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diff --git a/2036.txt b/2036.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..83d519f --- /dev/null +++ b/2036.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9402 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Eight Years' Wandering in Ceylon, by Samuel White Baker + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Eight Years' Wandering in Ceylon + +Author: Samuel White Baker + +Posting Date: November 19, 2008 [EBook #2036] +Release Date: January, 2000 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EIGHT YEARS' WANDERING IN CEYLON *** + + + + +Produced by Garry Gill. HTML version by Al Haines. + + + + + + + + + +Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon + + +by + +Samuel White Baker + + + + +CONTENTS. + +CHAPTER I. + +Colombo--Dullness of the Town--Cinnamon Garden--A Cingalese +Appo--Ceylon Sport--Jungle Fever--Newera Ellia--Energy of Sir E. +Barnes--Influence of the Governor--Projected Improvements. + + +CHAPTER II. + +Past Scenes--Attractions of Ceylon--Emigration--Difficulties in +Settling--Accidents and Casualties--An Eccentric +Groom--Insubordination--Commencement of Cultivation--Sagacity of the +Elephant--Disappointments--"Death" in the Settlement--Shocking +Pasturage--Success of Emigrants--"A Good Knock-about kind of a Wife". + + +CHAPTER III. + +Task Completed--The Mountain-top--Change in the Face of +Nature--Original Importance of Newera Ellia--"The Path of a Thousand +Princes"--Vestiges of Former Population--Mountains--The Highlands of +Ouva--Ancient Methods of Irrigation--Remains of Aqueducts--The Vale of +Rubies--Ancient Ophir--Discovery of Gold-Mineral Resources--Native +Blacksmiths. + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Poverty of Soil--Ceylon Sugar--Fatality of Climate--Supposed Fertility +of Soil--Native Cultivation--Neglect of Rice Cultivation--Abandoned +Reservoirs--Former Prosperity--Ruins of Cities--Pollanarua--The Great +Dagoba--Architectural Relics--The Rock Temple--Destruction of +Population--Neglected Capabilities--Suggestions for Increasing +Population--Progress of Pestilence--Deserted Villages--Difficulties in +the Cultivation of Rice--Division of Labor--Native Agriculture. + + +CHAPTER V. + +Real Cost of Land--Want of Communication--Coffee-planting--Comparison +between French and English +Settlers--Landslips--Forest-clearing--Manuring--The Coffee +Bug--Rats--Fatted Stock--Suggestions for Sheep-farming--Attack of a +Leopard--Leopards and Chetahs--Boy Devoured--Traps--Musk Cats and the +Mongoose--Vermin of Ceylon. + + +CHAPTER VI. + +"Game Eyes" for Wild Sports--Enjoyments of Wild Life--Cruelty of +Sports--Native Hunters--Moormen Traders--Their wretched Guns--Rifles +and Smooth-bores--Heavy Balls and Heavy Metal--Beattie's Rifles--Balls +and Patches--Experiments--The Double-groove--Power of Heavy +Metal--Curious Shot at a Bull Elephant--African and Ceylon +Elephants--Structure of Skull--Lack of Trophies--Boar-spears and +Hunting-knives--"Bertram"--A Boar Hunt--Fatal Cut. + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Curious Phenomenon--Panorama of Ouva--South-west Monsoon--Hunting +Followers--Fort M'Donald--River--Jungle Paths--Dangerous +Locality--Great Waterfall--Start for Hunting--The Find--A Gallant +Stag--"Bran" and "Lucifer"--"Phrenzy's" Death--Buck at Bay--The Cave +Hunting-box--"Madcap's" Dive--Elk Soup--Former Inundation--"Bluebeard" +leads off--"Hecate's" Course--The Elk's Leap--Variety of Deer--The +Axis--Ceylon Bears--Variety of Vermin--Trials for Hounds--Hounds and +their Masters--A Sportsman "shut up"--A Corporal and Centipede. + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Observations on Nature in the Tropics--The Dung Beetle--The +Mason-fly--Spiders--Luminous Insects--Efforts of a Naturalist--Dogs +Worried by Leeches--Tropical Diseases--Malaria--Causes of +Infection--Disappearance of the "Mina"--Poisonous Water--Well-digging +Elephants. + + +CHAPTER IX. + +Instinct and Reason--Tailor Birds and Grosbeaks--The White Ant--Black +Ants at War--Wanderoo Monkeys--Habits of Elephants--Elephants in the +Lake--Herd of Elephants Bathing--Elephant-shooting--The Rencontre--The +Charge--Caught by the Tail--Horse Gored by a Buffalo--Sagacity of +Dogs--"Bluebeard"--His Hunt--A True Hound. + + +CHAPTER X. + +Wild Fruits--Ingredients for a "Soupe Maigre"--Orchidaceous +Plants--Wild Nutmegs--Native Oils--Cinnamon--Primeval Forests--Valuable +Woods--The Mahawelli River--Variety of Palms--Cocoa-nut +Toddy--Arrack--Cocoa-nut Oil--Cocoa-nut-planting--The Talipot Palm--The +Areca Palm--Betel Chewing--Sago Nuts--Varicty of Bees--Waste of +Beeswax--Edible Fungi--Narcotic Puff-ball--Intoxicating Drugs--Poisoned +Cakes--The "Sack Tree"--No Gum Trees of Value in Ceylon. + + +CHAPTER XI. + +Indigenous Productions--Botanical Gardens--Suggested Experiments--Lack +of Encouragement to Gold-diggers--Prospects of Gold-digging--We want +"Nuggets"--Who is to Blame?--Governor's Salary--Fallacies of a Five +Years' Reign--Neglected Education of the People--Responsibilities of +Conquest--Progress of Christianity. + + +CHAPTER XII. + +The Pearl Fishery--Desolation of the Coast--Harbor of +Trincomalee--Fatal Attack by a Shark--Ferocious Crocodiles--Salt +Monopoly--Salt Lakes--Method of Collection--Neglect of Ceylon +Hides--Fish and Fishing--Primitive Tackle--Oysters and Penknives--A +Night Bivouac for a Novice--No Dinner, but a Good Fire--Wild Yams and +Consequences--The Elephants' Duel--A Hunting Hermitage--Bluebeard's +last Hunt--The Leopard--Bluebeard's Death--Leopard Shot. + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +Wild Denizens of Forest and Lake--Destroyers of Reptiles--The Tree +Duck--The Mysteries of Night in the Forest--The Devil-Bird--The +Iguanodon in Miniature--Outrigger Canoes--The Last Glimpse of Ceylon--A +Glance at Old Times. + + + + +EIGHT YEARS' WANDERINGS + + + +CHAPTER I. + +Colombo--Dullness of the Town--Cinnamon Garden--A Cingalese +Appo--Ceylon Sport--Jungle Fever--Newera Ellia--Energy of Sir E. +Barnes--Influence of the Governor--Projected Improvements. + + +It was in the year 1845 that the spirit of wandering allured me toward +Ceylon: little did I imagine at that time that I should eventually +become a settler. + +The descriptions of its sports, and the tales of hairbreadth escapes +from elephants, which I had read in various publications, were sources +of attraction against which I strove in vain; and I at length +determined upon the very wild idea of spending twelve months in Ceylon +jungles. + +It is said that the delights of pleasures in anticipation exceed the +pleasures themselves: in this case doubtless some months of great +enjoyment passed in making plans of every description, until I at +length arrived in Colombo, Ceylon's seaport capital. + +I never experienced greater disappointment in an expectation than on my +first view of Colombo. I had spent some time at Mauritius and Bourbon +previous to my arrival, and I soon perceived that the far-famed Ceylon +was nearly a century behind either of those small islands. + +Instead of the bustling activity of the Port Louis harbor in Mauritius, +there were a few vessels rolling about in the roadstead, and some forty +or fifty fishing canoes hauled up on the sandy beach. There was a +peculiar dullness throughout the town--a sort of something which seemed +to say, "Coffee does not pay." There was a want of spirit in +everything. The ill-conditioned guns upon the fort looked as though +not intended to defend it; the sentinels looked parboiled; the very +natives sauntered rather than walked; the very bullocks crawled along +in the midday sun, listlessly dragging the native carts. Everything +and everybody seemed enervated, except those frightfully active people +in all countries and climates, "the custom-house officers:" these +necessary plagues to society gave their usual amount of annoyance. + +What struck me the most forcibly in Colombo was the want of shops. In +Port Louis the wide and well-paved streets were lined with excellent +"magasins" of every description; here, on the contrary, it was +difficult to find anything in the shape of a shop until I was +introduced to a soi-disant store, where everything was to be purchased +from a needle to a crowbar, and from satin to sail-cloth; the useful +predominating over the ornamental in all cases. It was all on a poor +scale and after several inquiries respecting the best hotel, I located +myself at that termed the Royal or Seager's Hotel. This was airy, +white and clean throughout; but there was a barn-like appearance, as +there is throughout most private dwellings in Colombo, which banished +all idea of comfort. + +A good tiffin concluded, which produced a happier state of mind, I +ordered a carriage for a drive to the Cinnamon Gardens. The general +style of Ceylon carriages appeared in the shape of a caricature of a +hearse: this goes by the name of a palanquin carriage. Those usually +hired are drawn by a single horse, whose natural vicious propensities +are restrained by a low system of diet. + +In this vehicle, whose gaunt steed was led at a melancholy trot by an +equally small-fed horsekeeper, I traversed the environs of Colombo. +Through the winding fort gateway, across the flat Galle Face (the +race-course), freshened by the sea-breeze as the waves break upon its +western side; through the Colpettytopes of cocoanut trees shading the +road, and the houses of the better class of European residents to the +right and left; then turning to the left--a few minutes of +expectation--and behold the Cinnamon Gardens! + +What fairy-like pleasure-grounds have we fondly anticipated! what +perfumes of spices, and all that our childish imaginations had pictured +as the ornamental portions of a cinnamon garden! + +A vast area of scrubby, low jungle, composed of cinnamon bushes, is +seen to the right and left, before and behind. Above, is a cloudless +sky and a broiling sun; below, is snow-white sand of quartz, curious +only in the possibility of its supporting vegetation. Such is the soil +in which the cinnamon delights; such are the Cinnamon Gardens, in which +I delight not. They are an imposition, and they only serve as an +addition to the disappointments of a visitor to Colombo. In fact, the +whole place is a series of disappointments. You see a native woman +clad in snow-white petticoats, a beautiful tortoiseshell comb fastened +in her raven hair; you pass her--you look back--wonderful! she has a +beard! Deluded stranger, this is only another disappointment; it is a +Cingalese Appo--a man--no, not a man--a something male in petticoats; a +petty thief, a treacherous, cowardly villain, who would perpetrate the +greatest rascality had he only the pluck to dare it. In fact, in this +petticoated wretch you see a type of the nation of Cingalese. + +On the morning following my arrival in Ceylon, I was delighted to see +several persons seated at the "table-d'hote" when I entered the room, +as I was most anxious to gain some positive information respecting the +game of the island, the best localities, etc., etc. I was soon engaged +in conversation, and one of my first questions naturally turned upon +sport. + +"Sport!" exclaimed two gentlemen simultaneously--"sport! there is no +sport to be had in Ceylon!"--"at least the race-week is the only sport +that I know of," said the taller gentleman. + +"No sport!" said I, half energetically and half despairingly. "Absurd! +every book on Ceylon mentions the amount of game as immense; and as to +elephants--" + +Here I was interrupted by the same gentleman. "All gross +exaggerations," said he--"gross exaggerations; in fact, inventions to +give interest to a book. I have an estate in the interior, and I have +never seen a wild elephant. There may be a few in the jungles of +Ceylon, but very few, and you never see them." + +I began to discover the stamp of my companion from his expression, "You +never see them." Of course I concluded that he had never looked for +them; and I began to recover front the first shock which his +exclamation, "There is no sport in Ceylon!" had given me. + +I subsequently discovered that my new and non-sporting acquaintances +were coffee-planters of a class then known as the Galle Face planters, +who passed their time in cantering about the Colombo race-course and +idling in the town, while their estates lay a hundred miles distant, +uncared for, and naturally ruining their proprietors. + +That same afternoon, to my delight and surprise, I met an old +Gloucestershire friend in an officer of the Fifteenth Regiment, then +stationed in Ceylon. From him I soon learnt that the character of +Ceylon for game had never been exaggerated; and from that moment my +preparations for the jungle commenced. + +I rented a good airy house in Colombo as headquarters, and the verandas +were soon strewed with jungle-baskets, boxes, tent, gun-cases, and all +the paraphernalia of a shooting-trip. + +What unforeseen and apparently trivial incidents may upset all our +plans for the future and turn our whole course of life! At the +expiration of twelve months my shooting trips and adventures were +succeeded by so severe an attack of jungle fever that from a naturally +robust frame I dwindled to a mere nothing, and very little of my former +self remained. The first symptom of convalescence was accompanied by a +peremptory order from my medical attendant to start for the highlands, +to the mountainous region of Newera Ellia, the sanitarium of the island. + +A poor, miserable wretch I was upon my arrival at this elevated +station, suffering not only from the fever itself, but from the feeling +of an exquisite debility that creates an utter hopelessness of the +renewal of strength. + +I was only a fortnight at Newera Ellia. The rest-house or inn was the +perfection of everything that was dirty and uncomfortable. The +toughest possible specimen of a beef-steak, black bread and potatoes +were the choicest and only viands obtainable for an invalid. There was +literally nothing else; it was a land of starvation. But the climate! +what can I say to describe the wonderful effects of such a pure and +unpolluted air? Simply, that at the expiration of a fortnight, in spite +of the tough beef, and the black bread and potatoes, I was as well and +as strong as I ever bad been; and in proof of this I started instanter +for another shooting excursion in the interior. + +It was impossible to have visited Newera Ellia, and to have benefited +in such a wonderful manner by the climate, without contemplating with +astonishment its poverty-stricken and neglected state. + +At that time it was the most miserable place conceivable. There was a +total absence of all ideas of comfort or arrangement. The houses were +for the most part built of such unsubstantial materials as stick and +mud plastered over with mortar--pretty enough in exterior, but rotten +in ten or twelve years. The only really good residence was a fine +stone building erected by Sir Edward Barnes when governor of Ceylon. +To him alone indeed are we indebted for the existence of a sanitarium. +It was he who opened the road, not only to Newera Ellia, but for +thirty-six miles farther on the same line to Badulla. At his own +expense he built a substantial mansion at a cost, as it is said, of +eight thousand pounds, and with provident care for the health of the +European troops, he erected barracks and officers' quarters for the +invalids. + +Under his government Newera Ellia was rapidly becoming a place of +importance, but unfortunately at the expiration of his term the place +became neglected. His successor took no interest in the plans of his +predecessor; and from that period, each successive governor being +influenced by an increasing spirit of parsimony, Newera Ellia has +remained "in statu quo," not even having been visited by the present +governor. + +In a small colony like Ceylon it is astonishing how the movements and +opinions of the governor influence the public mind. In the present +instance, however, the movements of the governor (Sir G. Anderson) +cannot carry much weight, as he does not move at all, with the +exception of an occasional drive from Colombo to Kandy. His knowledge +of the colony and of its wants or resources must therefore, from his +personal experience, be limited to the Kandy road. This apathy, when +exhibited by her Majesty's representative, is highly contagious among +the public of all classes and colors, and cannot have other than a bad +moral tendency. + +Upon my first visit to Newera Ellia, in 1847, Lord Torrington was the +governor of Ceylon, a man of active mind, with an ardent desire to test +its real capabilities and to work great improvements in the colony. +Unfortunately, his term as governor was shorter than was expected. The +elements of discord were at that time at work among all classes in +Ceylon, and Lord Torrington was recalled. + +From the causes of neglect described, Newera Ellia was in the deserted +and wretched state in which I saw it; but so infatuated was I in the +belief that its importance must be appreciated when the knowledge of +its climate was more widely extended that I looked forward to its +becoming at some future time a rival to the Neilgherries station in +India. My ideas were based upon the natural features of the place, +combined with its requirements. + +It apparently produced nothing except potatoes. The soil was supposed +to be as good as it appeared to be. The quality of the water and the +supply were unquestionable; the climate could not be surpassed for +salubrity. There was a carriage road from Colombo, one hundred and +fifteen miles, and from Kandy, forty-seven miles; the last thirteen +being the Rambodde Pass, arriving at an elevation of six thousand six +hundred feet, from which point a descent of two miles terminated the +road to Newera Ellia. + +The station then consisted of about twenty private residences, the +barracks and officers' quarters, the resthouse and the bazaar; the +latter containing about two hundred native inhabitants. + +Bounded upon all sides but the east by high mountains, the plain of +Newera Ellia lay like a level valley of about two miles in length by +half a mile in width, bordered by undulating grassy knolls at the foot +of the mountains. Upon these spots of elevated ground most of the +dwellings were situated, commanding a view of the plain, with the river +winding through its centre. The mountains were clothed from the base to +the summit with dense forests, containing excellent timber for building +purposes. Good building-stone was procurable everywhere; limestone at +a distance of five miles. + +The whole of the adjacent country was a repetition Of the Newera Ellia +plain with slight variations, comprising a vast extent of alternate +swampy plains and dense forests. + +Why should this place lie idle? Why should this great tract of country +in such a lovely climate be untenanted and uncultivated? How often I +have stood upon the hills and asked myself this question when gazing +over the wide extent of undulating forest and plain! How often I have +thought of the thousands of starving wretches at home, who here might +earn a comfortable livelihood! and I have scanned the vast tract of +country, and in my imagination I have cleared the dark forests and +substituted waving crops of corn, and peopled a hundred ideal cottages +with a thriving peasantry. + +Why should not the highlands Of Ceylon, with an Italian climate, be +rescued from their state of barrenness? Why should not the plains be +drained, the forests felled, and cultivation take the place of the rank +pasturage, and supplies be produced to make Ceylon independent of other +countries? Why should not schools be established, a comfortable hotel +be erected, a church be built? In fact, why should Newera Ellia, with +its wonderful climate, so easily attainable, be neglected in a country +like Ceylon, proverbial for its unhealthiness? + +These were my ideas when I first visited Newera Ellia, before I had +much experience in either people or things connected with the island. +My twelve months' tour in Ceylon being completed, I returned to England +delighted with what I had seen of Ceylon in general, but, above all, +with my short visit to Newera Ellia, malgre its barrenness and want of +comfort, caused rather by the neglect of man than by the lack of +resources in the locality. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +Past Scenes--Attractions of Ceylon--Emigration--Difficulties in +Settling--Accidents and Casualties--An Eccentric +Groom--Insubordination--Commencement of Cultivation--Sagacity of the +Elephant--Disappointments--"Death" in the Settlement--Shocking +Pasturage--Success of Emigrants--"A Good Knock-about kind of a Wife". + + +I had not been long in England before I discovered that my trip to +Ceylon had only served to upset all ideas of settling down quietly at +home. Scenes of former sports and places were continually intruding +themselves upon my thoughts, and I longed to be once more roaming at +large with the rifle through the noiseless wildernesses in Ceylon. So +delightful were the recollections of past incidents that I could +scarcely believe that it lay within my power to renew them. Ruminating +over all that bad happened within the past year, I conjured up +localities to my memory which seemed too attractive to have existed in +reality. I wandered along London streets, comparing the noise and +bustle with the deep solitudes of Ceylon, and I felt like the sickly +plants in a London parterre. I wanted the change to my former life. I +constantly found myself gazing into gunmakers' shops, and these I +sometimes entered abstractedly to examine some rifle exposed in the +window. Often have I passed an hour in boring the unfortunate +gunmakers to death by my suggestions for various improvements in rifles +and guns, which, as I was not a purchaser, must have been extremely +edifying. + +Time passed, and the moment at length arrived when I decided once more +to see Ceylon. I determined to become a settler at Newera Ellia, where +I could reside in a perfect climate, and nevertheless enjoy the sports +of the low country at my own will. + +Thus, the recovery from a fever in Ceylon was the hidden cause of my +settlement at Newera Ellia. The infatuation for sport, added to a +gypsy-like love of wandering and complete independence, thus dragged me +away from home and from a much-loved circle. + +In my determination to reside at Newera Ellia, I hoped to be able to +carry out some of those visionary plans for its improvement which I +have before suggested; and I trusted to be enabled to effect such a +change in the rough face of Nature in that locality as to render a +residence at Newera Ellia something approaching to a country life in +England, with the advantage of the whole of Ceylon for my manor, and no +expense of gamekeepers. + +To carry out these ideas it was necessary to set to work; and I +determined to make a regular settlement at Newera Ellia, sanguinely +looking forward to establishing a little English village around my own +residence. + +Accordingly, I purchased an extensive tract of land from the +government, at twenty shillings per acre. I engaged an excellent +bailiff, who, with his wife and daughter, with nine other emigrants, +including a blacksmith, were to sail for my intended settlement in +Ceylon. + +I purchased farming implements of the most improved descriptions, seeds +of all kinds, saw-mills, etc., etc., and the following stock: A +half-bred bull (Durham and Hereford), a well-bred Durham cow, three +rams (a Southdown, Leicester and Cotswold), and a thorough-bred entire +horse by Charles XII.; also a small pack of foxhounds and a favorite +greyhound ("Bran"). + +My brother had determined to accompany me; and with emigrants, stock, +machinery, hounds, and our respective families, the good ship "Earl of +Hardwick," belonging to Messrs. Green & Co., sailed from London in +September, 1848. I had previously left England by the overland mail of +August to make arrangements at Newera Ellia for the reception of the +whole party. + +I had as much difficulty in making up my mind to the proper spot for +the settlement as Noah's dove experienced in its flight from the ark. +However, I wandered over the neighboring plains and jungles of Newera +Ellia, and at length I stuck my walking-stick into the ground where the +gentle undulations of the country would allow the use of the plough. +Here, then, was to be the settlement. + +I had chosen the spot at the eastern extremity of the Newera Ellia +plain, on the verge of the sudden descent toward Badulla. This position +was two miles and a half from Newera Ellia, and was far more agreeable +and better adapted for a settlement, the land being comparatively level +and not shut in by mountains. + +It was in the dreary month of October, when the south-west monsoon +howls in all its fury across the mountains; the mist boiled up from the +valleys and swept along the surface of the plains, obscuring the view +of everything, except the pattering rain which descended without +ceasing day or night. Every sound was hushed, save that of the +elements and the distant murmuring roar of countless waterfalls; not a +bird chirped, the dank white lichens hung from the branches of the +trees, and the wretchedness of the place was beyond description. + +I found it almost impossible to persuade the natives to work in such +weather; and it being absolutely necessary that cottages should be +built with the greatest expedition, I was obliged to offer an +exorbitant rate of wages. In about fortnight, however, the wind and +rain showed flags of truce in the shape of white clouds set in a blue +sky. The gale ceased, and the skylarks warbled high in air, giving +life and encouragement to the whole scene. It was like a beautiful +cool mid-summer in England. + +I had about eighty men at work; and the constant click-clack of axes, +the felling of trees, the noise of saws and hammers and the perpetual +chattering o the coolies gave a new character to the wild spot upon +which I had fixed. + +The work proceeded rapidly; neat white cottages soon appeared in the +forest; and I expected to have everything in readiness for the +emigrants on their arrival. I rented a tolerably good house in Newera +Ellia, and so far everything had progressed well. + +The "Earl of Hardwick" arrived after a prosperous voyage, with +passengers and stock all in sound health; the only casualty on board +had been to one of the hounds. In a few days all started from Colombo +for Newera Ellia. The only trouble was, How to get the cow up? She was +a beautiful beast, a thorough-bred "shorthorn," and she weighed about +thirteen hundredweight. She was so fat that a march of one hundred and +fifteen miles in a tropical climate was impossible. Accordingly a van +was arranged for her, which the maker assured me would carry an +elephant. But no sooner had the cow entered it than the whole thing +came down with a crash, and the cow made her exit through the bottom. +She was therefore obliged to start on foot in company with the bull, +sheep, horse and hounds, orders being given that ten miles a day, +divided between morning and evening, should be the maximum march during +the journey. + +The emigrants started per coach, while our party drove up in a new +clarence which I had brought from England. I mention this, as its +untimely end will be shortly seen. + +Four government elephant-carts started with machinery, farming +implements, etc., etc., while a troop of bullock-bandies carried the +lighter goods. I had a tame elephant waiting at the foot of the Newera +Ellia Pass to assist in carrying up the baggage and maidservants. + +There had been a vast amount of trouble in making all the necessary +arrangements, but the start was completed, and at length we were all +fairly off. In an enterprise of this kind many disappointments were +necessarily to be expected, and I had prepared myself with the patience +of Job for anything that might happen. It was well that I had done so, +for it was soon put to the test. + +Having reached Rambodde, at the foot of the Newera Ellia Pass, in +safety, I found that the carriage was so heavy that the horses were +totally unable to ascend the pass. I therefore left it at the +rest-house while we rode up the fifteen miles to Newera Ellia, +intending to send for the empty vehicle in a few days. + +The whole party of emigrants and ourselves reached Newera Ellia in +safety. On the following day I sent down the groom with a pair of +horses to bring up the carriage; at the same time I sent down the +elephant to bring some luggage from Rambodde. + +Now this groom, "Henry Perkes," was one of the emigrants, and he was +not exactly the steadiest of the party; I therefore cautioned him to be +very careful in driving up the pass, especially in crossing the narrow +bridges and turning the corners. He started on his mission. + +The next day a dirty-looking letter was put in my hand by a native, +which, being addressed to me, ran something in this style: + +"Honord Zur + +"I'm sorry to hinform you that the carrige and osses has met with a +haccidint and is tumbled down a preccippice and its a mussy as I didn't +go too. The preccippice isn't very deep bein not above heighy feet or +therabouts--the hosses is got up but is very bad--the carrige lies on +its back and we can't stir it nohow. Mr. ---- is very kind, and has +lent above a hunderd niggers, but they aint no more use than cats at +liftin. Plese Zur come and see whats to be done. + +"Your Humbel Servt, + "H. PERKES." + +This was pleasant, certainly--a new carriage and a pair of fine +Australian horses smashed before they reached Newera Ellia! + +This was, however, the commencement of a chapter of accidents. I went +down the pass, and there, sure enough, I had a fine bird's-eye view of +the carriage down a precipice on the road side. One horse was so +injured that it was necessary to destroy him; the other died a few days +after. Perkes had been intoxicated; and, while driving at a full +gallop round a corner, over went the carriages and horses. + +On my return to Newera Ellia, I found a letter informing me that the +short-horn cow had halted at Amberpusse, thirty-seven miles from +Colombo, dangerously ill. The next morning another letter informed me +that she was dead. This was a sad loss after the trouble of bringing +so fine an animal from England; and I regretted her far more than both +carriage and horses together, as my ideas for breeding some +thorough-bred stock were for the present extinguished. + +There is nothing like one misfortune for breeding another; and what +with the loss of carriage, horses and cow, the string of accidents had +fairly commenced. The carriage still lay inverted; and although a +tolerable specimen of a smash, I determined to pay a certain honor to +its remains by not allowing it to lie and rot upon the ground. +Accordingly, I sent the blacksmith with a gang of men, and Perkes was +ordered to accompany the party. I also sent the elephant to assist in +battling the body of the carriage up the precipice. + +Perkes, having been much more accustomed to riding than walking during +his career as groom, was determined to ride the elephant down the pass; +and he accordingly mounted, insisting at the same time that the mahout +should put the animal into a trot. In vain the man remonstrated, and +explained that such a pace would injure the elephant on a journey; +threats prevailed, and the beast was soon swinging along at full trot, +forced on by the sharp driving-hook, with the delighted Perkes striding +across its neck, riding, an imaginary race. + +On the following day the elephant-driver appeared at the front door, +but without the elephant. I immediately foreboded some disaster, which +was soon explained. Mr. Perkes had kept up the pace for fifteen miles, +to Rambodde, when, finding that the elephant was not required, he took +a little refreshment in the shape of brandy and water, and then, to use +his own expression, "tooled the old elephant along till he came to a +standstill." + +He literally forced the poor beast up the steep pass for seven miles, +till it fell down and shortly after died. + +Mr. Perkes was becoming an expensive man: a most sagacious and +tractable elephant was now added to his list of victims; and he had the +satisfaction of knowing that he was one of the few men in the world who +had ridden an elephant to death. + +That afternoon, Mr. Perkes was being wheeled about the bazaar in a +wheelbarrow, insensibly drunk, by a brother emigrant, who was also +considerably elevated. Perkes had at some former time lost an eye by +the kick of a horse, and to conceal the disfigurement he wore a black +patch, which gave him very much the expression of a bull terrier with a +similar mark. Notwithstanding this disadvantage in appearance, he was +perpetually making successful love to the maidservants, and he was +altogether the most incorrigible scamp that I ever met with, although I +must do him the justice to say he was thoroughly honest and industrious. + +I shortly experienced great trouble with the emigrants; they could not +agree with the bailiff, and openly defied his authority. I was obliged +to send two of them to jail as an example to the others. This produced +the desired effect, and we shortly got regularly to work. + +There were now about a hundred and fifty natives employed in the +tedious process of exterminating jungle and forest, not felling, but +regularly digging out every tree and root, then piling, and burning the +mass, and leveling the cleared land in a state to receive the plough. +This was very expensive work, amounting to about thirty pounds per +acre. The root of a large tree would frequently occupy three men a +couple of days in its extraction, which, at the rate of wages, at one +shilling per diem, was very costly. The land thus cleared was a light +sandy loam, about eighteen inches in depth with a gravel subsoil, and +was considered to be far superior to the patina (or natural grass-land) +soil, which was, in appearance, black loam on the higher ground and of +a peaty nature in the swamps. + +The bailiff (Mr. Fowler) was of opinion that the patina soil was the +best; therefore, while the large native force was engaged in sweeping +the forest from the surface, operations were commenced according to +agricultural rules upon the patinas. + +A tract of land known as the "Moon Plains," comprising about two +hundred acres, was immediately commenced upon. As some persons +considered the settlement at Newera Ellia the idea of a lunatic, the +"Moon Plain" was an appropriate spot for the experiment. A tolerably +level field of twenty acres was fenced in, and the work begun by firing +the patina and burning off all the grass. Then came three teams, as +follows: + +Lord Ducie's patent cultivator, drawn by an elephant; a skim, drawn by +another elephant, and a long wood plough, drawn by eight bullocks. + +The field being divided into three sections, was thus quickly pared of +the turf, the patent cultivator working admirably, and easily drawn by +the elephant. + +The weather being very dry and favorable for the work, the turf was +soon ready for burning; and being piled in long rows, much trouble was +saved in subsequently spreading the ashes. This being completed, we +had six teams at work, two horse, two bullock, and two elephant; and +the ploughing was soon finished. The whole piece was then sown with +oats. + +It was an interesting sight to see the rough plain yielding to the +power of agricultural implements, especially as some of these +implements were drawn by animals not generally seen in plough harness +at home. + +The "cultivator," which was sufficiently large to anchor any twenty of +the small native bullocks, looked a mere nothing behind the splendid +elephant who worked it, and it cut through the wiry roots of the rank +turf as a knife peels an apple. It was amusing, to see this same +elephant doing the work of three separate teams when the seed was in +the ground. She first drew a pair of heavy harrows; attached to these +and following behind were a pair of light harrows, and behind these +came a roller. Thus the land had its first and second harrowing at the +same time with the rolling. + +This elephant was particularly sagacious; and her farming work being +completed, she was employed in making, a dam across a stream. She was a +very large animal, and it was beautiful to witness her wonderful +sagacity in carrying and arranging the heavy timber required. The +rough trunks of trees from the lately felled forest were lying within +fifty yards of the spot, and the trunks required for the dam were about +fifteen feet long and fourteen to eighteen inches in diameter. These +she carried in her mouth, shifting her hold along the log before she +raised it until she had obtained the exact balance; then, steadying it +with her trunk, she carried every log to the spot, and laid them across +the stream in parallel rows. These she herself arranged, under the +direction of her driver, with the reason apparently of a human being. + +The most extraordinary part of her performance was the arranging of two +immense logs of red keenar (one of the heaviest woods). These were +about eighteen feet long and two feet in diameter, and they were in +tended to lie on either bank of the stream, parallel to the brook and +close to the edge. These she placed greatest with the care in their +exact positions, unassisted by any one.[1] She rolled them gently over +with her head, then with one foot, and keeping her trunk on the +opposite side of the log, she checked its way whenever its own momentum +would have carried it into the stream. Although I thought the work +admirably done, she did not seem quite satisfied, and she presently got +into the stream, and gave one end of the log an extra push with her +head, which completed her task, the two trees lying exactly parallel to +each other, close to the edge of either bank. + +Tame elephants are constantly employed in building stone bridges, when +the stones required for the abutments are too heavy to be managed by +crowbars. + +Many were the difficulties to contend against when the first attempts +were made in agriculture at Newera Ellia. No sooner were the oats a +few inches above ground than they were subjected to the nocturnal +visits of elk and hogs in such numbers that they were almost wholly +destroyed. + +A crop of potatoes of about three acres on the newly-cleared forest +land was totally devoured by grubs. The bull and stock were nearly +starved on the miserable pasturage of the country, and no sooner bad +the clover sprung up in the new clearings than the Southdown ram got +hoven upon it and died. The two remaining rams, not having been +accustomed to much high living since their arrival at Newera Ellia, got +pugnacious upon the clover, and in a pitched battle the Leicester ram +killed the Cotswold, and remained solus. An epidemic appeared among +the cattle, and twenty-six fine bullocks died within a few days; five +Australian horses died during the first year, and everything seemed to +be going into the next world as fast is possible. + +Having made up my mind to all manner of disappointments, these +casualties did not make much impression on me, and the loss of a few +crops at the outset was to be expected; but at length a deplorable and +unexpected event occurred. + +The bailiff's family consisted of a wife and daughter; the former was +the perfection of a respectable farmer's wife, whose gentle manners and +amiable disposition bad gained her many friends; the daughter was a +very pretty girl of nineteen. + +For some time Mrs. Fowler had been suffering from an illness of long +standing, and I was suddenly called to join in the mournful procession +to her grave. This was indeed a loss which I deeply deplored. + +At length death left the little settlement, and a ray of sunshine shone +through the gloom which would have made many despond. Fortune smiled +upon everything. Many acres of forest were cleared, and the crops +succeeded each other in rapid succession. I had, however, made the +discovery that without manure nothing would thrive. This had been a +great disappointment, as much difficulty lay in procuring the necessary +item. + +Had the natural pasturage been good, it would soon have been an easy +matter to procure any amount of manure by a corresponding number of +cattle; but, as it happened, the natural pasturage was so bad that no +beast could thrive upon it. Thus everything, even grass-land, had to be +manured; and, fortunately, a cargo of guano having arrived in the +island, we were enabled to lay down some good clover and seeds. + +The original idea of cultivation, driving the forests from the +neighborhood of Newera Ellia, was therefore dispelled. Every acre of +land must be manured, and upon a large scale at Newera Ellia that is +impossible. With manure everything will thrive to perfection with the +exception of wheat. There is neither lime nor magnesia in the soil. +An abundance of silica throws a good crop of straw, but the grain is +wanting: Indian corn will not form grain from the same cause. On the +other hand, peas, beans, turnips, carrots, cabbages, etc., produce +crops as heavy as those of England. Potatoes, being the staple article +of production, are principally cultivated, as the price of twenty +pounds per ton yields a large profit. These, however, do not produce +larger crops than from four to six tons per acre when heavily manured; +but as the crop is fit to dig in three months from the day of planting, +money is quickly made. + +There are many small farmers, or rather gardeners, at Newera Ellia who +have succeeded uncommonly well. One of the emigrants who left my +service returned to England in three years with three hundred pounds; +and all the industrious people succeed. I am now without one man whom +I brought out. The bailiff farms a little land of his own, and his +pretty daughter is married; the others are scattered here and there, +but I believe all are doing well, especially the blacksmith, upon whose +anvil Fortune has smiled most kindly. + +By the bye, that same blacksmith has the right stamp of a "better half" +for an emigrant's wife. According to his own description she is a +"good knock-about kind of a wife." I recollect seeing her, during a +press of work, rendering assistance to her Vulcan in a manner worthy of +a Cyclop's spouse. She was wielding an eighteen-pound sledgehammer, +sending the sparks flying at every blow upon the hot iron, and making +the anvil ring again, while her husband turned the metal at every +stroke, as if attending on Nasmyth's patent steam hammer. + +It has been a great satisfaction to me that all the people whom I +brought out are doing well; even Henry Perkes, of elephant-jockeying +notoriety, is, I believe, prospering as a groom in Madras. + + +[1] Directed of course by her driver. + + + +CHAPTER III. + +Task Completed--The Mountain-top--Change in the Face of +Nature--Original Importance of Newera Ellia--"The Path of a Thousand +Princes"--Vestiges of Former Population--Mountains--The Highlands of +Ouva--Ancient Methods of Irrigation--Remains of Aqueducts--The Vale of +Rubies--Ancient Ophir--Discovery of Gold-Mineral Resources--Native +Blacksmiths. + + +In a climate like that of Newera Ellia, even twelve months make a great +change in the appearance of a new settlement; plants and shrubs spring +up with wonderful rapidity, and a garden of one year's growth, without +attendance, would be a wilderness. + +A few years necessarily made a vast change in everything. All kinds of +experiments had been made, and those which succeeded were persevered +in. I discovered that excellent beer might be made at this elevation +(six thousand two hundred feet), and I accordingly established a small +brewery. + +The solitary Leicester ram had propagated a numerous family, and a +flock of fat ewes, with their lambs, throve to perfection. Many +handsome young heifers looked very like the emigrant bull in the face, +and claimed their parentage. The fields were green; the axe no longer +sounded in the forests: a good house stood in the centre of +cultivation; a road of two miles in length cut through the estate, and +the whole place looked like an adopted "home." All the trials and +disappointments of the beginning were passed away, and the real was a +picture which I had ideally contemplated years before. The task was +finished. + +In the interim, public improvements had not been neglected; an +extremely pretty church had been erected and a public reading-room +established; but, with the exception of one good house which had been +built, private enterprise had lain dormant. As usual, from January to +May, Newera Ellia was overcrowded with months of visitors, and nearly +empty during the other months of the year. + +All Ceylon people dread the wet season at Newera Ellia, which continues +from June to December. + +I myself prefer it to what is termed the dry season, at which time the +country is burnt up by drought. There is never more rain at Newera +Ellia than vegetation requires, and not one-fourth the quantity fills +at this elevation, compared to that of the low country. It may be more +continuous, but it is of a lighter character, and more akin to "Scotch +mist." The clear days during the wet season are far more lovely than +the constant glare of the summer months, and the rays of the sun are +not so powerful. + +There cannot be a more beautiful sight than the view of sunrise from +the summit of Pedrotallagalla, the highest mountain in Ceylon, which, +rising to the height of 8300 feet, looks down upon Newera Ellia, some +two thousand feet below upon one side, and upon the interminable depths +of countless ravines and valleys at its base. + +There is a feeling approaching the sublime when a solitary man thus +stands upon the highest point of earth, before the dawn of day, and +waits the first rising of the sun. Nothing above him but the dusky +arch of heaven. Nothing on his level but empty space,--all beneath, +deep beneath his feet. From childhood he has looked to heaven as the +dwelling of the Almighty, and he now stands upon that lofty summit in +the silence of utter solitude; his hand, as he raises it above his +head, the highest mark upon the sea-girt land; his form above all +mortals upon this land, the nearest to his God. Words, till now +unthought of, tingle in his ears: "He went up into a mountain apart to +pray." He feels the spirit which prompted the choice of such a lonely +spot, and he stands instinctively uncovered, as the first ray of light +spreads like a thread of fire across the sky. + +And now the distant hill-tops, far below, struggle through the snowy +sheet of mist, like islands in a fairy sea; and far, how far his eye +can scan, where the faint line upon the horizon marks the ocean! +Mountain and valley, hill and plain, with boundless forest, stretch +beneath his feet, far as his sight can gaze, and the scene, so solemnly +beautiful, gradually wakens to his senses; the birds begin to chirp; +the dew-drops fall heavily from the trees, as the light breeze stirs +from an apparent sleep; a golden tint spreads over the sea of mist +below; the rays dart lightning-like upon the eastern sky; the mighty +orb rises in all the fullness of his majesty, recalling the words of +Omnipotence: "Let there be light!" + +The sun is risen! the misty sea below mounts like a snowy wreath around +the hill-tops, and then, like a passing thought, it vanishes. A glassy +clearness of the atmosphere reveals the magnificent view of Nature, +fresh from her sleep; every dewy leaf gilded by the morning sun, every +rock glistening with moisture in his bright rays, mountain and valley, +wood and plain, alike rejoicing in his beams. + +And now, the sun being risen, we gaze from our lofty post upon Newera +Ellia, lying at our feet. We trace the river winding its silvery +course through the plain, and for many miles the alternate plains and +forests joining in succession. + +How changed are some features of the landscape within the few past +years, and how wonderful the alteration made by man on the face of +Nature! Comparatively but a few years ago, Newera Ellia was +undiscovered--a secluded plain among the mountaintops, tenanted by the +elk and boar. The wind swept over it, and the mists hung around the +mountains, and the bright summer with its spotless sky succeeded, but +still it was unknown and unseen except by the native bee-hunter in his +rambles for wild honey. How changed! The road encircles the plain, and +carts are busy in removing the produce of the land. Here, where wild +forests stood, are gardens teeming with English flowers; rosy-faced +children and ruddy countrymen are about the cottage doors; equestrians +of both sexes are galloping round the plain, and the cry of the hounds +is ringing on the mountain-side. + +How changed! There is an old tree standing upon a hill, whose gnarled +trunk has been twisted by the winter's wind for many an age, and so +screwed is its old stem that the axe has spared it, out of pity, when +its companions were all swept away and the forest felled. And many a +tale that old tree could tell of winter's blasts and broken boughs, and +storms which howled above its head, when all was wilderness around. +The eagle has roosted in its top, the monkeys have gamboled in its +branches, and the elephants have rubbed their tough flanks against its +stem in times gone by; but it now throws a shadow upon a Christian's +grave, and the churchyard lies beneath its shade. The church-bell +sounds where the elephant trumpeted of yore. The sunbeam has +penetrated where the forest threw its dreary shade, and a ray of light +has shone through the moral darkness of the spot. + +The completion of the church is the grand improvement in Newera Ellia. + +Although Newera Ellia was in the wild state described when first +discovered by Europeans, it is not to be supposed that its existence +was unknown to the Cingalese. The name itself proves its former +importance to the kings of Kandy, as Newera Ellia signifies "Royal +Plains." Kandy is termed by the Cingalese "Newera," as it was the +capital of Ceylon and the residence of the king. + +However wild the country may be, and in many portions unvisited by +Europeans, still every high mountain and every little plain in this +wilderness of forest is not only known to the natives of the adjacent +low country, but has its separate designation. There is no feature of +the country without its name, although the immense tracts of mountain +are totally uninhabited, and the nearest villages are some ten or +twelve miles distant, between two and three thousand feet below. + +There are native paths from village to village across the mountains, +which, although in appearance no more than deer-runs, have existed for +many centuries, and are used by the natives even to this day. The great +range of forest-covered Newera Ellia mountains divides the two +districts of Ouva and Kotmalie, and these native paths have been formed +to connect the two by an arduous accent upon either side, and a +comparatively level cut across the shoulders of the mountains, through +alternate plain and forest, for some twenty-five miles. These paths +would never be known to Europeans were it not for the distant runs of +the hounds, in following which, after some hours of fatiguing +jungle-work, I have come upon a path. The notches on the treestems +have proved its artificial character, and by following its course I +have learnt the country. + +There is not a path, stream, hill, or plain, within many miles of +Newera Ellia, that I do not know intimately, although, when the +character of the country is scanned by a stranger from some +mountain-top, the very act of traversing it appears impossible. This +knowledge has been gained by years of unceasing hunting, and by +perseveringly following up the hounds wherever they have gone. From +sunrise till nightfall I have often ploughed along through alternate +jungles and plains, listening eagerly for the cry of the hounds, and at +length discovering portions of the country which I had never known to +exist. + +There is a great pleasure in thus working out the features of a wild +country, especially in an island like Ceylon, which, in every portion, +exhibits traces of former prosperity and immense population. Even +these uninhabited and chilly regions, up to an elevation of seven +thousand feet, are not blank pages in the book of Nature, but the hand +of man is so distinctly traced that the keen observer can read with +tolerable certainty the existence of a nation long since passed away. + +As I before mentioned, I pitched my settlement on the verge of the +highland, at the eastern extremity of the Newera Ellia plain, where the +high road commences a sudden descent toward Badulla, thirty-three miles +distant. This spot, forming, a shallow gap, was the ancient native +entrance to Newera Ellia from that side, and the Cingalese designation +for the locality is interpreted "the Path of a Thousand Princes." This +name assists in the proof that Newera Ellia was formerly of some great +importance. A far more enticing name gives an interest to the first +swampy portion of the plain, some three hundred paces beyond, viz., +"the Valley of Rubies." + +Now, having plainly discovered that Newera Ellia was of some great +importance to the natives, let us consider in what that value +consisted. There are no buildings remaining, no ruins, as in other +parts of Ceylon, but a liquid mine of wealth poured from these lofty +regions. The importance of Newera Ellia lay first in its supply of +water, and, secondly, in its gems. + +In all tropical countries the first principle of cultivation is the +supply of water, without which the land would remain barren. In a +rice-growing country like Ceylon, the periodical rains are +insufficient, and the whole system of native agriculture depends upon +irrigation. Accordingly, the mountains being the reservoirs from which +the rivers spring, become of vital importance to the country. + +The principal mountains in Ceylon are Pedrotallagalla, eight thousand +two hundred and eighty feet; Kirigallapotta, seven thousand nine +hundred; Totapella, eight thousand feet; and Adam's Peak, seven +thousand seven hundred; but although their altitude is so considerable, +they do not give the idea of grandeur which such an altitude would +convey. They do not rise abruptly from a level base, but they are +merely the loftiest of a thousand peaks towering from the highlands of +Ceylon. + +The greater portion of the highland district may therefore be compared +to one vast mountain; hill piled upon hill, and peak rising over peak; +ravines of immense depth, forming innumerable conduits for the mountain +torrents. Then, at the elevation of Newera Ellia the heavings of the +land appear to have rested, and gentle undulations, diversified by +plains and forests, extend for some thirty miles. From these +comparatively level tracts and swampy plains the rivers of Ceylon +derive their source and the three loftiest peaks take their base; +Pedrotallagalla rising from the Newera Ellia Plain, "Totapella" and +Kirigallapotta from the Horton Plains. + +The whole of the highland district is thus composed of a succession of +ledges of great extent at various elevations, commencing with the +highest, the Horton Plains, seven thousand feet above the sea. + +Seven hundred feet below the Horton Plain, the Totapella Plains and +undulating forests continue at this elevation as far as Newera Ellia +for about twenty miles, thus forming the second ledge. + +Six miles to the west of Newera Ellia, at a lower elevation of about +nine hundred feet, the district of Dimboola commences, and extends at +this elevation over a vast tract of forest-covered country, stretching +still farther to the west, and containing a small proportion of plain. + +At about the same elevation, nine miles on the north of Newera Ellia, +we descend to the Elephant Plains; a beautiful tract of fine grass +country, but of small extent. This tract and that of Dimboola form the +third ledge. + +Nine miles to the east of Newera Ellia, at a lower elevation of one +thousand five hundred feet, stretches the Ouva country, forming the +fourth ledge. + +The features of this country are totally distinct from any other +portion of Ceylon. A magnificent view extends as far as the horizon, +of undulating open grassland, diversified by the rich crops of paddy +which are grown in each of the innumerable small valleys formed by the +undulations of the ground. Not a tree is to be seen except the low +brushwood which is scantily distributed upon its surface. We emerge +suddenly from the forest-covered mountains of Newera Ellia, and, from a +lofty point on the high road to Badulla, we look down upon the splendid +panorama stretched like a waving sea beneath our feet. The road upon +which we stand is scarped out of the mountain's side. The forest has +ceased, dying off gradually into isolated patches and long ribbon-like +strips on the sides of the mountain, upon which rich grass is growing, +in vivid contrast to the rank and coarse herbage of Newera Ellia, +distant only five miles from the point upon which we stand. + +Descending until we reach Wilson's Plain, nine miles from Newera Ellia, +we arrive in the district of Ouva, much like the Sussex Downs as any +place to which it can be compared. + +This district comprises about six hundred square miles, and forms the +fourth and last ledge of the high lands of Ceylon. Passes from the +mountains which form the wall-like boundaries of this table-land +descend to the low country in various directions. + +The whole of the Ouva district upon the one side, and of the Kotmalee +district on the other side, of tilt Newera Ellia range of mountains, +are, with the exception of the immediate neighborhood of Kandy and +Colombo, the most populous districts of Ceylon. + +This is entirely owing, to the never-failing supply of water obtained +from the mountains; and upon this supply the wealth and prosperity of +the country depend. + +The ancient history of Ceylon is involved in much obscurity, but +nevertheless we have sufficient data in the existing traces of its +former population to form our opinions of the position and power which +Ceylon occupied in the Eastern Hemisphere when England was in a state +of barbarism. The wonderful remains of ancient cities, tanks and +water-courses throughout the island all prove that the now desolate +regions were tenanted by a multitude--not of savages, but of a race +long since passed away, full of industry and intelligence. + +Among the existing traces of former population few are more interesting +than those in the vicinity of Newera Ellia. + +Judging from the present supply of water required for the cultivation +of a district containing a certain population, we can arrive at a +tolerably correct idea of the former population by comparing the +present supply of water with that formerly required. + +Although the district of Ouva is at present well populated, and every +hollow is taken advantage of for the cultivation of paddy, still the +demand for water in proportion to the supply is comparatively small. + +The system of irrigation has necessarily involved immense labor. For +many miles the water is conducted from the mountains through dense +forests, across ravines, round the steep sides of opposing hills, now +leaping into a lower valley into a reservoir, from which it is again +led through this arduous country until it at length reaches the land +which it is destined to render fertile. + +There has been a degree of engineering skill displayed in forming +aqueducts through such formidable obstacles; the hills are lined out in +every direction with these proofs of industry, and their winding course +can be traced round the grassy sides of the steep mountains, while the +paddy-fields are seen miles away in the valleys of Ouva stretched far +beneath. + +At least eight out of ten of these watercourses are dry, and the +masonry required in the sudden angles of ravines, has, in most cases, +fallen to decay. Even those water-courses still in existence are of +the second class; small streams have been conducted from their original +course, and these serve for the supply of the present population. + +From the remains of deserted water-courses of the first class, it is +evident that more than fifty times the volume of water was then +required that is in use at present, and