) already issued.
+
+SCHOOL COPIES AND EXAMPLES. Selected by W. R. LETHABY and A. H.
+CHRISTIE. 12 Drawing Copies (1 in colours), with Descriptive
+Letterpress. 3s. 6d. net.
+
+MANUSCRIPT AND INSCRIPTION LETTERS. For Schools and Classes and the Use
+of Craftsmen. By EDWARD JOHNSTON. With 5 Plates by A. E. R. GILL, 16
+Plates in all. Full Notes and Descriptions by the Author. 3s. 6d. net.
+(_Second Edition._)
+
+
+NEW VOLUME IN THE PRESS
+
+HERALDRY FOR CRAFTSMEN AND DESIGNERS
+
+BY
+
+W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A.
+
+_Further Volumes and Portfolios in preparation._
+
+
+ON WORKMANSHIP
+
+A LECTURE BY H. WILSON
+
+AUTHOR OF "SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY"
+
+1s. 6d. net
+
+
+JOHN HOGG,
+13 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING***
+
+
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