in the same ratio must have +been the amount of population. In those days rivers were diverted from +their natural channels; opposing hills were cut through, and the waters +thus were led into another valley to join a stream flowing in, its +natural bed, whose course, eventually obstructed by a dam, poured its +accumulated waters into canals which branched to various localities. +Not a river in those times flowed in vain. The hill-sides were terraced +out in beautiful cultivation, which are now waving with wild vegetation +and rank lemon grass. The remaining traces of stone walls point out +the ancient boundaries far above the secluded valley now in cultivation. + +The nation has vanished, and with it the industry and perseverance of +the era. + +We now arrive at the cause of the former importance of Newera Ellia, or +the "Royal Plains." + +It has been shown that the very existence of the population depended +upon the supply of water, and that supply was obtained from the +neighborhood of Newera Ellia. Therefore, a king in possession of +Newera Ellia had the most complete command over his subjects; he could +either give or withhold the supply of water at his pleasure, by +allowing its free exit or by altering its course. + +Thus, during rebellion, he could starve his people into submission, or +lay waste the land in time of foreign invasion. I have seen in an +impregnable position the traces of an ancient fort, evidently erected +to defend the pass to the main water-course from the low country. + +This gives us a faint clue to the probable cause of the disappearance +of the nation. + +In time of war or intestine commotion, the water may have been cut off +from the low country, and the exterminating effects of famine may have +laid the whole land desolate. It is, therefore, no longer a matter of +astonishment that the present plain of Newera Ellia should have +received its appellation of the "Royal Plain." In those days there was +no very secure tenure to the throne, and by force alone could a king +retain it. The more bloodthirsty and barbarous the tyrant, the more +was he dreaded by the awe-stricken and trembling population. The power +of such a weapon of annihilation as the command of the waters may be +easily conceived as it invested a king with almost divine authority in +the eyes of his subjects. + +Now there is little doubt that the existence of precious gems at Newera +Ellia may have been accidentally discovered in digging the numerous +water-courses in the vicinity; there is, however, no doubt that at some +former period the east end of the plain, called the "Vale of Rubies," +constituted the royal "diggings." That the king of Kandy did not reside +at Newera Ellia there is little wonder, as a monarch delighting in a +temperature of 85 Fahrenheit would have regarded the climate of a mean +temperature of 60 Fahrenheit as we should that of Nova Zembla. + +We may take it for granted, therefore, that when the king came to +Newera Ellia his visit had some object, and we presume that he came to +look at the condition of his water-courses and to superintend the +digging for precious stones; in the same manner that Ceylon governors +of past years visited Arippo during the pearlfishing. + +The "diggings" of the kings of Kandy must have been conducted on a most +extensive scale. Not only has the Vale of Rubies been regularly turned +up for many acres, but all the numerous plains in the vicinity are full +of pits, some of very large size and of a depth varying from three to +seventeen feet. The Newera Ellia Plain, the Moonstone Plain, the +Kondapalle Plain, the Elk Plains, the Totapella Plains, the Horton +Plains, the Bopatalava Plains, the Augara Plains (translated "the +Diggings"), and many others extending over a surface of thirty miles, +are all more or less studded by deep pits formed by the ancient +searchers for gems, which in those days were a royal monopoly. + +It is not to be supposed that the search for gems would have been thus +persevered in unless it was found to be remunerative; but it is a +curious fact that no Englishmen are ever to be seen at work at this +employment. The natives would still continue the search, were they +permitted, upon the "Vale of Rubies;" but I warned them off on +purchasing the land; and I have several good specimens of gems which I +have discovered by digging two feet beneath the surface. + +The surface soil being of a light, peaty quality, the stones, from +their greater gravity, lie beneath, mixed with a rounded quartz gravel, +which in ages past must have been subjected to the action of running +water. This quartz gravel, with its mixture of gems, rests upon a stiff +white pipe-clay. + +In this stratum of gravel an infinite number of small, and for the most +part worthless, specimens of gems are found, consisting of sapphire, +ruby, emerald, jacinth, tourmaline, chrysoberyl, zircon, cat's-eye, +"moonstone," and "star-stone." Occasionally a stone of value rewards +the patient digger; but, unless he thoroughly understands it, he is apt +to pass over the gems of most value as pieces of ironstone. + +The mineralogy of Ceylon has hitherto been little understood. It has +often been suggested as the "Ophir" of the time of Solomon, and +doubtless, from its production of gems, it might deserve the name. + +It has hitherto been the opinion of most writers on Ceylon that the +precious metals do not exist in the island; and Dr. Davy in his work +makes an unqualified assertion to that effect. But from the +discoveries recently made, I am of opinion that it exists in very large +quantities in the mountainous districts of the island. + +It is amusing to see the positive assertions of a clever man upset by a +few uneducated sailors. + +A few men of the latter class, who had been at the gold diggings both +in California and Australia, happened to engage in a ship bound for +Colombo. Upon arrival they obtained leave from the captain for a +stroll on shore, and they took the road toward Kandy, and when about +half-way it struck them, from the appearance of the rocks in the uneven +bed of a river, called the Maha Oya, "that gold must exist in its +sands." They had no geological reason for this opinion; but the river +happened to be very like those in California in which they had been +accustomed to find gold. They accordingly set to work with a tin pan +to wash the sand, and to the astonishment of every one in Ceylon, and +to the utter confusion of Dr. Davy's opinions, they actually discovered +gold! + +The quantity was small, but the men were very sanguine of success, and +were making their preparations for working on a more extensive scale, +when they were all prostrated by jungle fever--a guardian-spirit of the +gold at Amberpusse, which will ever effectually protect it from +Europeans. + +They all returned to Colombo, and, when convalescent, they proceeded to +Newera Ellia, naturally concluding that the gold which existed in dust +in the rivers below must be washed down from the richer stores of the +mountains. + +Their first discovery of gold at Newera Ellia was on the 14th June, +1854, on the second day of their search in that locality. The first +gold was found in the "Vale of Rubies." + +I had advised them to make their first search in that spot for this +reason: that, as the precious stones had there settled in the largest +numbers, from their superior gravity, it was natural to conclude that, +if gold should exist, it would, from its gravity, be somewhere below +the precious stones or in their vicinity. + +From the facility with which it has been discovered, it is impossible +to form an opinion as to the quantity or the extent to which it will +eventually be developed. It is equally impossible to predict the +future discoveries which may be made of other minerals. It is well +known that quicksilver was found at Cotta, six miles from Colombo, in +the year 1797. It was in small quantities, and was neglected by the +government, and no extended search was prosecuted. The present search +for gold may bring to light mineral resources of Ceylon which have +hitherto lain hidden. + +The minerals proved to exist up to the present time are gold, +quicksilver, plumbago and iron. The two latter are of the finest +quality and in immense abundance. The rocks of Ceylon are primitive, +consisting of granite, gneiss and quartz. Of these the two latter +predominate. Dolomite also exists in large quantities up to an +elevation of five thousand feet, but not beyond this height. + +Plumbago is disseminated throughout the whole of both soil and rocks in +Ceylon, and may be seen covering the surface in the drains by the road +side, after a recent shower. + +It is principally found at Ratnapoora and at Belligam, in large, +detached kidney-shaped masses, from four to twenty feet below the +surface. The cost of digging and the transport are the only expenses +attending it, as the supply is inexhaustible. Its component parts are +nineteen of carbon and one of iron. + +It exists in such quantities, in the gneiss rocks that upon their +decomposition it is seen in bright specks like silver throughout. + +This gneiss rock, when in a peculiar stage of decomposition, has the +appearance and consistency of yellow brick, speckled with plumbago. It +exists in this state in immense masses, and forms a valuable +buildingstone, as it can be cut with ease to any shape required, and, +though soft when dug, it hardens by exposure to the air. It has also +the valuable property of withstanding the greatest heat; and for +furnace building it is superior to the best Stourbridge fire-bricks. + +The finest quality of iron is found upon the mountains in various +forms, from the small iron-stone gravel to large masses of many tons in +weight protruding from the earth's surface. + +So fine is that considered at Newera Ellia and the vicinity that the +native blacksmiths have been accustomed from time immemorial to make +periodical visits for the purpose of smelting the ore. The average +specimens of this produce about eighty per cent. of pure metal, even by +the coarse native process of smelting. The operations are as follows: + +Having procured the desired amount of ore, it is rendered as small as +possible by pounding with a hammer. + +A platform is then built of clay, about six feet in length by three +feet in height and width. + +A small well is formed in the centre of the platform, about eighteen +inches in depth and diameter, egg-shaped. + +A few inches from the bottom of this well is an air-passage, connected +with a pipe and bellows. + +The well is then filled with alternate layers of charcoal and +pulverized iron ore; the fire is lighted, and the process of smelting +commences. + +The bellows are formed of two inflated skins, like a double "bagpipe." +Each foot of the "bellows-blower" is strapped to one skin, the pipes of +the bellows being fixed in the air-hole of the blast. He then works +the skins alternately by moving his feet up and down, being assisted in +this treadmill kind of labor by the elasticity of two bamboos, of eight +or ten feet in length, the butts of which, being firmly fixed in the +ground, enable him to retain his balance by grasping one with either +hand. From the yielding top of each bamboo, a string descends attached +to either big toe; thus the downward pressure of each foot upon the +bellows strains upon the bamboo top as a fish bears upon a fishing-rod, +and the spring of the bamboo assists him in lifting up his leg. Without +this assistance, it would be impossible to continue the exertion for +the time required. + +While the "bellows-blower" is thus getting up a blaze, another man +attends upon the well, which he continues to feed alternately with +fresh ore and a corresponding amount of charcoal, every now and then +throwing in a handful of fine sand as a flux. + +The return for a whole day's puffing and blowing will be about twenty +pounds weight of badly-smelted iron. This is subsequently remelted, +and is eventually worked up into hatchets, hoes, betel-crackers, etc., +etc. being of a superior quality to the best Swedish iron. + +If the native blacksmith were to value his time at only sixpence per +diem from the day on which he first started for the mountains till the +day that he returned from his iron-smelting expedition, he would find +that his iron would have cost him rather a high price per +hundredweight; and if he were to make the same calculation of the value +of time, he would discover that by the time he had completed one axe he +could have purchased ready made, for one-third the money, an English +tool of superior manufacture. This, however, is not their style of +calculation. Time has no value, according to their crude ideas; +therefore, if they want an article, and can produce it without the +actual outlay of cash, no matter how much time is expended, they will +prefer that method of obtaining it. + +Unfortunately, the expense of transit is so heavy from Newera Ellia to +Colombo, that this valuable metal, like the fine timber of the forests, +must remain useless. + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Poverty of Soil--Ceylon Sugar--Fatality of Climate--Supposed Fertility +of Soil--Native Cultivation--Neglect of Rice Cultivation--Abandoned +Reservoirs--Former Prosperity--Ruins of Cities--Pollanarua--The Great +Dagoba--Architectural Relics--The Rock Temple--Destruction of +Population--Neglected Capabilities--Suggestions for Increasing +Population--Progress of Pestilence--Deserted Villages--Difficulties in +the Cultivation of Rice--Division of Labor--Native Agriculture. + + +From the foregoing description, the reader will have inferred that +Newera Ellia is a delightful place of residence, with a mean +temperature of 60 Fahrenheit, abounding with beautiful views of +mountain and plain and of boundless panoramas in the vicinity. He will +also have discovered that, in addition to the healthiness of its +climate, its natural resources are confined to its timber and mineral +productions, as the soil is decidedly poor. + +The appearance of the latter has deceived every one, especially the +black soil of the patina, which my bailiff, on his first arrival +declared to be excellent. Lord Torrington, who is well known as an +agriculturist, was equally deceived. He was very confident in the +opinion that "it only required draining to enable it to produce +anything." The real fact is, that it is far inferior to the +forest-land, and will not pay for the working. + +Nevertheless, it is my decided opinion that the generality of the +forest-land at Newera Ellia and the vicinity is superior to that in +other parts of Ceylon. + +There are necessarily rich lots every now end then in such a large +extent as the surface of the low country; but these lots usually lie on +the banks of rivers which have been subjected to inundations, and they +are not fair samples of Ceylon soil. A river's bank or a valley's +bottom must be tolerably good even in the poorest country. + +The great proof of the general poverty of Ceylon is shown in the +failure of every agricultural experiment in which a rich soil is +required. + +Cinnamon thrives; but why? It delights in a soil of quartz sand, in +which nothing else would grow. + +Cocoa-nut trees flourish for the same reason; sea air, a sandy soil and +a dry subsoil are all that the cocoa-nut requires. + +On the other hand, those tropical productions which require a strong +soil invariably prove failures, and sugar, cotton, indigo, hemp and +tobacco cannot possibly be cultivated with success. + +Even on the alluvial soil upon the banks of rivers sugar does not pay +the proprietor. The only sugar estate in the island that can keep its +head above water is the Peredinia estate, within four miles of Kandy. +This, again, lies upon the bank of the Mahawelli river, and it has also +the advantage of a home market for its produce, as it supplies the +interior of Ceylon at the rate of twenty-three shillings per cwt. upon +the spot. + +Any person who thoroughly understands the practical cultivation of the +sugar-cane can tell the quality of sugar that will be produced by an +examination of the soil. I am thoroughly convinced that no soil in +Ceylon will produce a sample of fine, straw-colored, dry, bright, +large-crystaled sugar. The finest sample ever produced of Ceylon sugar +is a dull gray, and always moist, requiring a very large proportion of +lime in the manufacture, without which it could neither be cleansed nor +crystalized. + +The sugar cane, to produce fine sugar, requires a rich, stiff, and very +dry soil. In Ceylon, there is no such thing as a stiff soil existing. +The alluvial soil upon the banks of rivers is adapted for the growth of +cotton and tobacco, but not for the sugar-cane. In such light and +moist alluvial soil the latter will grow to a great size, and will +yield a large quantity of juice in which the saccharometer may stand +well; but the degree of strength indicated will proceed from an immense +proportion of mucilage, which will give much trouble in the cleansing +during boiling; and the sugar produced must be wanting in dryness and +fine color. + +There are several rivers in Ceylon whose banks would produce good +cotton and tobacco, especially those in the districts of Hambantotte +and Batticaloa; such as the "Wallawe," the "Yalle river," the +"Koombookanaar," etc.; but even here the good soil is very limited, +lying on either bank for only a quarter of a mile in width. In +addition to this, the unhealthiness of the climate is so great that I +am convinced no European constitution could withstand it. Even the +natives are decimated at certain seasons by the most virulent fevers +and dysentery. + +These diseases generally prevail to the greatest extent during the dry +season. This district is particularly subject to severe droughts; +months pass away without a drop of rain or a cloud upon the sky. Every +pool and tank is dried up; the rivers forsake their banks, and a +trifling stream trickles over the sandy bed. Thus all the rotten wood, +dead leaves and putrid vegetation brought down by the torrent during +the wet season are left upon the dried bed to infect the air with +miasma. + +This deadly climate would be an insurmountable obstacle to the success +of estates. Even could managers be found to brave the danger, one +season of sickness and death among the coolies would give the estate a +name which would deprive it of all future supplies of labor. + +Indigo is indigenous to Ceylon, but it is of an inferior quality, and +an experiment made in its cultivation was a total failure. + +In fact, nothing will permanently succeed in Ceylon soil without +abundance of manure, with the exception of cinnamon and cocoa-nuts. +Even the native gardens will not produce a tolerable sample of the +common sweet potato without manure, a positive proof of the general +poverty of the soil. + +Nevertheless, Ceylon has had a character for fertility. Bennett, in his +work entitled "Ceylon and its Capabilities," describes the island in +the most florid terms, as "the most important and valuable of all the +insular possessions of the imperial crown." Again he speaks of "its +fertile soil, and indigenous vegetable productions," etc., etc. Again: +"Ceylon, though comparatively but little known, is pre-eminent in +natural resources." All this serves to mislead the public opinion. +Agricultural experiments in a tropical country in a little garden +highly manured may be very satisfactory and very amusing. Everything +must necessarily come to perfection with great rapidity; but these +experiments are no proof of what Ceylon will produce, and the popular +idea of its fertility has been at length proved a delusion. + +It is a dangerous thing for any man to sit down to "make" a book. If he +has had personal experience, let him write a description of those +subjects which he understands; but if he attempts to "make" a book, he +must necessarily collect information from hearsay, when he will most +probably gather some chaff with his grain. + +Can any man, when describing the "fertility" of Ceylon, be aware that +newly-cleared forest-land will only produce one crop of the miserable +grain called korrakan? Can he understand why the greater portion of +Ceylon is covered by dense thorny jungles? It is simply this--that the +land is so desperately poor that it will only produce one crop, and +thus an immense acreage is required for the support of a few +inhabitants; thus, from ages past up to the present time, the natives +have been continually felling fresh forest and deserting the last +clearing, which has accordingly grown into a dense, thorny jungle, +forming what are termed the "Chenars" of Ceylon. + +So fully aware are the natives of the impossibility of getting more +than one crop out of the land that they plant all that they require at +the same time. Thus may be seen in a field of korrakan (a small +grain), Indian corn, millet and pumpkins, all growing together, and +harvested as they respectively become ripe. + +The principal articles of native cultivation are rice, korrakan, Indian +corn, betel, areca-nuts, pumpkins, onions, garlic, gingelly-oil seed, +tobacco, millet, red peppers, curry seed and sweet potatoes. + +The staple articles of Ceylon production are coffee cinnamon and +cocoa-nut oil, which are for the most part cultivated and manufactured +by Europeans. + +The chief article of native consumption, "rice," should be an export +from Ceylon; but there has been an unaccountable neglect on the part of +government regarding the production of this important grain, for the +supply of which Ceylon is mainly dependent upon importation. In the +hitherto overrated general resources of Ceylon, the cultivation of rice +has scarcely been deemed worthy of notice; the all-absorbing subject of +coffee cultivation has withdrawn the attention of the government from +that particular article, for the production of which the resources of +Ceylon are both naturally and artificially immense. + +This neglect is the more extraordinary as the increase of coffee +cultivation involves a proportionate increase in the consumption of +rice, by the additional influx of coolie labor from the coast of India; +therefore the price and supply of rice in Ceylon become questions of +similar importance to the price of corn in England. This dependence +upon a foreign soil for the supply involves the necessary fluctuations +in price caused by uncertain arrivals and precarious harvests; and the +importance of an unlimited supply at an even rate may be imagined when +it is known that every native consumes a bushel of rice per month, when +he can obtain it. + +Nevertheless, the great capabilities of Ceylon for the cultivation of +this all-important "staff of life" are entirely neglected by the +government. The tanks which afforded a supply of water for millions in +former ages now lie idle and out of repair; the pelican sails in +solitude upon their waters, and the crocodile basks upon their shores; +the thousands of acres which formerly produced rice for a dense +population are now matted over by a thorny and impenetrable jungle. +The wild buffalo, descendant from the ancient stock which tilled the +ground of a great nation, now roams through a barren forest, which in +olden times was a soil glistening with fertility. The ruins of the +mighty cities tower high above the trees, sad monuments of desolation, +where all was once flourishing, and where thousands dwelt within their +walls. + +All are passed away; and in the wreck of past ages we trace the great +resources of the country, which produced sufficient food to support +millions; while for the present comparatively small population Ceylon +is dependent upon imports. + +These lakes, or tanks, were works of much art and of immense labor for +the purpose of reservoirs, from the supply of which the requisite +amount of land could be irrigated for rice cultivation. A valley of +the required extent being selected, the courses of neighboring or +distant rivers were conducted into it, and the exit of the waters was +prevented by great causeways, or dams, of solid masonry, which extended +for some miles across the lower side of the valley thus converted into +a lake. The exit of the water was then regulated by means of sluices, +from which it was conducted by channels to the rice-lands. + +These tanks are of various extent, and extremely numerous throughout +Ceylon. The largest are those of Minneria, Kandellai, Padavellkiellom, +and the Giant Tank. These are from fifteen to twenty-five miles in +circumference; but in former times, when the sluices were in repair and +the volume of water at its full height, they must have been much larger. + +In those days the existence of a reservoir of water was a certain +indication of a populous and flourishing neighborhood; and the chief +cities of the country were accordingly situated in those places which +were always certain of a supply. So careful were the inhabitants in +husbanding those liquid resources upon which their very existence +depended that even the surplus waters of one lake were not allowed to +escape unheeded. Channels were cut, connecting a chain of tanks of +slightly varying elevations, over an extent of sixty or seventy miles +of apparently flat country, and the overflow of one tank was thus +conducted in succession from lake to lake, until they all attained the +desired level. + +In this manner was the greater portion of Ceylon kept in the highest +state of cultivation. From the north to the south the island was +thickly peopled, and the only portions which then remained in the hands +of nature were those which are now seen in the state of primeval forest. + +Well may Ceylon in those times have deserved the name of the "Paradise +of the East." The beauties which nature has showered upon the land were +heightened by cultivation; the forest-capped mountains rose from a +waving sea of green; the valleys teemed with wealth; no thorny jungles +gave a barren terminable prospect, but the golden tints of ripening +crops spread to the horizon. Temples stood upon the hill-tops; cities +were studded over the land, their lofty dagobas and palaces reflected +on the glassy surface of the lakes, from which their millions of +inhabitants derived their food, their wealth and their very life. + +The remains of these cities sufficiently attest the former amount of +population and the comparative civilization which existed at that +remote era among the progenitors of the present degraded race of +barbarians. The ruins of "Anaradupoora," which cover two hundred and +fifty-six square miles of ground, are all that remain of the noble city +which stood within its walls in a square of sixteen miles. Some idea +of the amount of population may be arrived at, when we consider the +present density of inhabitants in all Indian houses and towns. Millions +must, therefore, have streamed from the gates of a city to which our +modern London was comparatively a village. + +There is a degree of sameness in the ruins of all the ancient cities of +Ceylon which renders a description tedious. Those of "Anaradupoora" are +the largest in extent, and the buildings appear to have been more +lofty, the great dagoba having exceeded four hundred feet in height; +but the ruins do not exhibit the same "finish" in the style of +architecture which is seen in the remains of other towns. + +Among these, "Topare," anciently called "Pollanarua," stands foremost. +This city appears to have been laid out with a degree of taste which +would have done credit to our modern towns. + +Before its principal gate stretched a beautiful lake of about fifteen +miles circumference (now only nine). The approach to this gate was by a +broad road, upon the top of a stone causeway, of between two and three +miles in length, which formed a massive dam to the waters of the lake +which washed its base. To the right of this dam stretched many miles +of cultivation; to the left, on the farther shores of the lake, lay +park-like grass-lands, studded with forest trees, some of whose mighty +descendants still exist in the noble "tamarind," rising above all +others. Let us return in imagination to Pollanarua as it once stood. +Having arrived upon the causeway in the approach to the city, the scene +must have been beautiful in the extreme: the silvery lake, like a broad +mirror, in the midst of a tropical park; the flowering trees shadowing +its waters; the groves of tamarinds sheltering its many nooks and bays; +the gorgeous blossoms of the pink lotus resting on its glassy surface; +and the carpet-like glades of verdant pasturage, stretching far away +upon the opposite shores, covered with countless elephants, tamed to +complete obedience. Then on the right, below the massive granite steps +which form the causeway, the water rushing from the sluice carries +fertility among a thousand fields, and countless laborers and cattle +till the ground: the sturdy buffaloes straining at the plough, the +women, laden with golden sheaves of corn and baskets of fruit, crowding +along the palm-shaded road winding toward the city, from whose gate a +countless throng are passing and returning. Behold the mighty city! +rising like a snow-white cloud from the broad margin of the waters. +The groves of cocoa-nuts and palms of every kind, grouped in the inner +gardens, throwing a cool shade upon the polished walls; the lofty +palaces towering among the stately areca trees, and the gilded domes +reflecting a blaze of light from the rays of a midday sun. Such let us +suppose the exterior of Pollanarua. + +The gates are entered, and a broad street, straight as an arrow, lies +before us, shaded on either side by rows of palms. Here stand, on +either hand, the dwellings of the principal inhabitants, bordering the +wide space, which continues its straight and shady course for about +four miles in length. In the centre, standing in a spacious circle, +rises the great Dagoba, forming a grand coup d'oeil from the entrance +gate. Two hundred and sixty feet from the base the Dagoba rears its +lofty summit. Two circular terraces, each of some twenty feet in +height, rising one upon the other, with a width of fifty feet, and a +diameter at the base of about two hundred and fifty, from the step-like +platform upon which the Dagoba stands. These are ascended by broad +flights of steps, each terrace forming a circular promenade around the +Dagoba; the whole having the appearance of white marble, being covered +with polished stucco ornamented with figures in bas-relief. The Dagoba +is a solid mass of brickwork in the shape of a dome, which rises from +the upper terrace. The whole is covered with polished stucco, and +surmounted by a gilded spire standing upon a square pedestal of stucco, +highly ornamented with large figures, also in bas-relief; this pedestal +is a cube of about thirty feet, supporting the tall gilded spire, which +is surmounted by a golden umbrella. + +Around the base of the Dagoba on the upper terrace are eight small +entrances with highly-ornamented exteriors. These are the doors to +eight similar chambers of about twelve feet square, in each of which is +a small altar and carved golden idol. This Dagoba forms the main +centre of the city, from which streets branch off in all directions, +radiating from the circular space in which it stands. + +The main street from the entrance-gate continues to the further +extremity of the city, being crossed at right angles in the centre by a +similar street, thus forming two great main streets through the city, +terminating in four great gates or entrances to the town--north, south, +east and west. Continuing along the main street from the great Dagoba +for about a mile, we face another Dagoba of similar appearance, but of +smaller dimensions, also standing in a spacious circle. Near this rises +the king's palace, a noble building of great height, edged at the +corner by narrow octagon towers. + +At the further extremity of this main street, close to the opposite +entrance-gate, is the rock temple, with the massive idols of Buddha +flanking the entrance. + +This, from the form and position of the existing ruins, we may conceive +to have been the appearance of Pollanarua in its days of prosperity. +But what remains of its grandeur? It has vanished like "a tale that is +told;" it is passed away like a dream; the palaces are dust; the grassy +sod has grown in mounds over the ruins of streets and fallen houses; +nature has turfed them in one common grave with their inhabitants. The +lofty palms have faded away and given place to forest trees, whose +roots spring from the crumbled ruins; the bear and the leopard crouch +in the porches of the temples; the owl roosts in the casements of the +palaces; the jackal roams among the ruins in vain; there is not a bone +left for him to gnaw of the multitudes which have passed away. There +is their handwriting upon the temple wall, upon the granite slab which +has mocked at Time; but there is no man to decipher it. There are the +gigantic idols before whom millions have bowed; there is the same +vacant stare upon their features of rock which gazed upon the +multitudes of yore; but they no longer stare upon the pomp of the +glorious city, but upon ruin, and rank weeds, and utter desolation. +How many suns have risen and how many nights have darkened the earth +since silence has reigned amidst the city, no man can tell. No mortal +can say what fate befell those hosts of heathens, nor when they +vanished from the earth. Day and night succeed each other, and the +shade of the setting sun still falls from the great Dagoba; but it is +the "valley of the shadow of death" upon which that shadow falls like a +pall over the corpse of a nation. + +The great Dagoba now remains a heap of mouldering brickwork, still +retaining its form, but shorn of all its beauty. The stucco covering +has almost all disappeared, leaving a patch here and there upon the +most sheltered portions of the building. Scrubby brushwood and rank +grass and lichens have for the most part covered its surface, giving it +the appearance rather of a huge mound of earth than of an ancient +building. A portion of the palace is also standing, and, although for +the most part blocked up with ruins, there is still sufficient to +denote its former importance. The bricks, or rather the tiles, of +which all the buildings are composed, are of such an imperishable +nature that they still adhere to each other in large masses in spots +where portions of the buildings have fallen. + +In one portion of the ruins there are a number of beautiful fluted +columns, with carved capitals, still remaining in a perfect state. +Among these are the ruins of a large flight of steps; near them, again, +a stone-lined tank, which was evidently intended as a bath; and +everything denotes the former comfort and arrangement of a first-class +establishment. There are innumerable relics, all interesting and +worthy of individual attention, throughout the ruins over a surface of +many miles, but they are mostly overgrown with jungle or covered with +rank grass. The apparent undulations of the ground in all directions +are simply the remains of fallen streets and buildings overgrown in +like manner with tangled vegetation. + +The most interesting, as being the most perfect, specimen, is the small +rock temple, which, being hewn out of the solid stone, is still in +complete preservation. This is a small chamber in the face of an +abrupt rock, which, doubtless, being partly a natural cavern, has been +enlarged to the present size by the chisel; and the entrance, which may +have been originally a small hole, has been shaped into an arched +doorway. The interior is not more than perhaps twenty-five feet by +eighteen, and is simply fitted up with an altar and the three figures +of Buddha, in the positions in which he is usually represented--the +sitting, the reclining and the standing postures. + +The exterior of the temple is far more interesting. The narrow archway +is flanked on either side by two inclined planes, hewn from the face of +the rock, about eighteen feet high by twelve in width. These are +completely covered with an inscription in the old Pali language, which +has never been translated. Upon the left of one plain is a kind of +sunken area hewn out of the rock, in which sits a colossal figure of +Buddha, about twenty feet in height. On the right of the other plane +is a figure in the standing posture about the same height; and still +farther to the right, likewise hewn from the solid rock, is an immense +figure in the recumbent posture, which is about fifty-six feet in +length, or, as I measured it, not quite nineteen paces. + +These figures are of a far superior class of sculpture to the idols +usually seen in Ceylon, especially that in the reclining posture, in +which the impression of the head upon the pillow is so well executed +that the massive pillow of gneiss rock actually appears yielding to the +weight of the head. + +This temple is supposed to be coeval with the city, which was founded +about three hundred years before Christ, and is supposed to have been +in ruins for upward of six hundred years. The comparatively recent +date of its destruction renders its obscurity the more mysterious, as +there is no mention made of its annihilation in any of the Cingalese +records, although the city is constantly mentioned during the time of +its prosperity in the native history of Ceylon. It is my opinion that +its destruction was caused by famine. + +In those days the kings of Ceylon were perpetually at war with each +other. The Queen of the South, from the great city of Mahagam in the +Hambantotte district, made constant war with the kings of Pollanarua. +They again made war with the Arabs and Malabars, who had invaded the +northern districts of Ceylon; and as in modern warfare the great art +consists in cutting off the enemy's supplies, so in those days the +first and most decisive blow to be inflicted was the cutting off the +"water." Thus, by simply turning the course of a river which supplied a +principal tank, not only would that tank lose its supply, but the whole +of the connected chain of lakes dependent upon the principal would in +like manner be deprived of water. + +This being the case, the first summer or dry season would lay waste the +country. I have myself seen the lake of Minneria, which is twenty-two +miles in circumference, evaporate to the small dimensions of four miles +circuit during a dry season. + +A population of some millions wholly dependent upon the supply of rice +for their existence would be thrown into sudden starvation by the +withdrawal of the water. Thus have the nations died out like a fire +for lack of fuel. This cause will account for the decay of the great +cities of Ceylon. The population gone, the wind and the rain would +howl through the deserted dwellings, the white ants would devour the +supporting beams, the elephants would rub their colossal forms against +the already tottering houses, and decay would proceed with a rapidity +unknown in a cooler clime. As the seed germinates in a few hours in a +tropical country, so with equal haste the body of both vegetable and +animal decays when life is extinct. A perpetual and hurrying change is +visible in all things. A few showers, and the surface of the earth is +teeming with verdure; a few days of drought, and the seeds already +formed are falling to the earth, springing in their turn to life at the +approach of moisture. The same rapidity of change is exhibited in +their decay. The heaps of vegetable putridity upon the banks of +rivers, when a swollen torrent has torn the luxuriant plants from the +loosened soil, are but the effects of a few hours' change. The tree +that arrives at maturity in a few years rots in as short a time when +required for durability: thus it is no mystery, that either a house or +a city should shortly fall to decay when the occupant is gone. + +In like manner, and with still greater rapidity, is a change effected +in the face of nature. As the flowers usurp the place of weeds under +the care of man, so, when his hand is wanting, a few short weeks bury +them beneath an overwhelming mass of thorns. In one year a jungle will +conceal all signs of recent cultivation. Is it, therefore, a mystery +that Ceylon is covered with such vast tracts of thorny jungle, now that +her inhabitants are gone? + +Throughout the world there is a perpetual war between man and nature, +but in no country has the original curse of the earth been carried out +to a fuller extent than in Ceylon: "thorns also and thistles shall it +bring forth to thee." This is indeed exemplified when a few months +neglect of once-cultivated land renders it almost impassable, and where +man has vanished from the earth and thorny jungles have covered the +once broad tracts of prosperous cultivation. + +A few years will thus produce an almost total ruin throughout a +deserted city. The air of desolation created by a solitude of six +centuries can therefore be easily imagined. There exists, however, +among the ruins of Pollanarua a curious instance of the power of the +smallest apparent magnitude to destroy the works of man. At some +remote period a bird has dropped the seed of the banian tree (ficus +Indicus) upon the decaying summit of a dagoba. This, germinating has +struck its root downward through the brickwork, and, by the gradual and +insinuating progress of its growth, it has split the immense mass of +building into two sections; the twisted roots now appearing through the +clefts, while the victorious tree waves in exultation above the ruin: +an emblem of the silent growth of "civilization" which will overturn +the immense fabric of heathen superstition. + +It is placed beyond a doubt that the rice-growing resources of Ceylon +have been suffered to lie dormant since the disappearance of her +ancient population; and to these neglected capabilities the attention +of government should be directed. + +An experiment might be commenced on a small scale by the repair of one +tank--say Kandellai, which is only twenty-six miles from Trincomalee on +the highroad to Kandy. This tank, when the dam and sluices were +repaired, would rise to about nine feet above its present level, and +would irrigate many thousand acres. + +The grand desideratum in the improvement of Ceylon is the increase of +the population; all of whom should, in some measure, be made to +increase the revenue. + +The government should therefore hazard this one experiment to induce +the emigration of the industrious class of Chinese to the shores of +Ceylon. Show them a never-failing supply of water and land of +unlimited extent to be hid on easy terms, and the country would soon +resume its original prosperity. A tax of five per cent. upon the +produce of the land, to commence in the ratio of 0 per cent. for the +first year, three per cent. for the second and third, and the full +amount of five for the fourth, would be a fair and easy rent to the +settler, and would not only repay the government for the cost of +repairing the tank, but would in a few cars become a considerable +source of revenue, in addition to the increased value of the land, now +worthless, by a system of cultivation. + +Should the first experiment succeed, the plan might be continued +throughout Ceylon, and the soil of her own shores would produce a +supply for the island consumption. The revenue would be derived direct +from the land which now produces nothing but thorny jungle. The import +trade of Ceylon would be increased in proportion to the influx of +population, and the duties upon enlarged imports would again tend to +swell the revenue of the country. + +The felling and clearing of the jungle, which cultivation would render +necessary, would tend, in a great measure, to dispel the fevers and +malaria always produced by a want of free circulation of air. In a +jungle-covered country like Ceylon, diseases of the most malignant +character are harbored in these dense and undisturbed tracts, which +year after year reap a pestilential harvest from the thinly-scattered +population. Cholera, dysentery, fever and small-pox all appear in +their turn and annually sweep whole villages away. I have frequently +hailed with pleasure the distant tope of waving cocoa-nut trees after a +long day's journey in a broiling sun, when I have cantered toward these +shady warders of cultivation in hopes of a night's halt at a village. +But the palms have sighed in the wind over tenantless abodes, and the +mouldering dead have lain beneath their shade. Not a living soul +remaining; all swept away by pestilence; huts recently fallen to decay, +fruits ripening, on the trees, and no hand left to gather them; the +shaddock and the lime falling to the earth to be preyed upon by the +worm, like their former masters. All dead; not one left to tell the +miserable tale. + +The decay of the population is still progressing, and the next fifty +years will see whole districts left uninhabited unless something can be +done to prevent it. There is little doubt that if land and water could +be obtained from government in a comparatively healthy and populous +neighborhood, many would migrate to that point from the half-deserted +districts, who might assist in the cultivation of the country instead +of rotting in a closing jungle. + +One season of pestilence, even in a large village, paves the road for a +similar visitation in the succeeding year, for this reason: + +Say that a village comprising two hundred men is reduced by sickness to +a population of one hundred. The remaining one hundred cannot keep in +cultivation the land formerly open; therefore, the jungle closes over +the surface and rapidly encroaches upon the village. Thus the +circulation of air is impeded and disease again halves the population. +In each successive year the wretched inhabitants are thinned out, and +disease becomes the more certain as the jungle continues to advance. +At length the miserable few are no longer sufficient to cultivate the +rice-lands; their numbers will not even suffice for driving their +buffaloes. The jungle closes round the village; cholera finishes the +scene by sweeping off the remnant; and groves of cocoa-nut trees, +towering over the thorny jungle, become monuments sacred to the memory +of an exterminated village. + +The number of villages which have thus died out is almost incredible. +In a day's ride of twenty miles, I have passed the remains of as many +as three or four, how many more may have vanished in the depths of the +jungle! + +Wherever the cocoa-nut trees are still existing, the ruin of the +village must have been comparatively recent, as the wild elephants +generally overturn them in a few years after the disappearance of the +inhabitants, browsing upon the succulent tops, and destroying every +trace of a former habitation. + +There is no doubt that when sickness is annually reducing the +population of a district, the inhabitants, and accordingly the produce +of the land, must shortly come to an end. In all times of pestilence +the first impulse among the natives is to fly from the neighborhood, +but at present there is no place of refuge. It is, therefore, a matter +of certainty that the repair of one of the principal tanks would draw +together in thousands the survivors of many half-perished villages, who +would otherwise fall victims to succeeding years of sickness. + +The successful cultivation of rice at all times requires an extensive +population, and large grazing-grounds for the support of the buffaloes +necessary for the tillage of the land. + +The labor of constructing dams and forming watercourses is performed by +a general gathering, similar to the American principle of a "bee;" and, +as "many hands make light work," the cultivation proceeds with great +rapidity. Thus a large population can bring into tillage a greater +individual proportion of ground than a smaller number of laborers, and +the rice is accordingly produced at a cheaper rate. + +Few people understand the difficulties with which a small village has +to contend in the cultivation of rice. The continual repairs of +temporary dams, which are nightly trodden down and destroyed by +elephants; the filling up of the water-courses from the same cause; the +nocturnal attacks upon the crops by elephants and hogs; the devastating +attacks of birds as the grain becomes ripe; a scarcity of water at the +exact moment it is required; and other numerous difficulties which are +scarcely felt by a large population. + +By the latter the advantage is enjoyed of the division of labor. The +dams are built of permanent material; every work is rapidly completed; +the night-fires blaze in the lofty watch-house, while the shouts of the +watchers scare the wild beasts from the crops. Hundreds of children are +daily screaming from their high perches to scare away the birds. +Rattles worked by long lines extend in every direction, unceasingly +pulled by the people in the watch-houses; wind-clackers (similar to our +cherry-clackers) are whirling in all places; and by the division of the +toil among a multitude the individual work proceeds without fatigue. + +Every native is perfectly aware of this advantage in rice cultivation; +and were the supply of water ensured to them by the repair of a +principal tank, they would gather around its margin. The thorny jungles +would soon disappear from the surface of the ground, and a +densely-populated and prosperous district would again exist where all +has been a wilderness for a thousand years. + +The system of rice cultivation is exceedingly laborious. The first +consideration being a supply of water, the second is a perfect level, +or series of levels, to be irrigated. Thus a hill-side must be +terraced out into a succession of platforms or steps; and a plain, +however apparently flat, must, by the requisite embankments, be reduced +to the most perfect surface. + +This being completed, the water is laid on for a certain time, until +the soil has become excessively soft and muddy. It is then run off, +and the land is ploughed by a simple implement, which, being drawn by +two buffaloes, stirs up the soil to a depth of eighteen inches. This +finished, the water is again laid on until the mud becomes so soft that +a man will sink knee-deep. In this state it is then trodden over by +buffaloes, driven backward and forward in large gangs, until the mud is +so thoroughly mixed that upon the withdrawal of the water it sinks to a +perfect level. + +Upon this surface the paddy, having been previously soaked in water, is +now sown; and, in the course of a fortnight, it attains a height of +about four inches. The water is now again laid on, and continued at +intervals until within a fortnight of the grain becoming ripe. It is +then run off; the ground hardens, the ripe crop is harvested by the +sickle, and the grain is trodden out by buffaloes. The rice is then +separated from the paddy or husk by being pounded in a wooden mortar. + +This is a style of cultivation in which the Cingalese particularly +excel; nothing can be more beautifully regular than their flights of +green terraces from the bottoms of the valleys to the very summits of +the hills: and the labor required in their formation must be immense, +is they are frequently six feet one above the other. The Cingalese are +peculiarly a rice-growing nation; give them an abundant supply of water +and land on easy terms, and they will not remain idle. + + + +CHAPTER V. + +Real Cost of Land--Want of Communication--Coffee-planting--Comparison +between French and English +Settlers--Landslips--Forest-clearing--Manuring--The Coffee +Bug--Rats--Fatted Stock--Suggestions for Sheep-farming--Attack of a +Leopard--Leopards and Chetahs--Boy Devoured--Traps--Musk Cats and the +Mongoose--Vermin of Ceylon. + + +What is the government price of land in Ceylon? and what is the real +cost of the land? These are two questions which should be considered +separately, and with grave attention by the intending settler or +capitalist. + +The upset price of government land is twenty shillings per acre; thus, +the inexperienced purchaser is very apt to be led away by the +apparently low sum per acre into a purchase of great extent. The +question of the real cost will then be solved at his expense. There are +few colonies belonging to Great Britain where the government price of +land is so high, compared to the value of the natural productions of +the soil. + +The staple commodity of Ceylon being coffee, I will assume that a +purchase is concluded with the government for one thousand acres of +land, at the upset price of twenty shillings per acre. What has the +purchaser obtained for this sum? One thousand acres of dense forest, to +which there is no road. The one thousand pounds passes into the +government chest, and the purchaser is no longer thought of; he is left +to shift for himself and to make the most of his bad bargain. + +He is, therefore, in this position: He has parted with one thousand +pounds for a similar number of acres of land, which will not yield him +one penny in any shape until he has cleared it from forest. This he +immediately commences by giving out contracts, and the forest is +cleared, lopped and burnt. The ground is then planted with coffee and +the planter has to wait three years for a return. By the time of full +bearing the whole cost of felling, burning, planting and cleaning will +be about eight pounds per acre; this, in addition to the prime cost of +the land, and about two thousand pounds expended in buildings, +machinery etc., etc., will bring the price of the land, when in a +yielding condition, to eleven pounds an acre at the lowest calculation. +Thus before his land yields him one fraction, he will have invested +eleven thousand pounds, if he clears the whole of his purchase. Many +persons lose sight of this necessary outlay when first purchasing their +land, and subsequently discover to their cost that their capital is +insufficient to bring the estate into cultivation. + +Then comes the question of a road. The government will give him no +assistance; accordingly, the whole of his crop must be conveyed on +coolies' heads along an arduous path to the nearest highway, perhaps +fifteen miles distant. Even this rough path of fifteen miles the +planter must form at his own expense. + +Considering the risks that are always attendant upon agricultural +pursuits, and especially upon coffee-planting, the price of rough land +must be acknowledged as absurdly high under the present conditions of +sales. There is a great medium to be observed, however, in the sales +of crown land; too low a price is even a greater evil than too high a +rate, as it is apt to encourage speculators in land, who do much injury +to a colony by locking up large tracts in an uncultivated state, to +take the chance of a future rise in the price. + +This evil might easily be avoided by retaining the present bona fide +price of the land per acre, qualified by an arrangement that one-half +of the purchase money should be expended in the formation of roads from +the land in question. This would be of immense assistance to the +planters, especially in a populous planting neighborhood, where the +purchases of land were large and numerous, in which case the aggregate +sum would be sufficient to form a carriage road to the main highway, +which might be kept in repair by a slight toll. An arrangement of this +kind is not only fair to the planters, but would be ultimately equally +beneficial to the government. Every fresh sale of land would ensure +either a new road or the improvement of an old one; and the country +would be opened up through the most remote districts. This very fact +of good communication would expedite the sales of crown lands, which +are now valueless from their isolated position. + +Coffee-planting in Ceylon has passed through the various stages +inseparable from every "mania." + +In the early days of our possession, the Kandian district was little +known, and sanguine imaginations painted the hidden prospect in their +ideal colors, expecting that a trace once opened to the interior would +be the road to fortune. + +How these golden expectations have been disappointed the broken +fortunes of many enterprising planters can explain. + +The protective duty being withdrawn, a competition with foreign coffee +at once reduced the splendid prices of olden times to a more moderate +standard, and took forty per cent. out of the pockets of the planters. +Coffee, which in those days brought from one hundred shillings to one +hundred and forty shillings per hundred-weight, is now reduced to from +sixty shillings to eighty shillings. + +This sudden reduction created an equally sudden panic among the +planters, many of whom were men of straw, who had rushed to Ceylon at +the first cry of coffee "fortunes," and who had embarked on an +extensive scale with borrowed capital. These were the first to smash. +In those days the expenses of bringing land into cultivation were more +than double the present rate, and, the cultivation of coffee not being +so well understood, the produce per acre was comparatively small. This +combination of untoward circumstances was sufficient cause for the +alarm which ensued, and estates were thrust into the market and knocked +down for whatever could be realized. Mercantile houses were dragged +down into the general ruin, and a dark cloud settled over the Cinnamon +isle. + +As the after effects of a "hurricane" are a more healthy atmosphere and +an increased vigor in all vegetation, so are the usual sequels to a +panic in the commercial world. Things are brought down to their real +value and level; men of straw are swept away, and affairs are commenced +anew upon a sound and steady basis. Capital is invested with caution, +and improvements are entered upon step by step, until success is +assured. + +The reduction in the price of coffee was accordingly met by a +corresponding system of expenditure and by an improved state of +cultivation; and at the present time the agricultural prospects of the +colony are in a more healthy state than they have ever been since the +commencement of coffee cultivation. + +There is no longer any doubt that a coffee estate in a good situation +in Ceylon will pay a large interest for the capital invested, and will +ultimately enrich the proprietor, provided that he has his own capital +to work his estate, that he gives his own personal superintendence and +that he understands the management. These are the usual conditions of +success in most affairs; but a coffee-estate is not unfrequently abused +for not paying when it is worked with borrowed capital at a high rate +of interest under questionable superintendence. + +It is a difficult thing to define the amount which constitutes a +"fortune:" that which is enough for one man is a pittance for another; +but one thing is certain, that, no matter how small his first capital, +the coffee-planter hopes to make his "fortune." + +Now, even allowing a net profit of twenty per cent. per annum on the +capital invested, it must take at least ten years to add double the +amount to the first capital, allowing no increase to the spare capital +required for working the estate. A rapid fortune can never be made by +working a coffee estate. Years of patient industry and toil, chequered +by many disappointments, may eventually reward the proprietor; but it +will be at a time of life when a long residence in the tropics will +have given him a distaste for the chilly atmosphere of old England; his +early friends will have been scattered abroad, and he will meet few +faces to welcome him on his native shores. What cold is so severe as a +cold reception?--no thermometer can mark the degree. No fortune, +however large, can compensate for the loss of home, and friends, and +early associations. + +This feeling is peculiarly strong throughout the British nation. You +cannot convince an English settler that he will be abroad for an +indefinite number of years; the idea would be equivalent to +transportation: he consoles himself with the hope that something will +turn up to alter the apparent certainty of his exile; and in this hope, +with his mind ever fixed upon his return, he does nothing for posterity +in the colony. He rarely even plants a fruit tree, hoping that his +stay will not allow him to gather from it. This accounts for the +poverty of the gardens and enclosures around the houses of the English +inhabitants, and the general dearth of any fruits worth eating. + +How different is the appearance of French colonies, and how different +are the feelings of the settler! The word "adieu" once spoken, he sighs +an eternal farewell to the shores of "La belle France," and, with the +natural light-heartedness of the nation, he settles cheerfully in a +colony as his adopted country. He lays out his grounds with taste, and +plants groves of exquisite fruit trees, whose produce will, he hopes, +be tasted by his children and grandchildren. Accordingly, in a French +colony there is a tropical beauty in the cultivated trees and flowers +which is seldom seen in our possessions. The fruits are brought to +perfection, as there is the same care taken in pruning and grafting the +finest kinds as in our gardens in England. + +A Frenchman is necessarily a better settler; everything is arranged for +permanency, from the building of a house to the cultivation of an +estate. He does not distress his land for immediate profit, but from +the very commencement he adopts a system of the highest cultivation. + +The latter is now acknowledged as the most remunerative course in all +countries; and its good effects are already seen in Ceylon, where, for +some years past, much attention has been devoted to manuring on coffee +estates. + +No crop has served to develop the natural poverty of the soil so much +as coffee; and there is no doubt that, were it possible to procure +manure in sufficient quantity, the holes should be well filled at the +time of planting. This would give an increased vigor to the young +plant that would bring the tree into bearing at an earlier date, as it +would the sooner arrive at perfection. + +The present system of coffee-planting on a good estate is particularly +interesting. It has now been proved that the best elevation in Ceylon +to combine fine quality with large crops is from twenty-five hundred to +four thousand feet. At one time it was considered that the finest +quality was produced at the highest range; but the estates at an +elevation of five thousand feet are so long at arriving at perfection, +and the crop produced is so small, that the lower elevation is +preferred. + +In the coffee districts of Ceylon there is little or no level ground to +be obtained, and the steep sides of the hills offer many objections to +cultivation. The soil, naturally light and poor, is washed by every +shower, and the more soluble portions, together with the salts of the +manure applied to the trees, are being continually robbed by the heavy +rains. Thus it is next to impossible to keep an estate in a high state +of cultivation, without an enormous expense in the constant application +of manure. + +Many estates are peculiarly subject to landslips, which are likewise +produced by the violence of the rains. In these cases the destruction +is frequently to a large extent; great rocks are detached from the +summits of the hills, and sweep off whole lines of trees in their +descent. + +Wherever landslips are frequent, they may be taken as an evidence of a +poor, clay subsoil. The rain soaks through the surface; and not being +able to percolate through the clay with sufficient rapidity, it lodges +between the two strata, loosening the upper surface, which slides from +the greasy clay; launched, as it were, by its own gravity into the +valley below. + +This is the worst kind of soil for the coffee tree, whose long tap-root +is ever seeking nourishment from beneath. On this soil it is very +common to see a young plantation giving great promise; but as the trees +increase in growth the tap-root reaches the clay subsoil and the +plantation immediately falls off. The subsoil is of far more +importance to the coffee-tree than the upper surface; the latter may be +improved by manure, but if the former is bad there is no remedy. + +The first thing to be considered being the soil, and the planter being +satisfied with its quality, there is another item of equal importance +to be taken into consideration when choosing a locality for a coffee +estate. This is an extent of grazing land sufficient for the support of +the cattle required for producing manure. + +In a country with so large a proportion of forest as Ceylon, this is +not always practicable; in which case land should be cleared and grass +planted, as it is now proved that without manure an estate will never +pay the proprietor. + +The locality being fixed upon, the clearing of the forest is commenced. +The felling is begun from the base of the hills, and the trees being +cut about half through, are started in sections of about an acre at one +fall. This is easily effected by felling some large tree from the top, +which, falling upon its half-divided neighbor, carries everything +before it like a pack of cards. + +The number of acres required having been felled, the boughs and small +branches are all lopped, and, together with the cleared underwood, they +form a mass over the surface of the ground impervious to man or beast. +This mass, exposed to a powerful sun, soon becomes sufficiently dry for +burning, and, the time of a brisk breeze being selected, the torch is +applied. + +The magnificent sight of so extensive a fire is succeeded by the +desolate appearance of blackened stumps and smouldering trunks of +trees: the whole of the branches and tinderwood having been swept away +by the mighty blaze, the land is comparatively clear. + +Holes two feet square are now dug in parallel lines at a distance of +from six to eight feet apart throughout the estate, and advantage being +taken of the wet season, they are planted with young coffee trees of +about twelve inches high. Nothing is now required but to keep the land +clean until the trees attain the height of four feet and come into +bearing. This, at an elevation of three thousand feet, they generally +do in two years and a half. The stem is then topped, to prevent its +higher growth and to produce a large supply of lateral shoots. + +The system of pruning is the same as with all fruit trees; the old wood +being kept down to induce fruit bearing shoots, whose number must be +proportioned to the strength of the tree. + +The whole success of the estate now depends upon constant cleaning, +plentiful manuring and careful pruning, with a due regard to a frugal +expenditure and care in the up-keep of buildings, etc., etc. Much +attention is also required in the management of the cattle on the +estate, for without a proper system the amount of manure produced will +be proportionately small. They should be bedded up every night hock +deep with fresh litter and the manure thus formed should be allowed to +remain in the shed until it is between two and three feet deep. It +should then be treated on a "Geoffrey" pit (named after its inventor). + +This is the simplest and most perfect method for working up the weeds +from an estate, and effectually destroying their seeds at the same time +that they are converted into manure. + +A water-tight platform is formed of stucco--say forty feet +square--surrounded by a wall two feet high, so as to form a tank. +Below this is a sunken cistern--say eight feet square--into which the +drainage would be conducted from the upper platform. In this cistern a +force-pump is fitted, and the cistern is half filled with a solution of +saltpetre and sal-ammoniac. + +A layer of weeds and rubbish is now laid upon the platform for a depth +of three feet, surmounted by a layer of good dung from the cattle sheds +of one foot thick. These layers are continued alternately in the +proportion of three to one of weeds, until the mass is piled to a +height of twenty feet, the last layer being good dung. Upon this mass +the contents of the cistern are pumped and evenly distributed by means +of a spreader. + +This mixture promotes the most rapid decomposition of vegetable matter, +and, combining with the juices of the weeds and the salts of the dung, +it drains evenly through the whole mass, forming a most perfect +compost. The surplus moisture, upon reaching the bottom of the heap, +drains from the slightly inclined platform into the receiving cistern, +and is again pumped over the mass. + +This is the cheapest and best way of making manure upon an estate, the +cattle sheds and pits being arranged in the different localities most +suitable for reducing the labor of transport. + +The coffee berry, when ripe, is about the size of a cherry, and is +shaped like a laurel berry. The flesh has a sweet but vapid taste, and +encloses two seeds of coffee. These are carefully packed by nature in +a double skin. + +The cherry coffee is gathered by coolies at the rate of two bushels +each per diem, and is cleared from the flesh by passing through a +pulper, a machine consisting of cylindrical copper graters, which tear +the flesh from the berry and leave the coffee in its second covering of +parchment, The coffee is then exposed to a partial fermentation by +being piled for some hours in a large heap. This has the effect of +loosening the fleshy particles, which, by washing in a cistern of +running water, are detached from the berry. It is then rendered +perfectly dry in the sun or by means of artificially heated air; and, +being packed in bags, it is forwarded to Colombo. Here, it is unpacked +and sent to the mill, which, by means of heavy rollers, detaches the +parchment and under silver skin, and leaves the grayish-blue berry in a +state for market. The injured grains are sorted out by women, and the +coffee is packed for the last time and shipped to England. + +A good and well-managed estate should produce an average crop of ten +hundredweight per acre, leaving a net profit of fifteen shillings per +hundredweight under favorable circumstances. Unfortunately, it is next +to impossible to make definite calculations in all agricultural +pursuits: the inclemency of seasons and the attacks of vermin are +constantly marring the planter's expectations. Among the latter +plagues the "bug" stands foremost. This is a minute and gregarious +insect, which lives upon the juices of the coffee tree, and accordingly +is most destructive to an estate. It attacks a variety of plants, but +more particularly the tribe of jessamine; thus the common jessamine, +the "Gardenia" (Cape jessamine) and the coffee (Jasminum Arabicum) are +more especially subject to its ravages. + +The dwelling of this insect is frequently confounded with the living +creature itself. This dwelling is in shape and appearance like the +back shell of a tortoise, or, still more, like a "limpet," being +attached to the stem of the tree in the same manner that the latter +adheres to a rock. This is the nest or house, which, although no +larger than a split hempseed contains some hundreds of the "bug." As +some thousands of these scaly nests exist upon one tree, myriads of +insects must be feeding upon its juices. + +The effect produced upon the tree is a blackened and sooty appearance, +like a London shrub; the branches look withered, and the berries do not +plump out to their full size, but, for the most part, fall unripened +from the tree. This attack is usually of about two years' duration; +after which time the tree loses its blackened appearance, which peels +off the surface of the leaves like gold-beaters' skin,--and they appear +in their natural color. Coffee plants of young growth are liable to +complete destruction if severely attacked by "bug." + +Rats are also very destructive to an estate; they are great adepts at +pruning, and completely strip the trees of their young shoots, thus +utterly destroying a crop. These vermin are more easily guarded +against than the insect tribe, and should be destroyed by poison. Hog's +lard, ground cocoa-nut and phosphorus form the most certain bait and +poison combined. + +These are some of the drawbacks to coffee-planting, to say nothing of +bad seasons and fluctuating prices, which, if properly calculated, +considerably lessen the average profits of an estate, as it must be +remembered that while a crop is reduced in quantity, the expenses +continue at the usual rate, and are severely felt when consecutive +years bring no produce to meet them. + +Were it not for the poverty of the soil, the stock of cattle required +on a coffee estate for the purpose of manure might be made extremely +profitable, and the gain upon fatted stock would pay for the expense of +manuring the estate. This would be the first and most reasonable idea +to occur to an agriculturist--"buy poor cattle at a low price, fatten +them for the butcher, and they give both profit and manure." + +Unfortunately, the natural pasturage is not sufficiently good to fatten +beasts indiscriminately. There are some few out of a herd of a hundred +who will grow fat upon anything, but the generality will not improve to +any great degree. This accounts for the scarcity of fine meat +throughout Ceylon. Were the soil only tolerably good, so that oats, +vetches, turnips and mangel wurtzel could be grown on virgin land +without manure, beasts might be stall-fed, the manure doubled by that +method, and a profit made on the animals. Pigs are now kept +extensively on coffee estates for the sake of their manure, and being +fed on Mauritius grass (a coarse description of gigantic "couch") and a +liberal allowance of cocoa-nut oil cake ("poonac"), are found to +succeed, although the manure is somewhat costly. + +English or Australian sheep have hitherto been untried--for what reason +I cannot imagine, unless from the expense of their prime cost, which is +about two pounds per head. These thrive to such perfection at Newera +Ellia, and also in Kandy, that they should succeed in a high degree in +the medium altitudes of the coffee estates. There are immense tracts +of country peculiarly adapted for sheep-farming throughout the +highlands of Ceylon, especially in the neighborhood of the coffee +estates. There are two enemies, however, against which they would have +to contend--viz., "leopards" and "leeches." The former are so +destructive that the shepherd could never lose sight of his flock +without great risk; but the latter, although troublesome, are not to be +so much dreaded as people suppose. They are very small, and the +quantity of blood drawn by their bite is so trifling that no injury +could possibly follow, unless from the flies, which would be apt to +attack the sheep on the smell of blood. These are drawbacks which +might be easily avoided by common precaution, and I feel thoroughly +convinced that sheep-farming upon the highland pasturage would be a +valuable adjunct to a coffee estate, both as productive of manure and +profit. I have heard the same opinion expressed by an experienced +Australian sheep-farmer. + +This might be experimented upon in the "down" country of Ouva with +great hopes of success, and by a commencement upon a small scale the +risk would be trifling. Here there is an immense tract of country with +a peculiar short grass in every way adapted for sheep-pasturage, and +with the additional advantage of being nearly free from leopards. +Should sheep succeed on an extensive scale the advantage to the farmer +and to the colony would be mutual. + +The depredations of leopards among cattle are no inconsiderable causes +of loss. At Newera Ellia hardly a week passes without some casualty +among the stock of different proprietors. Here the leopards are +particularly daring, and cases have frequently occurred where they have +effected their entrance to a cattle-shed by scratching a hole through +the thatched roof. They then commit a wholesale slaughter among sheep +and cattle. Sometimes, however, they catch a "Tartar." The native +cattle are small, but very active, and the cows are particularly savage +when the calf is with them. + +About three years ago a leopard took it into his head to try the +beefsteaks of a very savage and sharp-horned cow, who with her calf was +the property of the blacksmith. It was a dark, rainy night, the +blacksmith and his wife were in bed, and the cow and her calf were +nestled in the warm straw in the cattle-shed. The door was locked, and +all was apparently secure, where the hungry leopard prowled stealthily +round the cowhouse, sniffing the prey within. The scent of the leopard +at once aroused the keen senses of the cow, made doubly acute by her +anxiety for her little charge, and she stood ready for the danger as +the leopard, having mounted on the roof, commenced scratching his way +through the thatch. + +Down he sprang!--but at the same instant, with a splendid charge, the +cow pinned him against the wall, and a battle ensued which can easily +be imagined. A coolie slept in the corner of the cattle-shed, whose +wandering senses were completely scattered when he found himself the +unwilling umpire of the fight. He rushed out and shut the door. In a +few minutes he succeeded in awakening the blacksmith, who struck a +light and proceeded to load a pistol, the only weapon that he +possessed. During the whole of this time the bellowing of the cow, the +roars of the leopard and the thumping, trampling and shuffling which +proceeded from the cattle-shed, explained the savage nature of the +fight. + +The blacksmith, who was no sportsman, shortly found himself with a +lanthorn in one hand, a pistol in the other, and no idea of what he +meant to do. He waited, therefore, at the cattle-shed door, and +holding the light so as to shine through the numerous small apertures +in the shed, he looked in. + +The leopard no longer growled; but the cow was mad with fury. She +alternately threw a large dark mass above her head, then quickly pinned +it to the ground on its descent, then bored it against the wall as it +crawled helplessly toward a corner of the shed. This was the +"beef-eater" in reduced circumstances! The gallant little cow had +nearly killed him, and was giving him the finishing strokes. The +blacksmith perceived the leopard's helpless state, and, boldly opening +the door, he discharged his pistol, and the next moment was bolting as +hard as he could run, with the warlike cow after him. She was +regularly "up," and was ready for anything or anybody. However, she +was at length pacified, and the dying leopard was put out of his misery. + +There are two distinct species of the leopard in Ceylon--viz., the +"chetah," and the "leopard" or "panther." There have been many opinions +on the subject, but I have taken particular notice of the two animals, +and nothing can be more clear than the distinction. + +The "chetah" is much smaller than the leopard, seldom exceeding seven +feet from the nose to the end of tile tail. He is covered with round +black "spots" of the size of a shilling, and his weight rarely exceeds +ninety pounds. + +The leopard varies from eight to nine feet in length, and has been +known to reach even ten feet. His body is covered with black "rings," +with a rich brown centre--his muzzle and legs are speckled with black +"spots," and his weight is from one hundred and ten to one hundred and +seventy pounds. There is little or no distinction between the leopard +and the panther, they are synonymous terms for a variety of species in +different countries. In Ceylon all leopards are termed "chetahs" which +proceeds from the general ignorance of the presence of the two species. + +The power of a leopard is wonderful in proportion to his weight. I have +seen a full-grown bullock with its neck broken by the leopard that +attacked it. It is the popular belief that the effect is produced by a +blow of the paw; this is not the case; it is not simply the blow, but +it is the combination of the weight, the power and the momentum of the +spring which renders the effects of a leopard's attack so surprising. + +Few leopards rush boldly to the attack like a dog; they stalk their +game and advance crouchingly, making use of every object that will +afford them cover until they are within a few bounds of their prey. +Then the immense power of muscle is displayed in the concentrated +energy of the spring; he flies through the air and settles on the +throat, usually throwing his own body over the animal, while his teeth +and claws are fixed on the neck; this is the manner in which the spine +of an animal is broken--by a sudden twist, and not by a blow. + +The blow from the paw is nevertheless immensely powerful, and at one +stroke will rip open a bullock like a knife; but the after effects of +the wound are still more to be dreaded than the force of the blow. +There is a peculiar poison in the claw which is highly dangerous. This +is caused by the putrid flesh which they are constantly tearing, and +which is apt to cause gangrene by inoculation. + +It is a prevalent idea that a leopard will not eat putrid meat, but +that he forsakes a rotten carcase and seeks fresh prey. There is no +doubt that a natural love of slaughter induces him to a constant search +for prey, but it has nothing to do with the daintiness of his appetite. +A leopard will eat any stinking offal that offers, and I once had a +melancholy proof of this. + +I was returning from a morning's hunting; it was a bitter day; the rain +was pouring in torrents, the wind was blowing a gale and sweeping the +water in sheets along the earth. The hounds were following at my +horse's heels, with their cars and sterns down, looking very miserable, +and altogether it was a day when man and beast should have been at +home. Presently, upon turning a corner of the road, I saw a Malabar +boy of about sixteen years of age, squatted shivering by the roadside. +His only covering being a scanty cloth round his loins, I told him to +get up and go on or he would be starved with cold. He said something +in reply, which I could not understand, and repeating my first warning, +I rode on. It was only two miles to my house, but upon arrival I could +not help thinking that the boy must be ill, and having watched the gate +for some time to see if he passed by, I determined to send for him. + +Accordingly, I started off a couple of men with orders to carry him up +if he were sick. + +They returned in little more than an hour, but the poor boy was +dead!--sitting crouched in the same position in which I had seen him. +He must have died of cold and starvation; he was a mere skeleton. + +I sent men to the spot, and had him buried by the roadside, and a few +days after I rode down to see where they had laid him. + +A quantity of fresh-turned earth lay scattered about, mingled with +fragments of rags. Bones much gnawed lay here and there on the road, +and a putrid skull rolled from a shapeless hole among a confused and +horrible heap. The leopards had scratched him up and devoured him; +their footprints were still fresh upon the damp ground. + +Both leopards and chetahs are frequently caught at Newera Ellia. The +common trap is nothing more or less than an old-fashioned mouse-trap, +with a falling door on a large scale; this is baited with a live kid or +sheep; but the leopard is naturally so wary that he frequently refuses +to enter the ominous-looking building, although he would not hesitate +to break into an ordinary shed. The best kind of trap is a gun set with +a line, and the bait placed so that the line must be touched as the +animal advances toward it. This is certain destruction to the leopard, +but it is extremely dangerous, in case any stranger should happen to be +in the neighborhood who might inadvertently touch the cord. + +Leopards are particularly fond of stealing dogs, and have frequently +taken them from the very verandas of the houses at Newera Ellia in the +dusk of the evening. Two or three cases have occurred within the last +two years where they have actually sprung out upon dogs who have been +accompanying their owners upon the high road in broad daylight. Their +destruction should be encouraged by a government reward of one pound +per head, in which case their number would be materially decreased in a +few years. + +The best traps for chetahs would be very powerful vermin-gins, made +expressly of great size and strength, so as to lie one foot square when +open. Even a common jackal-trap would hold a leopard, provided the +chain was fastened to an elastic bough, so that it would yield slightly +to his spring; but if it were secured to a post, or to anything that +would enable him to get a dead pull against it, something would most +likely give way. I have constantly set these traps for them, but +always without success, as some other kind of vermin is nearly certain +to spring the trap before the chetah's arrival. Among the variety of +small animals thus caught I have frequently taken the civet cat. This +is a very pretty arid curious creature, about forty inches long from +nose to tip of tail. The fur is ash-gray, mottled with black spots, +and the tail is divided by numerous black rings. It is of the genius +Viverra, and is exceedingly fierce when attacked. It preys chiefly +upon fowls, hares, rats, etc. Its great peculiarity is the musk-bag or +gland situated nearly under the tail; this is a projecting and valued +gland, which secretes the musk, and is used medicinally by the +Cingalese, on which account it is valued at about six shillings a pod. +The smell is very powerful, and in my opinion very offensive, when the +animal is alive; but when a pod of musk is extracted and dried, it has +nothing more than the well-known scent of that used by perfumers. The +latter is more frequently the production of the musk-deer, although the +scent is possessed by many animals, and also insects, as the musk-ox, +the musk-deer, the civet or musk-cat, the musk-rat, the musk-beetle, +etc. + +Of these, the musk-rat is a terrible plague, as he perfumes everything +that he passes over, rendering fruit, cake, bread, etc., perfectly +uneatable, and even flavoring bottled wine by running over the bottles. +This, however, requires a little explanation, although it is the +popular belief that he taints the wine through the glass. + +The fact is, he taints the cork, and the flavor of musk is communicated +to the wine during the process of uncorking the bottle. + +There is a great variety of rats in Ceylon, from the tiny shrew to the +large "bandicoot". This is a most destructive creature in all gardens, +particularly among potato crops, whole rows of which he digs out and +devours. He is a perfect rat in appearance, but he would rather +astonish one of our English tom-cats if encountered during his rambles +in search of rats, as the "bandicoot" is about the same size as the cat. + +There is an immense variety of vermin throughout Ceylon, including many +of that useful species the ichneumon, who in courage and strength +stands first of his tribe. The destruction of snakes by this animal +renders him particularly respected, and no person ever thinks of +destroying him. No matter how venomous the snake, the ichneumon, or +mongoose, goes straight at him, and never gives up the contest until +the snake is vanquished. + +It is the popular belief that the mongoose eats some herb which has the +property of counteracting the effects of a venomous bite; but this has +been proved to be a fallacy, as pitched battles have been witnessed +between a mongoose and the most poisonous snakes in a closed room, +where there was no possibility of his procuring the antidote. His +power consists in his vigilance and activity; he avoids the dart of the +snake, and adroitly pins him by the back of the neck. Here he maintains +his hold, in spite of the contortions and convulsive writhing of the +snake, until he succeeds in breaking the spine. A mongoose is about +three feet long from the nose to the tip of the tail, and is of the +same genus as the civet cat. Unfortunately, he does not confine his +destruction to vermin, but now and then pays a visit to a hen-roost, +and sometimes, poor fellow! he puts his foot in the traps. + +Ceylon can produce an enticing catalogue of attractions, from the +smallest to the largest of the enemies to the human race--ticks, bugs, +fleas, tarantulas, centipedes, scorpions, leeches, snakes, lizards, +crocodiles, etc., of which more hereafter. + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +"Game Eyes" for Wild Sports--Enjoyments of Wild Life--Cruelty of +Sports--Native Hunters--Moormen Traders--Their wretched Guns--Rifles +and Smooth-bores--Heavy Balls and Heavy Metal--Beattie's Rifles--Balls +and Patches--Experiments--The Double-groove--Power of Heavy +Metal--Curious Shot at a Bull Elephant--African and Ceylon +Elephants--Structure of Skull--Lack of Trophies--Boar-spears and +Hunting-knives--"Bertram"--A Boar Hunt--Fatal Cut. + + +In traveling through Ceylon, the remark is often made by the tourist +that "he sees so little game." From the accounts generally written of +its birds and beasts, a stranger would naturally expect to come upon +them at every turn, instead of which it is a well-known fact that one +hundred miles of the wildest country may be traversed without seeing a +single head of game, and the uninitiated might become skeptical as to +its existence. + +This is accounted for by the immense proportion of forest and jungle, +compared to the open country. The nature of wild animals is to seek +cover at sunrise, and to come forth at sunset; therefore it is not +surprising that so few are casually seen by the passing traveler. +There is another reason, which would frequently apply even in an open +country. Unless the traveler is well accustomed to wild sports, he has +not his "game eye" open in fact; he either passes animals without +observing them, or they see him and retreat from view before he remarks +them. + +It is well known that the color of most animals is adapted by Nature to +the general tint of the country which they inhabit. Thus, having no +contrast, the animal matches with surrounding objects, and is difficult +to be distinguished. + +It may appear ridiculous to say that an elephant is very difficult to +be seen!--he would be plain enough certainly on the snow, or on a +bright green meadow in England, where the contrasted colors would make +him at once a striking object; but in a dense jungle his skin matches +so completely with the dead sticks and dry leaves, and his legs compare +so well with the surrounding tree-stems, that he is generally +unperceived by a stranger, even when pointed out to him. I have +actually been taking aim at an elephant within seven or eight paces, +when he has been perfectly unseen by a friend at my elbow, who was +peering through the bushes in quest of him. + +Quickness of eye is an indispensable quality in sportsmen, the +possession of which constitutes one of their little vanities. Nothing +is so conducive to the perfection of all the senses as the constant +practice in wild and dangerous sports. The eye and the ear become +habituated to watchfulness, and their powers are increased in the same +proportion as the muscles of the body are by exercise. Not only is an +animal immediately observed, but anything out of the common among +surrounding objects instantly strikes the attention; the waving of one +bough in particular when all are moving in the breeze; the switching of +a deer's ear above the long grass; the slight rustling of an animal +moving in the jungle. The senses are regularly tuned up, and the limbs +are in the same condition from continual exercise. + +There is a peculiar delight, which passes all description, in feeling +thoroughly well-strung, mentally and physically, with a good rifle in +your hand and a trusty gun-bearer behind you with another, thus +stalking quietly through a fine country, on the look-out for +"anything," no matter what. There is a delightful feeling of calm +excitement, if I might so express it, which nothing but wild sports +will give. There is no time when a man knows himself so thoroughly as +when he depends upon himself, and this forms his excitement. With a +thorough confidence in the rifle and a bright lookout, he stalks +noiselessly along the open glades, picking out the softest places, +avoiding the loose stones or anything that would betray his steps; now +piercing the deep shadows of the jungles, now scanning the distant +plains, nor leaving a nook or hollow unsearched by his vigilant gaze. +The fresh breakage of a branch, the barking of a tree-stem, the lately +nibbled grass, with the sap still oozing from the delicate blade, the +disturbed surface of a pool; everything is noted, even to the alarmed +chatter of a bird: nothing is passed unheeded by an experienced hunter. + +To quiet, steady-going people in England there is an idea of cruelty +inseparable from the pursuit of large game; people talk of "unoffending +elephants," "poor buffaloes," "pretty deer," and a variety of nonsense +about things which they cannot possibly understand. Besides, the very +person who abuses wild sports on the plea of cruelty indulges +personally in conventional cruelties which are positive tortures. His +appetite is not destroyed by the knowledge that his cook his skinned +the eels alive, or that the lobsters were plunged into boiling water to +be cooked. He should remember that a small animal has the same feeling +as the largest and if he condemns any sport as cruel, he must condemn +all. + +There is no doubt whatever that a certain amount of cruelty pervades +all sports. But in "wild sports" the animals are for the most part +large, dangerous and mischievous, and they are pursued and killed in +the most speedy, and therefore in the most merciful, manner. + +The government reward for the destruction of elephants in Ceylon was +formerly ten shillings per tail; it is now reduced to seven shillings +in some districts, and is altogether abolished in others, as the number +killed was so great that the government imagined they could not afford +the annual outlay. + +Although the number of these animals is still so immense in Ceylon, +they must nevertheless have been much reduced within the last twenty +years. In those days the country was overrun with them, and some idea +of their numbers may be gathered from the fact that three first-rate +shots in three days bagged one hundred and four elephants. This was +told to me by one of the parties concerned, and it throws our modern +shooting into the shade. In those days, however, the elephants were +comparatively undisturbed, and they were accordingly more easy to +approach. One of the oldest native hunters has assured me that he has +seen the elephants, when attacked, recklessly expose themselves to the +shots and endeavour to raise their dead comrades. This was at a time +when guns were first heard in the interior of Ceylon, and the animals +had never been shot at. Since that time the decrease in the game of +Ceylon has been immense. Every year increases the number of guns in +the possession of the natives, and accordingly diminishes the number of +animals. From the change which has come over many parts of the country +within my experience of the last eight years, I am of opinion that the +next ten years will see the deer-shooting in Ceylon completely spoiled, +and the elephants very much reduced. There are now very few herds of +elephants in Ceylon that have not been shot at by either Europeans or +natives, and it is a common occurrence to kill elephants with numerous +marks of old bullet wounds. Thus the animals are constantly on the +"qui vive," and at the report of a gun every herd within hearing starts +off for the densest jungles. + +A native can now obtain a gun for thirty shillings; and with two +shillings' worth of ammunition, he starts on a hunting trip. Five +elephants, at a reward of seven shillings per tail, more than pay the +prime cost of his gun, to say nothing of the deer and other game that +he has bagged in the interim. + +Some, although very few, of the natives are good sportsmen in a potting +way. They get close to their game, and usually bag it. This is a +terrible system for destroying, and the more so as it is increasing. +There is no rest for the animals; in the day-time they are tracked up, +and on moonlight nights the drinking-places are watched, and an +unremitting warfare is carried on. This is sweeping both deer and +buffalo from the country, and must eventually almost annihilate them. + +The Moormen are the best hunters, and they combine sport with trade in +such a manner that "all is fish that comes to their net." Five or six +good hunters start with twenty or thirty bullocks and packs. Some of +these are loaded with common cloths, etc., to exchange with the village +people for dried venison; but the intention in taking so many bullocks +is to bring borne the spoils of their hunting trip--in fact, to "carry +the bag." They take about a dozen leaves of the talipot palm to form a +tent, and at night-time, the packs, being taken off the bullocks, are +piled like a pillar in the centre, and the talipot leaves are formed in +a circular roof above them. The bullocks are then secured round the +tent to long poles, which are thrown upon the ground and pinned down by +crooked pegs. + +These people have an intimate knowledge of the country, and are +thoroughly acquainted with the habits of the animals and the most +likely spots for game. Buffaloes, pigs and deer are indiscriminately +shot, and the flesh being cut in strips from the bones is smoked over a +green-wood fire, then thoroughly dried in the sun and packed up for +sale. The deer skins are also carefully dried and rolled up, and the +buffaloes' and deer horns are slung to the packs. + +Many castes of natives will not eat buffalo meat, others will not eat +pork, but all are particularly fond of venison. This the Moorman fully +understands, and overcomes all scruples by a general mixture of the +different meats, all of which he sells as venison. Thus no animal is +spared whose flesh can be passed off for deer. Fortunately, their guns +are so common that they will not shoot with accuracy beyond ten or +fifteen paces, or there would be no game left within a few years. How +these common guns stand the heavy charges of powder is a puzzle. A +native thinks nothing of putting four drachms down a gun that I should +be sorry to fire off at any rate. It is this heavy charge which +enables such tools to kill elephants which would otherwise be +impossible. These natives look upon a first-class English rifle with a +sort of veneration. Such a weapon would be a perfect fortune to one of +these people, and I have often been astonished that robberies of such +things are not more frequent. + +There is much difference of opinion among Ceylon sportsmen as to the +style of gun for elephant-shooting. But there is one point upon which +all are agreed, that no matter what the size of the bore may be, all +the guns should be alike, and the battery for one man should consist of +four double-barrels. The confusion in hurried loading where guns are +of different calibres is beyond conception. + +The size and the weight of guns must depend as much on the strength and +build of a man as a ship's armament does upon her tonnage; but let no +man speak against heavy metal for heavy game, and let no man decry +rifles and uphold smooth-bores (which is very general), but rather let +him say, "I cannot carry a heavy gun," and "I cannot shoot with a +rifle." + +There is a vast difference between shooting at a target and shooting at +live game. Many men who are capital shots at target-practice cannot +touch a deer, and cannot even use the rifle as a rifle at live game, +but actually knock the sights out and use it as a smoothbore. This is +not the fault of the weapon; it is the fault of the man. It is a +common saying in Ceylon, and also in India, that you cannot shoot quick +enough with the rifle, because you cannot get the proper sight in an +instant. + +Whoever makes use of this argument must certainly be in the habit of +very random shooting with a smoothbore. How can he possibly get a +correct aim with "ball" out of a smoothbore, without squinting along +the barrel and taking the muzzle-sight accurately? The fact is, that +many persons fire so hastily at game that they take no sight at all, as +though they were snipe-shooting with many hundred grains of shot in the +charge. This will never do for ball-practice, and when the rifle is +placed in such hands, the breech-sights naturally bother the eye which +is not accustomed to recognize any sight; and while the person is +vainly endeavouring to get the sight correctly on a moving object, the +animal is increasing his distance. By way of cutting the Gordian knot, +he therefore knocks his sight out, and accordingly spoils the shooting +of the rifle altogether. + +Put a rifle in the hands of a man who knows how to handle it, and let +him shoot against the mutilated weapon deprived of its sight, and laugh +at the trial. Why, a man might as well take the rudder off a ship +because he could not steer, and then abuse the vessel for not keeping +her course! + +My idea of guns and rifles is this, that the former should be used for +what their makers intended them, viz., shot-shooting, and that no ball +should be fired from any but the rifle. Of course it is just as easy +and as certain to kill an elephant with a smooth-bore as with a rifle, +as he is seldom fired at until within ten or twelve paces; but a man, +when armed for wild sport, should be provided with a weapon which is +fit for any kind of ball-shooting at any reasonable range, and his +battery should be perfect for the distance at which he is supposed to +aim. + +I have never seen any rifles which combine the requisites for Ceylon +shooting to such a degree as my four double-barreled No. 10, which I +had made to order. Then some persons exclaim against their weight, +which is fifteen pounds per gun. But a word upon that subject. + +No person who understands anything about a rifle would select a light +gun with a large bore, any more than he would have a heavy carriage for +a small horse. If the man objects to the weight of the rifle, let him +content himself with a smaller bore, but do not rob the barrels of +their good metal for the sake of a heavy ball. The more metal that the +barrel possesses in proportion to the diameter of the bore, the better +will the rifle carry, nine times out of ten. Observe the Swiss rifles +for accurate target-practice--again, remark the American pea rifle; in +both the thickness of metal is immense in proportion to the size of the +ball, which, in great measure, accounts for the precision with which +they carry. + +In a light barrel, there is a vibration or jar at the time of +explosion, which takes a certain effect upon the direction of the ball. +This is necessarily increased by the use of a heavy charge of powder; +and it is frequently seen that a rifle which carries accurately enough +with a very small charge, shoots wide of the mark when the charge is +increased. This arises from several causes, generally from the jar of +the barrel in the stock, proceeding either from the want of metal in +the rifle or from improper workmanship in the fittings. + +To avoid this, a rifle should be made with double bolts and a silver +plate should always be let into the stock under the breech; without +which the woodwork will imperceptibly wear, and the barrel will become +loose in the stock and jar when fired. + +There is another reason for the necessity of heavy barrels, especially +for two-grooved rifles. Unless the grooves he tolerably deep, they +will not hold the ball when a heavy charge is behind it; it quits the +grooves, strips its belt, and flies out as though fired from a +smoothbore. + +A large-bore rifle is a useless incumbrance, unless it is so +constructed that it will bear a proportionate charge of powder, and +shoot as accurately with its proof charge as with a single drachm. The +object in a large bore is to possess an extra powerful weapon, +therefore the charge of powder must be increased in proportion to the +weight of the ball, or the extra power is not obtained. Nevertheless, +most of the heavy rifles that I have met with will not carry an +adequate charge of powder, and they are accordingly no more powerful +than guns of lighter bore which carry their proportionate charge--the +powder has more than its fair amount of work. + +Great care should be therefore taken in making rifles for heavy game. +There cannot be a better calibre than No 10; it is large enough for any +animal in the world, and a double-barreled rifle of this bore, without +a ramrod, is not the least cumbersome, even at the weight of fifteen +pounds. A ramrod is not required to be in the gun for Ceylon shooting, +as there is always a man behind with a spare rifle, who carries a +loading rod, and were a ramrod fitted to a rifle of this size, it would +render it very unhandy, and would also weaken the stock. + +The sights should be of platinum at the muzzle, and blue steel, with a +platinum strip with a broad and deep letter V cut in the breech-sights. +In a gloomy forest it is frequently difficult to catch the muzzle +sight, unless it is of some bright metal, such as silver or platinum; +and a broad cut in the breech-sights, if shaped as described, allows a +rapid aim, and may be taken fine or coarse at option. + +The charge of powder must necessarily depend upon its strength. For +elephant-shooting, I always rise six drachms of the best powder for the +No. 10 rifles, and four drachms as the minimum charge for deer and +general shooting; the larger charge is then unnecessary; it both wastes +ammunition and alarms the country by the loudness of the report. + +There are several minutiae to be attended to in the sports of Ceylon. +The caps should always be carried in a shot-charger (one of the common +spring-lid chargers) and never be kept loose in the pocket. The heat +is so intense that the perspiration soaks through everything, and so +injures the caps that the very best will frequently miss fire. + +The powder should be dried for a few minutes in the sun before it is +put into the flask, and it should be well shaken and stirred to break +any lumps that may be in it. One of these, by obstructing the passage +in the flask, may cause much trouble in loading quickly, especially +when a wounded elephant is regaining his feet. In such a case you must +keep your eyes on the animal when loading, and should the passage of +the powder-flask be stopped by a lump, you may fancy the gun is loaded +when in fact not a grain of powder has entered it. + +The patches should be of silk, soaked in a mixture of one part of +beeswax and two of fresh hog's lard, free from salt. If they are +spread with pure grease, it melts out of them in a hot country, and +they become dry. Silk is better than linen as it is not so liable to +be cut down by the sharp grooves of the rifle. It is also thinner than +linen or calico, and the ball is therefore more easily rammed down. + +All balls should be made of pure lead, without any hardening mixture. +It was formerly the fashion to use zinc balls, and lead with a mixture +of tin, etc., in elephant-shooting. This was not only unnecessary, but +the balls, from a loss of weight by admixture with lighter metals, lost +force in a proportionate degree. Lead may be a soft metal, but it is +much harder than any animal's skull, and if a tallow candle can be shot +through a deal board, surely a leaden bullet is hard enough for an +elephant's head. + +I once tried a very conclusive experiment on the power of balls of +various metals propelled by an equal charge of powder. + +I had a piece of wrought iron five-eights of an inch thick, and six +feet high by two in breadth. I fired at this at one hundred and +seventy yards with my two-grooved four-ounce rifle, with a reduced +charge of six drachms of powder and a ball of pure lead. It bulged the +iron like a piece of putty, and split the centre of the bulged spot +into a star, through the crevice of which I could pass a pen-blade. + +A ball composed of half zinc and half lead, fired from the same +distance, hardly produced a perceptible effect upon the iron target. +It just slightly indented it. + +I then tried a ball of one-third zinc and two-thirds lead, but there +was no perceptible difference in the effect. + +I subsequently tried a tin bill, and again a zinc ball, but neither of +them produced any other effect than slightly to indent the iron. + +I tried all these experiments again at fifty yards' range, with the +same advantage in favor of the pure lead; and at this reduced distance +a double-barreled No. 16 smoothbore, with a large charge of four +drachms of powder and a lead ball, also bulged and split the iron into +a star. This gun, with a hard tin ball and the same charge of powder, +did not produce any other effect than an almost imperceptible +indentation. + +if a person wishes to harden a bill for any purpose, it should be done +by an admixture of quicksilver to the lead while the latter is in a +state of fusion, a few seconds before the ball is cast. The mixture +must be then quickly stirred with an iron rod, and formed into the +moulds without loss of time, as at this high temperature the +quicksilver will evaporate. Quicksilver is heavier than lead, and +makes a ball excessively hard; so much so that it would very soon spoil +a rifle. Altogether, the hardening of a ball has been shown to be +perfectly unnecessary, and the latter receipt would be found very +expensive. + +If a wonderful effect is required, the steel-tipped conical ball should +be used. I once shot through fourteen elm planks, each one inch thick, +with a four-ounce steel-tipped cone, with the small charge (for that +rifle) of four drachms of powder. The proper charge for that gun is +one-fourth the weight of the ball, or one ounce of powder, with which +it carries with great nicety and terrific effect, owing to its great +weight of metal (twenty-one pounds); but it is a small piece of +artillery which tries the shoulder very severely in the recoil. + +I have frequently watched a party of soldiers winding along a pass, +with their white trousers, red coats, white cross-belts and brass +plates, at about four hundred yards, and thought what a raking that +rifle would give a body, of troops in such colors for a mark. A ball +of that weight with an ounce of powder, would knock down six or eight +men in a row. A dozen of such weapons well handled on board a ship +would create an astonishing effect; but for most purposes the weight of +the ammunition is a serious objection. + +There is a great difference of opinion among sportsmen regarding the +grooves of a rifle; some prefer the two-groove and belted ball; others +give preference to the eight or twelve-groove and smoothbore. There +are good arguments on both sides. + +There is no doubt that the two-groove is the hardest hitter and the +longest ranger; it also has the advantage of not fouling so quickly as +the many-grooved. On the other hand, the many-grooved is much easier +to load; it hits quite hard enough; and it ranges truly much farther +than any person would think of firing at an animal. Therefore, for +sporting purposes, the only advantage which the two-groove possesses is +the keeping clean, while the many-groove claims the advantage of quick +loading. + +The latter is by far the more important recommendation, especially as +the many-groove can be loaded without the assistance of the eye, as the +ball, being smooth and round, can only follow the right road down the +barrel. The two-grooved rifle, when new, is particularly difficult to +load, as the ball must be tight to avoid windage, and it requires some +nicety in fitting and pressing the belt of the ball into the groove, in +such a manner that it shall start straight upon the pressure of the +loading-rod. If it gives a slight heel to one side at the +commencement, it is certain to stick in its course, and it then +occupies much time and trouble in being rammed home. Neither will it +shoot with accuracy, as, from the amount of ramming to get the ball to +its place, it has become so misshapen that it is a mere lump of lead, +and no longer a rifle-ball. My double-barreled No. 10 rifles are +two-grooved, and an infinity of trouble they gave me for the first two +years. Many a time I have been giving my whole weight to the loading +rod, with a ball stuck half-way down the barrel, while wounded +elephants lay struggling upon the ground, expected every moment to +rise. From constant use and repeated cleaning they have now become so +perfect that they load with the greatest ease; but guns of their age +are not fair samples of their class, and for rifles in general for +sporting purposes I should give a decided preference to the +many-groove. I have had a long two-ounce rifle of the latter class, +which I have shot with for many years, and it certainly is not so hard +a hitter as the two-grooved No. 10's; but it hits uncommonly hard, too; +and if I do not bag with it, it is always my fault, and no blame can be +attached to the rifle. + +For heavy game-shooting, I do not think there can be a much fairer +standard for the charge of powder than one-fifth the weight of the ball +for all bores. Some persons do not use so much as this; but I am +always an advocate for strong guns and plenty of powder. + +A heavy charge will reach the brain of an elephant, no matter in what +position he may stand, provided a proper angle is taken for attaining +it. A trifling amount of powder is sufficient, if the elephant offers +a front shot, or the temple at right angles, or the ear shot; but if a +man pretend to a knowledge of elephant-shooting, he should think of +nothing but the brain, and his knowledge of the anatomy of the +elephant's head should be such that he can direct a straight line to +this mark from any position. He then requires a rifle of such power +that the ball will crash through every obstacle along the course +directed. To effect this he must not be stingy of the powder. + +I have frequently killed elephants by curious shots with the rifles in +this manner; but I once killed a bull elephant by one shot in the upper +jaw, which will at once exemplify the advantage of a powerful rifle in +taking the angle for the brain. + +My friend Palliser and I were out shooting on the day previous, and we +had spent some hours in vainly endeavouring to track up a single bull +elephant. I forget what we bagged, but I recollect well that we were +unlucky in finding our legitimate game. That night at dinner we heard +elephants roaring in the Yalle river, upon the banks of which our tent +was pitched in fine open forest. For about an hour the roaring was +continued, apparently on both sides the river, and we immediately +surmised that our gentleman friend on our side of the stream was +answering the call of the ladies of some herd on the opposite bank. We +went to sleep with the intention of waking at dawn of day, and then +strolling quietly along with only two gun-bearers each, who were to +carry my four double No 10's, while we each carried a single barrel for +deer. + +The earliest gray tint of morning saw us dressed and ready, the rifles +loaded, a preliminary cup of hot chocolate swallowed, and we were off +while the forest was still gloomy; the night seemed to hang about it, +although the sky was rapidly clearing above. + +A noble piece of Nature's handiwork is that same Yalle forest. The +river flows sluggishly through its centre in a breadth of perhaps +ninety yards, and the immense forest trees extend their giant arms from +the high banks above the stream, throwing dark shadows upon its +surface, enlivened by the silvery glitter of the fish as they dart +against the current. Little glades of rank grass occasionally break +the monotony of the dark forest; sandy gullies in deep beds formed by +the torrents of the rainy season cut through the crumbling soil and +drain toward the river. Thick brushwood now and then forms an opposing +barrier, but generally the forest is beautifully open, consisting of +towering trees, the leviathans of their race, sheltering the scanty +saplings which have spring from their fallen seeds. For a few hundred +yards on either side of the river the forest extends in a ribbon-like +strip of lofty vegetation in the surrounding sea of low scrubby jungle. +The animals leave the low jungle at night, passing through the forest +on their way to the river to bathe and drink; they return to the low +and thick jungle at break of day and we hoped to meet some of the +satiated elephants on their way to their dense habitations. + +We almost made sure of finding our friend of yesterday's trek, and we +accordingly kept close to the edge of the river, keeping a sharp eye +for tracks upon the sandy bed below. + +We had strolled for about a mile along the high bank of the river +without seeing a sign of an elephant, when I presently heard a rustle +in the branches before me, and upon looking up I saw a lot of monkeys +gamboling in the trees. I was carrying my long two-ounce rifle, and I +was passing beneath the monkey-covered boughs, when I suddenly observed +a young tree of the thickness of a man's thigh shaking violently just +before me. + +It happened that the jungle was a little thicker in his spot, and at +the same moment that I observed the tree shaking almost over me, I +passed the immense stem of one of those smooth-barked trees which grow +to such an enormous size on the banks of rivers. At the same moment +that I passed it I was almost under the trunk of a single bull +elephant, who was barking the stem with his tusk as high as he could +reach, with his head thrown back. I saw in an instant that the only +road to his brain lay through his upper jaw, in the position in which +he was standing; and knowing that he would discover me in another +moment, I took the eccentric line for his brain, and fired upward +through his jaw. He fell stone dead, with the silk patch of the rifle +smoking in the wound. + +Now in this position no light gun could have killed that elephant; the +ball had to pass through the roots of the upper grinders, and keep its +course through hard bones and tough membranes for about two feet before +it could reach the brain; but the line was all right, and the heavy +metal and charge of powder kept the ball to its work. + +This is the power which every elephant-gun should possess: it should +have an elephant's head under complete command in every attitude. + +There is another advantage in heavy metal; a heavy ball will frequently +stun a vicious elephant when in full charge, when a light ball would +not check him; his quietus is then soon arranged by another barrel. +Some persons, however, place too much confidence in the weight of the +metal, and forget that it is necessary to hold a powerful rifle as +straight as the smallest gun. It is then very common during a chase of +a herd to see the elephants falling tolerably well to the shots, but on +a return for their tails, it is found that the stunned brutes have +recovered and decamped. + +Conical balls should never be used for elephants; they are more apt to +glance, and the concussion is not so great as that produced by a round +ball. In fact there is nothing more perfect for sporting purposes than +a good rifle from a first-rate maker, with a plain ball of from No. 12 +to No. 10. There can be no improvement upon such a weapon for the range +generally required by a good shot. + +I am very confident that the African elephant would be killed by the +brain-shot by Ceylon sportsmen with as much case as the Indian species. +The shape of the head has nothing whatever to do with the shooting, +provided the guns are powerful and the hunter knows where the brain +lies. + +When I arrived in Ceylon one of my first visits was to the museum at +Colombo where I carefully examined the transverse sections of an +elephant's skull, until perfectly acquainted with its details. From +the museum I cut straight to the elephant-stables and thoroughly +examined the head of the living animal, comparing it in my own mind +with the skull, until I was thoroughly certain of the position of the +brain and the possibility of reaching it from any position. + +An African sportsmen would be a long time in killing a Ceylon elephant, +if he fired at the long range described by most writers; in fact, he +would not kill one out of twenty that he fired at in such a +jungle-covered country as Ceylon, where, in most cases, everything +depends upon the success of the first barrel. + +It is the fashion in Ceylon to get as close as possible to an elephant +before firing; this is usually at about ten yards' distance, at which +range nearly every shot must be fatal. In Africa, according to all +accounts, elephants are fired at thirty, forty, and even at sixty +yards. It is no wonder, therefore, that African sportsmen take the +shoulder shot, as the hitting of the brain would be a most difficult +feat at such a distance, seeing that the even and dusky color of an +elephant's head offers no peculiar mark for a delicate aim. + +The first thing that a good sportsmen considers with every animal is +the point at which to aim so to bag him as speedily as possible. It is +well known that all animals, from the smallest to the largest, sink +into instant death when shot through the brain; and that a wound +through the lungs or heart is equally fatal, though not so +instantaneous. These are accordingly the points for aim, the brain, +from its small size, being the most difficult to hit. Nevertheless, in +a jungle country, elephants must be shot through the brain, otherwise +they would not be bagged, as they would retreat with a mortal wound +into such dense jungle that no man could follow. Seeing how easily they +are dropped by the brainshot if approached sufficiently near to ensure +the correctness of the aim, no one would ever think of firing at the +shoulder who had been accustomed to aim at the head. + +A Ceylon sportsman arriving in Africa would naturally examine the skull +of the African elephant, and when once certain of the position of the +brain he would require no further information. Leave him alone for +hitting it if he knew where it was. + +What a sight for a Ceylon elephant-hunter would be the first view of a +herd of African elephants--all tuskers! In Ceylon, a "tusker" is a +kind of spectre, to be talked of by a few who have had the good luck to +see one. And when he is seen by a good sportsman, it is an evil hour +for him--he is followed till he gives up his tusks. + +It is a singular thing that Ceylon is the only part of the world where +the male elephant has no tusks; they have miserable little grubbers +projecting two or three inches from the upper jaw and inclining +downward. Thus a man may kill some hundred elephants without having a +pair of tusks in his possession. The largest that I have seen in +Ceylon were about six feet long, and five inches in diameter in the +thickest part. These would be considered rather below the average in +Africa, although in Ceylon they were thought magnificent. + +Nothing produces either ivory or horn in fine specimens throughout +Ceylon. Although some of the buffaloes have tolerably fine heads, they +will not bear a comparison with those of other countries. The horns of +the native cattle are not above four inches in length. The elk and the +spotted deer's antlers are small compared with deer of their size on +the continent of India. This is the more singular, as it is evident +from the geological formation that at some remote period Ceylon was not +an island, but formed a portion of the mainland, from which it is now +only separated by a shallow and rocky of some few miles. In India the +bull elephants have tusks, and the cattle and buffaloes have very large +horns. My opinion is that there are elements wanting in the Ceylon +pasturage (which is generally poor) for the formation of both horn and +ivory. Thus many years of hunting and shooting are rewarded by few +trophies of the chase. So great is the natural inactivity of the +natives that no one understands the preparation of the skins; thus all +the elk and deer hides are simply dried in the sun, and the hair soon +rots and fills off. In India, the skin of the Samber deer (the Ceylon +elk) is prized above all others, and is manufactured into gaiters, +belts, pouches, coats, breeches, etc.; but in Ceylon, these things are +entirety neglected by the miserable and indolent population, whose +whole thoughts are concentrated upon their bread, or rather their curry +and rice. + +At Newera Ellia, the immense number of elk that I have killed would +have formed a valuable collection of skins had they been properly +prepared, instead of which the hair has been singed from them, and they +have been boiled up for dogs' meat. + +Boars' hides have shared the same fate. These are far thicker than +those of the tame species, and should make excellent saddles. So tough +are they upon the live animal that it requires a very sharp-pointed +knife to penetrate them, and too much care cannot be bestowed upon the +manufacture of a knife for this style of hunting, as the boar is one of +the fiercest and dangerous of animals. + +Living in the thickest jungles, he rambles out at night in search of +roots, fruits, large earthworms, or anything else that he can find, +being, like his domesticated brethren, omnivorous. He is a terrible +enemy to the pack, and has cost me several good dogs within the last +few years. Without first-rate seizers it would be impossible to kill +him with the knife without being ripped, as he invariably turns to bay +after a short run in the thickest jungle he can find. There is no +doubt that a good stout boar-spear, with a broad blade and strong +handle, is the proper weapon for the attack; but a spear is very +unhandy and even dangerous to carry in such a hilly country as the +neighbourhood of Newera Ellia. The forests are full of steep ravines +and such tangled underwood that following the hounds is always an +arduous task, but with a spear in the hand it is still more difficult, +and the point is almost certain to get injured by striking against the +numerous rocks, in which case it is perfectly useless when perhaps most +required. I never carry a spear for these reasons, but am content with +the knife, as in my opinion any animal that can beat off good bounds +and a long knife deserves to escape. + +My knife was made to my own pattern by Paget of Piccadilly. The blade +is one foot in length, and two inches broad in the widest part, and +slightly concave in the middle. The steel is of the most exquisite +quality, and the entire knife weighs three pounds. The peculiar shape +added to the weight of the blade gives an extraordinary force to a +blow, and the blade being double-edged for three inches from the point, +inflicts a fearful wound: altogether it is a very desperate weapon, and +admirably adapted for this kind of sport. + +A feat is frequently performed by the Nepaulese by cutting off a +buffalo's head at one blow of a sabre or tulwal. The blade of this +weapon is peculiar, being concave, and the extremity is far heavier +than the hilt; the animal's neck is tied down to a post, so as to +produce a tension on the muscles, without which the blow, however +great, would have a comparatively small effect. + +The accounts of this feat always appeared very marvellous to my mind, +until I one day unintentionally performed something similar on a small +scale with the hunting-knife. + +I was out hunting in the Elk Plains, and having drawn several jungles +blank, I ascended the mountains which wall in the western side of the +patinas (grass-plains), making sure of finding an elk near the summit. +It was a lovely day, perfectly calm and cloudless; in which weather the +elk, especially the large bucks, are in the habit of lying high up the +mountains. + +I had nine couple of hounds out, among which were some splendid +seizers, "Bertram," "Killbuck," "Hecate," "Bran," "Lucifer," and +"Lena," the first three being progeny of the departed hero, old "Smut," +who had been killed by a boar a short time before. They were then just +twelve months old, and "Bertram" stood twenty-eight and a half inches +high at the shoulder. To him his sire's valor had descended +untarnished, and for a dog of his young age he was the most courageous +that I have ever seen. In appearance he was a tall Manilla bloodhound, +with the strength of a young lion; very affectionate in disposition, +and a general favorite, having won golden opinions in every contest. +Whenever a big buck was at bay, and punishing the leading hounds, he +was ever the first to get his hold; no matter how great the danger, he +never waited but recklessly dashed in. "There goes Bertram! Look at +Bertram! Well done, Bertram!" were the constant exclamations of a crowd +of excited spectators when a powerful buck was brought to bay. He was +a wonderful dog, but I prophesied an early grave for him, as no dog in +the world could long escape death who rushed so recklessly upon his +dangerous game.[1] His sister "Hecate," was more careful, and she is +alive at this moment, and a capital seizer of great strength combined +with speed, having derived the latter from her dam, "Lena," an +Australian greyhound, than whom a better or truer bitch never lived. +"Old Bran," and his beautiful son "Lucifer," were fine specimens of +grayhound and deerhound, and as good as gold. + +There was not a single elk track the whole of the way up the mountain, +and upon arriving at the top, I gave up all hope of finding for that +day, and I enjoyed the beautiful view over the vast valley of forest +which lay below, spangled with green plains, and bounded by the +towering summit of Adam's Peak, at about twenty-five miles' distance. +The coffee estates of Dimboola lay far beneath upon the right, and the +high mountains of Kirigallapotta and Totapella bounded the view upon +the left. + +There is a good path along the narrow ridge on the summit of the Elk +Plain hills, which has been made by elephants. This runs along the +very top of the knife-like ridge, commanding a view of the whole +country to the right and left. The range is terminated abruptly by a +high peak, which descends in a sheer precipice at the extremity. + +I strolled along the elephant-path, intending to gain the extreme end +of the range for the sake of the view, when I suddenly came upon the +track of a "boar," in the middle of the path. It was perfectly fresh, +as were also the ploughings in the ground close by, and the water of a +small pool was still curling with clouds of mud, showing most plainly +that he had been disturbed from his wallowing by my noise in ascending +the mountain-side. + +There was no avoiding the find; and away went "Bluebeard," "Ploughboy," +"Gaylass" and all the leading hounds, followed by the whole pack, in +full chorus, straight along the path at top speed. Presently they +turned sharp to the left into the thick jungle, dashing down the +hillside as though off to the Elk Plains below. At this pace I knew +the hunt would not last long, and from my elevated stand I waited +impatiently for the first sounds of the bay. Round they turned again, +up the steep hillside, and the music slackened a little, as the bounds +had enough to do in bursting through the tangled bamboo up the hill. + +Presently, I heard the rush of the boar in the jungle, coming straight +up the hill toward the spot where I was standing; and, fearing that he +might top the ridge and make down the other side toward Dimboola, I +gave him a halloo to head him back. Hark, for-r-rard to him! yo-o-ick! +to him! + +Such a yell, right in his road, astonished him, and, as I expected, he +headed sharp back. Up came the pack, going like race-horses, and +wheeling off where the game had turned, a few seconds running along the +side of the mountain, and then such a burst of music! such a bay! The +boar had turned sharp round, and had met the hounds on a level platform +on the top of a ridge. + +"Lucifer" never leaves my side until we are close up to the bay; and +plunging and tearing through the bamboo grass and tangled nillho for a +few hundred yards, I at length approached the spot, and I heard Lord +Bacon grunting and roaring loud above the din of the hounds. + +Bertram has him for a guinea! Hold him, good lad! and away dashed +"Lucifer" from my side at the halloo. + +In another moment I was close up, and with my knife ready I broke +through the dense jungle and was immediately in the open space cleared +by the struggles of the boar and pack. Unluckily, I had appeared full +in the boar's front, and though five or six of the large seizers had +got their holds, he made a sudden charge at me that shook them all off, +except "Bertram" and "Lena." + +It was the work of an instant, as I jumped quickly on one side, and +instinctively made a downward cut at him in passing. He fell all of a +heap, to the complete astonishment of myself and the furious pack. + +He was dead! killed by one blow with the hunting knife. I had struck +him across the back just behind the shoulders, and the wound was so +immense that he had the appearance of being nearly half divided. Not +only was the spine severed, but the blade had cut deep into his vitals +and produced instant death. + +One of the dogs was hanging on his hind quarters when he charged, and +as the boar was rushing forward, the muscles of the back were +accordingly stretched tight, and thus the effect of the cut was +increased to this extraordinary degree. He was a middling-sized boar, +as near as I could guess, about two and a half hundredweight. + +Fortunately, none of the pack were seriously hurt, although his tusks +were as sharp as a knife. This was owing to the short duration of the +fight, and also to the presence of so many seizers, who backed each +other up without delay. + +There is no saying to what size a wild boar grows. I have never killed +them with the hounds above four hundredweight; but I have seen solitary +boars in the low country, that must have weighed nearly double. + +I believe the flesh is very good; by the natives it is highly prized; +but I have so strong a prejudice against it from the sights I have seen +of their feasting upon putrid elephants that I never touch it. + +The numbers of wild hogs in the low country is surprising, and these +are most useful in cleaning up the carcases of dead animals and +destroying vermin. I seldom or never fire at hog in those districts, +as their number is so great that there is no sport in shooting them. +They travel about in herds of one and two hundred, and even more. +These are composed of sows and young boars, as the latter leave the +herd when arrived at maturity. + + +[1] Speared through the body by the horns of a buck elk and killed shortly +after this was written. + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Curious Phenomenon--Panorama of Ouva--South-west Monsoon--Hunting +Followers--Fort M'Donald--River--Jungle Paths--Dangerous +Locality--Great Waterfall--Start for Hunting--The Find--A Gallant +Stag--"Bran" and "Lucifer"--"Phrenzy's" Death--Buck at Bay--The Cave +Hunting-box--"Madcap's" Dive--Elk Soup--Former Inundation--"Bluebeard" +leads off--"Hecate's" Course--The Elk's Leap--Variety of Deer--The +Axis--Ceylon Bears--Variety of Vermin--Trials for Hounds--Hounds and +their Masters--A Sportsman "shut up"--A Corporal and Centipede. + + +From June to November the south-west monsoon brings wind and mist +across the Newera Ellia mountains. + +Clouds of white fog boil up from the Dimboola valley like the steam +from a huge cauldron, and invade the Newera Ellia plain through the +gaps in the mountains to the westward. + +The wind howls over the high ridges, cutting the jungle with its keen +edge, so that it remains as stunted brushwood, and the opaque screen of +driving fog and drizzling rain is so dense that one feels convinced +there is no sun visible within at least a hundred miles. + +There is a curious phenomenon, however, in this locality. When the +weather described prevails at Newera Ellia, there is actually not one +drop of rain within four miles of my house in the direction of Badulla. +Dusty roads, a cloudless sky and dazzling sunshine astonish the +thoroughly-soaked traveler, who rides out of the rain and mist into a +genial climate, as though he passed through a curtain. The wet weather +terminates at a mountain called Hackgalla (or more properly +Yakkadagalla, or iron rock). This bold rock, whose summit is about six +thousand five hundred feet above the sea, breasts the driving wind and +seems to command the storm. The rushing clouds halt in their mad +course upon its crest and curl in sudden impotence around the craggy +summits. The deep ravine formed by an opposite mountain is filled with +the vanquished mist, which sinks powerless in its dark gorge; and the +bright sun, shining from the east, spreads a perpetual rainbow upon the +gauze-like cloud of fog which settles in the deep hollow. + +This is exceedingly beautiful. The perfect circle of the rainbow +stands like a fairy spell in the giddy depth of the hollow, and seems +to forbid the advance of the monsoon. All before is bright and +cloudless; the lovely panorama of the Ouva country spreads before the +eye for many miles beneath the feet. All behind is dark and stormy; +the wind is howling, the forests are groaning, the rain is pelting upon +the hills. + +The change appears impossible; but there it is, ever the same; season +after season, year after year, the rugged top of Hackgalla struggles +with the storms, and ever victorious the cliffs smile in the sunshine +on the eastern side; the rainbow reappears with the monsoon, and its +vivid circle remains like the guardian spirit of the valley. + +It is impossible to do justice to the extraordinary appearance of this +scene by description. The panoramic view in itself is celebrated; but +as the point in the road is reached where the termination of the +monsoon dissolves the cloud and rain into a thin veil of mist, the +panorama seen through the gauze-like atmosphere has the exact +appearance of a dissolving view; the depth, the height and distance of +every object, all great in reality, are magnified by the dim and +unnatural appearance; and by a few steps onward the veil gradually +fades away, and the distant prospect lies before the eye with a glassy +clearness made doubly striking by the sudden contrast. + +The road winds along about midway up the mountain, bounded on the right +by the towering cliffs and sloping forest of Hackgalla, and on the left +by the almost precipitous descent of nearly one thousand feet, the +sides of which are clothed by alternate forest and waving grass. At +the bottom flows a torrent, whose roar, ascending from the hidden +depth, increases the gloomy mystery of the scene. + +On the north, east and south-east of Newera Ellia the sunshine is +perpetual during the reign of the misty atmosphere, which the +south-west monsoon drives upon the western side of the mountains. Thus, +there is always an escape open from the wet season at Newera Ellia by a +short walk of three or four miles. + +A long line of dark cloud is then seen, terminated by a bright blue +sky. So abrupt is the line and the cessation of the rain that it is +difficult to imagine how the moisture is absorbed. + +This sudden termination of the cloud-capped mountain gives rise to a +violent wind in the sunny valleys and bare hills beneath. The chilled +air of Newera Ellia pours down into the sun-warmed atmosphere below, +and creates a gale that sweeps across the grassy hilltops with great +force, giving the sturdy rhododendrons an inclination to the north-east +which clearly marks the steadiness of the monsoon. + +It is not to be supposed, however, that Newera Ellia lies in unbroken +gloom for months together. One month generally brings a share of +uninterrupted bad weather; this is from the middle of June to the +middle of July. This is the commencement of the south-west monsoon, +which usually sets in with great violence. The remaining portion of +what is called the wet season, till the end of November, is about as +uncertain as the climate of England--some days fine, others wet, and +every now and then a week of rain at one bout. + +A thoroughly saturated soil, with a cold wind, and driving rain and +forests as full of water as sponges, are certain destroyers of scent; +hence, hunting at Newera Ellia is out of the question during such +weather. The hounds would get sadly out of condition, were it not for +the fine weather in the vicinity which then invites a trip. + +I have frequently walked ten miles to my hunting grounds, starting +before daybreak, and then after a good day's sport up and down the +steep mountains, I have returned home in the evening. But this is +twelve hours' work, and it is game thrown away, as there is no +possibility of getting the dead elk home. An animal that weighs between +four hundred and four hundred and fifty pounds without his insides, is +not a very easy creature to move; at any time, especially in such a +steep mountainous country as the neighborhood of Newera Ellia. As +previously described, at the base of the mountains are cultivated +rice-lands, generally known as paddy-fields, where numerous villages +have sprung up from the facility with which a supply of water is +obtained from the wild mountains above them. I have so frequently +given the people elk and hogs which I have killed on the heights above +their paddy-fields that they are always on the alert at the sound of +the bugle, and a few blasts from the mountain-top immediately creates a +race up from the villages, some two or three thousand feet below. Like +vultures scenting carrion, they know that an elk is killed, and they +start off to the well-known sound like a pack of trained hounds. Being +thorough mountaineers, they are extraordinary fellows for climbing the +steep grassy sides. With a light stick about six feet long in one +hand, they will start from the base of the mountains and clamber up the +hillsides in a surprisingly short space of time, such as would soon +take the conceit out of a "would-be pedestrian." This is owing to the +natural advantages of naked feet and no inexpressibles. + +Whenever an elk has given a long run in the direction of this country, +and after a persevering and arduous chase of many hours, I have at +length killed him on the grassy heights above the villages, I always +take a delight in watching the tiny specks issuing from the green +strips of paddy as the natives start off at the sound of the horn. + +At this altitude, it requires a sharp eye to discern a man, but at +length they are seen scrambling up the ravines and gullies and +breasting the sharp pitches, until at last the first man arrives +thoroughly used up and a string of fellows of lesser wind come in, in +sections, all thoroughly blown. + +However, the first man in never gets the lion's share, as the poor old +men, with willing spirits and weak flesh, always bring up the rear, and +I insist upon a fair division between the old and young, always giving +an extra piece to a man who happens to know a little English. This is +a sort of reward for acquirements, equivalent to a university degree, +and he is considered a literary character by his fellows. + +There is nothing that these people appreciate so much as elk and hog's +flesh. Living generally upon boiled rice and curry composed of +pumpkins and sweet potatoes, they have no opportunities of tasting meat +unless upon these occasions. + +During the very wet weather at Newera Ellia I sometimes take the pack +and bivouac for a fortnight in the fine-weather country. About a week +previous I send down word to the village people of my intention, but +upon these occasions I never give them the elk. I always insist upon +their bringing rice, etc., for the dogs and myself in exchange for +venison, otherwise I should have some hundreds of noisy, idle vagabonds +flocking up to me like carrion-crows. + +Of course I give them splendid bargains, as I barter simply on the +principle that no man shall come for nothing. Thus, if a man assist in +building the kennel, or carrying a load, or cutting bed-grass, or +searching for lost hounds, he gets a share of meat. The others bring +rice, coffee, fowls, eggs, plantains, vegetables, etc., which I take at +ridiculous rates-a bushel of rice for a full-grown elk, etc., the +latter being worth a couple of pounds and the rice about seven +shillings. Thus the hounds keep themselves in rice and supply me with +everything that I require during the trip, at the same time gratifying +the natives. + +The direct route to this country was unknown to Europeans at Newera +Ellia until I discovered it one day, accidentally, in following the +hounds. + +A large tract of jungle-covered hill stretches away from the Moon +Plains at Newera Ellia toward the east, forming a hog's back of about +three and a half miles in length. Upon the north side this shelves +into a deep gorge, at the bottom of which flows, or rather tumbles, +Fort M'Donald river on its way to the low country, through +forest-covered hills and perpendicular cliffs, until it reaches the +precipitous patina mountains, when, in a succession of large cataracts, +it reaches the paddy-fields in the first village of Perewelle (guava +paddy-field). Thus the river in the gorge below runs parallel to the +long hog's back of mountain. This is bordered on the other side by +another ravine and smaller torrent, to which the Badulla road runs +parallel until it reaches the mountain of Hackgalla, at which place the +ravine deepens into the misty gorge already described. + +At one time, if an elk crossed the Badulla road and gained the Hog's +Back jungle, both he and the hounds were lost, as no one could follow +through such impenetrable jungle without knowing either the distance or +direction. + +"They are gone to Fort M'Donald river!" This was the despairing +exclamation at all times when the pack crossed the road, and we seldom +saw the hounds again until late that night or on the following day. +Many never returned, and Fort M'Donald river became a by-word as a +locality to be always dreaded. + +After a long run one day, the pack having gone off in this fatal +direction, I was determined, at any price, to hunt them up, and +accordingly I went some miles down the Badulla road to the limestone +quarries, which are five miles from the Newera Ellia plain. From this +point I left the road and struck down into the deep, grassy valley, +crossing the river (the same which runs by the road higher up) and +continuing along the side of the valley until I ascended the opposite +range of hills. Descending the precipitous side, I at length reached +the paddy-fields in the low country, which were watered by Fort +M'Donald river, and I looked up to the lofty range formed by the Hog's +Back hill, now about three thousand feet above me. Thus I had gained +the opposite side of the Hog's Back, and, after a stiff pull lip the +mountain, I returned home by a good path which I had formerly +discovered along the course of the river through the forest to Newera +Ellia, via Rest-and-be-Thankful Valley and the Barrack Plains, having +made a circuit of about twenty-five miles and become thoroughly +conversant with all the localities. I immediately determined to have a +path cut from the Badulla Road across the Hog's Back jungle to the +patinas which looked down upon Fort M'Donald on the other side and, up +which I had ascended on my return. I judged the distance would not +exceed two miles across, and I chose the point of junction with the +Badulla road two miles and a half from my house. My reason for this +was, that the elk invariably took to the jungle at this place, which +proved it to be the easiest route. + +This road, on completion, answered every expectation, connecting the +two sides of the Hog's Back by an excellent path of about two miles, +and debouching on the opposite side on a high patina peak which +commanded the whole country. Thus was the whole country opened up by +this single path, and should an elk play his old trick and be off +across the Hog's Back to Fort M'Donald river, I could be there nearly +as soon as he could, and also keep within hearing of the bounds +throughout the run. + +I was determined to take the tent and regularly hunt up the whole +country on the other side of the Hog's Back, as the weather was very +bad at Newera Ellia, while in this spot it was beautifully fine, +although very windy. + +I therefore sent on the tent, kennel-troughs and pots, and all the +paraphernalia indispensable for the jungle, and on the 31st May, 1852, +I started, having two companions--Capt. Pelly, Thirty-seventh Regiment, +who was then commandant of Newera Ellia, and his brother on a visit. +It was not more than an hour and a half's good walking from my house to +the high patina peak upon which I pitched the tent, but the country and +climate are so totally distinct from anything at Newera Ellia that it +gives every one the idea of being fifty miles away. + +We hewed out a spacious arbor at the edge of the jungle, and in this I +had the tent pitched to protect it from the wind, which it did +effectually, as well as the kennel, which was near the same spot. The +servants made a good kitchen, and the encampment was soon complete. + +There never could have been a more romantic or beautiful spot for a +bivouac. To the right lay the distant view of the low country, +stretching into an undefined distance, until the land and sky appeared +to melt together. Below, at a depth of about three thousand feet, the +river boiled through the rocky gorge until it reached the village of +Perewelle at the base of the line of mountains, whose cultivated +paddy-fields looked no larger than the squares upon a chess-board. On +the opposite side of the river rose a precipitous and impassable +mountain, even to a greater altitude than the facing ridge upon which I +stood, forming as grand a foreground as the eye could desire. Above, +below, around, there was the bellowing sound of heavy cataracts echoed +upon all sides. + +Certainly this country is very magnificent, but it is an awful locality +for hunting, as the elk has too great an advantage over both hounds and +hunters. Mountainous patinas of the steepest inclination, broken here +and there by abrupt precipices, and with occasional level platforms of +waving grass, descend to the river's bed. These patina mountains are +crowned by extensive forests, and narrow belts of jungle descend from +the summit to the base, clothing the numerous ravines which furrow the +mountain's side. Thus the entire surface of the mountains forms a +series of rugged grasslands, so steep as to be ascended with the +greatest difficulty, and the elk lie in the forests on the summits and +also in the narrow belts which cover the ravines. + +The whole country forms a gorge, like a gigantic letter V. At the +bottom roars the dreaded torrent, Fort M'Donald river, in a succession +of foaming cataracts, all of which, however grand individually, are +completely eclipsed by its last great plunge of three hundred feet +perpendicular depth into a dark and narrow chasm of wall-bound cliffs. + +The bed of the river is the most frightful place that can be conceived, +being choked by enormous fragments of rock, amidst which the +irresistible torrent howls with a fury that it is impossible to +describe. + +The river is confined on either side by rugged cliffs of gneiss rock, +from which these fragments have from time to time become detached, and +have accordingly fallen into the torrent, choking the bed and throwing +the obstructed waters into frightful commotion. Here they lie piled +one upon the other, like so many inverted cottages; here and there +forming dripping caverns; now forming walls of slippery rock, over +which the water falls in thundering volumes into pools black from their +mysterious depth, and from which there is no visible means of exit. +These dark and dangerous pools are walled in by hoary-looking rocks, +beneath which the pent-up water dives and boils in subterranean +caverns, until it at length escapes through secret channels, and +reappears on the opposite side of its prison-walls; lashing itself into +foam in its mad frenzy, it forms rapids of giddy velocity through the +rocky bounds; now flying through a narrowed gorge, and leaping, +striving and wrestling with unnumbered obstructions, it at length meets +with the mighty fall, like death in a madman's course. One plunge! +without a single shelf to break the fall, and down, down it sheets; at +first like glass, then like the broken avalanche of snow, and +lastly!--we cannot see more--the mist boils from the ruin of shattered +waters and conceals the bottom of the fall. The roar vibrates like +thunder in the rocky mountain, and forces the grandeur of the scene +through every nerve. + +No animal or man, once in those mysterious pools, could ever escape +without assistance. Thus in years post, when elk were not followed up +in this locality, the poor beast, being hard pressed by the hounds, +might have come to bay in one of these fatal basins, in which case, +both he and every bound who entered the trap found sure destruction. + +The hard work and the danger to both man and bound in this country may +be easily imagined when it is explained that the nature of the elk +prompts him to seek for water as his place of refuge when hunted; thus +he makes off down the mountain for the river, in which he stands at +bay. Now the mountain itself is steep enough, but within a short +distance of the bottom the river is in many places guarded by +precipices of several hundred feet in depth. A few difficult passes +alone give access to the torrent, but the descent requires great +caution. + +Altogether, this forms the wildest and most arduous country that can be +imagined for hunting, but it abounds with elk. + +The morning was barely gray when I woke up the servants and ordered +coffee, and made the usual preparations for a start. At last, thank +goodness! the boots are laced! This is the troublesome part of dressing +before broad daylight, and nevertheless laced ankle-boots must be worn +as a protection against sprains and bruises in such a country. Never +mind the trouble of lacing them; they, are on now, and there is a good +day's work in store for them. + +It was the 30th May, 1853, a lovely hunting morning and a fine dew on +the patinas; rather too windy, but that could not be helped. + +Quiet now!--down, Bluebeard!--back, will you, Lucifer! Here's a smash! +there goes the jungle kennel! the pack squeezing out of it in every +direction as they hear the preparations for departure. + +Now we are all right; ten couple out, and all good ones. Come along, +yo-o-i, along here! and a note on the horn brings the pack close +together as we enter the forest on the very summit of the ridge. Thus +the start was completed just as the first tinge of gold spread along +the eastern horizon, about ten minutes before sunrise. + +The jungles were tolerably good, but there were not as many elk tracks +as I had expected; probably the high wind on the ridge had driven them +lower down for shelter; accordingly I struck an oblique direction +downward, and I was not long before I discovered a fresh track; fresh +enough, certainly, as the thick moss which covered the ground showed a +distinct path where the animal had been recently feeding. + +Every hound had stolen away; even the greyhounds buried their noses in +the broad track of the buck, so fresh was the scent; and I waited +quietly for "the find." The greyhounds stood round me with their cars +cocked and glistening eyes, intently listening for the expected sound. + +There they are! all together, such a burst! They must have stolen away +mute and have found on the other side the ridge, for they were now +coming down at full speed from the very summit of the mountain. + +From the amount of music I knew they had a good start, but I had no +idea that the buck would stand to such a pack at the very commencement +of the hunt. Nevertheless there was a sudden bay within a few hundred +yards of me, and the elk had already turned to fight. I knew that he +was an immense fellow from his track, and I at once saw that he would +show fine sport. + +Just as I was running through the jungle toward the spot, the bay broke +and the buck had evidently gone off straight away, as I heard the pack +in full cry rapidly increasing their distance and going off down the +mountain. + +Sharp following was now the order of the day, and away we went. The +mountain was so steep that it was necessary every now and then to check +the momentum of a rapid descent by clinging to the tough saplings. +Sometimes one would give way and a considerable spill would be the +consequence. However, I soon got out on the patina about one-third of +the way down the mountain, and here I met one of the natives, who was +well posted. Not a sound of the pack was now to be heard; but this man +declared most positively that the elk had suddenly changed his course, +and, instead of keeping down the hill, had struck off to his left along +the side of the mountain. Accordingly, off I started as hard as I +could go with several natives, who all agreed as to the direction. + +After running for about a mile along the patinas in the line which I +judged the pack had taken, I heard one hound at bay in a narrow jungle +high up on my left. It was only the halt of an instant, for the next +moment I heard the same hound's voice evidently running on the other +side of the strip of jungle, and taking off down the mountain straight +for the dreaded river. Here was a day's work cut out as neatly as could +be. + +Running toward the spot, I found the buck's track leading in that +direction, and I gave two or three view halloos at the top of my voice +to bring the rest of the pack down upon it. They were close at hand, +but the high wind had prevented me from hearing them, and away they +came from the jungle, rushing down upon the scent like a flock of +birds. I stepped of the track to let them pass as they swept by, and +"For-r-r-a-r-d to him! For-r--r-ard!" was the word the moment they had +passed, as I gave them a halloo down the hill. It was a bad look-out +for the elk now; every hound knew that his master was close up, and +they went like demons. + +The "Tamby"[1] was the only man up, and he and I immediately followed in +chase down the precipitous patinas; running when we could, scrambling, +and sliding on our hams when it was too steep to stand, and keeping +good hold of the long tufts of grass, lest we should gain too great an +impetus and slide to the bottom. + +After about half a mile passed in this manner, I heard the bay, and I +saw the buck far beneath, standing upon a level, grassy platform, +within three hundred yards of the river. The whole pack was around him +except the greyhounds, who were with me; but not a hound had a chance +with him, and he repeatedly charged in among them, and regularly drove +them before him, sending any single hound spinning whenever he came +within his range. But the pack quickly reunited, and always returned +with fresh vigor to the attack. There was a narrow, wooded ravine +between me and them, and, with caution and speed combined, I made +toward the spot down the precipitous mountain, followed by the +greyhounds "Bran" and "Lucifer." + +I soon arrived on a level with the bay, and, plunging into the ravine, +I swung myself down from tree to tree, and then climbed up the opposite +side. I broke cover within a few yards of him. What a splendid fellow +he looked! He was about thirteen hands high, and carried the most +beautiful head of horns that I had ever seen upon an elk. His mane was +bristled up, his nostril was distended, and, turning from the pack, he +surveyed me, as though taking the measure of his new antagonist. Not +seeming satisfied, he deliberately turned, and, descending from the +level space, he carefully, picked his way. Down narrow elk-runs along +the steep precipices, and, at a slow walk, with the whole pack in +single file at his heels, he clambered down toward the river. I +followed on his track over places which I would not pass in cold blood; +and I shortly halted above a cataract of some eighty feet in depth, +about a hundred paces from the great waterfall of three hundred feet. + +It was extremely grand; the roar of the falls so entirely hushed all +other sounds that the voices of the hounds were perfectly inaudible, +although within a few yards of me, as I looked down upon them from a +rock that overhung the river. + +The elk stood upon the brink of the swollen torrent; he could not +retreat, as the wall of rock was behind him, with the small step-like +path by which he had descended; this was now occupied by the yelling +pack. + +The hounds knew the danger of the place; but the buck, accustomed to +these haunts from his birth, suddenly leapt across the boiling rapids, +and springing from rock to rock along the verge of the cataract, he +gained the opposite side. Here he had mistaken his landing-place, as a +shelving rock, upon which he had alighted, was so steep that he could +not retain his footing, and he gradually slid down toward the river. + +At this moment, to my horror, both "Bran" and "Lucifer" dashed across +the torrent, and bounding from rock to rock, they sprung at the already +tottering elk, and in another moment both he and they rolled over in a +confused mass into the boiling torrent. One more instant and they +reappeared, the buck gallantly stemming the current, which his great +length of limb and weight enabled him to do; the dogs, overwhelmed in +the foam of the rapids, were swept down toward the fall, in spite of +their frantic exertions to gain the bank. + +They were not fifteen feet from the edge of the fall, and I saw them +spun round and round in the whirlpools being hurried toward certain +destruction. The poor dogs seemed aware of the danger, and made the +most extraordinary efforts to avoid their fate. They were my two +favorites of the pack, and I screamed out words of encouragement to +them, although the voice of a cannon could not have been heard among +the roar of waters. They had nearly gained the bank oil the very ver-e +of the fall, when a few tufts of lemon grass concealed them from my +view. I thought they were over, and I could not restrain a cry of +despair at their horrible fate. I felt sick with the idea. But the +next moment I was shouting hurrah! they are all right, thank goodness, +they were saved. I saw them struggling up the steep bank, through the +same lemon grass, which had for a moment obscured their fate. They +were thoroughly exhausted and half drowned. + +In the mean time, the elk had manfully breasted the rapids, carefully +choosing the shallow places; and the whole pack, being mad with +excitement, had plunged into the waters regardless of the danger. I +thought every hound would have been lost. For an instant they looked +like a flock of ducks, but a few moments afterward they were scattered +in the boiling eddies, hurrying with fatal speed toward the dreadful +cataract. Poor "Phrenzy!" round she spun in the giddy vortex; nearer +and nearer she approached the verge--her struggles were +unavailing--over she went, and was of course never heard of afterward. + +This was a terrible style of hunting; rather too much so to be +pleasant. I clambered down to the edge of the river just in time to see +the elk climbing, as nimbly as a cat up the precipitous bank on the +opposite side, threading his way at a slow walk under the overhanging +rocks, and scrambling up the steep mountain with a long string of +hounds at his heels in single file. "Valiant," "Tiptoe" and "Ploughboy" +were close to him, and I counted the other hounds in the line, fully +expecting to miss half of them. To my surprise and delight, only one +was absent; this was poor "Phrenzy." The others had all managed to save +themselves. I now crossed the river by leaping from rock to rock with +some difficulty, and with hands and knees I climbed the opposite bank. +This was about sixty feet high, from the top of which the mountain +commenced its ascent, which, though very precipitous was so covered +with long lemon grass that it was easy enough to climb. I looked +behind me, and there was the Tamby, all right, within a few paces. + +The elk was no longer in sight, and the roar of the water was so great +that it was impossible to hear the hounds. However, I determined to +crawl along his track, which was plainly discernible, the high grass +being broken into a regular lane which skirted the precipice of the +great waterfall in the direction of the villages. + +We were now about a hundred feet above, and on one side of the great +fall, looking into the deep chasm into which the river leapt, forming a +cloud of mist below. The lemon grass was so high in tufts along the +rocks that we could not see a foot before us, and we knew not whether +the next step would land us on firm footing, or deposit us some hundred +feet below. Clutching fast to the long grass, therefore, we crept +carefully on for about a quarter of a mile, now climbing the face of +the rocks, now descending by means of their irregular surfaces, but +still stirring the dark gorge down which the river fell. + +At length, having left the fall some considerable distance behind us, +the ear was somewhat relieved from the bewildering noise of water, and +I distinctly heard the pack at bay not very far in advance. In another +moment I saw the elk standing on a platform of rock about a hundred +yards ahead, on a lower shelf of the mountain, and the whole pack at +bay. This platform was the top of a cliff which overhung the deep +gorge; the river flowing in the bottom after its great fall, and both +the elk and hounds appeared to be in "a fix." The descent had been made +to this point by leaping down places which he could not possibly +reascend, and there was only one narrow outlet, which was covered by +the hounds. Should he charge through the hounds to force this passage, +half a dozen of them must be knocked over the precipice. + +However, I carefully descended, and soon reached the platform. This was +not more than twenty feet square, and it looked down in the gorge of +about three hundred feet. The first seventy of this depth were +perpendicular, as the top of the rock overhung, after which the side of +the cliff was marked by great fissures and natural steps formed by the +detachment from time to time of masses of rock which had fallen into +the river below. Bushes and rank grass filled the interstices of the +rocks, and an old deserted water-course lay exactly beneath the +platform, being cut and built out of the side of the cliff. + +It was a magnificent sight in such grand scenery to see the buck at bay +when we arrived upon the platform. He was a dare-devil fellow, and +feared neither hounds nor man, every now and then charging through the +pack, and coming almost within reach of the Tamby's spear. It was a +difficult thing to know how to kill him. I was afraid to go in at him, +lest in his struggles he should drag the hounds over the precipice, and +I would not cheer the seizers on for the same reason. Indeed, they +seemed well aware of the danger, and every now and then retreated to +me, as though to entice the elk to make a move to some better ground. + +However, the buck very soon decided the question. I made up my mind to +halloo the hounds on, and to hamstring the elk, to prevent him from +nearing the precipice: and, giving a shout, the pack rushed at him. +Not a dog could touch him; he was too quick with his horns and fore +feet. He made a dash into the pack, and then regained his position +close to the verge of the precipice. He then turned his back to the +hounds, looked down over the edge, and, to the astonishment of all, +plunged into the abyss below! A dull crash sounded from beneath, and +then nothing was heard but the roaring of the waters as before. The +hounds looked over the edge and yelled with a mixture of fear and +despair. Their game was gone! + +By making a circuit of about half a mile among these frightful +precipices and gorges, we at length arrived at the foot of the cliff +down which the buck had leapt. Here we of course found him lying dead, +as he had broken most of his bones. He was in very fine condition; but +it was impossible to move him from such a spot. I therefore cut off +his head, as his antlers were the finest that I have ever killed before +or since. + +To regain the tent, I had a pull for it, having to descend into the +village of Perewelle, and then to reascend the opposite mountain of +three thousand feet; but even this I thought preferable to returning in +cold blood by the dangerous route I had come. + +Tugging up such a mountain was no fun after a hard morning's work, and +I resolved to move the encampment to a large cave, some eight hundred +feet lower down the mountain. Accordingly, I struck the tent, and +after breakfast we took up our quarters in a cavern worthy of Robin +Hood. This had been formed by a couple of large rocks the size of a +moderate house, which had been detached from the overhanging cliff +above, and had fallen together. There was a smaller cavern within, +which made a capital kennel; rather more substantial than the rickety +building of yesterday. + +Some of the village people, hearing that the buck was killed and lying +in the old water-course, went in a gang to cut him up. What was their +surprise on reaching the spot to find the carcase removed! It had +evidently been dragged along the water-course, as the trail was +distinct in the high grass, and upon following it up, away went two +fine leopards, bounding along the rocks to their adjacent cave. They +had consumed a large portion of the flesh, but the villagers did not +leave them much for another meal. Skin, hoofs, and in fact every +vestige of an elk, is consumed by these people. + +For my own part, I do not think much of elk venison, unless it be very +fit, which is rarely the case. It is at all times more like beef than +any other meat, for which it is a very good substitute. The +marrow-bones are the "bonne bouche," being peculiarly rich and +delicate. Few animals can have a larger proportion of marrow than the +elk, as the bones are more hollow than those of most quadrupeds. This +cylindrical formation enables them to sustain the severe shocks in +descending rough mountains at full speed. It is perfectly wonderful to +see an animal of near six hundred pounds' weight bounding down a +hillside, over rocks and ruts and every conceivable difficulty of +ground, at a pace which will completely distance the best hound; and +even at this desperate speed, the elk will never make a false step; +sure-footed as a goat, he will still fly on through bogs, ravines, +tangled jungles and rocky rivers, ever certain of his footing. + +The foregoing description of an elk-hunt will give the reader a good +idea of the power of this animal in stemming rapids and climbing +dangerous precipices; but even an elk is not proof against the dangers +of Fort M'Donald river, an example of which we had on the following +morning. + +The hounds found a doe who broke cover close to me in a small patina +and made straight running for the river. She had no sooner reached it +than I beard her cry out, and as she was closely followed I thought she +was seized. However, the whole pack shortly returned, evidently thrown +out, and I began to abuse them pretty roundly, thinking that they had +lost their game in the river. So they had, but in an excusable manner; +the poor doe had been washed down a rapid, and had broken her thigh. We +found her dead under a hollow rock in the middle of the river. + +Here we had a fine exemplification of the danger of the mysterious +pools. + +While I was opening the elk, with the pack all round me licking their +lips in expectation, old "Madcap" was jostled by one of the greyhounds, +and slipped into a basin among the rocks, which formed an edge of about +two feet above the surface. + +The opposite side of the pool was hemmed in by rocks about six feet +high, and the direction of the under-current was at once shown by poor +old "Madcap" being swept up against this high wall of rock, where she +remained paddling with all her might in an upright position. + +I saw the poor beast would be sucked under, and yet I could not save +her. However, I did my best at the risk of falling in myself. + +I took off my handkerchief and made a slip-knot, and begging Pelly to +lie down on the top of the rock, I took his hand while I clung to the +face of the wall as I best could by a little ledge of about two inches' +width. + +With great difficulty I succeeded in hooking the bitch's head in the +slip-knot, but in my awkward position I could not use sufficient +strength to draw her out. I could only support her head above the +water, which I could distinctly feel was drawing her from me. +Presently she gave a convulsive struggle, which freed her head from the +loop, and in an instant she disappeared. + +I could not help going round the rock to see if her body should be +washed out when the torrent reappeared, when, to my astonishment, up +she popped all right, not being more than half drowned by her +subterranean excursion, and we soon helped her safe ashore. +Fortunately for her, the passage had been sufficiently large to pass +her, although I have no doubt a man would have been held fast and +drowned. + +There was so much water in the river that I determined to move from +this locality as too dangerous for hunting. I therefore ordered the +village people to assemble on the following morning to carry the loads +and tent. In the mean time I sent for the dead elk. + +There could riot be a better place for a hunting-box than that cave. +We soon had a glorious fire roaring round the kennel-pot, which, having +been well scoured with sand and water, was to make the soup. Such +soup!--shades of gourmands, if ye only smelt that cookery! The pot held +six gallons, and the whole elk, except a few steaks, was cut up and +alternately boiled down in sections. The flesh was then cut up small +for the pack, the marrowbones reserved for "master," and the soup was +then boiled until it had evaporated to the quantity required. A few +green chilies, onions in slices fried, and a little lime-juice, salt, +black pepper and mushroom ketchup, and--in fact, there is no rise +thinking of it, as the soup is not to be had again. The fire crackled +and blazed as the logs were heaped upon it as night grew near, and lit +up all the nooks and corners of the old cave. Three beds in a row +contained three sleepy mortals. The hounds snored and growled, and +then snored again. The servants jabbered, chewed betel, spit, then +jabbered a little more, and at last everything and everybody was fast +asleep within the cave. + +The next morning we had an early breakfast and started, the village +people marching off in good spirits with the loads. I was now en route +for Bertram's patinas, which lay exactly over the mountain on the +opposite side of the river. This being perpendicular, I was obliged to +make a great circuit by keeping the old Newera Ellia path along the +river for two or three miles, and then, turning off at right angles, I +knew an old native trace over the ridge. Altogether, it was a round of +about six miles, although the patinas were not a mile from the cave in +a straight line. + +The path in fact terminates upon the high peak, exactly opposite the +cave, looking down upon my hunting-ground of the day before, and on the +other side the ridge lie Bertram's patinas. + +The extreme point of the ridge which I had now gained forms one end of +a horse-shoe or amphitheatre; the other extremity is formed by a high +mountain exactly opposite at about two miles' distance. The bend of +the horse-shoe forms a circuit of about six miles, the rim of which is +a wall of precipices and steep patina mountains, which are about six or +seven hundred feet above the basin or the bottom of the amphitheatre. +The tops of the mountains are covered with good open forest, and +ribbon-like strips descend to the base. Now the base forms an uneven +shelf of great extent, about two thousand feet above the villages. This +shelf or valley appears to have suffered at some remote period from a +terrible inundation. Landslips of great size and innumerable deep +gorges and ravines furrow the bottom of the basin, until at length a +principal fissure carries away the united streams to the paddy-fields +below. + +The cause of this inundation is plain enough. The basin has been the +receptacle for the drainage of an extensive surface of mountain. This +drainage has been effected by innumerable small torrents, which have +united in one general channel through the valley. The exit of this +stream is through a narrow gorge, by which it descends to the low +country. During the period of heavy rains a landslip has evidently +choked up this passage, and the exit of the water being thus +obstructed, the whole area of the valley has become a lake. The +accumulated water has suddenly burst through the obstruction and swept +everything before it. The elk are very fond of lying under the +precipices in the strips of jungle already mentioned. When found, they +are accordingly forced to take to the open country and come down to the +basin below, as they cannot possibly ascend the mountain except by one +or two remote deer-runs. Thus the whole hunt from the find to the +death is generally in view. + +From every point of this beautiful locality there is a boundless and +unbroken panorama of the low country. + +Unfortunately, although the weather was perfectly fine, it was the +windy season, and a gale swept across the mountains that rendered ears +of little use, as a hound's voice was annihilated in such a hurricane +This was sadly against sport, as the main body of the pack would have +no chance of joining the finding hound. + +However, the hounds were unkenneled at break of day, and, the tent +being pitched at the bottom of the basin, we commenced a pull up the +steep patinas, hoping to find somewhere on the edge of the jungles. + +"There's scent to a certainty!--look at old Bluebeard's nose upon the +ground and the excited wagging of his stern. Ploughboy notices it--now +Gaylass they'll hit it off presently to a certainty, though it's as +cold as charity. That elk was feeding here early in the night; the +scent is four hours old if a minute. There they go into the jungle, and +we shall lose the elk, ten to one, as not another hound in the pack +will work it up. It can't be helped; if any three hounds will rouse +him out, those are the three." + +For a couple of hours we had sat behind a rock, sheltered from the +wind, watching the immense prospect before us. The whole pack were +lying around us except the three missing hounds, of whom we had seen +nothing since they stole away upon the cold scent. + +That elk must have gone up to the top of the mountains after feeding, +and a pretty run he must be having, very likely off to Matturatta +plains; if so, good-bye to all sport for to-day, and the best hounds +will be dead tired for to-morrow. + +I was just beginning to despair when I observed a fine large buck at +about half a mile distance, cantering easily toward us across an +extensive flat of table-land. This surface was a fine sward, on the +same level with the point upon which we sat, but separated from us by +two small wooded ravines, with a strip of patina between them. I at +once surmised that this was the hunted elk, although, as yet, no hounds +were visible. + +On arrival at the first ravine we immediately descended, and shortly +after he reappeared on the small patina between the two ravines, within +three hundred yards of us. Here the strong gale gave him our scent. It +was a beautiful sight to see him halt in an instant, snuff the warning +breeze and, drawing up to his full height, and wind the enemy before +him. + +Just at this moment I heard old "Bluebeard's" deep note swelling in the +distance, and I saw him leading across the table-land as true as gold +upon the track; "Ploughboy" and "Gaylass" were both with him but they +were running mute. + +The buck heard the hounds as well as we did, and I was afraid that the +whole pack would also catch the sound, and by hurrying toward it, would +head the elk him from his course. Up to the present time and turn they +had not observed him. + +Still the buck stood in an attitude of acute suspense. He winded an +enemy before him and he heard another behind, which was rapidly closing +up, and, as though doubting his own power of scent, he gave preference +to that of hearing, and gallantly continued his course and entered the +second ravine just beneath our feet. + +I immediately jumped up, and, exciting the hounds in a subdued voice, I +waved my cap at the spot, and directed a native to run at full speed to +the jungle to endeavor to meet the elk, as I knew the hounds would then +follow him. This they did; and they all entered the jungle with the +man except the three greyhounds, "Lucifer," "Bran" and "Hecate," who +remained with me. + +A short time passed in breathless suspense, during which the voices of +the three following hounds rapidly approached as they steadily +persevered in the long chase; when suddenly, as I had expected, the +main body of the pack met the elk in the strip of jungle. + +Joyful must have been the burst of music to the ears of old "Bluebeard" +after his long run. Out crashed the buck upon the patinas near the +spot where the pack had entered, and away he went over the grassy hills +at a pace which soon left the hounds behind. The greyhounds will +stretch his legs for him. Yo-i-ck to him, Lucifer! For-r-r-ard to him, +Hecate! + +Off dashed the three greyhounds from my side at a railway pace, but, as +the buck was above them and had a start of about two hundred yards, in +such an uphill race both Bran and Lucifer managed to lose sight of him +in the undulations. + +Now was the time for Hecate's enormous power of loin and thigh to tell, +and, never losing a moment's view of her game, she sped up the steep +mountain side and was soon after seen within fifty yards of the brick +all alone, but going like a rocket. + +Now she has turned him! that pace could not last up hill, and round the +elk doubled and came flying down the mountain side. + +From the point of the hill upon which we stood we had a splendid view +of the course; the bitch gained upon him at every bound, and there was +a pitiless dash in her style of going that boded little mercy to her +game. What alarmed me, however, was the direction that the buck was +taking. An abrupt precipice of about two hundred and fifty feet was +lying exactly in his path; this sunk sheer down to a lower series of +grass-lands. + +At the tremendous pace at which they were going I feared lest their own +impetus should carry both elk and dog to destruction before they could +see the danger. + +Down they flew with unabated speed; they neared the precipice, and a +few more seconds would bring them to the verge. + +The stride of the buck was no match for the bound of the greyhound: the +bitch was at his flanks, and he pressed along at flying speed. + +He was close to the danger and it was still unseen: a moment more and +"Hecate" sprang at his ear. Fortunately she lost her hold as the ear +split. This check saved her. I shouted, "He'll be over!" and the next +instant he was flying through the air to headlong destruction. + +Bounding from a projecting rock upon which he struck, he flew outward, +and with frightfully increasing momentum he spun round and round in his +descent, until the centrifugal motion drew out his legs and neck as +straight as a line. A few seconds of this multiplying velocity +and--crash! + +It was all over. The bitch had pulled up on the very brink of the +precipice, but it was a narrow escape. + +Sportsmen are contradictory creatures. If that buck had come to bay, I +should have known no better sport than going in at him with the knife +to the assistance of the pack; but I now felt a great amount of +compassion for the poor brute who had met so terrible a fate. It did +not seem fair; and yet I would not have missed such a sight for +anything. Nothing can be conceived more terribly grand than the rush +of so large an animal through the air; and it was a curious +circumstance that within a few days no less than two bucks had gone +over precipices, although I had never witnessed one such an accident +more than once before. + +Upon reaching the fatal spot, I, of course, found him lying stone dead. +He had fallen at least two hundred and fifty feet to the base of the +precipice; and the ground being covered with detached fragments of +rock, he had broken most of his bones, beside bursting his paunch and +smashing in the face. However, we cut him up and cleaned him, and, +with the native followers heavily laden, we reached the tent. + +The following morning I killed another fine buck after a good run on +the patinas, where he was coursed and pulled down by the greyhounds; +but the wind was so very high that it destroyed the pleasure of +hunting. I therefore determined on another move--to the Matturatta +Plains, within three miles of my present hunting ground. + +After hunting four days at the Matturatta Plains, I moved on to the +Elephant Plains, and from thence returned home after twelve days' +absence, having killed twelve elk and two red deer. + +The animal known as the "red deer" in Ceylon is a very different +creature to his splendid namesake in Scotland; he is particularly +unlike a deer in the disproportionate size of his carcase to his length +of leg. He stands about twenty-six inches high at the shoulder and +weighs (live weight) from forty-five to fifty pounds. He has two sharp +tusks in the upper jaw, projecting about an inch and a half from the +gum. These are exactly like the lower-jaw tusks of a boar, but they +incline in the contrary direction, viz., downward, and they are used as +weapons of defence. + +The horns of the red deer seldom exceed eight inches in length, and +have no more than two points upon each antler, formed by a fork-like +termination. This kind of deer has no brow antler. They are very fast, +and excel especially in going up hill, in which ground they frequently +escape from the best grey-hounds. + +There is no doubt that the red-deer venison is the best in Ceylon, but +the animal itself is not generally sought after for sport. He gives a +most uninteresting run; never going straight away like a deer, but +doubling about over fifty acres of ground like a hare, until he is at +last run into and killed. They exist in extraordinary numbers +throughout every portion of Ceylon, but are never seen in herds. + +Next to the red deer is the still more tiny species, the "mouse deer." +This animal seldom exceeds twelve inches in height, and has the same +characteristic as the red deer in the heavy proportion of body to its +small length of limb. The skin is a mottled ash-gray, covered with +dark spots. The upper jaw is furnished with sharp tusks similar to the +red deer, but the head is free from horns. + +The skull is perfectly unlike the head of a deer, and is closely allied +to the rat, which it would exactly resemble, were it not for the +difference in the teeth. The mouse deer lives principally upon berries +and fruits; but I have seldom found much herbage upon examination of +the paunch. Some people consider the flesh very good, but my ideas +perhaps give it a "ratty" flavor that makes it unpalatable. + +These little deer make for some well-known retreat the moment that they +are disturbed by dogs, and they are usually found after a short run +safely ensconced in a hollow tree. + +It is a very singular thing that none of the deer tribe in Ceylon have +more than six points on their horns, viz., three upon each. These are, +the brow-antler point, and the two points which form the extremity of +each horn. I have seen them occasionally with more, but these were +deformities in the antlers. + +A stranger is always disappointed in a Ceylon elk's antlers; and very +naturally, for they are quite out of proportion to the great size of +the animal. A very large Scotch red deer in not more than two-thirds +the size of a moderately fine elk, and yet he carries a head of horns +that are infinitely larger. + +In fact, so rare are fine antlers in Ceylon that I could not pick out +more than a dozen of really handsome elk horns out of the great numbers +that I have killed. + +A handsome pair of antlers is a grand addition to the beauty of a fine +buck, and gives a majesty to his bearing which is greatly missed when a +fine animal breaks cover with only a puny pair of horns. There is as +great a difference in his appearance as there would be in a +life-guardsman in full uniform or in his shirt. + +The antlers of the axis, or spotted deer, are generally longer than +those of the elk; they are also more slender and graceful. Altogether, +the spotted deer is about the handsomest of that beautiful tribe. A +fine spotted stag is the perfection of elegance, color, strength, +courage and speed. He has a proud and thorough-bred way of carrying +his head, which is set upon his neck with a peculiar grace. Nothing +can surpass the beauty of his full black eye. His hide is as sleek as +satin--a rich brown, slightly tinged with red, and spotted as though +mottled with flakes of snow. His weight is about two hundred and fifty +pounds (alive). + +It is a difficult thing to judge of a deer's weight with any great +accuracy; but I do not think I am far out in my estimation of the +average, as I once tried the experiment by weighing a dead elk. I had +always considered that a mountain elk, which is smaller than those of +the low country, weighed about four hundred pounds when cleaned, or +five hundred and fifty pounds live weight. I happened one day to kill +an average-sized buck, though with very small horns, close to the road; +so, having cleaned him, I sent a cart for his carcase on my return +home. This elk I weighed whole, minus his inside, and he was four +hundred and eleven pounds. Many hours had elapsed since his death, so +that the carcase must have lost much weight by drying; this, with the +loss of blood and offal, must have been at least one hundred and fifty +pounds, which would have made his live weight five hundred and +sixty-one pounds. + +Of the five different species of deer in Ceylon, the spotted deer is +alone seen upon the plains. No climate can be too hot for his exotic +constitution, and he is never found at a higher elevation than three +thousand feet. In the low country, when the midday sun has driven +every other beast to the shelter of the densest jungles, the sultan of +the herd and his lovely mates are sometimes contented with the shade of +an isolated tree or the simple border of the jungle, where they +drowsily pass the day, flipping their long ears in listless idleness +until the hotter hours have passed away. At about four in the +afternoon they stroll upon the open plains, bucks, does and fawns, in +beautiful herds; when undisturbed, as many as a hundred together. This +is the only species of deer in Ceylon that is gregarious. + +Neither the spotted deer, nor the bear or buffalo, is to be found at +Newera Ellia. The axis and the buffalo being the usual denizens of the +hottest countries, are not to be expected to exist in their natural +state in so low a temperature; but it is extraordinary that the bear, +who in most countries inhibits the mountains, should in Ceylon adhere +exclusively to the low country. + +The Ceylon bear is of that species which is to be seen in the +Zoological Gardens as the "sloth bear;" an ill-bred-looking fellow with +a long-haired black coat and a gray face. + +A Ceylon bear's skin is not worth preserving; there is no fur upon it, +but it simply consists of rather a stingy allowance of black hairs. +This is the natural effect of his perpetual residence in a hot country, +where his coat adapts itself to the climate. He is desperately savage, +and is more feared by the natives than any other animal, as he is in +the constant habit of attacking people without the slightest +provocation. His mode of attack increases the danger, as there is a +great want of fair play in his method of fighting. Lying in wait, +either behind a rock or in a thick bush, he makes a sudden spring upon +the unwary wanderer, and in a moment he attacks his face with teeth and +claws. The latter are about two inches long, and the former are much +larger than a leopard's; hence it may easily be imagined how even a few +seconds of biting and clawing might alter the most handsome expression +of countenance. + +Bears have frequently been known to tear off a man's face like a mask, +leaving nothing but the face of a skull. + +Thus the quadrupeds of Newera Ellia and the adjacent highlands are +confined to the following classes: the elephant, the hog, the leopard, +the chetah, the elk, the red deer, the mouse deer, the hare, the otter, +the jackal, the civet cat, the mongoose and two others (varieties of +the species), the black squirrel, the gray squirrel, the wanderoo +monkey (the largest species in Ceylon), the porcupine, and a great +variety of the rat. + +Imagine the difficulty of breaking in a young hound for elk-hunting +when the jungles are swarming with such a list of vermin! The better +the pup the more he will persevere in hunting everything that he can +possibly find; and with such a variety of animals, some of which have +the most enticing scent, it is a source of endless trouble in teaching +a young hound what to limit and what to avoid. + +It is curious to witness the sagacity of the old hounds in joining or +despising the opening note of a newcomer. + +The jungles are fearfully thick, and it requires great exertion on the +part of the dog to force his way through at a pace that will enable him +to join the finding hound; thus he fears considerable disappointment if +upon his arrival he finds the scent of a monkey or a cat instead of his +legitimate game. An old hound soon marks the inexperienced voice of +the babbler, and after the cry of "wolf" has been again repeated, +nothing will induce him to join the false finder. + +Again, it is exceedingly interesting to observe the quickness of all +hounds in acknowledging their leader. Only let them catch the sound of +old "Bluebeard's" voice, and see the dash with which they rush through +the jungle to join him. They know the old fellows note is true to an +elk or hog, and, with implicit confidence in his "find," they never +hesitate to join. + +There are numerous obstacles to the breaking and training of dogs of +all kinds in such a country. A hound when once in the jungle is his +own master. He obeys the sound of the halloo or the born, or not, as +he thinks proper. It is impossible to correct him, as he is out of +sight. + +Now, the very fact of having one or two first-rate finders in a pack, +will very likely be the cause of spoiling the other hounds. After +repeated experience their instinct soon shows them that, no matter how +the whole pack may individually hunt, the "find" will be achieved by +one of the first-rate hounds, and gradually they give up hunting and +take to listening for the opening note of the favorite. Of course in +an open country they would be kept to their work by the whip, but at +Newera Ellia this is impossible. This accounts for the extreme paucity +of first-rate "finders." + +Hunting in a wild country is a far more difficult task for hounds than +the ordinary chase at home. Wherever a country is cultivated it must be +enclosed. Thus, should a flock of sheep have thrown the hounds out by +crossing the scent, a cast round the fences must soon hit it off again +if the fox has left the field. But in elk-hunting it is scarcely +possible to assist the hounds; a dozen different animals, or even a +disturbed elk, may cross the scent in parts of the jungle where the cry +of the hounds is even out of hearing. Again, an elk has a constant +habit of running or swimming down a river, his instinct prompting him +to drown his own scent, and thus throw off his pursuers. Here is a +trial for the hounds!--the elk has waded or swum down the stream, and +the baffled pack arrive upon the bank; their cheering music has ceased; +the elk has kept the water for perhaps a quarter of a mile, or he may +have landed several times during that distance and again have taken to +water. + +Now the young hounds dash thoughtlessly across the river, thinking of +nothing but a straight course, and they are thrown out on the barren +bank on the other side. Back they come again, wind about the last +track for a few minutes, and then they are forced to give it up--they +are thrown out altogether. + +Mark the staunch old hounds!--one has crossed the river; there is no +scent, but he strikes down the bank with his nose close to the ground, +and away he goes along the edge of the river casting for a scent. Now +mark old "Bluebeard," swimming steadily down the stream; he knows the +habits of his game as well as I do, and two to one that he will find, +although "Ploughboy" has just started along the near bank so that both +sides of the river are being hunted. + +Now this is what I call difficult hunting; bad enough if the huntsman +be up to assist his hounds, but nine times out of ten this happens in +the middle of a run, without a soul within a mile. + +The only way to train hounds in this style of country is to accustom +them to complete obedience from puppyhood. This is easily effected by +taking them out for exercise upon a road coupled to old hounds. A good +walk every morning, accompanied by the horn and the whip, and they soon +fall into such a habit of obedience that they may be taken out without +the couples. + +The great desideratum, then, is to gain their affection and confidence, +otherwise they will obey upon the road and laugh at you when in the +jungle. Now "affection" is a difficult feeling to instill into a +foxhound, and can only be partially attained by the exercise of +cupboard love; thus a few pieces of dry liver or bread, kept in the +pocket to be given to a young hound who has sharply answered to his +call, will do more good than a month of scolding and rating. + +"Confidence," or the want of it, in a hound depends entirely upon the +character of his master. There is an old adage of "like master, like +man;" and this is strongly displayed in the hound. The very best seizer +would be spoiled if his master were a leetle slow in going in with the +knife; and, on the other hand, dogs naturally shy of danger turn into +good seizers where their master invariably leads them in. + +Not only is their confidence required and gained at these times, but +they learn to place implicit reliance upon their master's knowledge of +hunting, in the same manner that they acknowledge the superiority of a +particular hound. This induces them to obey beyond any method of +training, as they feel a certain dependence upon the man, and they +answer his halloo or the horn without a moment's hesitation. + +Nothing is so likely to destroy the character of a pack as a certain +amount of laziness or incapacity upon the master's part in following +them up. This is natural enough, as the best hounds, if repeatedly +left unassisted for hours when at bay with their game until they are +regularly beaten off, will lose their relish for the sport. On the +other hand, perseverance on the huntsman part will ensure a +corresponding amount in the hounds; they will become so accustomed to +the certain appearance of their master at the bay at some time or other +that they will stick to their game till night. I have frequently +killed elk at two or three o'clock in the afternoon that have been +found at six in the morning. Sometimes I have killed them even later +than this when, after wandering fruitlessly the whole day in every +direction but the right one, my ears have at length been gladdened by +the distant sound of the bay. The particular moment when hope and +certainty combined reward the day's toil is the very quintessence of +joy and delight. Nothing in the shape of enjoyment can come near it. +What a strange power has that helpless-looking mass--the brain! One +moment, and the limbs are fagged, the shins are tender with breaking +all day through the densest jungles, the feet are worn with unrequited +labor and--hark! The bay! no doubt of it--the bay! There is the magic +spell which, acting on the brain, flies through every nerve. New legs, +new feet, new everything, in a moment! fresh as though just out of bed; +here we go tearing through the jungle like a buffalo, and as happy as +though we had just come in for a fortune--happier, a great deal. + +Nevertheless, elk-hunting is not a general taste, as people have not +opportunities of enjoying it constantly. Accordingly, they are out of +condition, and soon be, come distressed and of necessity "shut up" (a +vulgar but expressive term). This must be fine fun for a total +stranger rather inclined to corpulency, who has dauntlessly persevered +in keeping up with the huntsman, although at some personal +inconvenience. There is a limit to all endurance, and he is obliged to +stop, quite blown, completely done. He loses all sounds of hounds and +huntsman, and everything connected with the hunt. Where is he? How +horrible the idea that flashes across his mind! he has no idea where he +is, except that he is quite certain that he is in some jungle in Ceylon. + +Distraction! Ceylon is nearly all jungle, two hundred and eighty miles +long and he is in this--somewhere He tries to recollect by what route +he has come; impossible! He has been up one mountain, and then he +turned to the right, and got into a ravine; he recollects the ravine, +for he fell on his head with the end of a dead stick in his stomach +just as he got to the bottom; he forgets every other part of his route, +simply having an idea that he went down a great many ravines and up a +number of hills, and turned to the right and left several times. He +gives it up; he finds himself "lost," and, if he is sensible, he will +sit down and wait till some one comes to look for him, when he will +start with joy at the glad sound of the horn. But should he attempt to +find his way alone through those pathless jungles, he will only +increase his distance from the right course. + +One great peculiarity in Newera Ellia is the comparative freedom from +poisonous vermin. There are three varieties of snakes, only one of +which is hurtful, and all are very minute. The venomous species is the +"carrawelle," whose bite is generally fatal; but this snake is not +often met with. There are no ticks, nor bugs, nor leeches, nor +scorpions, nor white ants, nor wasps, nor mosquitoes; in fact, there is +nothing venomous except the snake alluded to, and a small species of +centipede. Fleas there are certainly--indeed, a fair sprinkling of +fleas; but they are not troublesome, except in houses which are +unoccupied during a portion of the year. This is a great peculiarity +of a Ceylon flea--he is a great colonist; and should a house be +untenanted for a few months, so sure will it swarm with these +"settlers." Even a grass hut built for a night's bivouac in the jungle, +without a flea in the neighborhood, will literally swarm with them if +deserted for a couple of months. Fleas have a great fancy for settling +upon anything white; thus a person with white trowsers will be +blackened with them, while a man in darker colors will be comparatively +free. I at first supposed that they appeared in larger numbers on the +white ground because they were more easily distinguished; but I tried +the experiment of putting a sheet of writing-paper and a piece of brown +talipot leaf in the midst of fleas; the paper was covered with them, +while only two or three were on the talipot. + +The bite of the small species of centipede alluded to is not very +severe, being about equivalent to a wasp's sting. I have been bitten +myself, and I have seen another person suffering from the bite, which +was ludicrous enough. + +The sufferer was Corporal Phinn, of H.M. Fifteenth Regiment. At that +time he was one of Lieutenant de Montenach's servants, and accompanied +his master on a hunting-trip to the Horton Plains. + +Now Phinn was of course an Irishman; an excellent fellow, a dead hand +at tramping a bog and killing a snipe, but (without the slightest +intention of impugning his veracity) Phinn's ideality was largely +developed. He was never by himself for five minutes in the jungle +without having seen something wonderful before his return; this he was +sure to relate in a rich brogue with great facetiousness. + +However, we had just finished dinner one night, and Phinn had then +taken his master's vacant place (there being only one room) to commence +his own meal, when up he jumped like a madman, spluttering the food out +of his mouth, and shouting and skipping about the room with both hands +clutched tightly to the hinder part of his inexpressibles. "Oh, by +Jasus! help, sir, help! I've a reptile or some divil up my breeches! +Oh! bad luck to him, he's biting me! Oh! oh! it's sure a sarpint that's +stinging me! quick, sir, or he'll be the death o' me!" + +Phinn was frantic, and upon lowering his inexpressibles we found the +centipede about four inches long which had bitten him. A little brandy +rubbed on the part soon relieved the pain. + + +[1] An exceedingly active Moorman, who was my great ally in hunting. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Observations on Nature in the Tropics--The Dung Beetle--The +Mason-fly--Spiders--Luminous Insects--Efforts of a Naturalist--Dogs +Worried by Leeches--Tropical Diseases--Malaria--Causes of +Infection--Disappearance of the "Mina"--Poisonous Water--Well-digging +Elephants. + + +How little can the inhabitant of a cold or temperate climate appreciate +the vast amount of "life" in a tropical country. The combined action +of light, heat and moisture calls into existence myriads of creeping +things, the offspring of the decay of vegetation. "Life" appears to +emanate from "death"--the destruction of one material seems to multify +the existence of another--the whole surface of the earth seems busied +in one vast system of giving birth. + +An animal dies--a solitary beast--and before his unit life has vanished +for one week, bow many millions of living creatures owe their birth to +his death? What countless swarms of insects have risen from that one +carcase!--creatures which never could have been brought into existence +were it not for the presence of one dead body which has received and +hatched the deposited eggs of millions that otherwise would have +remained unvivified. + +Not a tree falls, not a withered flower droops to the ground, not a +fruit drops from the exhausted bough, but it is instantly attacked by +the class of insect prepared by Nature for its destruction. The white +ant scans a lofty tree whose iron-like timber and giant stem would seem +to mock at his puny efforts; but it is rotten at the core and not a +leaf adorns its branches, and in less than a year it will have fallen +to the earth a mere shell; the whole of the wood will have been +devoured. + +Rottenness of all kinds is soon carried from the face of the land by +the wise arrangements of Nature for preserving the world from plagues +and diseases, which the decaying and unconsumed bodies of animals and +vegetables would otherwise engender. + +How beautiful are all the laws of Nature! how perfect in their details! +Allow that the great duty of the insect tribe is to cleanse the earth +and atmosphere from countless impurities noxious to the human race, how +great a plague would our benefactors themselves become were it not for +the various classes of carnivorous insects who prey upon them, and are +in their turn the prey of others! It is a grand principle of continual +strife, which keeps all and each down to their required level. + +What a feast for an observant mind is thus afforded in a tropical +country! The variety and the multitude of living things are so great +that a person of only ordinary observation cannot help acquiring a +tolerable knowledge of the habits of some of the most interesting +classes. In the common routine of daily life they are continually in +his view, and even should he have no taste for the study of Nature and +her productions, still one prevailing characteristic of the insect +tribe must impress itself upon his mind. It is the natural instinct +not simply of procreating their species, but of laying by a provision +for their expected offspring. What a lesson to mankind! what an +example to the nurtured mind of mail from one of the lowest classes of +living things! + +Here we see no rash matrimonial engagements; no penniless lovers +selfishly and indissolubly linked together to propagate large families +Of starving children. Ail the arrangements of the insect tribe, though +prompted by sheer instinct are conducted with a degree of rationality +that in some cases raises the mere instinct of the creeping thing above +the assumed "reason" of man. + +The bird builds her nest and carefully provides for the comfort of her +young long ere she lays her fragile egg. Even look at that +vulgar-looking beetle, whose coarse form would banish the idea of any +rational feeling existing in its brain--the Billingsgate fish-woman of +its tribe in coarseness and rudeness of exterior (Scarabaeus +carnifex)--see with what quickness she is running backward, raised +almost upon her head, while with her bind legs she trundles a large +ball; herself no bigger than a nutmeg, the ball is four times the size. +There she goes along the smooth road. The ball she has just +manufactured from some fresh-dropped horse-dung; it is as round as +though turned by a lathe, and, although the dung has not lain an hour +upon the ground, she and her confederates have portioned out the spoil, +and each has started off with her separate ball. Not a particle of +horsedung remains upon the road. Now she has rolled the ball away from +the hard road, and upon the soft, sandy border she has stopped to rest. +No great amount of rest; she plunges her head into the ground, and with +that shovel-like projection of stout horn she mines her way below: she +has disappeared even in these few seconds. + +Presently the apparently deserted ball begins to move, as though acted +on by some subterranean force; gradually it sinks to the earth, and it +vanishes altogether. + +Some persons might imagine that she feeds upon the ordure, and that she +has buried her store as a dog hides a bone; but this is not the case; +she has formed a receptacle for her eggs, which she deposits in the +ball of dung, the warmth of which assists in bringing the larvae into +life, which then feed upon the manure. + +It is wonderful to observe with what rapidity all kinds of dung are +removed by these beetles. This is effected by the active process of +rolling the loads instead of carrying, by which method a large mass is +transported at once. + +The mason-fly is also a ball-maker, but she carries her load and builds +an elaborate nest. This insect belongs to the order "Hymenoptera," and +is of the Ichneumon tribe, being a variety of upward of four hundred +species of that interesting fly. + +The whole tribe of Ichneumon are celebrated for their courage; a small +fly will not hesitate to attack the largest cockroach, who evinces the +greatest terror at sight of his well-known enemy; but the greatest +proof of valor in a fly is displayed in the war of the ichneumon +against the spider. + +There is a great variety of this insect in Ceylon, from the large black +species, the size of the hornet down to the minute tinsel-green fly, no +bigger than a gnat; but every one of these different species wages +perpetual war against the arch enemy of flies. + +In very dry weather in some districts, when most pools and water-holes +are dried up, a pail of water thrown upon the ground will as assuredly +attract a host of mason-flies as carrion will bring together +"blow-flies." They will be then seen in excessive activity upon the wet +earth, forming balls of mud, by rolling the earth between their fore +feet until they have manufactured each a pill. With this they fly away +to build their nest, and immediately return for a further supply. + +The arrangement of the nest is a matter of much consideration, as the +shape depends entirely upon the locality in which it is built: it may +be in the corner of a room, or in a hole in a wall, or in the hollow of +a bamboo; but wherever it is, the principle is the same, although the +shape of the nest may vary. Everything is to be hermetically sealed. + +The mason-fly commences by flattening the first pill of clay upon the +intended site (say the corner of a room); she then spreads it in a thin +layer over a surface of about two inches, and retires for another ball +of clay. This she dabs upon the plastic foundation, and continues the +apparently rude operation until some twenty or thirty pills of clay are +adhering at equal distances. She then forms these into a number of +neat oval-shaped cells, about the size of a wren's egg, and in each +cell she deposits one egg. She then flies off in search of spiders, +which are to be laid tip in stores within the cells as food for the +young larvae, when hatched. + +Now the transition from the larva to the fly takes place in the cell, +and occupies about six weeks from the time the egg is first laid; thus, +as the egg itself is not vivified for some weeks after it is deposited, +the spiders have to be preserved in a sound and fresh state during that +interval until the larva is in such an advanced stage as to require +food. + +In a tropical country every one knows that a very few hours occasion +the putrefaction of all dead animal substances; nevertheless these +spiders are to be kept fresh and good, like our tins of preserved +meats, to be eaten when required. + +One, two, or even three spiders, according to their size, the mason-fly +deposits in each cell, and then closes it hermetically with clay. The +spiders she has pounced upon while sunning themselves in the centre of +their delicate nets, and they are hurried off in a panic to be +converted into preserved provisions. Each cell being closed, the whole +nest is cemented over with a thick covering of clay. In due time the +young family hatch, eat their allowance of spiders, undergo their +torpid change, and emerge from their clay mansion complete mason-flies. + +Every variety of Ichneumon, however (in Ceylon), chooses the spider as +the food for its young. It is not at all uncommon to find a gun well +loaded with spiders, clay and grubs, some mason-fly having chosen the +barrel for his location. A bunch of keys will invite a settlement of +one of the smaller species, who make its nest in the tube of a key, +which it also fills with minute spiders. + +In attacking the spider, the mason-fly his a choice of his antagonist, +and he takes good care to have a preponderance of weight on his own +side. His reason for choosing this in preference to other insects for +a preserved store may be that the spider is naturally juicy, plump and +compact, combining advantages both for keeping and packing closely. + +There are great varieties of spiders in Ceylon, one of which is of such +enormous size as to resemble the Aranea avicularia of America. This +species stands on an area of about three inches, and never spins a web, +but wanders about and lives in holes; his length of limb, breadth of +thorax and powerful jaws give him a most formidable appearance. There +is another species of a large-sized spider who spins a web of about two +and a half feet in diameter. This is composed of a strong, yellow, +silky fibre, and so powerful is the texture that a moderate-sized +walking-cane thrown into the web will be retained by it. This spider is +about two inches long, the color black, with a large yellow spot upon +the back, and the body nearly free from hair. + +Some years ago an experiment was made in France of substituting the +thread of the spider for the silk of the silkworm: several pairs of +stockings and various articles were manufactured with tolerable success +in this new material, but the fibre was generally considered as too +fragile. + +A sample of such thread as is spun by the spider described could not +have failed to produce the desired result, as its strength is so great +that it can be wound upon a card without the slightest care required in +the operation. The texture is far more silky than the fibre commonly +produced by spiders, which has more generally the character of cotton +than of silk. + +Should this ever be experimented on, a question might arise of much +interest to entomologists, whether a difference in the food of the +spider would affect the quality of the thread, as is well known to be +the case with the common silkworm. + +A Ceylon night after a heavy shower of rain is a brilliant sight, when +the whole atmosphere is teeming with moving lights bright as the stars +themselves, waving around the tree-tops in fiery circles, now threading +like distant lamps through the intricate branches and lighting up the +dark recesses of the foliage, then rushing like a shower of sparks +around the glittering boughs. Myriads of bright fire-flies in these +wild dances meet their destiny, being entangled in opposing spiders' +webs, where they hang like fairy lamps, their own light directing the +path of the destroyer and assisting in their destruction. + +There are many varieties of luminous insects in Ceylon. That which +affords the greatest volume of light is a large white grub about two +inches in length, This is a fat, sluggish animal, whose light is far +more brilliant than could be supposed to emanate from such a form. + +The light of a common fire-fly will enable a person to distinguish the +hour on a dial in a dark night, but the glow from the grub described +will render the smallest print so legible that a page may be read with +case. I once tried the experiment of killing the grub, but the light +was not extinguished with life, and by opening the tail, I squeezed out +a quantity of glutinous fluid, which was so highly phosphorescent that +it brilliantly illumined the page of a book which I had been reading by +its light for a trial. + +All phosphorescent substances require friction to produce their full +volume of light; this is exemplified at sea during a calm tropical +night, when the ocean sleeps in utter darkness and quietude and not a +ripple disturbs the broad surface of the water. Then the prow of the +advancing steamer cuts through the dreary waste of darkness and awakens +into fiery life the spray which dashes from her sides. A broad stream +of light illumines the sea in her wake, and she appears to plough up +fire in her rush through the darkened water. + +The simple friction of the moving mass agitates the millions of +luminous animalcules contained in the water; in the same manner a fish +darting through the sea is distinctly seen by the fiery course which is +created by his own velocity. + +All luminous insects are provided with a certain amount of +phosphorescent fluid, which can be set in action at pleasure by the +agitation of a number of nerves and muscles situated in the region of +the fluid and especially adapted to that purpose. It is a common +belief that the light of the glow-worm is used as a lamp of love to +assist in nocturnal meetings, but there can be little doubt that the +insect makes use of its natural brilliancy without any specific +intention. It is as natural for the fire-fly to glitter by night as +for the colored butterfly to be gaudy by day. + +The variety of beautiful and interesting insects is so great in Ceylon +that an entomologist would consider it a temporary elysium; neither +would he have much trouble in collecting a host of different species +who will exhibit themselves without the necessity of a laborious +search. Thus, while he may be engaged in pinning out some rare +specimen, a thousand minute eye-flies will be dancing so close to his +eyeballs that seeing is out of the question. These little creatures, +which are no larger than pin's heads, are among the greatest plagues in +some parts of the jungle; and what increases the annoyance is the +knowledge of the fact that they dance almost into your eyes out of +sheer vanity. They are simply admiring their own reflection in the +mirror of the eye; or, may be, some mistake their own reflected forms +for other flies performing the part of a "vis-a-vis" in their +unwearying quadrille. + +A cigar is a specific against these small plagues, and we will allow +that the patient entomologist has just succeeded in putting them to +flight and has resumed the occupation of setting out his specimen. Ha! +see him spring out of his chair as though electrified. Watch how, +regardless of the laws of buttons, he frantically tears his trowsers +from his limbs; he has him! no he hasn't!--yes he has!--no--no, +positively he cannot get him off. It is a tick no bigger than a grain +of sand, but his bite is like a red-hot needle boring into the skin. +If all the royal family had been present, he could not have refrained +from tearing off his trowsers. + +The naturalist has been out the whole morning collecting, and a pretty +collection he has got--a perfect fortune upon his legs alone. There +are about a hundred ticks who have not yet commenced to feed upon him; +there are also several fine specimens of the large flat buffalo tick; +three or four leeches are enjoying themselves on the juices of the +naturalist; these he had not felt, although they had bitten him half an +hour before; a fine black ant has also escaped during the recent +confusion, fortunately without using his sting. + +Oil is the only means of loosening the hold of a tick; this suffocates +him and he dies; but he leaves an amount of inflammation in the wound +which is perfectly surprising in so minute an insect. The bite of the +smallest species is far more severe than that of the large buffalo or +the deer tick, both of which are varieties. + +Although the leeches in Ceylon are excessively annoying, and numerous +among the dead leaves of the jungle and the high grass, they are easily +guarded against by means of leech-gaiters: these are wide stockings, +made of drill or some other light and close material, which are drawn +over the foot and trowsers up to the knee, under which they are +securely tied. There are three varieties of the leech: the small +jungle leech, the common leech and the stone leech. The latter will +frequently creep up the nostrils of a dog while he is drinking in a +stream, and, unlike the other species, it does not drop off when +satiated, but continues to live in the dog's nostril. I have known a +leech of this kind to have lived more than two months in the nose of +one of my hounds; he was so high up that I could only see his tail +occasionally when lie relaxed to his full length, and injections of +salt and water had no effect on him. Thus I could not relieve the dog +till one day when the leech descended, and I observed the tail working +in and out of the nostril; I then extracted him in the usual way with +the finger and thumb and the tail of the coat. + +I should be trespassing too much upon the province of the naturalist, +and attempting more than I could accomplish, were I to enter into the +details of the entomology of Ceylon; I have simply mentioned a few of +those insects most common to the every-day observer, and I leave the +description of the endless varieties of classes to those who make +entomology a study. + +It may no doubt appear very enticing to the lovers of such things, to +hear of the gorgeous colors and prodigious size of butterflies, moths +and beetles; the varieties of reptiles, the flying foxes, the gigantic +crocodiles; the countless species of waterfowl, et hoc genus omne; but +one very serious fact is apt to escape the observation of the general +reader, that wherever insect and reptile life is most abundant, so sure +is that locality full of malaria and disease. + +Ceylon does not descend to second-class diseases: there is no such +thing as influenza; whooping-cough, measles, scarlatina, etc., are +rarely, if ever, heard of; we ring the changes upon four first-class +ailments--four scourges, which alternately ascend to the throne of +pestilence and annually reduce the circle of our friends--cholera, +dysentery, small-pox and fever. This year (1854) there has been some +dispute as to the routine of succession; they have accordingly all +raged at one time. + +The cause of infection in disease has long been a subject of +controversy among medical men, but there can be little doubt that, +whatever is the origin of the disease, the same is the element of +infection. The question is, therefore, reduced to the prime cause of +the disease itself. + +A theory that animalcules are the cause of the various contagious and +infectious disorders has created much discussion; and although this +opinion is not generally entertained by the faculty, the idea is so +feasible, and so many rational arguments can be brought forward in its +support, that I cannot help touching upon a topic so generally +interesting. + +In the first place, nearly all infectious diseases predominate in +localities which are hot, damp, swampy, abounding in stagnant pools and +excluded from a free circulation of air. In a tropical country, a +residence in such a situation would be certain death to a human being, +but the same locality will be found to swarm with insects and reptiles +of all classes. + +Thus, what is inimical to human life is propitious to the insect tribe. +This is the first step in favor of the argument. Therefore, whatever +shall tend to increase the insect life must in an inverse ratio war +with human existence. + +When we examine a drop of impure water, and discover by the microscope +the thousands of living beings which not only are invisible to the +naked eye, but some of whom are barely discoverable even by the +strongest magnifying power, it certainly leads to the inference, that +if one drop of impure fluid contains countless atoms endowed with +vitality, the same amount of impure air may be equally tenanted with +its myriads of invisible inhabitants. + +It is well known that different mixtures, which are at first pure and +apparently free from all insect life, will, in the course of their +fermentation and subsequent impurity, generate peculiar species of +animalcules. Thus all water and vegetable or animal matter, in a state +of stagnation and decay, gives birth to insect life; likewise all +substances of every denomination which are subjected to putrid +fermentation. Unclean sewers, filthy hovels, unswept streets, unwashed +clothes, are therefore breeders of animalcules, many of which are +perfectly visible without microscopic aid. + +Now, if some are discernible by the naked eye, and others are detected +in such varying sizes that some can only just be distinguished by the +most powerful lens, is it not rational to conclude that the smallest +discernible to human intelligence is but the medium of a countless +race? that millions of others still exist, which are too minute for any +observation? + +Observe the particular quarters of a city which suffers most severely +during the prevalence of an epidemic, In all dirty, narrow streets, +where the inhabitants are naturally of a low and uncleanly class, the +cases will be tenfold. Thus, filth is admitted to have at least the +power of attracting disease, and we know that it not only attracts, but +generates animalcules; therefore filth, insects and disease are ever to +be seen closely linked together. + +Now, the common preventives against infection are such as are +peculiarly inimical to every kind of insect; camphor, chloride of lime, +tobacco-smoke, and powerful scents and smokes of any kind. The first +impulse on the appearance of an infectious disease is to purify +everything as much as possible, and by extra cleanliness and +fumigations to endeavor to arrest its progress. The great purifier of +Nature is a violent wind, which usually terminates an epidemic +immediately; this would naturally carry before it all insect life with +which the atmosphere might be impregnated, and the disease disappears +at the same moment. It will he well remembered that the plague of +locusts inflicted upon Pharaoh was relieved in the same manner: "And +the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took away the locusts +and cast them into the Red Sea; there remained not one locust in all +the coasts of Egypt." + +Every person is aware that unwholesome air is quite poisonous to the +human system as impure water; and seeing that the noxious qualities of +the latter are caused by animalcules, and that the method used for +purifying infected air are those most generally destructive to insect +life, it is not irrational to conclude that the poisonous qualities of +bad water and bad air arise from the same cause. + +Man is being constantly preyed upon by insects; and were it not for +ordinary cleanliness, he would become a mass of vermin; even this does +not protect him from the rapacity of ticks, mosquitoes, fleas and many +others. Intestinal worms feed on him within, and, unseen, use their +slow efforts for his destruction. + +The knowledge of so many classes which actually prey upon the human +system naturally leads to the belief that many others endowed with the +same propensities exist, of which we have at present no conception. +Thus, different infectious disorders might proceed from peculiar +species of animalcules, which, at given periods, are wafted into +certain countries, carrying pestilence and death in their invisible +course. + +A curious phenomenon has recently occurred at Mauritus, where that +terrible scourge, the cholera, has been raging with desolating effect. + +There is a bird in that island called the "martin," but it is more +property the "mina." This bird is about the size of the starling, whose +habits its possesses in a great degree. It exists in immense numbers, +and is a grand destroyer of all insects. On this account it is seldom +or never shot at, especially as it is a great comforter to all cattle, +whose hides it entirely cleans from ticks and other vermin, remaining +for many hours perched upon the back of one animal, while its bill is +actively employed in searching out and destroying every insect. + +During the prevalence of the cholera at Mauritius these birds +disappeared. Such a circumstance had never before occurred, and the +real cause of their departure is still a mystery. + +May it not have been, that some species of insect upon which they fed +had likewise migrated, and that certain noxious animalcules, which had +been kept down by this class, had thus multiplied within the atmosphere +until their numbers caused disease? All suppositions on such a subject +must, however, remain in obscurity, as no proof can be adduced of their +correctness. The time may arrive when science may successfully grapple +with all human ailments, but hitherto that king of pestilence, the +"cholera," has reduced the highest medical skill to miserable +uncertainty. + +Upon reconsidering the dangers of fevers, dysentery, etc., in the +swampy and confined districts described, the naturalist may become +somewhat less ardent in following his favorite pursuit. Of one fact I +can assure him that no matter how great the natural strength of his +constitution, the repeated exposure to the intense heat of the sun, the +unhealthy districts that he will visit, the nights redolent of malaria, +and the horrible water that he must occasionally drink, will gradually +undermine the power of the strongest man. Both sportsman and +naturalist in this must share alike. + +No one who has not actually suffered from the effect can appreciate the +misery of bad water in a tropical country, or the blessings of a cool, +pure draught. I have been in districts of Ceylon where for sixteen or +twenty miles not a drop of water is to be obtained fit for an animal to +drink; not a tree to throw a few yards of shade upon the parching +ground; nothing but stunted, thorny jungles and sandy, barren plains as +far as the eye can reach; the yellow leaves crisp upon the withered +branches, the wild fruits hardened for want of sap, all moisture robbed +from vegetation by the pitiless drought of several months. + +A day's work in such a country is hard indeed carrying a heavy rifle +for some five-and-twenty miles, sometimes in deep sand, sometimes on +good ground, but always exposed to the intensity of that blaze, added +to the reflection from the sandy soil, and the total want of fresh air +and water. All Nature seems stagnated; a distant pool is seen, and a +general rush takes place toward the cheering sight. The water is +thicker than pea soup, a green scum floats through the thickened mass, +and the temperature is upward of 130 Fahrenheit. All kinds of insects +are swarming in the putrid fluid, and a saltish bitter adds to its +nauseating flavor. I have seen the exhausted coolies spread their dirty +cloths on the surface, and form them into filters by sucking the water +through them. Oh for a glass of Newera Ellia water, the purest and +best that ever flows, as it sparkles out of the rocks on the +mountain-tops! what pleasure so perfect as a long, deep and undisturbed +draught of such cold, clear nectar when the throat is parched with +unquenchable thirst! + +In some parts of Ceylon, especially in the neighborhood of the coast, +where the land is flat and sandy, the water is always brackish, even +during the rainy season, and in the dry months it is undrinkable. + +The natives then make use of a berry for cleansing it and precipitating +the impurities. II know the shrub and the berry well, but it has no +English denomination. The berries are about the size of a very large +pea, and grow in clusters of from ten to fifteen together, and one +berry is said to be sufficient to cleanse a gallon of water. The +method of using them is curious, although simple. The vessel which is +intended to contain the water, which is generally an earthen chatty, is +well rubbed in the inside with a berry until the latter, which is of a +horny consistency, like vegetable ivory, is completely worn away. The +chatty is then filled with the muddy water, and allowed to stand for +about an hour or more, until all the impurities have precipitated to +the bottom and the water remains clear. + +I have constantly used this berry, but I certainly cannot say that the +water has ever been rendered perfectly clear; it has been vastly +improved, and what was totally undrinkable before has been rendered fit +for use; but it has at the best been only comparatively good; and +although the berry has produced a decided effect, the native accounts +of its properties are greatly exaggerated. + +During the prolonged droughts, many rivers of considerable magnitude +are completely exhausted, and nothing remains but a dry bed of said +between lofty banks. At these seasons the elephants, being hard +pressed for water, make use of their wonderful instinct by digging +holes in the dry sand of the river's bed; this they perform with the +horny toes of their fore feet, and frequently work to a depth of three +feet before they discover the liquid treasure beneath. This process of +well-digging almost oversteps the boundaries of instinct and strongly, +savors of reason, the two powers being so nearly connected that it is +difficult in some cases to define the distinction. There are so many +interesting cases of the wonderful display of both these attributes in +animals, that I shall notice some features of this subject in a +separate chapter. + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +Instinct and Reason--Tailor Birds and Grosbeaks--The White Ant--Black +Ants at War--Wanderoo Monkeys--Habits of Elephants--Elephants in the +Lake--Herd of Elephants Bathing--Elephant-shooting--The Rencontre--The +Charge--Caught by the Tail--Horse Gored by a Buffalo--Sagacity of +Dogs--"Bluebeard"--His Hunt--A True Hound. + + +There can be no doubt that man is not the only animal endowed with +reasoning powers: he possesses that faculty to an immense extent, but +although the amount of the same power possessed by animals may be +infinitely small, nevertheless it is their share of reason, which they +occasionally use apart from mere instinct. + +Although instinct and reason appear to be closely allied, they are +easily separated and defined. + +Instinct is the faculty with which Nature has endowed all animals for +the preservation and continuation of their own species. This is +accordingly exhibited in various features, as circumstances may call +forth the operation of the power; but so wonderful are the attributes +of Nature that the details of her arrangements throughout the animal +and insect creation give to every class an amount of sense which in +many instances surmounts the narrow bounds of simple instinct. + +The great characteristic of sheer instinct is its want of progression; +it never increases, never improves. It is possessed now in the +nineteenth century by every race of living creatures in no larger +proportion than was bestowed upon them at the creation. + +In general, knowledge increases like a rolling snowball; a certain +amount forms a base for extra improvement, and upon successive +foundations of increasing altitude the eminence has been attained of +the present era. This is the effect of "reason;" but "instinct," +although beautiful in its original construction, remains, like the +blossom of a tree, ever the same--a limited effect produced by a given +cause; an unchangeable law of Nature that certain living beings shall +perform certain functions which require a certain amount of +intelligence; this amount is supplied by Nature for the performance of +the duties required; this is instinct. + +Thus, according to the requirements necessitated by the habits of +certain living creatures to an equivalent amount is their share of +instinct. Reason differs from instinct as combining the effects of +thought and reflection; this being a proof of consideration, while +instinct is simply a direct emanation from the brain, confined to an +impulse. + +In our observations of Nature, especially in tropical countries, we see +numberless exemplifications of these powers, in some of which the +efforts of common instinct halt upon the extreme boundary and have +almost a tinge of reason. + +What can be more curious than the nest of the tailor-bird--a selection +of tough leaves neatly sewn one over the other to form a waterproof +exterior to the comfortable little dwelling within? Where does the +needle and thread come from? The first is the delicate bill of the +bird itself, and the latter is the strong fibre of the bark of a tree, +with which the bird sews every leaf, lapping one over the other in the +same manner that slates are laid upon a roof. + +Nevertheless this is simple instinct; the tailor-bird in the days of +Adam constructed her nest in a similar manner, which will be continued +without improvement till the end of time. + +The grosbeak almost rivals the tailor-bird in the beautiful formation +of its nest. These birds build in company, twenty or thirty nests +being common upon one tree. Their apparent intention in the peculiar +construction of their nests is to avoid the attacks of snakes and +lizards. These nests are about two feet long, composed of beautifully +woven grass, shaped like an elongated pear. They are attached like +fruit to the extreme end of a stalk or branch, from which they wave to +and fro in the wind, as though hung out to dry. The bird enters at a +funnel-like aperture in the bottom, and by this arrangement the young +are effectually protected from reptiles. + +All nests, whether of birds or insects, are particularly interesting, +as they explain the domestic habits of the occupants; but, however +wonderful the arrangement and the beauty of the work as exhibited among +birds, bees, wasps, etc., still it is the simple effect of instinct on +the principle that they never vary. + +The white ant--that grand destroyer of all timber--always works under +cover; he builds as he progresses in his work of destruction, and runs +a long gallery of fine clay in the direction of his operations; beneath +this his devastation proceeds until he has penetrated to the interior +of the beam, the centre of which he entirely demolishes, leaving a thin +shell in the form of the original log encrusted over the exterior with +numerous galleries. + +There is less interest in the habits of these destructive wretches than +in all other of the ant tribe; they build stupendous nests, it is true, +but their interior economy is less active and thrifty than that of many +other species of ants, among which there is a greater appearance of the +display of reasoning powers than in most animals of a superior class. + +On a fine sunny morning it is not uncommon, to see ants busily engaged +in bringing out all the eggs from the nest and laying them in the sun +until they become thoroughly warmed, after which they carry them all +back again and lay them in their respective places. This looks very +like a power of reasoning, as it is decidedly beyond instinct. If they +were to carry out the eggs every morning, wet or dry, it would be an +effort of instinct to the detriment of the eggs; but as the weather is +uncertain, it is an effort of reason on the part of the ants to bring +out the eggs to the sun, especially as it is not an every-day +occurrence, even in fine weather. + +In Mauritius, the negroes have a custom of turning the reasoning powers +of the large black ant to advantage. + +White ants are frequently seen passing in and out of a small hole from +underneath a building, in which case their ravages could only be +prevented by taking up the flooring and destroying the nest. + +The negroes avoid this by their knowledge of the habits of the black +ant, who is a sworn enemy to the white. + +They accordingly pour a little treacle on the ground within a yard of +the hole occupied by the white ants. The smell of the treacle shortly +attracts some of the black species, who, on their arrival are not long +in observing their old enemies passing in and out of the hole. Some of +them leave the treacle; these are evidently messengers, as in the +course of the day a whole army of black ants will be seen advancing, in +a narrow line of many yards in length, to storm the stronghold of the +white ants. They enter the hole, and they destroy every white ant in +the building. Resistance there can be none, as the plethoric, +slow-going white ant is as a mouse to a cat in the encounter with his +active enemy, added to which the black ant is furnished with a most +venomous sting, in addition to a powerful pair of mandibles. I have +seen the black ants returning from their work of destruction, each +carrying a slaughtered white ant in his mouth, which he devours at +leisure. This is again a decided effort of reason, as the black ant +arrives at the treacle without a thought of the white ant in his mind, +but, upon seeing his antagonist, he despatches messengers for +reinforcements, who eventually bring up the army to the "rendezvous." + +Numerous instances might be cited of the presence of reasoning powers +among the insect classes, but this faculty becomes of increased +interest when seen in the larger animals. + +Education is both a proof and a promoter of reason in all animals. +This removes them from their natural or instinctive position, and +brings forth the full development of the mental powers. This is +exhibited in the performance of well-trained dogs, especially among +pointers and setters. Again, in the feats performed by educated +animals in the circus, where the elephant has lately endeavored to +prove a want of common sense by standing on his head. Nevertheless, +however absurd the trick, which man may teach the animal to perform, +the very fact of their performance substantiates an amount of reason in +the animal. + +Monkeys, elephants and dogs are naturally endowed with a larger share +of the reasoning power than other animals, which is frequently +increased to a wonderful extent by education. The former, even in +their wild state, are so little inferior to some natives, either in +their habits or appearance, that I should feel some reluctance in +denying them an almost equal share of reason; the want Of speech +certainly places them below the Veddahs, but the monkeys, on the other +hand, might assert a superiority by a show of tails. + +Monkeys vary in intelligence according to their species, and may be +taught to do almost anything. There are several varieties in Ceylon, +among which the great black wanderoo, with white whiskers, is the +nearest in appearance to the human race. This monkey stands upward of +three feet high, and weighs about eighty pounds. He has immense +muscular power, and he has also a great peculiarity in the formation of +the skull, which is closely allied to that of a human being, the lower +jaw and the upper being in a straight line with the forehead. In +monkeys the jaws usually project. This species exists in most parts of +Ceylon, but I have seen it of a larger size at Newera Ellia thin in any +of the low-country districts. + +Elephants are proverbially sagacious, both in their wild state and when +domesticated. I have previously described the building of a dam by a +tame elephant, which was an exhibition of reason hardly to be expected +in any animal. They are likewise wonderfully sagacious in a wild state +in preserving themselves from accidents, to which, from their bulk and +immense weight, they would be particularly liable, such as the +crumbling of the verge of a precipice, the insecurity of a bridge or +the suffocating depth of mud in a lake. + +It is the popular opinion, and I have seen it expressed in many works, +that the elephant shuns rough and rocky ground, over which he moves +with difficulty, and that he delights in level plains, etc., etc. This +may be the case in Africa, where his favorite food, the mimosa, grows +upon the plain, but in Ceylon it is directly the contrary. In this +country the elephant delights in the most rugged localities; he rambles +about rocky hills and mountains with a nimbleness that no one can +understand without personal experience. So partial are elephants to +rocky and uneven ground that should the ruins of a mountain exist in +rugged fragments along a plain of low, thorny jungle, five chances to +one would be in favor of tracking the herd to this very spot, where +they would most likely be found, standing among the alleys roamed by +the fragments heaped around them. It is surprising to witness the +dexterity of elephants in traversing ground over which a man can pass +with difficulty. I have seen places on the mountains in the +neighborhood of Newera Ellia bearing the unmistakable marks of +elephants where I could not have conceived it possible for such an +animal to stand. On the precipitous sides of jungle-covered mountains, +where the ground is so steep that a man is forced to cling to the +underwood for support, the elephants still plough their irresistible +course. In descending or ascending these places, the elephant a always +describes a zigzag, and thus lessens the abruptness of the inclination. +Their immense weight acting on their broad feet, bordered by sharp +horny toes, cuts away the side of the hill at every stride and forms a +level step; thus they are enabled to skirt the sides of precipitous +hills and banks with comparative case. The trunk is the wonderful +monitor of all danger to an elephant, from whatever cause it may +proceed. This may arise from the approach of man or from the character +of the country; in either case the trunk exerts its power; in one by +the acute sense of smell, in the other by the combination of the sense +of scent and touch. In dense jungles, where the elephant cannot see a +yard before him, the sensitive trunk feels the hidden way, and when the +roaring of waterfalls admonishes him of the presence of ravines and +precipices, the never-failing trunk lowered upon the around keeps him +advised of every inch of his path. + +Nothing is more difficult than to induce a tame elephant to cross a +bridge which his sagacity assures him is insecure; he will sound it +with his trunk and press upon it with one foot, but he will not trust +his weight if he can perceive the slightest vibration. + +Their power of determining whether bogs or the mud at the bottom of +tanks are deep or shallow is beyond my comprehension. Although I have +seen elephants in nearly every position, I have never seen one +inextricably fixed in a swamp. This is the more extraordinary as their +habits induce them to frequent the most extensive morasses, deep lakes, +muddy tanks and estuaries, and yet I have never seen even a young one +get into a scrape by being overwhelmed. There appears to be a natural +instinct which warns them in their choice of ground, the same as that +which influences the buffalo, and in like manner guides him through his +swampy haunts. + +It is a grand sight to see a large herd of elephants feeding in a fine +lake in broad daylight. This is seldom witnessed in these days, as the +number of guns have so disturbed the elephants in Ceylon that they +rarely come out to drink until late in the evening or during the night; +but some time ago I had a fine view of a grand herd in a lake in the +middle of the day. + +I was out shooting with a great friend of mine, who is a +brother-in-arms against the game of Ceylon, and than whom a better +sportsman does not breathe, and we had arrived at a wild and miserable +place while en route home after a jungle trip. Neither of us was +feeling well; we had been for some weeks in the most unhealthy part of +the country, and I was just recovering from a touch of dysentery: +altogether, we were looking forward with pleasure to our return to +comfortable quarters, and for the time we were tired of jungle life. +However, we arrived at a little village about sixty miles south of +Batticaloa, called "Gollagangwelleweve" (pronunciation requires +practice), and a very long name it was for so small a place; but the +natives insisted that a great number of elephants were in the +neighborhood. + +They also declared that the elephants infested the neighboring tank +even during the forenoon, and that they nightly destroyed their +embankment, and would not be driven away, as there was not a single gun +possessed by the village with which to scare them. This looked all +right; so we loaded the guns and started without loss of time, as it +was then one P. M., and the natives described the tank as a mile +distant. Being perfectly conversant with the vague idea of space +described by a Cingalese mile, we mounted our horses, and, accompanied +by about five-and-twenty villagers, twenty of whom I wished at Jericho, +we started. By the by, I have quite forgotten to describe who "we" +are--F. H. Palliser, Esq., and myself. + +Whether or not it was because I did not feel in brisk health, I do not +know, but somehow or other I had a presentiment that the natives had +misled us, and that we should not find the elephants in the tank, but +that, as usual, we should be led tip to some dense, thorny jungle, and +told that the elephants were somewhere in that direction. Not being +very sanguine, I had accordingly taken no trouble about my gun-bearers, +and I saw several of my rifles in the bands of the villagers, and only +one of my regular gun-bearers had followed me; the rest, having already +had a morning's march, were glad of an excuse to remain behind. + +Our rate lay for about a quarter of a mile through deserted paddy-land +and low jungle, after which we entered fine open jungle and forest. +Unfortunately, the recent heavy rains bad filled the tank, which had +overflowed the broken dam and partially flooded the forest. This was in +all parts within two hundred yards from the dam a couple of feet deep +in water, with a proportionate amount of sticky mud beneath, and +through this we splashed until the dam appeared about fifty yards on +our right. It was a simple earthen mound, which rose about ten feet +from the level of the forest, and was studded with immense trees, +apparently the growth of ages. We knew that the tank lay on the +opposite side, but we continued our course parallel with the dam until +we bad ridden about a mile from the village, the natives, for a wonder, +having truly described the distance. + +Here our guide, having motioned us to stop, ran quickly up the dam to +take a look out on the opposite side. He almost immediately beckoned +us to come up. This we did without loss of time, and knowing that the +game was in view, I ordered the horses to retire for about a quarter of +a mile. + +On our arrival on the dam there was a fine sight. The lake was about +five miles round, and was quite full of water, the surface of which was +covered with a scant, but tall, rushy grass. In the lake, browsing +upon the grass, we counted twenty-three elephants, and there were many +little ones, no doubt, that we could not distinguish in such rank +vegetation. Five large elephants were not more than a hundred and +twenty paces distant; the remaining eighteen were in a long line about +a quarter of a mile from the shore, feeding in deep water. + +We were well concealed by the various trees which grew upon the dam, +and we passed half an hour in watching the manoeuvres of the great +beasts as they bathed and sported in the cool water. However, this was +not elephant-shooting, and the question was, how to get at them? The +natives had no idea of the sport, as they seemed to think it very odd +that we did not fire at those within a hundred paces' distance. I now +regretted my absent gun-bearers, as I plainly saw that these village +people would be worse than useless. + +We determined to take a stroll along the base of the dam to reconnoitre +the ground, as at present it seemed impossible to make an attack; and +even were the elephants within the forest, there appeared to be no +possibility of following them up through such deep water and heavy +ground with any chance of success. however, they were not in the +forest, being safe, belly and shoulder deep, in the tank. + +We strolled through mud and water thigh-deep for a few hundred paces, +when we suddenly came upon the spot where in ages past the old dam had +been carried away. Here the natives had formed a mud embankment +strengthened by sticks and wattles. Poor fellows! we were not +surprised at their wishing the elephants destroyed; the repair of their +fragile dam was now a daily occupation, for the elephants, as though +out of pure mischief, had chosen this spot as their thoroughfare to and +from the lake, and the dam was trodden down in all directions. + +We found that the margin of the forest was everywhere flooded to a +width of about two hundred yards, after which it was tolerably dry; we +therefore returned to our former post. + +It struck me that the only way to secure a shot at the herd would be to +employ a ruse, which I had once practiced successfully some years ago. +Accordingly we sent the greater part of the villagers for about a half +a mile along the edge of the lake, with orders to shout and make a +grand hullaballoo on arriving at their station. It seemed most +probable that on being disturbed the elephants would retreat to the +forest by their usual thoroughfare; we accordingly stood on the alert, +ready for a rush to any given point which the herd should attempt in +their retreat. + +Some time passed in expectation, when a sudden yell broke from the far +point, as though twenty demons had cramp in the stomach. Gallant +fellows are the Cingalese at making a noise, and a grand effect this +had upon the elephants; up went tails and trunks, the whole herd closed +together and made a simultaneous rush for their old thoroughfare. Away +we skipped through the water, straight in shore through the forest, +until we reached the dry ground, when, turning sharp to our right, we +soon halted exactly opposite the point at which we knew the elephants +would enter the forest. This was grand excitement; we had a great start +of the herd, so that we had plenty of time to arrange gun-bearers and +take our position for the rencontre. + +In the mean time, the roar of water caused by the rapid passage of so +many large animals approached nearer and nearer. Palliser and I had +taken splendid positions, so as to command either side of the herd on +their arrival, with our gun-bearers squatted around us behind our +respective trees, while the non-sporting village followers, who now +began to think the matter rather serious and totally devoid of fun, +scrambled up various large trees with ape-like activity. + +A few minutes of glorious suspense, and the grand crash and roar of +broken water approached close at hand, and we distinguished the mighty +phalanx, headed by the largest elephants, bearing down exactly upon us, +and not a hundred yards distant. Here was luck! There was a grim and +very murderous smile of satisfaction on either countenance as we +quietly cocked the rifles and awaited the onset: it was our intention +to let half the herd pass us before we opened upon them, as we should +then be in the very centre of the mass, and he able to get good and +rapid shooting. + +On came the herd in gallant style, throwing the spray from the muddy +water, and keeping a direct line for our concealed position. They were +within twenty yards, and we were still undiscovered, when those +rascally villagers, who had already taken to the trees, scrambled still +higher in their fright at the close approach of the elephants, and by +this movement they gave immediate alarm to the elders of the herd. + +Round went the colossal heads; right about was the word, and away +dashed the whole herd back toward the tank. In the same instant we +made a rush in among them, and I floored one of the big leaders by a +shot behind the ear, and immediately after, as bad luck would have it, +Palliser and I both took the same bird, and down went another to the +joint shots. Palliser then got another shot and bagged one more, when +the herd pushed straight out to the deep lake, with the exception of a +few elephants, who turned to the right; after which Palliser hurried +through the mud and water, while I put on all steam in chase of the +main body of the herd. It is astonishing to what an amount a man can +get up this said steam in such a pitch of excitement. However, it was +of no use in this case, as I was soon hip-deep in water, and there was +an end to all pursuit in that direction. + +It immediately struck me that the elephants would again retreat to some +other part of the forest after having made a circuit in the tank. I +accordingly waded back at my best speed to terra firma, and then +striking off to my right, I ran along parallel to the water for about +half a mile, fully expecting to meet the herd once more on their +entrance to the jungle. It was now that I deplored the absence of my +regular gun-bearers; the village people had no taste for this gigantic +scale of amusement, and the men who carried my guns would not keep up; +Fortunately, Carrasi, the best gun-bearer, was there, and he had taken +another loaded rifle, after handing me that which he had carried at the +onset. I waited a few moments for the lagging men, and succeeded in +getting them well together just is I heard the rush of water, as the +elephants were again entering the jungle, not far in advance of the +spot upon which I stood. + +This time they were sharp on the qui vive, and the bulls, being well to +the front, were keeping a bright look-out. It was in vain that I +endeavored to conceal myself until the herd had got well into the +forest; the gun-bearers behind me did not take the same precaution, and +the leading elephants both saw and winded us when at a hundred paces +distant. This time, however, they were determined to push on for a +piece of thicker jungle, which they knew lay in this direction, and +upon seeing me running toward them, they did not turn back to the lake, +but slightly altered their course in an oblique direction, still +continuing to push on through the forest, while I was approaching at +right angles with the herd. + +Hallooing and screaming at them with all my might to tease some of the +old bulls into a charge, I ran at top speed through the fine open +forest, and soon got among a whole crowd of half-grown elephants, at +which I would not fire; there were a lot of fine beasts pushing along +in the front, and toward these I ran as hard as I could go. +Unfortunately, the herd seeing me so near and gaining upon them, took +to the ruse of a beaten fleet and scattered in all directions; but I +kept a few big fellows in view, who were still pretty well together, +and managed to overtake the rearmost and knock him over. Up went the +tail and trunk of one of the leading bulls at the report of the shot, +and trumpeting shrilly, he ran first to one side, then to the other, +with his ears cocked and sharply turning his head to either side. I +knew this fellow had his monkey up, and that a little teasing would +bring him round for a charge. I therefore redoubled my shouts and +yells and kept on in full chase, as the elephants were straining every +nerve to reached a piece of thick jungle within a couple of hundred +paces. + +I could not go any faster, and I saw that the herd, which was thirty or +forty yards ahead of me, would gain the jungle before I could overtake +them, as they were going at a slapping pace and I was tolerably blown +with a long run at full speed, part of which had been through deep mud +and water. But I still teased the bull, who was now in such an excited +state that I felt convinced he would turn to charge. + +The leading elephants rushed into the thick jungle, closely followed by +the others, and, to my astonishment, my excited friend, who had lagged +to the rear, followed their example. But it was only for a few +seconds, for, on entering the thick bushes, he wheeled sharp round and +came rushing out in full charge. This was very plucky, but very +foolish, as his retreat was secured when in the thick jungle, and yet +he courted further battle. This he soon had enough of, as I bagged him +in his onset with my remaining barrel by the forehead shot. + +I now heard a tremendous roaring, of elephants behind me, as though +another section was coming in from the tank; this I hoped to meet. I +therefore reloaded the empty rifles as quickly as possible and ran +toward the spot. The roaring still continued and was apparently almost +stationary; and what was my disappointment, on arrival, to find, in +place of the expected herd, a young elephant of about four feet high, +who, had missed the main body in the retreat and was now roaring for +his departed friends! These young things are excessively foolhardy and +willful, and he charged me the moment I arrived. As I laid the rifle +upon the ground instead of firing at him, the rascally gunbearers, with +the exception of Carrasi, threw down the rifles and ran up the trees +like so many monkeys, just as I had jumped on one side and caught the +young elephant by the tail. He was far too strong for me to hold, and, +although I dug my heels into the ground and held on with all my might, +he fairly ran away with me through the forest. Carrasi now came to my +assistance and likewise held on by his tail; but away we went like the +tender to a steam-engine; wherever the elephant went there we were +dragged in company. Another man now came to the rescue; but his +assistance was not of the slightest rise, as the animal was so powerful +and of such weight that he could have run away with half a dozen of us +unless his legs were tied. Unfortunately we had no rope, or I could +have secured him immediately, and seeing that we had no power over him +whatever, I was obliged to run back for one of the guns to shoot him. +On my return it was laughable to see the pace at which he was running +away with the two men, who were holding on to his tail like grim death, +the elephant not having ceased roaring during the run. I accordingly +settled him, and returned to have a little conversation with the +rascals were still perched in the trees. I was extremely annoyed, as +these people, if they had possessed a grain of sense, might have tied +their long comboys (cotton cloths about eight feet long) together, and +we might have thus secured the elephant without difficulty by tying his +hind legs. It was a great loss, as he was so tame that he might have +been domesticated and driven to Newera Ellia without the slightest +trouble. All this was occasioned by the cowardice of these villainous +Cingalese, and upon my lecturing one fellow on his conduct he began to +laugh. This was too much for any person's patience, and I began to look +for a stick, which the fellow perceiving he immediately started off +through the forest like a deer. He could run faster than I could, +being naked and having the advantage of bare feet; but I knew I could +run him down in the course of time, especially as, being in a fright, +he would soon get blown. We had a most animated hunt through water, +mud, roots of trees, open forest and all kinds of ground, but I ran +into him at last in heavy ground, and I dare say he recollects the day +of the month. + +In the mean time, Palliser had heard the roaring of the elephant, +followed by the screaming and yelling of the coolies, and succeeded by +a shot. Shortly after he heard the prolonged yells of the hunted +villager while he was hastening toward my direction. This combination +of sounds naturally led him to expect that some accident had occurred, +especially as some of the yells indicated that somebody had come to +grief. This caused him a very laborious run, and he arrived thoroughly +blown, and with a natural desire to kick the recreant villager who bad +caused the yells. + +If the ground had been ever tolerably dry, we should have killed a +large number of elephants out of this herd; but, as it happened, in +such deep mud and water the elephants had it all their own way, and our +joint bag could not produce more than seven tails; however, this was +far more than I had expected when I first saw the herd in such a secure +position. + +On our return to the village we found Palliser's horse terribly gored +by a buffalo, and we were obliged to leave him behind for some weeks; +fortunately, there was an extra pony, which served him as a mount home, +a distance of a hundred and fifty miles. + +This has been a sad digression from our argument upon instinct and +reason, a most unreasonable departure from the subject; but this is my +great misfortune; so sure as I bring forward the name of an elephant, +the pen lays hold of some old story and runs madly away in a day's +shooting. I now have to speak of the reasoning powers of the canine +race, and I confess my weakness. I feel perfectly certain that the pen +will serve me the same trick, and that it will be plunging through a +day's hunting to prove the existence of reason in a hound and the want +of it in the writer. Thrash me, good critics; I deserve it; lay it on +with an unsparing thong. I am humiliated, but still willful; I know my +fault, but still continue it. + +Let us think; what was the subject? Reason in dogs, to be sure. Well, +every one who has a dog must admit that he has a strong share of +reason; only observe him as he sits by your side and wistfully watches +the endless transit of piece after piece, bit after bit, as the fork is +conveying delicate morsels to your mouth. There is neither hope nor +despair exhibited in his countenance--he knows those pieces are not for +him. There is an expression of impatience about the eye as he scans +your features, which seems to say, "Greedy fellow! what, not one bit +for me?" Only cut a slice from the exterior of the joint--a piece that +he knows you will not eat--and watch, the change and eagerness of his +expression; he knows as well as you do that this is intended for +him--he has reasoned upon it. + +This is the simple and every-day performance of a common house-dog. +Observe the pointers in a field of close-cut stubble--two well-broken, +reasonable old dogs. The birds are wild, and have been flushed several +times during the day, and the old dog has winded them now in this +close-cut stubble, from which he knows the covey will rise at a long +range. Watch his expression of intense and yet careful excitement, as +he draws upon his game, step by step, crouching close to the ground, +and occasionally moving his head slowly round to see if his master is +close up. Look at the bitch at the other end of the field, backing him +like a statue, while the old dog still creeps on. Not a step farther +will he move: his lower jaw trembles with excitement; the guns advance +to a line with his shoulder; up they rise, whiz-z-z-z-z-z-z!--bang! +bang! See how the excitement of the dog is calmed as he falls to the +down charge, and afterward with what pleasure he follows up and stands +to the dead birds. If this is not reason, there is no such thing in +existence. + +Again, look at the sheep-dog. What can be more beautiful than to watch +the judgement displayed by these dogs in driving a large flock of +sheep? Then turn to the Mont St. Bernard dog and the Newfoundland, and +countless instances could be produced as proofs of their wonderful +share of reasoning power. + +The different classes of hounds, being kept in kennels, do not exhibit +this power to the same amount as many others, as they are not +sufficiently domesticated, and their intercourse with man is confined +to the one particular branch of hunting; but in this pursuit they will +afford many striking proofs that they in like manner with their other +brethren, are not devoid of the reasoning power. + +Poor old "Bluebeard!"--he had an almost human share of understanding, +but being simply a hound, this was confined to elk hunting; he was like +the foxhunter of the last century, whose ideas did not extend beyond +his sport; but in this he was perfect. + +Bluebeard was a foxhound, bred at Newera Ellia, in 1847, by F. J. +Templer, Esq. He subsequently belonged to F. H. Palliser, Esq., who +kindly added him to my kennel. + +He was a wonderful hound on a cold scent, and so thoroughly was he +versed in all the habits of an elk that he knew exactly where to look +for one. I am convinced that he knew the date of a track from its +appearance, as I have constantly seen him strove his nose into the deep +impression, to try for a scent when the track was some eight or ten +hours old. + +It was a curious thing to watch his cleverness at finding on a patina. +In most of the plains in the neighborhood of Newera Ellia a small +stream flows through the centre. To this the elk, who are out feeding +in the night, are sure to repair at about four in the morning for their +last drink, and I usually try along the banks a little after daylight +for a find, where the scent is fresh and the tracks are distinctly +visible. + +While every hound has been eagerly winding the scent upon the +circuitous route which the elk has made in grazing, Bluebeard would +never waste his time in attempting to follow the innumerable windings, +but, taking a fresh cast, he would invariably strike off to the jungle +and try along the edge, until he reached the spot at which the elk had +entered. At these times he committed the only fault which he possessed +(for an elk-hound); he would immediately open upon the scent, and, by +alarming the elk at too great a distance, would give him too long a +start. Nevertheless, he made up for this by his wonderful correctness +and knowledge of his game, and if the run was increased in length by +his early note, we nevertheless ran into our game at last. + +Some years ago he met with an accident which partly deprived him of the +use of one of his bind legs; this made the poor old fellow very slow, +but it did not interfere with his finding and hunting, although the +rest of the pack would shoot ahead, and the elk was frequently brought +to bay and killed before old Bluebeard had finished his hunt; but he +was never thrown out, and was sure to come up at last; and if the pack +were at fault during the run, he was the hound to show them the right +road on his arrival. + +I once saw an interesting proof of his reasoning powers during a long +and difficult hunt. + +I was hunting for a few days at the Augora patinas, accompanied by +Palliser. These are about five hundred feet lower than Newera Ellia, +and are situated in the district of Dimboola. They are composed of +undulating knolls of fine grass, with a large and deep river flowing +through the centre. These patinas are surrounded by wooded hills of +good open jungle. + +We had found upon the patina at break of day, and the whole pack had +gone off in full cry; but the whereabout was very uncertain, and having +long lost all sound of the hounds we wandered here and there to no +purpose. At length we separated, and took up our stations upon +different knolls to watch the patina and to listen. + +The hill upon which I stood commanded an extensive view of the patina, +while the broad river flowed at the base, after its exit from the +jungle. I had been only a few minutes at my post when I observed, at +about six hundred yards distant, a strong ripple in the river like the +letter V, and it immediately struck me that an elk had come down the +river from the jungle and was swimming down the stream. This was soon +proved to be the case, as I saw the head of a doe elk in the acute +angle of the ripple. + +I had the greyhounds with me, "Lucifer," "Lena," "Hecate" and "Bran," +and I ran down the hill with these dogs, hoping to get them a view of +her as she landed on the patina. I had several bogs and hollows to +cross, and I accordingly lost sight of the elk; but upon arriving at +the spot where I imagined the elk would land, I saw her going off +across the patina, a quarter of a mile away. The greyhounds saw her, +and away they flew over the short grass, while the pack began to appear +from the jungle, having come down to the halloo that I had given on +first seeing the elk swimming down the river. + +The elk seemed determined to give a beautiful course for, instead of +pushing straight for the jungle, she made a great circuit on the +patina, as though in the endeavor to make once more for the river. The +long-legged ones were going at a tremendous pace, and, being fresh, +they rapidly overhauled her; gradually the distance between them +diminished, and at length they had a fair course down a gentle +inclination which led toward the river. Here the greyhounds soon made +an end of the hunt; their game was within a hundred yards, going at top +speed: but it was all up with the elk; the pace was too good, and they +ran into her and pulled her down just as the other hounds had come down +upon my scent. + +We were cutting up the elk, when we presently heard old Bluebeard's +voice far away in the jungle, and, thinking that he might perhaps be +running another elk, we ran to a hill which overlooked the river and +kept a bright look-out. We soon discovered that he was true upon the +same game, and we watched his plan of hunting, being anxious to see +whether he could hunt up an elk that had kept to water for so long a +time. + +On his entrance to the patina by the river's bank he immediately took +to water and swam across the stream; here be carefully hunted the edge +for several hundred yards down the river, but, finding nothing, he +returned to the jungle at the point from which the river flowed. Here +he again took to water, and, swimming back to the bank from which he +had at first started, he landed and made a vain cast down the hollow. +Back he returned after his fruitless search, and once more he took to +water. I began to despair of the possibility of his finding; but the +true old bound was now swimming steadily down the stream, crossing and +recrossing from either bank, and still pursuing his course down the +river. At length he neared the spot where I knew that the elk had +landed, and we eagerly watched to see if he would pass the scent, as he +was now several yards from the bank. He was nearly abreast of the +spot, when he turned sharp in and landed in the exact place; his deep +and joyous note rung across the patinas, and away went the gallant old +hound in full cry upon the scent, while I could not help shouting, +"Hurrah for old Bluebeard!" In a few minutes he was by the side of the +dead elk--a specimen of a true hound, who certainly had exhibited a +large share of "reason." + + + +CHAPTER X. + +Wild Fruits--Ingredients for a "Soupe Maigre"--Orchidaceous +Plants--Wild Nutmegs--Native Oils--Cinnamon--Primeval Forests--Valuable +Woods--The Mahawelli River--Variety of Palms--Cocoa-nut +Toddy--Arrack--Cocoa-nut Oil--Cocoa-nut-planting--The Talipot Palm--The +Areca Palm--Betel Chewing--Sago Nuts--Varicty of Bees--Waste of +Beeswax--Edible Fungi--Narcotic Puff-ball--Intoxicating Drugs--Poisoned +Cakes--The "Sack Tree"--No Gum Trees of Value in Ceylon. + + +Among the inexperienced there is a prevalent idea connected with +tropical forests and jungles that they teem with wild fruits, which +Nature is supposed to produce spontaneously. Nothing can be more +erroneous than such an opinion; even edible berries are scantily +supplied by the wild shrubs and trees, and these, in lieu of others of +superior quality, are sometimes dignified by the name of fruit. + +The guava and the katumbille are certainly very numerous throughout the +Ouva district; the latter being a dark red, rough-skinned kind of plum, +the size of a greengage, but free from stone. It grows upon a thorny +bush about fifteen feet high; but the fruit is too acid to please most +palates; the extreme thirst produced by a day's shooting in a burning +sun makes it refreshing when plucked from the tree; but it does not +aspire to the honor of a place at a table, where it can only appear in +the form of red currant jelly, for which it is an undeniable substitute. + +Excellent blackberries and a very large and full-flavored black +raspberry grow at Newera Ellia; likewise the Cape gooseberry, which is +of the genus "solanum." The latter is a round yellow berry, the size of +a cherry; this is enclosed in a loose bladder, which forms an outer +covering. The flavor is highly aromatic, but, like most Ceylon wild +fruits, it is too acid. + +The sweetest and the best of the jungle productions is the "morra." +This is a berry about the size of a small nutmeg, which grows in +clusters upon a large tree of rich dark foliage. The exterior of the +berry is brown and slightly rough; the skin, or rather the case, is +brittle and of the consistence of an egg-shell; this, when broken and +peeled off, exposes a semi-transparent pulp, like a skinned grape in +appearance and in flavor. It is extremely juicy but, unfortunately, a +large black stone occupies the centre and at least one-half of the bulk +of the entire fruit. + +The jambo apple is a beautiful fruit in appearance being the facsimile +of a snow-white pear formed of wax, with a pink blush upon one side. +Its exterior beauty is all that it can boast of, as the fruit itself is +vapid and tasteless. In fact, all wild fruits are, for the most part, +great exaggerations. I have seen in a work on Ceylon the miserable +little acid berry of the rattan, which is no larger than a currant, +described as a fruit; hawthorn berries might, with equal justice, be +classed among the fruits of Great Britain. + +I will not attempt to describe these paltry productions in detail; +there is necessarily a great variety throughout the island, but their +insignificance does not entitle them to a description which would raise +them far above their real merit. + +It is nevertheless most useful to a sportsman in Ceylon to possess a +sufficient stock of botanical information for his personal convenience. +A man may be lost in the jungles or hard up for provisions in some +out-of-the-way place, where, if he has only a saucepan, he can +generally procure something eatable in the way of herbs. It is not to +be supposed, however, that he would succeed in making a good dinner; +the reader may at any time procure something similar in England by +restricting himself to nettle-tops--an economical but not a fattening +vegetable. Anything, however simple, is better than an empty stomach, +and when the latter is positively empty it is wonderful how the +appetite welcomes the most miserable fare. + +At Newera Ellia the jungles would always produce a supply for a soupe +maigre. There is an esculent nillho which grows in the forest in the +bottoms of the swampy ravines. This is a most succulent plant, which +grows to the height or length of about seven feet, as its great weight +keeps it close to the ground. It is so brittle that it snaps like a +cucumber when struck by a stick, and it bears a delicate, dark-blue +blossom. When stewed, it is as tender as the vegetable marrow, but its +flavor approaches more closely to that of the cucumber. Wild ginger +also abounds in the forests. This is a coarse variety of the "amomum +zintgiber." The leaves, which spring from the ground, attain a height +of seven or eight feet; a large, crimson, fleshy blossom also springs +from the ground in the centre of the surrounding leaf-stems. The root +is coarse, large, but wanting in fine flavor, although the young tubers +are exceedingly tender and delicate. This is the favorite food of +elephants on the Ceylon mountains; but it is a curious fact that they +invariably reject the leaves, which any one would suppose would be +their choicest morsel, as they are both succulent and plentiful. The +elephants simply use them as a handle for tearing up the roots, which +they bite off and devour, throwing the leaves on one side. + +The wild parsnip is also indigenous to the plains on the mountains. As +usual with most wild plants of this class, it has little or no root, +but runs to leaf. The seeds are very highly flavored, and are gathered +by the natives for their curries. + +There is, likewise, a beautiful orchidaceous plant, which is very +common throughout the patinas on the mountains, and which produces the +very finest quality of arrowroot. So much is this valued in the Nepaul +country in India, that I have been assured by a person well acquainted +with that locality, that this quality of arrowroot is usually sold for +its weight in rupees. In vain have I explained this to the Cingalese; +they will not attempt its preparation because their fathers did not eat +it; and yet these same men will walk forty miles to cut a bundle of +sticks of the galla gaha tree for driving buffaloes!--their fathers did +this, and therefore they do it. Thus this beautiful plant is only +appreciated by those whose instinct leads them to its discovery. The +wild hogs plough up the patinas and revel in this delicate food. The +plant itself is almost lost in the rank herbage of the patinas, but its +beautiful pink, hyacinth-shaped blossom attracts immediate attention. +Few plants combine beauty of appearance, scent and utility, but this is +the perfection of each quality--nothing can surpass the delicacy and +richness of its perfume. It has two small bulbs about an inch below +the surface of the earth, and these, when broken, exhibit a highly +granulated texture, semi-transparent like half-boiled sago. From these +bulbs the arrowroot is produced by pounding them in water and drying +the precipitated farina in the sun. + +There are several beautiful varieties of orchidaceous plants upon the +mountains; among others, several species of the dendrobium. Its rich +yellow flowers hang in clusters from a withered tree, the only sign of +life upon a giant trunk decayed, like a wreath upon a grave. The scent +of this flower is well known as most delicious; one plant will perfume +a large room. + +There is one variety of this tribe in the neighborhood of Newera Ellia, +which is certainly unknown in English collections. It blossoms in +April; the flowers are a bright lilac, and I could lay my band upon it +at any time, as I have never seen it but in one spot, where it +flourishes in profusion. This is about fourteen miles from Newera +Ellia, and I have never yet collected a specimen, as I have invariably +been out hunting whenever I have met with it. + +The black pepper is also indigenous throughout Ceylon. At Newera +Ellia the leaves of this vine are highly pungent, although at this +elevation it does not produce fruit. A very short distance toward a +lower elevation effects a marked change, as within seven miles it +fruits in great perfection. + +At a similar altitude, the wild nutmeg is very common throughout the +forests. This fruit is a perfect anomaly. The tree is entirely +different to that of the cultivated species. The latter is small, +seldom exceeding the size of an apple-tree, and bearing a light green +myrtle-shaped leaf, which is not larger than that of a peach. The wild +species, on the contrary, is a large forest tree, with leaves equal in +size to those of the horse chestnut; nevertheless, it produces a +perfect nutmeg. There is the outer rind of fleshy texture, like an +unripe peach; enclosed within is the nutlike shell, enveloped in the +crimson network of mace, and within the shell is the nutmeg itself. +All this is perfect enough, but, alas, the grand desideratum is +wanting--it has no flavor or aroma whatever. + +It is a gross imposition on the part of Nature; a most stingy trick +upon the public, and a regular do. The mace has no taste whatever, and +the nutmeg has simply a highly acrid and pungent taste, without any +spicy flavor, but merely abounding in a rank and disagreeable oil. The +latter is so plentiful that I am astonished it has not been +experimented upon, especially by the natives, who are great adepts in +expressing oils from many substances. + +Those most common in Ceylon are the cocoa-nut and gingerly oils. The +former is one of the grand staple commodities of the island; the latter +is the produce of a small grain, grown exclusively by the natives. + +But, in addition to these, there are various other oils manufactured by +the Cingalese. These are the cinnamon oil, castor oil, margosse oil, +mee oil, kenar oil, meeheeria oil; and both clove and lemon-grass oil +are prepared by Europeans. + +The first, which is the cinnamon oil, is more properly a kind of +vegetable wax, being of the consistence of stearine. This is prepared +from the berries of the cinnamon shrubs which are boiled in water until +the catty substance or so-called oil, floats upon the surface; this is +then skimmed off and, when a sufficient quantity is collected, it is +boiled down until all watery particles are evaporated, and the melted +fat is turned out into a shallow vessel to cool. It has a pleasant, +though, perhaps, a rather faint aromatic smell, and is very delicious +as an adjunct in the culinary art. In addition to this it possesses +gentle aperient properties, which render it particularly wholesome. + +Castor oil is also obtained by the natives by boiling, and it is +accordingly excessively rank after long keeping. The castor-oil plant +is a perfect weed throughout Ceylon, being one of the few useful shrubs +that will flourish in such poor soil without cultivation. + +Margosse oil is extracted from the fruit of a tree of that name. It has +an extremely fetid and disagreeable smell, which will effectually +prevent the contact of flies or any other insect. On this account it +is a valuable preventive to the attacks of flies upon open wounds, in +addition to which it possesses powerful healing properties. + +Mee oil is obtained from the fruit of the mee tree. This fruit is +about the size of an apricot, and is extremely rich in its produce; but +the oil is of a coarse description, and is simply used by the natives +for their rude lamps. Kenar oil and meeheeria oil are equally coarse, +and are quite unfit for any but native purposes. + +Lemon-grass oil, which is known in commerce as citronella oil, is a +delightful extract from the rank lemon grass, which covers most of' the +hillsides in the more open districts of Ceylon. An infusion of the +grass is subsequently distilled; the oil is then discovered on the +surface. This is remarkably pure, with a most pungent aroma. If +rubbed upon the skin, it will prevent the attacks of insects while its +perfume remains; but the oil is so volatile that the scent quickly +evaporates and the spell is broken. + +Clove oil is extracted from the leaves of the cinnamon tree, and not +from cloves, as its name would imply. The process is very similar to +that employed in the manufacture of citronella oil. + +Cinnamon is indigenous throughout the jungles of Ceylon. Even at the +high elevation of Newera Ellia, it is one of the most common woods, and +it grows to the dimensions of a forest tree, the trunk being usually +about three feet in circumference. At Newera Ellia it loses much of +its fine flavor, although it is still highly aromatic. + +This tree flourishes in a white quartz sandy soil, and in its +cultivated state is never allowed to exceed the dimensions of a bush, +being pruned down close to the ground every year. This system of close +cutting induces the growth of a large number of shoots, in the same +manner that withes are produced in England. + +Every twelve months these shoots attain the length of six or seven +feet, and the thickness of a man's finger. In the interim, the only +cultivation required is repeated cleaning. The whole plantation is cut +down at the proper period, and the sticks are then stripped of their +bark by the peelers. These men are called "chalias," and their labor +is confined to this particular branch. The season being over, they pass +the remaining portion of the year in idleness, their earnings during +one crop being sufficient to supply their trifling wants until the +ensuing harvest. + +Their practice in this employment naturally renders them particularly +expert, and in far less time than is occupied in the description they +run a sharp knife longitudinally along a stick, and at once divest it +of the bark. On the following day the strips of bark are scraped so as +entirely to remove the outer cuticle. One strip is then laid within +the other, which, upon becoming dry, contract, and form a series of +enclosed pipes. It is subsequently packed in bales, and carefully sewed +up in double sacks for exportation. + +The essential oil of cinnamon is usually made from the refuse of the +crop; but the quantity produced, in proportion to the weight of +cinnamon, is exceedingly small, being about five ounces of oil to half +a hundred-weight of the spice. + +Although the cinnamon appears to require no more than a common quartz +sand for its production, it is always cultivated with the greatest +success where the subsoil is light, dry and of a loamy quality. + +The appearance of the surface soil is frequently very deceitful. It is +not uncommon to see a forest of magnificent trees growing in soil of +apparently pure sand, which will not even produce the underwood with +which Ceylon forests are generally choked. In such an instance the +appearance of the trees is unusually grand as their whole length and +dimensions are exposed to view, and their uniting crowns throw a sombre +shade over the barren ground beneath. It is not to be supposed that +these mighty specimens of vegetation are supported by the poor sandy +soil upon the surface; their tap-roots strike down into some richer +stratum, from which their nourishment is derived. + +These forests are not common in Ceylon; their rarity accordingly +enhances their beauty. The largest English oak would be a mere pigmy +among the giants of these wilds, whose stature is so wonderful that the +eye never becomes tired of admiration. Often have I halted on my +journey to ride around and admire the prodigious height and girth of +these trees. Their beautiful proportions render them the more +striking; there are no gnarled and knotty stems, such as we are +accustomed to admire in the ancient oaks and beeches of England, but +every trunk rises like a mast from the earth, perfectly free from +branches for ninety or a hundred feet, straight as an arrow, each tree +forming a dark pillar to support its share of the rich canopy above, +which constitutes a roof perfectly impervious to the sun. It is +difficult to guess the actual height of these forest trees; but I have +frequently noticed that it is impossible to shoot a bird on the higher +branches with No. 5 shot. + +It is much to be regretted that the want of the means of transport +renders the timber of these forests perfectly valueless. From age to +age these magnificent trees remain in their undisturbed solitudes, +gradually increasing in their apparently endless growth, and towering +above the dark vistas of everlasting silence. No on can imagine the +utter stillness which pervades these gloomy shades. There is a +mysterious effect produced by the total absence of animal life. In the +depths of these forests I have stood and listened for some sound until +my cars tingled with overstrained attention; not a chirp of a bird, not +the hum of an insect, but the mouth of Nature is sealed. Not a breath +of air has rustled a leaf, not even a falling fruit has broken the +spell of silence; the undying verdure, the freshness of each tree, even +in its mysterious age, create an idea of eternal vegetation, and the +silvery yet dim light adds to the charm of the fairylike solitude which +gradually steals over the senses. + +I have ridden for fifteen or twenty miles through one of these forests +without hearing a sound, except that of my horse's hoof occasionally +striking against a root. Neither beast nor bird is to be seen except +upon the verge. The former has no food upon such barren ground; and +the latter can find no berries, as the earth is sunless and free from +vegetation. Not even monkeys are to be seen, although the trees must +produce fruit and seed. Everything appears to have deserted the +country, and to have yielded it as the sole territory of Nature on a +stupendous scale. The creepers lie serpent-like along the ground to the +thickness of a man's waist, and, rearing their twisted forms on high, +they climb the loftiest trees, hanging in festoons from stern to stem +like the cables of a line-of-battle-ship, and extending from tree to +tree for many hundred yards; now felling to the earth and striking a +fresh root; then, with increased energy, remounting the largest trunks, +and forming a labyrinth of twisted ropes along the ceiling of the +forest. From these creepers hang the sabre-beans. Everything seems on +a supernatural scale--the bean-pod four feet or more in length, by +three inches in breadth; the beans two inches in diameter. + +Here may be seen the most valuable woods of Ceylon. The ebony grows in +great perfection and large quantity. This tree is at once +distinguished from the surrounding stems by its smaller diameter and +its sooty trunk. The bark is crisp, jet black, and has the appearance +of being charred. Beneath the bark the wood is perfectly white until +the heart is reached, which is the fine black ebony of commerce. Here +also, equally immovable, the calamander is growing, neglected and +unknown. This is the most esteemed of all Ceylon woods, and it is so +rare that it realizes a fancy price. It is something similar to the +finest walnut, the color being a rich hazel brown, mottled and striped +with irregular black marks. It is superior to walnut in the extreme +closeness of the grain and the richness of its color. + +There are upward of eighty different woods produced in Ceylon, which +are made use of for various purposes; but of these many are very +inferior. Those most appreciated are-- + +Calamander, Ebony, chiefly used for furniture and cabinet work. +Satin-wood, Suria (the tulip tree). Tamarind. Jackwood. Halmileel. +Cocoa-nut. Palmyra. + +The suria is an elegant tree, bearing a beautiful yellow blossom +something similar to a tulip, from which it derives its name. The wood +is of an extremely close texture and of a reddish-brown color. It is +exceedingly tough, and it is chiefly used for making the spokes of +wheels. + +The tamarind is a fine, dark red wood, mottled with black marks; but it +is not in general use, as the tree is too valuable to be felled for the +sake of its timber. This is one of the handsomest trees of the tropics, +growing to a very large size, the branches widely spreading, something +like the cedars of Lebanon. + +Jackwood is a coarse imitation of mahogany, and is used for a variety +of purposes, especially for making cheap furniture. The latter is not +only economical, but exceedingly durable, and is manufactured at so low +a rate that a moderate-sized house might be entirely furnished with it +for a hundred and fifty pounds. + +The fruit of the jack grows from the trunk and branches of the tree, +and when ripe it weighs about twenty pounds. The rind is rough, and +when cut it exposes a yellow, pulpy mass. This is formed of an +infinite number of separate divisions of fleshy matter, which severally +enclose an oval nut. The latter are very good when roasted, having a +close resemblance to a chestnut. The pulp, which is the real fruit, is +not usually eaten by Europeans on account of its peculiar odor. This +perfume is rather difficult to describe, but when a rainy day in London +crams an omnibus with well-soaked and steaming multitudes, the +atmosphere in the vehicle somewhat approaches to the smell of the +jack-fruit. The halmileel is one of the most durable and useful woods +in Ceylon, and is almost the only kind that is thoroughly adapted for +making staves for casks. Of late years the great increase of the +oil-trade has brought this wood into general request, consequent upon +the increased demand for casks. So extensive and general is the +present demand for this wood that the natives are continually occupied +in conveying it from certain districts which a few years ago were +utterly neglected. Unfortunately, the want of roads and the means of +transport confine their operations to the banks of rivers, down which +the logs are floated at the proper season. + +I recollect some eight years ago crossing the Mahawelli river upon a +raft which my coolies had hastily constructed, and reaching a miserable +village near Monampitya, in the extreme north of the Veddah country. +The river is here about four hundred paces wide, and, in the rainy +season a fine volume of water rolls along in a rapid stream toward +Trincomalee, at which place it meets the sea. I was struck it the time +with the magnificent timber in the forests on its banks, and no less +surprised that with the natural facilities of transport it should be +neglected. Two years ago I crossed at this same spot, and I remarked +the wonderful change which a steady demand had effected in this wild +country. Extensive piles of halmileel logs were collected along the +banks of the river, while the forests were strewed with felled trees in +preparation for floating down the stream. A regular demand usually +ensures a regular supply, which could not be better exemplified than in +this case. + +Among fancy woods the bread-fruit tree should not be omitted. This is +something similar to the jack, but, like the tamarind, the value of the +produce saves the tree from destruction. + +This tree does not attain a very large size, but its growth is +exceedingly regular and the foliage peculiarly rich and plentiful. The +fruit is something similar in appearance to a small, unripe jack-fruit, +with an equally rough exterior. In the opinion of most who have tasted +it, its virtues have been grossly exaggerated. To my taste it is +perfectly uneatable, unless fried in thin slices with butter; it is +even then a bad imitation of fried potatoes. The bark of this tree +produces a strong fibre, and a kind of very adhesive pitch is also +produced by decoction. + +The cocoa-nut and palmyra woods at once introduce us to the palms of +Ceylon, the most useful and the most elegant class in vegetation. For +upward of a hundred and twenty miles along the western and southern +coasts of Ceylon, one continuous line of cocoa-nut groves wave their +green leaves to the sea-breeze, without a single break, except where +some broad clear river cleaves the line of verdure as it meets the sea. + +Ceylon is rich in palms, including the following varieties: The +Cocoa-nut. The Palmyra. The Kittool. The Areca The Date. The Sago. The +Talipot. + +The wonderful productions of this tribe can only be appreciated by +those who thoroughly understand the habits and necessities of the +natives; and, upon examination, it will be seen that Nature has opened +wide her bountiful hand, and in the midst of a barren soil she has +still remembered and supplied the wants of the inhabitants. + +As the stream issued from the rock in the wilderness, to the cocoa-nut +tree yields a pure draught from a dry and barren land; a cup of water +to the temperate and thirsty traveler; a cup of cream from the pressed +kernel; a cup of refreshing and sparkling toddy to the early riser; a +cup of arrack to the hardened spirit-drinker, and a cup of oil, by the +light of which I now extol its merits-five separate and distinct +liquids from the same tree! + +A green or unripe cocoa-nut contains about a pint of a sweetish water. +In the hottest weather this is deliciously cool, in comparison to the +heat of the atmosphere. + +The ripe nut, when scraped into a pulp by a little serrated, +semi-circular iron instrument, is squeezed in a cloth by the hand, and +about a quarter of a pint of delicious thick cream, highly flavored by +cocoa-nut, is then expressed. This forms the chief ingredient in a +Cingalese curry, from which it entirely derives its richness and fine +flavor. + +The toddy is the sap which would nourish and fructify the blossom and +young nuts, were it allowed to accomplish its duties. The toddy-drawer +binds into one rod the numerous shoots, which are garnished with embryo +nuts, and he then cuts off the ends, leaving an abrupt and brush-like +termination. Beneath this he secures an earthen chatty, which will +hold about a gallon. This remains undisturbed for twenty-four hours, +from sunrise to sunrise on the following morning; the toddy-drawer then +reascends the tree, and lowers he chatty by a line to an assistant +below, who empties the contents into a larger vessel, and the chatty is +replaced under the productive branch, which continues to yield for +about a month. + +When first drawn the toddy has the appearance of thin milk and water, +with a combined flavor of milk and soda-water, with a tinge of +cocoa-nut. It is then very pleasant and refreshing, but in a few hours +after sunrise a great charts takes place, and the rapidity of the +transition from the vinous to the acetous fermentation is so great that +by midday it resembles a poor and rather acid cider. It now possesses +intoxicating properties, and the natives accordingly indulge in it to +some extent; but from its flavor and decided acidity I should have +thought the stomach would be affected some time before the head. + +From this fermented toddy the arrack is procured by simple distillation. + +This spirit, to my taste, is more palatable than most distilled +liquors, having a very decided and peculiar flavor. It is a little +fiery when new, but as water soon quenches fire, it is not spared by +the native retailers, whose arrack would be of a most innocent +character were it not for their infamous addition of stupefying drugs +and hot peppers. + +The toddy contains a large proportion of saccharine, without which the +vinous fermentation could not take place. This is procured by +evaporation in boiling, on the same principle that sugar is produced +from cane-juice. The syrup is then poured into small saucers to cool, +and it shortly assumes the consistence of hardened sugar. This is +known in Ceylon as "jaggery," and is manufactured exclusively by the +natives. + +Cocoa-nut oil is now one of the greatest exports of Ceylon, and within +the last few years the trade has increased to an unprecedented extent. +In the two years of 1849 and 1850, the exports of cocoa-nut oil did not +exceed four hundred and forty-three thousand six hundred gallons, while +in the year 1853 they had increased to one million thirty-three +thousand nine hundred gallons; the trade being more than quadrupled in +three years. + +The manufacture of the oil is most simple. The kernel is taken from +the nut, and being divided, it is exposed to the sun until all the +watery particles are evaporated. The kernel thus dried is known as +"copperah." This is then pressed in a mill, and the oil flows into a +reservoir. + +This oil, although clear and limpid in the tropics, hardens to the +consistence of lard at any temperature below 72 Fahrenheit. Thus it +requires a second preparation on its arrival in England. There it is +spread upon mats (formed of coir) to the thickness of an inch, and then +covered by a similar protection. These fat sandwiches are two feet +square, and being piled one upon the other to a height of about six +feet in an hydraulic press, are subjected to a pressure of some hundred +tons. This disengages the pure oleaginous parts from the more +insoluble portions, and the fat residue, being increased in hardness by +its extra density, is mixed with stearine, and by a variety of +preparations is converted into candles. The pure oil thus expressed is +that known in the shops as cocoa-nut oil. + +The cultivation of the cocoa-nut tree is now carried to a great extent, +both by natives and Europeans; by the former it is grown for a variety +of purposes, but by the latter its profits are confined to oil, coir +and poonac. The latter is the refuse Of the nut after the oil has been +expressed, and corresponds in its uses to the linseed-oil cake of +England, being chiefly employed for fattening cattle, pigs and poultry. + +The preparation of coir is a dirty and offensive occupation. The husk +of the cocoa-nut is thrown into tanks of water, until the woody or +pithy matter is loosened by fermentation from the coir fibre. The +stench of putrid vegetable matter arising from these heaps must be +highly deleterious. Subsequently the husks are beaten and the fibre is +separated and dried. Coir rope is useful on account of its durability +and power of resisting decay during long immersion. In the year 1853, +twenty-three hundred and eighty tons of coir were exported from Ceylon. + +The great drawback to the commencement of a cocoa-nut plantation is the +total uncertainty of the probable alteration in the price of oil during +the interval of eleven years which must elapse before the estate comes +into bearing. In this era of invention, when improvements in every +branch of science follow each other with such rapid strides, it is +always a dangerous speculation to make any outlay that will remain so +long invested without producing a return. Who can be so presumptuous +as to predict the changes of future years? Oil may have ceased to be +the common medium of light--our rooms may be illumined by electricity, +or from fifty other sources which now are never dreamed of. In the +mean time, the annual outlay during eleven years is an additional +incubus upon the prime cost of the plantation, which, at the expiration +of this term, may be reduced to one-tenth of its present value. + +The cocoa-nut tree requires a sandy and well-drained soil; and although +it flourishes where no other tree will grow, it welcomes a soil of a +richer quality and produces fruit in proportion. Eighty nuts per annum +are about the average income from a healthy tree in full bearing, but +this, of course, depends much upon the locality. This palm delights in +the sea-breeze, and never attains the same perfection inland that it +does in the vicinity of the coast. There are several varieties, and +that which is considered superior is the yellow species, called the +"king cocoanut." I have seen this on the Maldive Islands in great +perfection. There it is the prevailing description. + +At the Seychelles, there is a variety peculiar to those islands, +differing entirely in appearance from the common cocoa-nut. It is +fully twice the size, and is shaped like a kidney that is laid open. +This is called by the French the "coco de mer" from the large numbers +that are found floating in the sea in the neighborhood of the islands. + +The wood of the cocoa-nut tree is strong and durable; it is a dark +brown, traversed by longitudinal black lines. + +There are three varieties of toddy-producing palms in Ceylon; these are +the cocoa-nut, the kittool and the palmyra. The latter produces the +finest quality of jaggery. This cannot be easily distinguished from +crumbled sugar-candy which it exactly resembles in flavor, The wood of +the palmyra is something similar to the cocoa-nut, but it is of a +superior quality, and is much used for rafters, being durable and of +immense strength. + +The kittool is a very sombre and peculiar palm. Its crest very much +resembles the drooping plume upon a hearse, and the foliage is a dark +green with a tinge of gray. The wood of this palm is almost black, +being apparently a mass of longitudinal strips, or coarse linen of +whalebone running close together from the top to the root of the tree. +This is the toughest and most pliable of all the palm-woods, and is +principally used by the natives in making "pingos." These are flat bows +about eight feet in length, and are used by the Cingalese for carrying +loads upon the shoulder. The weight is slung at either end of the +pingo, and the elasticity of the wood accommodates itself to the spring +of each step, thereby reducing the dead weight of the load. In this +manner a stout Cingalese will carry and travel with eighty pounds if +working on his own account, or with fifty if hired for a journey. A +Cingalese will carry a much heavier weight than an ordinary Malabar, as +he is a totally different man in form and strength. In fact, the +Cingalese are generally a compactly built and well-limbed race, while +the Malabar is a man averaging full a stone lighter weight. + +The most extraordinary in the list of palms is the talipot. The crest +of this beautiful tree is adorned by a crown of nearly circular, +fan-shaped leaves of so touch and durable a texture that they are sewn +together by the natives for erecting portable tents or huts. The +circumference of each leaf at the extreme edge is from twenty to thirty +feet, and even this latter size is said to be frequently exceeded. + +Every Cingalese throughout the Kandian district is provided with a +section of one of these leaves, which forms a kind of fan about six +feet in length. This is carried in the hand, and is only spread in +case of rain, when it forms an impervious roofing of about three feet +in width at the broad extremity. Four or five of these sections will +form a circular roof for a small hut, which resembles a large umbrella +or brobdignag mushroom. + +There is a great peculiarity in the talipot palm. Is blossoms only +once in a long period of years, and after this it dies. No flower can +equal the elegance and extraordinary dimensions of this blossom; its +size is proportionate to its leaves, and it usurps the place of the +faded crest of green, forming a magnificent crown or plume of +snow-white ostrich feathers, which stand upon the summit of the tall +stem as though they were the natural head of the palm. + +There is an interesting phenomenon at the period of flowering. The +great plume already described, prior to its appearing in bloom, is +packed in a large case or bud, about four feet long. In this case the +blossom comes to maturity, at which time the tightened cuticle of the +bard can no longer sustain the pressure of the expanding flower. It +suddenly bursts with a loud report, and the beautiful plume, freed from +its imprisonment, ascends at this signal and rapidly unfolds its +feathers, towering above the drooping leaves which are hastening to +decay. + +The areca is a palm of great elegance; it rises to a height of about +eighty feet, and a rich feathery crest adorns the summit. This is the +most delicate stem of all the palm tribe; that of a tree of eighty feet +in length would not exceed five inches in diameter. Nevertheless, I +have never seen an areca palm overturned by a storm; they bow +gracefully to the wind, and the extreme elasticity of the wood secures +them from destruction. + +This tree produces the commonly-called "betel-nut," but more properly +the areca-nut. They grow in clusters beneath the crest of the palm, in +a similar manner to the cocoa-nut; but the tree is more prolific, as it +produces about two hundred nuts per annum. The latter are very similar +to large nutmegs both in size and appearance, and, like the cocoa-nut, +they are enclosed in an outer husk of a fibrous texture. + +The consumption of these nuts may be imagined when it is explained that +every native is perpetually chewing a mixture of this nut and betel +leaf. Every man carries a betel bag, which contains the following list +of treasures: a quantity of areca-nuts, a parcel of betel leaves, a +roll of tobacco, a few pieces of ginger, an instrument similar to +pruning scissors and a brass or silver case (according to the wealth of +the individual) full of chunam paste--viz., a fine lime produced from +burnt coral, slacked. This case very much resembles an old-fashioned +warming-pan breed of watch and chateleine, as numerous little spoons +for scooping out the chunam are attached to it by chains. + +The betel is a species of pepper, the leaf of which very much resembles +that of the black pepper, but is highly aromatic and pungent. It is +cultivated to a very large extent by the natives, and may be seen +climbing round poles and trees in every garden. + +It has been said by some authors that the betel has powerful narcotic +properties, but, on the contrary, its stimulating qualities have a +directly opposite effect. Those who have attributed this supposed +property to the betel leaf must have indulged in a regular native +"chew" as an experiment, and have nevertheless been ignorant of the +mixture. + +We will make up a native "chew" after the most approved fashion, and +the reader shall judge for himself in which ingredient the narcotic +principle is displayed. + +Take a betel leaf, and upon this spread a piece of chunam as large as a +pea; then with the pruning scissors cut three very thin slices of +areca-nut, and lay them in the leaf; next, add a small piece of ginger; +and, lastly, a good-sized piece of tobacco. Fold up this mixture in +another betel leaf in a compact little parcel, and it is fit for +promoting several hours' enjoyment in chewing, and spitting a +disgusting blood-red dye in every direction. The latter is produced by +the areca-nut. It is the tobacco which possesses the narcotic +principle; if this is omitted, the remaining ingredients are simple +stimulants. + +The teeth of all natives are highly discolored by the perpetual +indulgence in this disgusting habit; nor is this the only effect +produced; cancer in the cheek is a common complaint among them, +supposed to be produced by the caustic lime which is so continually in +the mouth. + +The exports of areca-nuts from Ceylon will give some idea of the supply +of palms. In 1853 no less than three thousand tons were shipped from +this colony, valued at about 45,000 l. The greater portion of these is +consumed in India. + +Two varieties of palms remain to be described--the date and the sago. +The former is a miserable species, which does not exceed the height of +three to five feet, and the fruit is perfectly worthless. + +The latter is indigenous throughout the jungles in Ceylon, but it is +neither cultivated, nor is the sago prepared from it. + +The height of this palm does not exceed fifteen or twenty feet, and +even this is above the general average. It grows in the greatest +profusion in the Veddah country. The stem is rough and a continuation +of rings divides it into irregular sections. The leaves are a rich +dark green, and very light and feathery, beneath which the nuts grow in +clusters similar to those of the areca palm. + +The only use that the natives make of the produce of this tree is in +the preparation of flour from the nuts. Even this is not very general, +which is much to be wondered at, as the farina is far superior in +flavor to that produced from most grains. + +The natives ascribe intoxicating properties to the cakes made from this +flour; but I have certainly eaten a fair allowance at one time, and I +cannot say that I had the least sensation of elevation. + +The nut, which is something similar to the areca in size, is nearly +white when divested of its outer husk, and this is soaked for about +twenty-four hours in water. During this time a slight fermentation +takes place and the gas generated splits the nut open at a closed joint +like an acorn. This fermentation may, perhaps, take some exhilarating +effect upon the natives' weak heads. + +The nuts being partially softened by this immersion are dried in the +sun, and subsequently pounded into flour in a wooden mortar. This flour +is sifted, and the coarser parts being separated, are again pounded +until a beautiful snow-white farina is produced. This is made into a +dough by a proper admixture with water, and being formed into small +cakes, they are baked for about a quarter of an hour in a chatty. The +fermentation which has already taken place in the nut has impregnated +the flower with a leaven; this, without any further addition, expands +the dough when in the oven, and the cake produced is very similar to a +crumpet, both in appearance and flavor. + +The village in which I first tasted this preparation of the sago-nut +was a tolerable sample of such places, on the borders of the Veddah +country. The population consisted of one old man and a corresponding +old woman, and one fine stout young man and five young women. A host +of little children, who were so similar in height that they must have +been one litter, and three or four most miserable dogs and cats, were +additional tenants of the soi-disant village. + +These people lived upon sago cakes, pumpkins, wild fruits and berries, +river fish and wild honey. The latter is very plentiful throughout +Ceylon, and the natives are very expert in finding out the nests, by +watching the bees in their flight and following them up. A bee-hunter +must be a most keen-sighted fellow, although there is not so much +difficulty in the pursuit as may at first appear. No one can mistake +the flight of a bee en route home, if he has once observed him. He is +no longer wandering from flower to flower in an uncertain course, but +he rushes through the air in a straight line for the nest. If the +bee-hunter sees one bee thus speeding homeward, he watches the vacant +spot in the air, until assured of the direction by the successive +appearance of these insects, one following the other nearly every +second in their hurried race to the comb. Keeping his eye upon the +passing bees, he follows them until he reaches the tree in which the +nest is found. + +There are five varieties of bees in Ceylon; these are all honey-makers, +except the carpenter bee. This species is entirely unlike a bee in all +its habits. It is a bright tinsel-green color, and the size of a large +walnut, but shaped like the humble bees of England. The month is armed +with a very powerful pair of mandibles, and the tail with a sting even +larger and more venomous than that of the hornet. These carpenter bees +are exceedingly destructive, as they bore holes in beams and posts, in +which they lay their eggs, the larvae of which when hatched greedily +feed upon the timber. + +The honey bees are of four very distinct varieties, each of which forms +its nest on a different principle. The largest and most extensive +honey-maker is the "bambera". This is nearly as large as a hornet, and +it forms its nest upon the bough of a tree, from which it lines like a +Cheshire cheese, being about the same thickness, but five or six inches +greater in diameter. The honey of this bee is not so much esteemed as +that from the smaller varieties, as the flavor partakes too strongly of +the particular flower which the bee has frequented; thus in different +seasons the honey varies in flavor, and is sometimes so highly aperient +that it must be used with much caution. This property is of course +derived from the flower which the bee prefers at that particular +season. The wax of the comb is the purest and whitest of any kind +produced in Ceylon. So partial are these bees to particular flowers +that they migrate from place to place at different periods in quest of +flowers which are then in bloom. + +This is a very wonderful and inexplicable arrangement of Nature, when +it is considered that some flowers which particularly attract these +migrations only blossom once in "seven years." This is the case at +Newera Ellia, where the nillho blossom induces such a general rush of +this particular bee to the district that the jungles are swarming with +them in every direction, although during the six preceding years hardly +a bee of the kind is to be met with. + +There are many varieties of the nillho. These vary from a tender dwarf +plant to the tall and heavy stern of the common nillho, which is nearly +as thick as a man's arm and about twenty feet high. + +The next honey-maker is very similar in size and appearance to our +common hive bee in England. This variety forms its nest in hollow +trees and in holes in rocks. Another bee, similar in appearance, but +not more than half the size, suspends a most delicate comb to the twigs +of a tree. This nest is no larger than an orange, but the honey of the +two latter varieties is of the finest quality, and quite equal in +flavor to the famed "miel vert" of the Isle de Burbon, although it has +not the delicate green tint which is so much esteemed in the latter. + +The last of the Ceylon bees is the most tiny, although an equally +industrious workman. He is a little smaller than our common house-fly, +and he builds his diminutive nest in the hollow of a tree, where the +entrance to his mansion is a hole no larger than would be made by a +lady's stiletto. + +It would be a natural supposition that so delicate an insect would +produce a honey of corresponding purity, but instead of the expected +treasure we find a thick, black and rather pungent but highly aromatic +molasses. The natives, having naturally coarse tastes and strong +stomachs, admire this honey beyond any other. Many persons are +surprised at the trifling exports of wax from Ceylon. In 1853 these +amounted to no more than one ton. + +Cingalese are curious people, and do not trouble themselves about +exports; they waste or consume all the beeswax. While we are contented +with the honey and carefully reject the comb, the native (in some +districts) crams his mouth with a large section, and giving it one or +two bites, he bolts the luscious morsel and begins another. In this +manner immense quantities of this valuable article are annually wasted. +Some few of the natives in the poorest villages save a small quantity, +to exchange with the travelling Moormen for cotton cloths, etc., and in +this manner the trifling amount exported is collected. + +During the honey year at Newera Ellia I gave a native permission to +hunt bees in my forests, on condition that he should bring me the wax. +Of course he stole the greater portion, but nevertheless, in a few +weeks he brought me seventy-two pounds' weight of well-cleaned and +perfectly white wax, which he had made up into balls about the size of +an eighteen-pound shot. Thus, in a few weeks, one man had collected +about the thirtieth part of the annual export from Ceylon; or, allowing +that he stole at least one-half, this would amount to the fifteenth. + +It would be a vain attempt to restrain these people from their fixed +habit; they would as soon think of refraining from betel-chewing as +giving up a favorite food. Neither will they be easily persuaded to +indulge in a food of a new description. I once showed them the common +British mushroom, which they declared was a poisonous kind. To prove +the contrary, I had them several times at table, and found them +precisely similar in appearance and flavor to the well-known, "Agaricus +campestris;" but, notwithstanding this actual proof, the natives would +not be convinced, and, although accustomed to eat a variety of this +tribe, they positively declined this experiment. There is an edible +species which they prefer, which, from its appearance, an Englishman +would shun: this is perfectly white, both above and below, and the +upper cuticle cannot be peeled off. I have tasted this, but it is very +inferior in flavor to the common mushroom. + +Experiments in these varieties of fungi are highly dangerous, as many +of the most poisonous so closely resemble the edible species that they +can with difficulty be distinguished. There is one kind of fungus that +I have met with in the forests which, from its offensive odor and +disgusting appearance, should be something superlatively bad. It grows +about four inches high; the top is round, with a fleshy and inflamed +appearance; the stalk is out of all proportion in its thickness, being +about two inches in diameter and of a livid white color; this, when +broken, is full of a transparent gelatinous fluid, which smells like an +egg in the last stage of rottenness. + +This fungus looks like an unhealthy excrescence on the face of Nature, +who, as though ashamed of the disgusting blemish, has thrown a veil +over the defect. The most exquisite fabric that can be imagined--a +scarlet veil, like a silken net--falls over this ugly fungus, and, +spreading like a tent at its base, it is there attached to the ground. + +The meshes of this net are about as fine as those of a very delicate +silk purse, and the gaudiness of the color and the size of the fungus +make it a very prominent object, among the surrounding vegetation. In +fact, it is a diminutive, though perfect circular tent of net-work, the +stem of the fungus forming the pole in the centre. + +I shall never forget my first introduction to this specimen. It was +growing in an open forest, free from any underwood, land it seemed like +a fairy bivouac beneath the mighty trees which overshadowed it. Hardly +believing my own eyes at so strange and exquisite a structure, I jumped +off my horse and hastened to secure it. But the net-work once raised +was like the uncovering of the veiled prophet of Khorassan, and the +stem, crushing in my fingers, revealed all the disgusting properties of +the plant, and proved the impossibility of removing it entire. The +elegance of its exterior only served to conceal its character-like +Madame Mantilini, who, when undressed, "tumbled into ruins." + +There are two varieties of narcotic fungi whose properties are so mild +that they are edible in small quantities. One is a bright crimson on +the surface; this is the most powerful, and is seldom used. The other +is a white solid puff-ball, with a rough outer skin or rind. + +I have eaten the latter on two occasions, having been assured by the +natives that they were harmless. The flavor somewhat resembles a +truffle, but I could not account for the extreme drowsiness that I felt +soon after eating; this wore off in the course of two or three hours. +On the following day I felt the same effect, but to a still greater +degree as, having convinced myself that they were really eatable, I bad +taken a larger quantity. Knowing that the narcotic principle is the +common property of a great variety of fungi, it immediately struck me +that the puff-balls were the cause. On questioning the natives, it +appeared that it was this principle that they admired, as it produced a +species of mild intoxication. + +All people, of whatever class or clime, indulge in some narcotic drug +or drink. Those of the Cingalese are arrack, tobacco, fungi and the +Indian hemp. The use of the latter is, however, not so general among +the Cingalese as the Malabars. This drug has a different effect from +opium, as it does not injure the constitution, but simply exhilarates, +and afterward causes a temporary lethargy. + +In appearance it very nearly resembles the common hemp, but it differs +in the seed. The leaves and blossoms are dried, and are either smoked +like tobacco, or formed into a paste with various substances and chewed. + +When the plant approaches maturity, a gummy substance exudes from the +leaves; this is gathered by men clothed in dry raw hides, who, by +walking through the plantation, become covered with this gum or glue. +This is scraped off and carefully preserved, being the very essence of +the plant, and exceedingly powerful in its effects. + +The sensation produced by the properties of this shrub is a wild, +dreamy kind of happiness; the ideas are stimulated to a high degree, +and all that are most pleasurable are exaggerated till the senses at +length sink into a vague and delightful elysium. + +The reaction after this unnatural excitement is very distressing, but +the sufferer is set all right again by some trifling stimulant, such as +a glass of wine or spirits. + +It is supposed, and confidently asserted by some, that the Indian hemp +is the foundation of the Egyptian "hashisch," the effects of which are +precisely similar. + +However harmless the apparent effect of a narcotic drug, common sense +must at once perceive that a repeated intoxication, no matter how it is +produced, must be ultimately hurtful to the system. The brain, +accustomed to constant stimulants, at length loses its natural power, +and requires these artificial assistants to enable it to perform its +ordinary functions, in the same manner that the stomach, from similar +treatment, would at length cease to act. This being continued, the +brain becomes semi-torpid, until wakened up by a powerful stimulant, +and the nervous system is at length worn out by a succession of +exciting causes and reactions. Thus, a hard drinker appears dull and +heavy until under the influence of his secret destroyer when he +brightens up and, perhaps, shines in conversation; but every reaction +requires a stronger amount of stimulant to lessen its effect, until +mind and body at length become involved in the common ruin. + +The seed of the lotus is a narcotic of a mild description, and it is +carefully gathered when ripe and eaten by the natives. + +The lotus is seen in two varieties in Ceylon--the pink and the white. +The former is the most beautiful, and they are both very common in all +tanks and sluggish streams. The leaves are larger than those of the +waterlily, to which they bear a great resemblance, and the blossoms are +full double the size. When the latter fade, the petals fall, and the +base of the flower and seed-pod remains in the shape of a circular +piece of honeycomb, full of cells sufficiently large to contain a +hazel-nut. This is about the size of the seed, but the shape is more +like an acorn without its cup. The flavor is pleasant, being something +like a filbert, but richer and more oily. + +Stramonium (Datura stramonium), which is a powerful narcotic, is a +perfect weed throughout the island, but it is not used by the natives +otherwise than medicinally, and the mass of the people are ignorant of +its qualities, which are only known to the Cingalese doctors. I +recollect some years ago, in Mauritius, where this plant is equally +common, its proprieties were not only fully understood, but made use of +by some of the Chinese emigrants. These fellows made cakes of manioc +and poisoned them with stramonium. Hot manioc cakes are the common +every-day accompaniment to a French planter's breakfast at Mauritius, +and through the medium of these the Chinese robbed several houses. +Their plan was simple enough. + +A man with cakes to sell appeared at the house at an early hour, and +these being purchased, he retired until about two hours after breakfast +was concluded. By this time the whole family were insensible, and the +thieves robbed the house at their leisure. None of these cases +terminated fatally; but, from the instant that I heard of it, I made +every cake-seller who appeared at the door devour one of his own cakes +before I became a purchaser. These men, however, were bona fide +cake-merchants, and I did not meet with an exception. + +There are a great variety of valuable medicinal plants in the jungles +of Ceylon, many of which are unknown to any but the native doctors. +Those most commonly known to us, and which may be seen growing wild by +the roadside, are the nux vomica, ipecacuanha, gamboge, sarsaparilla, +cassia fistula, cardamoms, etc. + +The ipecacuanha is a pretty, delicate plant, which bears a bright +orange-colored cluster of flowers. + +The cassia fistula is a very beautiful tree, growing to the size of an +ash, which it somewhat resembles in foliage. The blossom is very +beautiful, being a pendant of golden flowers similar to the laburnum, +but each blossom is about two and a half feet long, and the individual +flowers on the bunch are large in proportion. When the tree is in full +flower it is very superb, and equally as singular when its beauty has +faded and the seed-pods are formed. These grow to a length of from two +to three feet, and when ripe are perfectly black, round, and about +three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The tree has the appearance of +bearing, a prolific crop of ebony rulers, each hanging from the bough +by a short string. + +There is another species of cassia fistula, the foliage of which +assimilates to the mimosa. This bears a thicker, but much shorter, +pod, of about a foot in length. The properties of both are the same, +being laxative. Each seed within the pod is surrounded by a sweet, +black and honey-like substance, which contains the property alluded to. + +The gamboge tree is commonly known in Ceylon as the "ghorka." This +grows to the common size of an apple tree, and bears a corrugated and +intensely acid fruit. This is dried by the natives and used in +curries. The gamboge is the juice of the tree obtained by incisions in +the bark. This tree grows in great numbers in the neighborhood of +Colombo, especially among the cinnamon gardens. Here, also, the cashew +tree grows to great perfection. The bark of the latter is very rich in +tannin, and is used by the natives in the preparation of hides. The +fruit is like an apple in appearance, and small, but is highly +astringent. The well-known cashew-nut grows like an excrescence from +the end of the apple. + +Many are the varieties and uses of vegetable productions in Ceylon, but +of these none are more singular and interesting than the "sack tree," +the Riti Gaha of the Cingalese. From the bark of this tree an infinite +number of excellent sacks are procured, with very little trouble or +preparation. The tree being felled, the branches are cut into logs of +the length required, and sometimes these are soaked in water; but this +is not always necessary. The balk is then well beaten with a wooden +mallet, until it is loosened from the wood; it is then stripped off the +log as a stocking is drawn off the leg. It is subsequently bleached, +and one end being sewn lip, completes a perfect sack of a thick fibrous +texture, somewhat similar to felt. + +These sacks are in general use among the natives, and are preferred by +them to any other, as their durability is such that they sometimes +descend from father to son. By constant use they stretch and increase +their original size nearly one half. The texture necessarily becomes +thinner, but the strength does not appear to be materially decreased. + +There are many fibrous barks in Ceylon, some which are so strong that +thin strips require a great amount of strength to break them, but none +of these have yet been reduced to a marketable fibre. Several barks +are more or less aromatic; others would be valuable to the tanners; +several are highly esteemed by the natives as most valuable +astringents, but hitherto none have received much notice from +Europeans. This may be caused by the general want of success of all +experiments with indigenous produce. Although the jungles of Ceylon +produce a long list of articles of much interest, still their value +chiefly lies in their curiosity; they are useful to the native, but +comparatively of little worth to the European. In fact, few things will +actually pay for the trouble and expense of collecting and +transporting. Throughout the vast forests and jungles of Ceylon, +although the varieties of trees are endless, there is not one valuable +gum known to exist. There is a great variety of coarse, unmarketable +productions, about equal to the gum of the cherry tree, etc., but there +is no such thing as a high-priced gum in the island. + +The export of dammer is a mere trifle--four tons in 1852, twelve tons +in 1853. This is a coarse and comparatively valueless commodity. No +other tree but the doom tree produces any gum worth collecting; this +species of rosin exudes in large quantities from an incision in the +bark, but the amount of exports shows its insignificance. It is a fair +sample of Ceylon productions; nothing that is uncultivated is of much +pecuniary value. + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +Indigenous Productions--Botanical Gardens--Suggested Experiments--Lack +of Encouragement to Gold-diggers--Prospects of Gold-digging--We want +"Nuggets"--Who is to Blame?--Governor's Salary--Fallacies of a Five +Years' Reign--Neglected Education of the People--Responsibilities of +Conquest--Progress of Christianity. + + +The foregoing chapter may appear to decry in toto the indigenous +productions of Ceylon, as it is asserted that they are valueless in +their natural state. Nevertheless, I do not imply that they must +necessarily remain useless. Where Nature simply creates a genus, +cultivation extends the species, and from an insignificant parent stock +we propagate our finest varieties of both animals and vegetables. +Witness the wild kale, parsnip, carrot, crab-apple, sloe, etc., all +utterly worthless, but nevertheless the first parents of their now +choice descendants. + +It is therefore impossible to say what might not he done in the +improvement of indigenous productions were the attention of science +bestowed upon them. But all this entails expense, and upon whom is +this to fall? Out of a hundred experiments ninety-nine might fail. In +Ceylon we have no wealthy experimentalists, no agricultural +exhibitions, no model farms, but every man who settles in a colony has +left the mother country to better himself; therefore, no private +enterprise is capable of such speculation. It clearly rests upon the +government to develop the resources of the country, to prove the value +of the soil, which is delivered to the purchaser at so much per acre, +good or bad. But no; it is not in the nature of our government to move +from an established routine. As the squirrel revolves his cage, so +governor after governor rolls his dull course along, pockets his +salary, and leaves the poor colony as he found it. + +The government may direct the attention of the public, in reply, to +their own establishment--to the botanical gardens. Have we not +botanical gardens? We have, indeed, and much good they should do, if +conducted upon the principle of developing local resources; but this +would entail expense, and, like everything in the hands of government, +it dies in its birth for want of consistent management. + +With an able man as superintendent at a good salary, the beautiful +gardens at Peredenia are rendered next to useless for want of a fund at +his disposal. Instead of being conducted as an experimental farm, they +are little more than ordinary pleasure-grounds, filled with the +beautiful foliage of the tropics and kept in perfect order. What +benefit have they been to the colony? Have the soils of various +districts been tested? have new fibres been manufactured from the +countless indigenous fibrous plants? have new oils been extracted? have +medicinal drugs been produced? have dyes been extracted? have +improvements been suggested in the cultivation of any of the staple +articles of Ceylon export? In fact, has ANYTHING ever been done by +government for the interest of the private settler? + +This is not the fault of the manager of the gardens; he has the will, +but no funds. My idea of the object of a botanical garden is, that +agricultural theories should be reduced to facts, upon which private +enterprise may speculate, and by such success the government should +ultimately benefit. + +It is well known to the commonest school-boy that soil which may be +favorable to one plant is not adapted to another; therefore, where +there is a diversity of soils it stands to reason that there should be +a corresponding variety of crops to suit those soils, so as to make the +whole surface of the land yield its proportion. + +In Ceylon, where the chief article of production is coffee, land (upon +an estate) which is not suitable to this cultivation is usually +considered waste. Thus the government and the private proprietor are +alike losers in possessing an amount of unprofitable soil. + +Now, surely it is the common sense object in the establishment of a +botanical garden to discover for each description of soil a +remunerating crop, so that an estate should be cultivated to its +uttermost, and the word "waste" be unknown upon the property. + +Under the present system of management this is impossible; the sum +allowed per annum is but just sufficient to keep the gardens in proper +condition, and the abilities of the botanist in charge are sacrificed. +Many a valuable plant now lies screened in the shades of remote +jungles, which the enterprising botanist would bring to light were he +enabled by government to make periodical journeys through the interior. +These journeys should form a part of his duties; his botanical +specimens should be his game, and they should be pursued with the ardor +of the chase itself, and subsequently transferred to the gardens and +their real merits discovered by experiments. + +But what can be expected from an apathetic system of government? Dyes, +fibres, gums may abound in the forests, metals and even gold may be +concealed beneath our feet; but the governor does not consider it a +part of his duty to prosecute the search, or even to render facilities +to those of a more industrious temperament. What can better exemplify +the case than the recent discovery of gold at Newera Ellia? + +Here was the plain fact that gold was found in small specks, not in one +spot, but everywhere throughout the swamps for miles in the +vicinity--that at a depth of two or three feet from the surface this +proof was adduced of its presence; but the governor positively refused +to assist the discoverers ("diggers," who were poor sailors visiting +Ceylon), although they merely asked for subsistence until they should +be able to reach a greater depth. This may appear too absurd to be +correct, but it is nevertheless true. + +At the time that I commenced these sketches of Ceylon the gold was just +discovered, and I touched but lightly upon it, in the expectation that +a few months of labor, aided by government support, would have +established its presence in remunerating quantities. The swampy nature +of the soil rendered the digging impossible without the aid of powerful +pumps to reduce the water, which filled the shaft so rapidly that no +greater depth could be obtained than eighteen feet, and even this at +immense labor. + +The diggers were absolutely penniless, and but for assistance received +from private parties they must have starved. The rainy season was at +its height, and torrents fell night and day with little intermission. +Still, these poor little fellows worked early and late, wet and dry, +ever sanguine of success, and they at length petitioned the Government +to give them the means of subsistence for a few months--"subsistence" +for two men, and the assistance of a few coolies. This was refused, +and the reply stated that the government intended to leave the search +for gold to "private enterprise." No reward was offered for its +discovery as in other colonies, but the governor would leave it to +"private enterprise." A promising enterprise truly, when every +landholder in Ceylon, on referring to his title-deeds, observes the +reservation of all precious metals to the crown. This is a fair sample +of the narrow-minded, selfish policy of a government which, in +endeavoring to save a little, loses all; a miserable tampering with the +public in attempting to make a cat's paw of private enterprise. + +How has this ended? The diggers left the island in disgust. If the +gold is there in quantity, there in quantity it remains to the present +time, unsought for. The subject of gold is so generally interesting, +and in this case of such importance to the colony, that, believing as I +do that it does exist in large quantities, I must claim the reader's +patience in going into this subject rather fully. + +Let us take the matter as it stands. + +The reader will remember that I mentioned at an early part of these +pages that gold was first discovered in Ceylon by the diggers in the +bed of a stream near Kandy--that they subsequently came to Newera +Ellia, and there discovered gold likewise. + +It must be remembered that the main features of the country at Newera +Ellia and the vicinity are broad flats or swampy plains, surrounded by +hills and mountains: the former covered with rank grass and intersected +by small streams, the latter covered with dense forest. The soil +abounds with rocks of gneiss and quartz, some of the latter rose-color, +some pure white. The gold has hitherto been found in the plains only. +These plains extend over some thirty miles of country, divided into +numerous patches by intervening jungles. + +The surface soil is of a peaty nature, perfectly black, soapy when wet, +and as light as soot when dry; worthless for cultivation. This top +soil is about eighteen inches thick, and appears to have been the +remains of vegetable matter washed down from the surrounding hills and +forests. + +This swampy black soil rests upon a thin stratum of brownish clay, not +more than a few inches thick, which, forming a second layer, rests in +its turn upon a snow white rounded quartz gravel intermixed with white +pipe-clay. + +This contains gold, every shovelful of earth producing, when washed, +one or more specks of the precious metal. + +The stratum of rounded quartz is about two feet thick, and is succeeded +by pipe-clay, intermixed with quartz gravel, to a depth of eighteen +feet. Here another stratum of quartz gravel is met with, perfectly +water-worn and rounded to the size of a twelve-pound shot. + +In this stratum the gold was of increased size, and some pieces were +discovered as large as small grains of rice; but no greater depth was +attained at the time Of writing than to this stratum, viz., eighteen +feet from the surface. + +No other holes were sunk to a greater depth than ten feet, on account +of the influx of water, but similar shafts were made in various places, +and all with equal success. + +From the commencement of the first stratum of quartz throughout to the +greatest depth attained gold was present. + +Upon washing away the clay and gravel, a great number of gems of small +value remained (chiefly sapphire, ruby, jacinth and green tourmaline). +These being picked out, there remained a jet-black fine sand, +resembling gunpowder. This was of great specific gravity, and when +carefully washed, discovered the gold--some in grains, some in mere +specks, and some like fine, golden flour. + +At this interesting stage the search has been given up: although the +cheering sight of gold can be obtained in nearly every pan of earth at +such trifling depths, and literally in every direction, the prospect is +abandoned. The government leaves it to private enterprise, but the +enterprising public have no faith in the government. + +Without being over-sanguine, or, on the other side, closing our cars +with asinine stubbornness, let us take an impartial view of the facts +determined, and draw rational conclusions. + +It appears that from a depth of two and a half feet from the surface to +the greatest depth as yet attained (eighteen feet), gold exists +throughout. + +It also appears that this is not only the case in one particular spot, +but all over this part of the country, and that this fact is +undeniable; and, nevertheless, the government did not believe in the +existence of gold in Ceylon until these diggers discovered it; and when +discovered, they gave the diggers neither reward nor encouragement, but +they actually met the discovery by a published prohibition against the +search; they then latterly withdrew the prohibition and left it to +private enterprise, but neglected the unfortunate diggers. In this +manner is the colony mismanaged; in this manner is all public spirit +damped, all private enterprise checked, and all men who have anything +to venture disgusted. + +The liberality of a government must be boundless where the actual +subsistence for a few months is refused to the discoverers of gold in a +country where, hitherto, its presence had been denied. + +It would be speculative to anticipate the vast changes that in extended +discovery would effect in such a colony as Ceylon. We have before us +the two pictures of California and Australia, which have been changed +as though by the magician's wand within the last few years. It becomes +us now simply to consider the probability of the gold being in such +quantities in Ceylon as to effect such changes. We have it present +these simple data--that in a soft, swampy soil gold has been found +close to the surface in small specks, gradually increasing in size and +quantity as a greater depth has been attained. + +From the fact that gold will naturally lie deep, from its specific +gravity, it is astonishing that any vestige of such a metal should be +discovered in such soil so close to the surface. Still more astonishing +that it should be so generally disseminated throughout the locality. +This would naturally be accepted as a proof that the soil is rich in +gold. But the question will then arise, Where is the gold? The +quantities found are a mere nothing--it is only dust: we want "nuggets." + +The latter is positively the expression that I myself frequently heard +in Ceylon--"We want nuggets." + +Who does not want nuggets? But people speak of "nuggets" as they would +of pebbles, forgetting that the very principle which keeps the light +dust at the surface has forced the heavier gold to a greater depth, and +that far from complaining of the lack of nuggets when digging has +hardly commenced, they should gaze with wonder at the bare existence of +the gold in its present form and situation. + +The diggings at Ballarat are from a hundred to an hundred and sixty +feet deep in hard ground, and yet people in Ceylon expect to find heavy +gold in mere mud, close to the surface. The idea is preposterous, and +I conceive it only reasonable to infer from the present appearances +that gold does exist in large quantities in Ceylon. But as it is +reasonable to suppose such to be the case, so it is unreasonable to +suppose that private individuals will invest capital in so uncertain a +speculation as mining without facilities from the government, and in +the very face of the clause in their own title-deeds "that all precious +metals belong to the crown." + +This is the anomalous position of the gold in Ceylon under the +governorship of Sir G. Anderson. + +Nevertheless, it becomes a question whether we should blame the man or +the system, but the question arises in this case, as with everything +else in which government is concerned, "Where is the fault?" "Echo +answers 'Where?'" But the public are not satisfied with echoes, and in +this matter-of-fact age people look to those who fill ostensible posts +and draw bona fide salaries; and if these men hold the appointments, no +matter under what system, they become the deserved objects of either +praise or censure. + +Thus it may appear too much to say that Sir G. Anderson is liable for +the mismanagement of the colony in toto--for the total neglect of the +public roads. It may appear too much to say, When you came to the +colony you found the roads in good order: they are now impassable; +communication is actually cut off from places of importance. This is +your fault, these are the fruits of your imbecility; your answer to our +petitions for repairs was, "There is no money;" and yet at the close of +the year you proclaimed and boasted of a saving of twenty-seven +thousand pounds in the treasury! This seems a fearful contradiction; +and the whole public received it as such. The governor may complain +that the public expect too much; the public may complain that the +governor does too little. + +Upon these satisfactory terms, governors and their dependants bow each +other out, the colony being a kind of opera stall, a reserved seat for +the governor during the performance of five acts (as we will term his +five years of office); and the fifth act, as usual in tragedies, +exposes the whole plot of the preceding four, and winds up with the +customary disasters. + +Now the question is, how long this age of misrule will last. + +Every one complains, and still every one endures. Each man has a +grievance, but no man has a remedy. Still, the absurdity of our +colonial appointments is such that if steps were purposely taken to +ensure the destruction of the colonies, they could not have been more +certain. + +We will commence with a new governor dealt out to a colony. We will +simply call him a governor, not troubling ourselves with his +qualifications, as of course they have not been considered at the +Colonial Office. He may be an upright, clear-headed, indefatigable +man, in the prime of life, or he may be old, crotchety, pigheaded, and +mentally and physically incapable. He may be either; it does not much +matter, as he can only remain for five years, at which time his term +expires. + +We will suppose that the crotchety old gentleman arrives first. The +public will be in a delightful perplexity as to what the new governor +will do--whether he will carry out the views of his predecessor, or +whether he will upset everything that has been done in the past five +years; all is uncertainty. The only thing known positively is, that, +good or bad, he will pocket seven thousand a year![1] + +His term of government will be chequered by many disappointments to the +public, and, if he has any feeling at all, by many heartburnings to +himself. Physically incapable of much exertion, he will be unable to +travel over so wild a country as Ceylon. A good governor in a little +island may be a very bad governor in a large island, as a good +cab-driver might make a bad four-in hand man; thus our old governor +would have no practical knowledge of the country, but would depend upon +prejudiced accounts for his information. Thus he would never arrive at +any correct information; he would receive all testimony with doubt, +considering that each had some personal motive in offering advice, and +one tongue would thus nullify the other until he should at length come +to the conclusion of David in his haste, "that all men are liars," and +turn a deaf ear to all. This would enable him to pass the rest of his +term without any active blunders, and he might vary the passive +monotony of his existence by a system of contradiction to all advice +gratis. A little careful pruning of expenses during the last two years +of his term might give a semblance of increase of revenue over +expenditure, to gain a smile from the Colonial Office. On his return +the colony would be left with neglected roads, consequent upon the +withdrawal of the necessary funds. + +This incubus at length removed from the colony, may be succeeded by a +governor of the first class. + +He arrives; finds everything radically wrong; the great arteries of the +country (the roads) in disorder; a large outlay required to repair +them. Thus his first necessary act begins by an outlay at a time when +all outlay is considered equivalent to crime. This gains him a frown +from the Colonial Office. Conscious of right, however, he steers his +own course; he travels over the whole country, views its features +personally, judges of its requirements and resources, gathers advice +from capable persons, forms his own opinion, and acts accordingly. + +We will allow two years of indefatigable research to have passed over +our model governor; by that time, and not before, he may have become +thoroughly conversant with the colony in all its bearings. He has +comprehended the vast natural capabilities, he has formed his plans +methodically for the improvement of the country; not by any rash and +speculative outlay, but, step by step, he hopes to secure the +advancement of his schemes. + +This is a work of time; he has much to do. The country is in an +uncivilized state; he sees the vestiges of past grandeur around him, +and his views embrace a wide field for the renewal of former +prosperity. Tanks must be repaired, canals reopened, emigration of +Chinese and Malabars encouraged, forests and jungles cleared, barren +land brought into fertility. The work of years is before him, but the +expiration of his term draws near. Time is precious, but nevertheless +he must refer his schemes to the Colonial Office. What do they know of +Ceylon? To them his plans seem visionary; at all events they will +require an outlay. A correspondence ensues--that hateful +correspondence! This ensures delay. Time flies; the expiration of his +term draws near. Even his sanguine temperament has ceased to hope; his +plans are not even commenced, to work out which would require years; he +never could see them realized, and his successor might neglect them and +lay the onus of the failure upon him, the originator, or claim the +merit of their success. + +So much for a five years' term of governorship, the absurdity of which +is superlative. It is so entirely contrary to the system of management +in private affairs that it is difficult to imagine the cause that could +have given rise to such a regulation. In matters great or small, the +capability of the manager is the first consideration; and if this be +proved, the value of the man is enhanced accordingly; no employer would +lose him. + +But in colonial governments the system is directly opposite, for no +sooner does the governor become competent than he is withdrawn and +transferred to another sphere. Thus every colony is like a farm held +on a short lease, which effectually debars it from improvement, as the +same feeling which actuates the individual in neglecting the future, +because he will not personally enjoy the fruits of his labor, must in +some degree fetter the enterprise of a five years' governor. He is +little better than the Lord Mayor, who flutters proudly for a year, and +then drops his borrowed feathers in his moulting season. + +Why should not governors serve an apprenticeship for five years as +colonial secretaries to the colonies they are destined for, if five +years is still to be the limited term of their office? This would +ensure a knowledge of the colony at a secretary's salary, and render +them fit for both the office and salary of governor when called upon; +whereas, by the present system, they at once receive a governor's +salary before they understand their duties. + +In casually regarding the present picture of Ceylon, it is hard to say +which point has been most neglected; but a short residence in the +island will afford a fair sample of government inactivity in the want +of education among the people. + +Upon this subject more might be said than lies in my province to dwell +upon; nevertheless, after fifty years' possession of the Kandian +districts, this want is so glaring that I cannot withhold a few remarks +upon the subject, as I consider the ignorant state of the native +population a complete check to the advancement of the colony. + +In commencing this subject, I must assume that the conquerors of +territory are responsible for the moral welfare of the inhabitants; +therefore our responsibility increases with our conquests. A mighty +onus thus rests upon Great Britain, which few consider when they glory +in the boast, "that the sun never sets upon her dominions." + +This thought leads us to a comparison of power between ourselves and +other countries, and we trace the small spot upon the world's map which +marks our little island, and in every sphere we gaze with wonder at our +vast possessions. This is a picture of the present. What will the +future be in these days of advancement? It were vain to hazard a +conjecture; but we can look back upon the past, and build upon this +foundation our future hopes. + +When the pomps and luxuries of Eastern cities spread throughout Ceylon, +and millions of inhabitants fed on her fertility, when the hands of her +artists chiseled the figures of her gods from the rude rock, when her +vessels, laden with ivory and spices, traded with the West, what were +we? A forest-covered country, peopled by a fierce race of savages clad +in skins, bowing before druidical idolatry, paddling along our shores +in frames of wickerwork and hide. + +The ancient deities of Ceylon are in the same spots, unchanged; the +stones of the Druids stand unmoved; but what has become of the nations? +Those of the East have faded away and their strength has perished. +Their ships are crumbled; the rude canoe glides over their waves; the +spices grow wild in their jungles; and, unshorn and unclad, the +inhabitants wander on the face of the land. + +Is it "chance" that has worked this change? Where is the forest-covered +country and its savage race, its skin-clad warriors and their frail +coracles? + +There, where the forest stood, from north to south and from east to +west, spreads a wide field of rich fertility. There, on those rivers +where the basket-boats once sailed, rise the taut spars of England's +navy. Where the rude hamlet rested on its banks in rural solitude, the +never-weary din of commerce rolls through the city of the world. The +locomotive rushes like a thunder-clap upon the rail; the steamer +ploughs against the adverse wind, and, rapid as the lightning, the +telegraph cripples time. The once savage land is the nucleus of the +arts and civilization. The nation that from time to time was +oppressed, invaded, conquered, but never subjected, still pressed +against the weight of adversity, and, as age after age rolled on, and +mightier woes and civil strife gathered upon her, still the germ of her +destiny, as it expanded, threw off her load, until she at length became +a nation envied and feared. + +It was then that the powers of the world were armed against her, and +all Europe joined to tear the laurels from her crown, and fleets and +armies thronged from all points against the devoted land, and her old +enemy, the Gaul, hovered like his own eagle over the expected prey. + +The thunder of the cannon shook the world, and blood tinged the waves +around the land, and war and tumult shrieked like a tempest over the +fair face of Nature; the din of battle smothered all sounds of peace, +and years passed on and thicker grew the gloom. It was then the innate +might of the old Briton roused itself to action and strained those +giant nerves which brought us victory. The struggle was past, and as +the smoke of battle cleared from the surface of the world, the flag of +England waved in triumph on the ocean, her fleets sat swan-like on the +waves, her standard floated on the strongholds of the universe, and far +and wide stretched the vast boundaries of her conquests. + +Again I ask, is this the effect of "chance?" or is it the mighty will +of Omnipotence, which, choosing his instruments from the humbler ranks, +has snatched England from her lowly state, and has exalted her to be +the apostle of Christianity throughout the world? + +Here lies her responsibility. The conquered nations are in her hands; +they have been subject to her for half a century, but they know neither +her language nor her religion. + +How many millions of human beings of all creeds and colors does she +control? Are they or their descendants to embrace our faith?--that is, +I are we the divine instrument for accomplishing the vast change that +we expect by the universal acknowledgement of Christianity? or are +we--I pause before the suggestion--are we but another of those examples +of human insignificance, that, as from dust we rose, so to dust we +shall return? shall we be but another in the long list of nations whose +ruins rest upon the solitudes of Nature, like warnings to the proud +cities which triumph in their strength? Shall the traveler in future +ages place his foot upon the barren sod and exclaim, "Here stood their +great city!" + +The inhabitants of Nineveh would have scoffed at such a supposition. +And yet they fell, and yet the desert sand shrouded their cities as the +autumn leaves fall on the faded flowers of summer. + +To a fatalist it can matter but little whether a nation fulfills its +duty, or whether, by neglecting it, punishment should be drawn down +upon its head. According to his theory, neither good nor evil acts +would alter a predestined course of events. There are apparently +fatalist governments as well as individuals, which, absorbed in the +fancied prosperity of the present, legislate for temporal advantages +only. + +Thus we see the most inconsistent and anomalous conditions imposed in +treaties with conquered powers; we see, for instance, in Ceylon, a +protection granted to the Buddhist religion, while flocks of +missionaries are sent out to convert the heathen. We even stretch the +point so far as to place a British sentinel on guard at the Buddhist +temple in Kandy, as though in mockery of our Protestant church a +hundred paces distant. + +At the same time that we acknowledge and protect the Buddhist religion, +we pray that Christianity shall spread through the whole world; and we +appoint bishops to our colonies at the same time we neglect the +education of the inhabitants. + +When I say we neglect the education I do not mean to infer that there +are no government schools, but that the education of the people, +instead of being one of the most important objects of the government, +is considered of so little moment that it is tantamount to neglected. + +There are various opinions as to the amount of learning which +constitutes education, and at some of the government schools the native +children are crammed with useless nonsense, which, by raising them +above their natural position, totally unfits them for their proper +sphere. This is what the government calls education; and the same time +and expense thus employed in teaching a few would educate treble the +number in plain English. It is too absurd to hear the arguments in +favor of mathematics, geography, etc., etc., for the native children, +when a large proportion of our own population in Great Britain can +neither read nor write. + +The great desideratum in native education is a thorough knowledge of +the English tongue, which naturally is the first stone for any +superstructure of more extended learning. This brings them within the +reach of the missionary, not only in conversation, but it enables them +to benefit by books, which are otherwise useless. It lessens the +distance between the white man and the black, and an acquaintance with +the English language engenders a taste for English habits. The first +dawn of civilization commences with a knowledge of our language. The +native immediately adopts some English customs and ideas, and drops a +corresponding number of his own. In fact, he is a soil fit to work up +on, instead of being a barren rock as hitherto, firm in his own +ignorance and prejudices. + +In the education of the rising native generation lies the hope of +ultimate conversion. You may as well try to turn pitch into snow as to +eradicate the dark stain of heathenism from the present race. Nothing +can be done with them; they must be abandoned like the barren fig-tree, +and the more attention bestowed upon the young shoots. + +But, unfortunately, this is a popular error, and, like all such, one +full of prejudice. Abandon the present race! Methinks I hear the cry +from Exeter Hall. But the good people at home have no idea to what an +extent they are at present, and always have been, abandoned. Where the +children who can be educated with success are neglected at the present +day, it may be imagined that the parents have been but little cared +for; thus, in advocating their abandonment, it is simply proposing an +extra amount of attention to be bestowed upon the next generation. + +There are many large districts of Ceylon where no schools of any kind +are established. In the Ouva country, which is one of the most +populous, I have had applications from the natives, begging me to +interest myself in obtaining some arrangement of the kind. Throngs of +natives applied, describing the forlorn condition of their district, +all being not only anxious to send their children to some place where +they could learn free of expense, but offering to pay a weekly stipend +in return. "They are growing up as ignorant as our young buffaloes," +was a remark made by one of the headmen of the villages, and this +within twelve miles of Newera Ellia. + +Now, leaving out the question of policy in endeavoring to make the +language of our own country the common tongue of a conquered colony, it +must be admitted that, simply as a question of duty, it is incumbent +upon the government to do all in its power for the moral advancement of +the native population. It is known that the knowledge of our language +is the first step necessary to this advancement, and nevertheless it is +left undone; the population is therefore neglected. + +I have already adverted to the useless system in the government schools +of forcing a superabundant amount of knowledge into the children's +brains, and thereby raising them above their position. A contrasting +example of good common-sense education has recently been given by the +Rev. Mr. Thurston (who is indefatigable in his profession) in the +formulation of an industrial school at Colombo. + +This is precisely the kind of education which is required; and it has +already been attended with results most beneficial on its limited scale. + +This school is conducted on the principle that the time of every boy +shall not only be of service to himself, but shall likewise tend to the +support of the establishment. The children are accordingly instructed +in such pursuits as shall be the means of earning a livelihood in +future years: some are taught a trade, others are employed in the +cultivation of gardens, and subsequently in the preparation of a +variety of produce. Among others, the preparation of tapioca from the +root of the manioc has recently been attended with great success. In +fact, they are engaged during their leisure hours in a variety of +experiments, all of which tend to an industrial turn of mind, +benefiting not only the lad and the school, but also the government, by +preparing for the future men who will be serviceable and industrious in +their station. + +Here is a lesson for the government which, if carried out on an +extensive scale, would work a greater change in the colony within the +next twenty years than all the preaching of the last fifty. + +Throughout Ceylon, in every district, there should be established one +school upon this principle for every hundred boys, and a small tract of +land granted to each. One should be attached to the botanical gardens +at Peredenia, and instruction should be given to enable every school to +perform its own experiments in agriculture. By this means, in the +course of a few years we should secure an educated and useful +population, in lieu of the present indolent and degraded race: an +improved system of cultivation, new products, a variety of trades, and, +in fact, a test of the capabilities of the country would be ensured, +without risk to the government, and to the ultimate prosperity of the +colony. Heathenism could not exist in such a state of affairs; it +would die out. Minds exalted by education upon such a system would +look with ridicule upon the vestiges of former idolatry, and the rocky +idols would remain without a worshiper, while a new generation flocked +to the Christian altar. + +This is no visionary prospect. It has been satisfactorily proved that +the road to conversion to Christianity is through knowledge, and this +once attained, heathenism shrinks into the background. This knowledge +can only be gained by the young when such schools are established as I +have described. + +Our missionaries should therefore devote their attention to this +object, and cease to war against the impossibility of adult conversion. +If one-third of the enormous sums hitherto expended with little or no +results upon missionary labor had been employed in the establishments +as proposed, our colonies would now possess a Christian population. +But are our missionaries capable? Here commences another question, +which again involves others in their turn, all of which, when answered, +thoroughly explain the stationary, if not retrograde, position of the +Protestant Church among the heathen. + +What is the reader's conceived opinion of the duties and labors of a +missionary in a heathen land? Does he, or does he not imagine, as he +pays his subscription toward this object, that the devoted missionary +quits his native shores, like one of the apostles of old, to fight the +good fight? that he leaves all to follow "Him?" and that he wanders +forth in his zeal to propagate the gospel, penetrating into remote +parts, preaching to the natives, attending on the sick, living a life +of hardship and self-denial? + +It is a considerable drawback to this belief in missionary labor when +it is known that the missionaries are not educated for the particular +colonies to which they are sent; upon arrival, they are totally +ignorant of the language of the natives, accordingly, they are +perfectly useless for the purpose of "propagating the gospel among the +heathen." Their mission should be that of instructing the young, and +for this purpose they should first be instructed themselves. + +I do not wish to throw a shade upon the efforts of missionary labor; I +have no doubt that they use great exertions privately, which the public +on the spot do not observe; but taking this for granted as the case, +the total want of success in the result becomes the more deplorable. I +have also no doubt that the missionaries penetrate into the most remote +parts of Ceylon and preach the gospel. For many years I have traversed +the wildernesses of Ceylon at all hours and at all seasons. I have met +many strange things during my journeys, but I never recollect having +met a missionary. The bishop of Colombo is the only man I know who +travels out of the high road for this purpose; and he, both in this and +many other respects, offers an example which few appear to follow. + +Nevertheless, although Protestant missionaries are so rare in the +jungles of the interior, and, if ever there, no vestige ever remains of +such a visit, still, in spots where it might be least expected, may be +seen the humble mud hut, surmounted by a cross, the certain trace of +some persevering priest of the Roman faith. These men display an +untiring zeal, and no point is too remote for their good offices. +Probably they are not so comfortable in their quarters in the towns as +the Protestant missionaries, and thus they have less hesitation in +leaving home. + +The few converts that have been made are chiefly Roman Catholics, as +among the confusion arising from our multitudinous sects and schisms +the native is naturally bewildered. What with High Church, Low Church, +Baptists, Wesleyans, Presbyterians, etc., etc., etc., the ignorant +native is perfectly aghast at the variety of choice. + +With the members of our Church in such a dislocated state, progression +cannot be expected by simple attempts at conversion; even were the +natives willing to embrace the true faith, they would have great +difficulty in finding it amidst the crowd of adverse opinions. Without +probing more deeply into these social wounds, I must take leave of the +missionary labors in Ceylon, trusting that ere long the eyes of the +government will be fixed upon the true light to guide the prosperity of +the island by framing an ordinance for the liberal education of the +people. + + +[1] [since reduced to five thousand pounds]. + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +The Pearl Fishery--Desolation of the Coast--Harbor of +Trincomalee--Fatal Attack by a Shark--Ferocious Crocodiles--Salt +Monopoly--Salt Lakes--Method of Collection--Neglect of Ceylon +Hides--Fish and Fishing--Primitive Tackle--Oysters and Penknives--A +Night Bivouac for a Novice--No Dinner, but a Good Fire--Wild Yams and +Consequences--The Elephants' Duel--A Hunting Hermitage--Bluebeard's +last Hunt--The Leopard--Bluebeard's Death--Leopard Shot. + + +While fresh from the subject of government mismanagement, let us turn +our eyes in the direction of one of those natural resources of wealth +for which Ceylon has ever been renowned--the "pearl fishery." This was +the goose which laid the golden egg, and Sir W. Horton, when governor +of Ceylon, was the man who killed the goose. + +Here was another fatal instance of the effects of a five years' term of +governorship. + +It was the last year of his term, and he wished to prove to the +Colonial Office that "his talent" had not been laid up in a napkin, but +that he had left the colony with an excess of income over expenditure. +To obtain this income he fished up all the oysters, ruined the fishery +in consequence; and from that day to the present time it has been +unproductive. + +This is a serious loss of income to the colony, and great doubts are +entertained as to the probability, of the oyster-banks ever recovering +their fertility. + +Nothing can exceed the desolation of the coast in the neighborhood of +the pearl-banks. For many miles the shore is a barren waste of low +sandy ground, covered for the most part with scrubby, thorny jungle, +diversified by glades of stunted herbage. Not a hill is to be seen as +far as the eye can reach. The tracks of all kind of game abound on the +sandy path, with occasionally those of a naked foot, but seldom does a +shoe imprint its civilized mark upon these lonely shores. + +The whole of this district is one of the best in Ceylon for +deer-shooting, which is a proof of its want of inhabitants. This has +always been the case, even in the prosperous days of the pearl fishery. +So utterly worthless is the soil, that it remains in a state of nature, +and its distance from Colombo (one hundred and fifty miles) keeps it in +entire seclusion. + +It is a difficult to conceive that any source of wealth should exist in +such a locality. When standing on the parched sand, with the burning +sun shining in pitiless might upon all around, the meagre grass burnt +to a mere straw, the tangled bushes denuded of all verdure save a few +shriveled leaves, the very insects seeking shelter from the rays, there +is not a tree to throw a shadow, but a dancing haze of molten air +hovers upon the ground, and the sea like a mirror reflects a glare, +which makes the heat intolerable. And yet beneath the wave on this +wild and desolate spot glitter those baubles that minister to man's +vanity; and, as though in mockery of such pursuits, I have seen the +bleached skulls of bygone pearl-seekers lying upon the sand, where they +have rotted in view of the coveted treasures. + +There is an appearance of ruin connected with everything in the +neighborhood. Even in the good old times this coast was simply visited +during the period for fishing. Temporary huts were erected for +thousands of natives, who thronged to Ceylon from all parts of the East +for the fascinating speculations of the pearl fishery. No sooner was +the season over than every individual disappeared; the wind swept away +the huts of sticks and leaves; and the only vestiges remaining of the +recent population were the government stores and house at Arripo, like +the bones of the carcase after the vultures had feasted and departed. +All relapsed at once into its usual state of desolation. + +The government house was at one time a building of some little +pretension, and from its style it bore the name of the "Doric." It is +now, like everything else, in a state of lamentable decay. The +honeycombed eighteen pounder, which was the signal gun of former years, +is choked with drifting sand, and the air of misery about the place is +indescribable. + +Now that the diving helmet has rendered subaqueous discoveries, so +easy, I am surprised that a government survey has not been made of the +whole north-west coast of Ceylon. It seems reasonable to suppose that +the pearl oyster should inhabit depths which excluded the simple diver +of former days, and that our modern improvements might discover +treasures in the neighborhood of the old pearl-beds of which we are now +in ignorance. The best divers, without doubt, could never much exceed +a minute in submersion. I believe the accounts of their performances +generally to have been much exaggerated. At all events, those of the +present day do not profess to remain under water much more than a +minute. + +The accounts of Ceylon pearl fisheries are so common in every child's +book that I do not attempt to describe the system in detail. Like all +lotteries, there are few prizes to the proportion of blanks. + +The whole of this coast is rich in the biche de mer more commonly +called the sea-slug. This is a disgusting species of mollusca, which +grows to a large size, being commonly about a foot in length and three +or four inches in diameter. The capture and preparation of these +creatures is confined exclusively to the Chinese, who dry them in the +sun until they shrink to the size of a large sausage and harden to the +consistency of horn; they are then exported to China for making soups. +No doubt they are more strengthening than agreeable; but I imagine that +our common garden slug would be an excellent substitute to any one +desirous of an experiment, as it exactly resembles its nautical +representative in color and appearance. Trincomalee is the great depot +for this trade, which is carried on to a large extent, together with +that of sharks' fins, the latter being used by the Chinese for the same +purpose as the biche de mer. Trincomalee affords many facilities for +this trade, as the slugs are found in large quantities on the spot, and +the finest harbor of the East is alive with sharks. Few things surpass +the tropical beauty of this harbor; lying completely land-locked, it +seems like a glassy lake surrounded by hills covered with the waving +foliage of groves of cocoa-nut trees and palms of great variety. The +white bungalows with their red-tiled roofs, are dotted about along the +shore, and two or three men-of-war are usually resting at their ease in +this calm retreat. So deep is the water that the harbor forms a +perfect dock, as the largest vessel can lie so close to the shore that +her yards overhang it, which enables stores and cargo to be shipped +with great facility. + +The fort stands upon a projecting point of land, which rises to about +seventy feet above the level of the galle face (the race-course) which +faces it. Thus it commands the land approach across this flat plain on +one side and the sea on the other. This same fort is one of the hottest +corners of Ceylon, and forms a desirable residence for those who +delight in a temperature of from 90 degrees to 140 degrees in the +shade. Bathing is the great enjoyment, but the pleasure in such a +country is destroyed by the knowledge that sharks are looking out for +you in the sea, and crocodiles in the rivers and tanks; thus a man is +nothing more than an exciting live-bait when he once quits terra firma. +Accidents necessarily must happen, but they are not so frequent as +persons would suppose from the great number of carnivorous monsters +that exist. Still, I am convinced that a white man would run greater +risk than a black; he is a more enticing bait, being bright and easily +distinguished in the water. Thus in places where the natives are in +the habit of bathing with impunity it would be most dangerous for a +white man to enter. + +There was a lamentable instance of this some few years ago at +Trincomalee. In a sheltered nook among the rocks below the fort, where +the natives were always in the habit of bathing, a party of soldiers of +the regiment then in garrison went down one sultry afternoon for a +swim. It was a lovely spot for bathing; the water was blue, clear and +calm, as the reef that stretched far out to sea served as a breakwater +to the heavy surf, and preserved the inner water as smooth as a lake. +Here were a fine lot of English soldiers stripped to bathe; and +although the ruddy hue of British health had long since departed in the +languid climate of the East, nevertheless their spirits were as high as +those of Englishmen usually are, no matter where or under what +circumstances. However, one after the other took a run, and then a +"header" off the rocks into the deep blue water beneath. In the long +line of bathers was a fine lad of fifteen, the son of one of the +sergeants of the regiment; and with the emulation of his age he ranked +himself among the men, and on arriving at the edge he plunged +head-foremost into the water and disappeared. A crowd of men were on +the margin watching the bathing; the boy rose to the surface within a +few feet of them, but as he shook the water from his hair, a cloudy +shadow seemed to rise from the deep beneath him, and in another moment +the distinct outline of a large shark was visible as his white belly +flashed below. At the same instant there was a scream of despair; the +water was crimsoned, and a bloody foam rose to the surface--the boy was +gone! Before the first shock of horror was well felt by those around, a +gallant fellow of the same regiment shot head first into the bloody +spot, and presently reappeared from his devoted plunge, bearing in his +arms one-half of the poor boy. The body was bitten off at the waist, +and the lower portion was the prize of the ground shark. + +For several days the soldiers were busily employed in fishing for this +monster, while the distracted mother sat in the burning sun, watching +in heart-broken eagerness, in the hope of recovering some trace of her +lost son. This, however, was not to be; the shark was never seen again. + +There is as much difference in the characters of sharks as among other +animals or men. Some are timid and sluggish, moving as though too lazy +to seek their food; and there is little doubt that such would never +attack man. Others, on the contrary, dash through the water as a pike +would seize its prey, and refuse or fear nothing. There is likewise a +striking distinction in the habits of crocodiles; those that inhabit +rivers being far more destructive and fearless than those that infest +the tanks. The natives hold the former in great terror, while with the +latter they run risks which are sometimes fatal. I recollect a large +river in the southeast of Ceylon, which so abounds with ferocious +crocodiles that the natives would not enter the water in depths above +the knees, and even this they objected to, unless necessity compelled +them to cross the river. I was encamped on the banks for some little +time, and the natives took the trouble to warn me especially not to +enter; and, as proof of the danger, they showed me a spot where three +men had been devoured in the course of one year, all three of whom are +supposed to have ministered to the appetite of the same crocodile. + +Few reptiles are more disgusting in appearance than these brutes; but, +nevertheless, their utility counterbalances their bad qualities, as +they cleanse the water from all impurities. So numerous are they that +their heads may be seen in fives and tens together, floating at the top +of the water like rough corks; and at about five P.M. they bask on the +shore close to the margin of the shore ready to scuttle in on the +shortest notice. They are then particularly on the alert, and it is a +most difficult thing to stalk them, so as to get near enough to make a +certain shot. This is not bad amusement when no other sport can be had. +Around the margin of a lake, in a large plain far in the distance, may +be seen a distinct line upon the short grass like the fallen trunk of a +tree. As there are no trees at hand, this must necessarily be a +crocodile. Seldom can the best hand at stalking then get within eighty +yards of him before he lifts his scaly head, and, listening for a +second, plunges off the bank. + +I have been contradicted in stating that a ball will penetrate their +scales. It is absurd, however, to hold the opinion that the scales +will turn a ball--that is to say, stop the ball (as we know that a +common twig will of course turn it from its direction, if struck +obliquely). + +The scales of a crocodile are formed of bone exquisitely jointed +together like the sections of a skull; these are covered externally +with a horny skin, forming, no doubt, an excellent defensive armor, +about an inch in thickness; but the idea of their being impenetrable to +a ball, if struck fair, is a great fallacy. People may perhaps +complain because a pea rifle with a mere pinch of powder may be +inefficient, but a common No. 16 fowling-piece, with two drachms of +powder, will penetrate any crocodile that was ever hatched. + +Among the most harmless kinds are those which inhabit the salt lakes in +the south of Ceylon. I have never beard of an accident in these +places, although hundreds of persons are employed annually in +collecting salt from the bottom. + +These natural reservoirs are of great extent, some of them being many +miles in circumference. Those most productive are about four miles +round, and yield a supply in August, during the height of the dry +season. + +Salt in Ceylon is a government monopoly; and it has hitherto been the +narrow policy of the government to keep up an immense price upon this +necessary of life, when the resources of the country could produce any +amount required for the island consumption. + +These are now all but neglected, and the government simply gathers the +salt as the wild pig feeds upon the fruit which falls from the tree in +its season. + +The government price of salt is now about three shillings per bushel. +This is very impure, being mixed with much dirt and sand. The revenue +obtained by the salt monopoly is about forty thousand pounds per annum, +two-thirds of which is an unfair burden upon the population, as the +price, according to the supply obtainable, should never exceed one +shilling per bushel. + +Let us consider the capabilities of the locality from which it is +collected. + +The lakes are some five or six in number, situated within half a mile +of the sea, separated only by a high bank of drift sand, covered for +the most part with the low jungle which clothes the surrounding +country. Flat plains of a sandy nature form the margins of the lakes. +The little town of Hambantotte, with a good harbor for small craft, is +about twenty miles distant, to which there is a good cart road. + +The water of these lakes is a perfect brine. In the dry season the +evaporation, of course, increases the strength until the water can no +longer retain the amount of salt in solution it therefore precipitates +and crystalizes at the bottom in various degrees of thickness, +according to the strength of the brine. + +Thus, as the water recedes from the banks by evaporation and the lake +decreases in size, it leaves a beach, not of shingles, but of pure salt +in crystallized cubes, to the depth of several inches, and sometimes to +half a foot or more. The bottom of the lake is equally coated with +this thick deposit. + +These lakes are protected by watchers, who live upon the margin +throughout the year. Were it not for this precaution, immense +quantities of salt would be stolen. In the month of August the weather +is generally most favorable for the collection, at which time the +assistant agent for the district usually gives a few days' +superintendence. + +The salt upon the shore being first collected, the natives wade into +the lake and gather the deposit from the bottom, which they bring to +the shore in baskets; it is then made up into vast piles, which are +subsequently thatched over with cajans (the plaited leaf of the +cocoanut). In this state it remains until an opportunity offers for +carting it to the government salt stores. + +This must strike the reader as being a rude method of collecting what +Nature so liberally produces. The waste is necessarily enormous, as +the natives cannot gather the salt at a greater depth than three feet; +hence the greater proportion of the annual produce of the lake remains +ungathered. The supply at present afforded might be trebled with very +little trouble or expense. + +If a stick is inserted in the mud, so that one end stands above water, +the salt crystallizes upon it in a large lump of several pounds' +weight. This is of a better quality than that which is gathered from +the bottom, being free from sand or other impurities. Innumerable +samples of this may be seen upon the stakes which the natives have +stuck in the bottom to mark the line of their day's work. These, not +being removed, amass a collection of salt as described. + +Were the government anxious to increase the produce of these natural +reservoirs, nothing could be more simple than to plant the whole lake +with rows of stakes. The wood is on the spot, and the rate of labor +sixpence a day per man; thus it might be accomplished for a +comparatively small amount. + +This would not only increase the produce to an immense degree, but it +would also improve the purity of the collection, and would render +facilities for gathering the crop by means of boats, and thus obviate +the necessity of entering the water; at present the suffering caused by +the latter process is a great drawback to the supply of labor. So +powerful is the brine that the legs and feet become excoriated after +two or three days' employment, and the natives have accordingly a great +aversion to the occupation. + +Nothing could be easier than gathering the crop by the method proposed. +Boats would paddle along between the rows of stakes, while each stick +would be pulled up and the salt disengaged by a single blow; the stick +would then be replaced in its position until the following season. + +Nevertheless, although so many specimens exist of this accumulation, +the method which was adopted by the savage is still followed by the +soi-disant civilized man. + +In former days, when millions occupied Ceylon, the demand for salt must +doubtless have been in proportion, and the lakes which are now so +neglected must have been taxed to their utmost resources. There can be +little doubt that the barbarians of those times had some more civilized +method of increasing the production than the enlightened race of the +present day. + +The productive salt lakes are confined entirely to the south of Ceylon. +Lakes and estuaries of sea-water abound all round the island, but these +are only commonly salt, and do not yield. The north and the east +coasts are therefore supplied by artificial salt-pans. These are +simple enclosed levels on the beach, into which the sea-water is +admitted, and then allowed to evaporate by the heat of the sun. The +salt of course remains at the bottom. More water is then admitted, and +again evaporated; and this process continues until the thickness of the +salt at the bottom allows of its being collected. + +This simple plan might be adopted with great success with the powerful +brine of the salt lakes, which might be pumped from its present lower +level into dry reservoirs for evaporation. + +The policy of the government, however, does not tend to the increase of +any production. It is preferred to keep up the high rate of salt by a +limited supply, which meets with immediate demand, rather than to +increase the supply for the public benefit at a reduced rate. This is +a mistaken mode of reasoning. At the present high price the +consumption of salt is extremely small, is its rise is restricted to +absolute necessaries. On the other hand, were the supply increased at +one half the present rate, the consumption would augment in a far +greater proportion, as salt would then be used for a variety of +purposes which at the present cost is impossible, viz. For the purpose +of cattle-feeding, manures, etc., etc. In addition to this, it would +vastly affect the price of salt fish (the staple article of native +consumption), and by the reduction in cost of this commodity there +would be a corresponding extension in the trade. + +The hundreds of thousands of hides which are now thrown aside to rot +uncared for would then be preserved and exported, which at the present +rate of salt is impossible. The skins of buffaloes, oxen, deer, swine, +all valuable in other parts of the world, in Ceylon are valueless. The +wild buffalo is not even skinned when shot; he is simply opened for his +marrow-bones, his tail is cut off for soup, his brains taken out for +cotelettes, and his tongue salted. The beast himself, hide and all, is +left as food for the jackal. The wandering native picks up his horns, +which find their way to the English market; but the "hide," the only +really valuable portion, is neglected. + +Within a short distance of the salt lakes, buffaloes, boars, and in +fact all kind of animals abound, and I have no doubt that if it were +once proved to the natives that the hides could be made remunerative, +they would soon learn the method of preparation. + +Some persons have an idea that a native will not take the trouble to do +anything that would turn a penny; in this I do not agree. Certainly a +native has not sufficient courage for a speculation which involves the +risk of loss; but provided he is safe in that respect, he will take +unbounded trouble for his own benefit, not valuing his time or labor in +pursuit of his object. + +I have noticed a great change in the native habits along the southern +coast which exemplifies this, since the steamers have touched regularly +at Galle. + +Some years ago, elephants, buffaloes, etc., when shot by sportsmen, +remained untouched except by wild beast; but now within one hundred and +fifty miles of Galle every buffalo horn is collected and even the +elephant's grinders are extracted from the skulls, and brought into +market. + +An elephant's grinder averages seven pounds in weight, and is not worth +more than from a penny to three half-pence a pound; nevertheless they +are now brought to Galle in large quantities to be made into +knife-handles and sundry ornaments, to tempt the passengers of the +various steamers. If the native takes this trouble for so small a +recompense, there is every reason to suppose that the hides now wasted +would be brought into market and form a valuable export, were salt at +such a rate as would admit of their preparation. + +The whole of the southern coast, especially in the neighborhood of the +salt lakes, abounds with fish. These are at present nearly undisturbed; +but I have little doubt that a reduction in the price of salt would +soon call forth the energies of the Moormen, who would establish +fisheries in the immediate neighborhood. This would be of great +importance to the interior of the country, as a road has been made +within the last few years direct from this locality to Badulla, distant +about eighty miles, and situated in the very heart of the most populous +district of Ceylon. This road, which forms a direct line of +communication from the port of Hambantotte to Newera Ellia, is now much +used for the transport of coffee from the Badulla estates, to which a +cheap supply of salt and fish would be a great desideratum. + +The native is a clever fellow at fishing. Every little boy of ten +years old along the coast is an adept in throwing the casting net; and +I have often watched with amusement the scientific manner in which some +of these little fellows handle a fine fish on a single line; Isaak +Walton would have been proud of such pupils. + +There is nothing like necessity for sharpening a man's intellect, and +the natives of the coast being a class of ichthyophagi, it may be +imagined that they excel in all the methods of capturing their favorite +food. + +The sea, the rivers, and in fact every pool, teem with fish of +excellent quality, from the smallest to the largest kind, not +forgetting the most delicious prawns and crabs. Turtle likewise +abound, and are to be caught in great numbers in their season. + +Notwithstanding the immense amount of fish in the various rivers, there +is no idea of fishing as a sport among the European population of +Ceylon. This I cannot account for, unless from the fear of fever, +which might be caught with more certainty than fish by standing up to +the knees in water under a burning sun. Nevertheless, I have indulged +in this every now and then, when out on a jungle trip, although I have +never started from home with such an intention. Seeing some fine big +fellows swimming about in a deep hole is a great temptation, especially +when you know they are grey mullet, and the chef de cuisine is short of +the wherewithal for dinner. + +This is not infrequently the case during a jungle trip; and the tent +being pitched in the shade of a noble forest on the steep banks of a +broad river, thoughts of fishing naturally intrude themselves. + +The rivers in the dry season are so exhausted that a simple bed of +broad dry sand remains, while a small stream winds along the bottom, +merely a few inches deep, now no more than a few feet in width, now +rippling over a few opposing rocks, while the natural bed extends its +dry sand for many yards on either side. At every bend in the river +there is of course a deep hole close to the bank; these holes remain +full of water, as the little stream continues to flow through them; and +the water, in its entrance and exit being too shallow for a large fish, +all the finny monsters of the river are compelled to imprison +themselves in the depths of these holes. Here the crocodiles have fine +feeding, as they live in the same place. + +With a good rod and tackle there would be capital sport in these +places, as some of the fish run ten and twelve pounds weight; but I +have never been well provided, and, while staring at the coveted fish +from the bank, I have had no means of catching them, except by the most +primitive methods. + +Then I have cut a stick for a rod, and made a line with some hairs from +my horse's tail, with a pin for a hook, baited with a shrimp, and the +fishing has commenced. + +Fish and fruit are the most enjoyable articles of food in a tropical +country, and in the former Ceylon is rich. The seir fish is little +inferior to salmon, and were the flesh a similar color, it might +sometimes form a substitute. Soles and whiting remind us of Old +England, but a host of bright red, blue, green, yellow, and +extraordinary-looking creatures in the same net dispel all ideas of +English fishing. + +Oysters there are likewise in Ceylon; but here, alas I there is a sad +falling off in the comparison with our well-remembered "native." +Instead of the neat little shell of the English oyster, the Ceylon +species is a shapeless, twisted, knotty, rocky-looking creature, such +as a legitimate oyster would be in a fit of spasms or convulsions. In +fact, there is no vestige of the true breed about it, and the want of +flavor equals its miserable exterior. + +There are few positions more tantalizing to a hungry man than that of +being surrounded b oysters without a knife. It is an obstinate and +perverse wretch that will not accommodate itself to man's appetite, and +it requires a forcible attack to vanquish it; so that every oyster +eaten is an individual murder, in which the cold steel has been plunged +into its vitals, and the animal finds itself swallowed before it as +quite made up its mind that it has been opened. But take away the +knife, and see how vain is the attempt to force the stronghold. How +utterly useless is the oyster! You may turn it over and over, and look +for a weak place, but there is no admittance; you may knock it with a +stone, but the knock will be unanswered. How would you open such a +creature without a knife? + +This was one of the many things that had never occurred to me until one +day when I found myself with some three or four friends and a few +boatmen on a little island, or rather a rock, about a mile from the +shore. This rock was rich in the spasmodic kind of oyster, large +detached masses of which lay just beneath the water in lumps of some +hundredweight each, which had been formed by the oysters clustering and +adhering together. It so happened that our party were unanimous in the +love of these creatures, and we accordingly exerted ourselves to roll +out of the water a large mass; which having accomplished, we discovered +to our dismay that nothing but one penknife was possessed among us. +This we knew was a useless weapon against such armor; however, in our +endeavors to perform impossibilities, we tickled the oyster and broke +the knife. After gazing for seine time in blank despair at our useless +prize, a bright thought struck one of the party, and drawing his ramrod +he began to screw it Into the weakest part of an oyster; this, however, +was proof, and the ramrod broke. + +Stupid enough it may appear, but it was full a quarter of an hour +before any of us thought of a successful plan of attack. I noticed a +lot of drift timber scattered upon the island, and then the right idea +was hit. We gathered the wood, which was bleached and dry, an we piled +it a few feet to windward of the mass of oysters. Striking a light +with a cap and some powder, we lit the pile. It blazed and the wind +blew the heat strong upon the oysters, which accordingly began to +squeak and hiss, until one by one they gave up the ghost, and, opening +their shells, exposed their delightfully roasted bodies, which were +eaten forthwith. + +How very absurd and uninteresting this is! but nevertheless it is one +of those trifling incidents which sharpen the imagination when you +depend upon your own resources. + +It is astonishing how perfectly helpless some people are if taken from +the artificial existence of every-day life and thrown entirely upon +themselves. One man would be in superlative misery while another would +enjoy the responsibility, and delight in the fertility of his own +invention in accommodating himself to circumstances. A person can +scarcely credit the unfortunate number of articles necessary for his +daily and nightly comfort, until he is deprived of them. To realize +this, lose yourself, good reader, wander off a great distance from +everywhere, and be benighted in a wild country, with nothing but your +rifle and hunting-knife. You will then find yourself dinnerless, +supperless, houseless, comfortless, sleepless, cold and miserable, if +you do not know how to manage for yourself. You will miss your dinner +sadly if you are not accustomed to fast for twenty-four hours. You +will also miss your bed decidedly, and your toothbrush in the morning; +but if, on the other hand, you are of the right stamp, it is +astonishing how lightly these little troubles will sit on you, and how +comfortable you will make yourself under the circumstances. + +The first thing you will consider is the house. The architectural +style will of course depend upon the locality. If the ground is rocky +and hilly, be sure to make a steep pitch in the bank or the side of a +rock form a wall, to leeward of which you will lie when your mansion is +completed by a few sticks simply inclined from the rock and covered +with grass. If the country is flat, you must cut four forked sticks, +and erect a villa after this fashion in skeleton-work, which you then +cover with grass. + +You will then strew the floor with grass or, small boughs, in lieu of a +feather bed, and you will tie up a bundle of the same material into a +sheaf, which will form a capital pillow. If grass and sticks are at +hand, this will be completed thus far in an hour. + +Then comes the operation of fire-making, which is by no means easy; and +as warmth comes next to food, and a blaze both scares wild animals and +looks cheerful, I advise some attention to be paid to the fire. There +must be a good collection of old fallen logs, if possible, together +with some green wood to prevent too rapid a consumption of fuel. But +the fire is not yet made. + +First tear off a bit of your shirt and rub it with moistened gunpowder. +Wind this in a thick roll round your ramrod just below the point of the +screw, with the rough torn edge uppermost. Into these numerous folds +sprinkle a pinch of gunpowder; then put a cap on the point of the +screw, and a slight tap with your hunting-knife explodes it and ignites +the linen. + +Now, fire in its birth requires nursing like a young baby, or it will +leave you in the lurch. A single spark will perhaps burn your +haystacks, but when you want a fire it seldom will burn, out of sheer +obstinacy; therefore, take a wisp of dry grass, into which push the +burning linen and give it a rapid, circular motion through the air, +which will generally set it in a blaze. + +Then pile gently upon it the smallest and driest sticks, increasing +their size as the fire grows till it is all right; and you will sit +down proudly before your own fire, thoroughly confident that you are +the first person that ever made one properly. + +There is some comfort in that; and having manufactured your own house +and bed, you will lie down snugly and think of dinner till you fall +asleep, and the crowing of the jungle-cocks will wake you in the +morning. + +The happiest hours of my life have been passed in this rural solitude. +I have started from home with nothing but a couple of blankets and the +hounds, and, with one blanket wrapped round me I have slept beneath a +capital tent formed of the other with two forked sticks and a +horizontal pole--the ends of the blanket being secured by heavy stones, +thus-- + +This is a more comfortable berth than it may appear at first sight, +especially if one end is stopped up with boughs. The ridge-pole being +only two feet and a half high, renders it necessary to crawl in on +all-fours; but this lowness of ceiling has its advantages in not +catching the wind, and likewise in its warmth. A blanket roof, well +secured and tightly strained, will keep off the heaviest rain for a +much longer period than a common tent; but in thoroughly wet weather +any woven roof is more or less uncomfortable. + +I recollect a certain bivouac in the Angora patinas for a few days' +hunting, when I was suddenly seized with a botanical fit in a culinary +point of view, and I was determined to make the jungle subscribe +something toward the dinner. To my delight, I discovered some plants +which, from the appearance of their leaves, I knew were a species of +wild yam; they grew in a ravine on the swampy soil of a sluggish +spring, and the ground being loose, I soon grubbed them up and found a +most satisfactory quantity of yams about the size of large +potatoes--not bad things for dinner. Accordingly, they were soon +transferred to the pot. Elk steaks and an Irish stew, the latter to be +made of elk chops, onions and the prized yams; this was the bill of +fare expected. But, misericordia! what a change cone over the yams +when boiled! they turned a beautiful slate color, and looked like +imitations of their former selves in lead. + +Their appearance was uncommonly bad, certainly. There were three of us +to feed upon them, viz., Palliser, my huntsman Benton and myself. No +one wishing to be first, it was then, I confess, that the thought just +crossed my mind that Benton should make the experiment, but, repenting +at the same moment, I punished myself by eating a very little one on +the spot. Benton, who was blessed with a huge appetite, picked out a +big one. Greedy fellow, to choose the largest! but, n'importe, it +brought its punishment. + +Palliser and I having eaten carefully, were just beginning to feel +uncomfortable, when up jumped Benton, holding his throat with both +hands, crying, "My throat's full of pins. I'm choked." "We are +poisoned, no doubt of it," said Palliser, in his turn. "I am choking +likewise." "So am I." There we were all three, with our throats in an +extraordinary state of sudden contraction and inflammation, with a +burning and pricking sensation, in addition to a feeling of swelling +and stoppage of the windpipe. Having nothing but brandy at hand, we +dosed largely instanter, and in the course of ten minutes we found +relief; but Benton, having, eaten his large yam, was the last to +recover. + +There must have been highly poisonous qualities in this root, as the +quantity eaten was nothing in proportion to the effects produced. It +is well known that many roots are poisonous when raw (especially the +manioc), which become harmless when cooked, as the noxious properties +consist of a very volatile oil, which is thrown off during the process +of boiling. These wild yams must necessarily be still worse in their +raw state; and it struck me, after their effects became known, that I +had never seen them grubbed up by the wild hogs; this neglect being a +sure proof of their unfitness for food. + +In these Augora patinas a curious duel was lately fought by a pair of +wild bull elephants, both of whom were the raree aves of Ceylon, +"tuskers." These two bulls had consorted with a herd, and had no doubt +quarreled about the possession of the females. They accordingly fought +it out to the death, as a large tusker was found recently killed, with +his body bored in many directions by his adversary's tusks, the ground +in the vicinity being trodden down with elephant tracks proving the +obstinacy of the fight. + +The last time that I was in this locality poor old Bluebeard was alive, +and had been performing feats in elk-hunting which no dog could +surpass. A few weeks later and he ran his last elk, and left a sad +blank in the pack. + +Good and bad luck generally come in turn; but when the latter does pay +a visit, it falls rather heavily, especially among the hounds. In one +year I lost nearly the whole pack. Seven died in one week from an +attack upon the brain, appearing in a form fortunately unknown in +England. In the same year I lost no less than four of the best hounds +by leopards, in addition to a fearful amount of casualties from other +causes. + +Shortly after the appearance of the epidemic alluded to, I took the +hounds to the Totapella Plains for a fortnight, for chance of air, +while their kennel was purified and re-whitewashed. + +In these Totapella Plains I had a fixed encampment, which, being within +nine miles of my house, I could visit at any time with the hounds, +without the slightest preparation. There was an immense number of elk +in this part of the country; in fact this was a great drawback to the +hunting, as two or more were constantly on foot at the same time, which +divided the hounds and scattered them in all directions. This made +hard work of the sport, as this locality is nothing but a series of ups +and downs. The plains, as they are termed, are composed of some +hundred grassy hills, of about a hundred feet elevation above the +river; these rise like half oranges in every direction, while a high +chain of precipitous mountains walls in one side of the view. +Forest-covered hills abound in the centre and around the skirts of the +plains, while a deep river winds in a circuitous route between the +grassy hills. + +My encampment was well chosen in this romantic spot. It was a place +where you might live all your life without seeing a soul except a +wandering bee-hunter, or a native sportsman who had ventured up from +the low country to shoot an elk. + +Surrounded on all sides but one with steep hills, my hunting settlement +lay snugly protected from the wind in a little valley. A small jungle +about a hundred yards square grew at the base of one of these grassy +hills, in which, having cleared the underwood for about forty yards, I +left the rarer trees standing, and erected my huts under their shelter +at the exact base of the knoll. This steep rise broke off into an +abrupt cliff about sixty yards from my tent, against which the river +had waged constant war, and, turning in an endless vortex, had worn a +deep hole, before it shot off in a rapid torrent from the angle, +dashing angrily over the rocky masses which had fallen from the +overhanging cliff, and coming to a sudden rest in a broad deep pool +within twenty yards of the tent door. + +This was a delicious spot. Being snugly hidden in the jungle, there +was no sign of my encampment from the plain, except the curling blue +smoke which rose from the little hollow. A plot of grass of some two +acres formed the bottom of the valley before my habitation, at the +extremity of which the river flowed, backed on the opposite side by an +abrupt hill covered with forest and jungle. + +This being a chilly part of Ceylon, I had thatched the walls of my +tent, and made a good gridiron bedstead, to keep me from the damp +ground, by means of forked upright sticks, two horizontal bars and +numerous cross-pieces. This was covered with six inches' thickness of +grass, strapped down with the bark of a fibrous shrub. My table and +bench were formed in the same manner, being of course fixtures, but +most substantial. The kitchen, huts for attendants and kennel were +close adjoining. I could have lived there all my life in fine weather. +I wish I was there now with all my heart. However, I had sufficient +bad luck on my last visit to have disgusted most people. Poor +Matchless, who was as good as her name implied, died of inflammation of +the lungs; and I started one morning in very low spirits at her loss, +hoping to cheer myself up by a good hunt. + +It was not long before old Bluebeard's opening note was heard high upon +the hill-tops; but, at the same time, a portion of the pack had found +another elk, which, taking an opposite direction, of course divided +them. Being determined to stick to Bluebeard to the last, I made +straight through the jungle toward the point at which I had heard a +portion of the pack join him, intending to get upon their track and +follow up. This I soon did; and after running for some time through +the jungle, which, being young "nillho," was unmistakably crushed by +the elk and hounds, I came to a capital though newly-made path, as a +single elephant, having been disturbed by the cry of the hounds, had +started off at full speed; and the elk and hounds, naturally choosing +the easiest route through the jungle, had kept upon his track. This I +was certain of, as the elk's print sunk deep in that of the elephant, +whose dung, lying upon the spot, was perfectly hot. + +I fully expected that the hounds would bring the elephant to bay, which +is never pleasant when you are without a gun; however, they did not, +but, sticking to their true game, they went straight away toward the +chain of mountains at the end of the plain. The river, in making its +exit, is checked by abrupt precipices, and accordingly makes an angle +and then descends a ravine toward the low country. + +I felt sure, from the nature of the ground and the direction of the +run, that the elk would come to bay in this ravine; and, after half an +hour's run, I was delighted, on arriving on the hill above, to hear the +bay, of the bounds in the river far below. + +The jungle was thick and tangled, but it did not take long, to force my +way down the steep mountain side, and I neared the spot and heard the +splashing in the river, as the elk, followed by the hounds, dashed +across just before I came in view. He had broken his bay; and, +presently, I again heard the chorus of voices as he once more came to a +stand a few hundred paces down the river. + +The bamboo was so thick that I could hardly break my way through it; +and I was crashing along toward the spot, when suddenly the bay ceased, +and shortly after some of the hounds came hurrying up to me regularly +scared. Lena, who seldom showed a symptom of fear, dashed up to me in +a state of great excitement, with the deep scores of a leopard's claws +on her hindquarters. Only two couple of the hounds followed on the +elk's track; the rest were nowhere. + +The elk had doubled back, and I saw old Bluebeard leading upon the +scent up the bank of the river, followed by three other bounds. + +The surest, although the hardest work, was to get on the track and +follow up through the jungle. This I accordingly did for about a mile, +at which distance I arrived at a small swampy plain in the centre of +the jungle. Here, to my surprise, I saw old Bluebeard sitting up and +looking faint, covered with blood, with no other dog within view. The +truth was soon known upon examination. No less than five holes were +cut in his throat by a leopard's claws, and by the violent manner in +which the poor dog strained and choked, I felt sure that the windpipe +was injured. There was no doubt that he had received the stroke at the +same time that Lena was wounded beneath the rocky mountain when the elk +was at bay; and nevertheless, the staunch old dog had persevered in the +chase till the difficulty of breathing brought him to a standstill. I +bathed the wounds, but I knew it was his last day, poor old fellow! + +I sounded the bugle for a few minutes, and having collected some of the +scattered pack I returned to the tent, leading the wounded dog, whose +breathing rapidly became more difficult. I lost no time in fomenting +and poulticing the part, but the swelling had commenced to such an +extent that there was little hope of recovery. + +This was a dark day for the pack. Benton returned in the afternoon +from a search for the missing hounds, and, as he descended the deep +hill-side on approaching the tent, I saw tent he and a native were +carrying something slung upon a pole. At first I thought it was an +elk's head, which the missing hounds might have run to bay, but on his +arrival the worst was soon known. + +It was poor Leopold, one of my best dogs. He was all but dead, with +hopeless wounds in his throat and belly. He had been struck by a +leopard within a few yards of Benton's side, and, with his usual pluck, +the dog turned upon the leopard in spite of his wounds, when the +cowardly brute, seeing the man, turned and fled. + +That night Leopold died. The next morning Bluebeard was so bad that I +returned home with him slung in a litter between two men. Poor fellow! +he never lived to reach his comfortable kennel, but died in the litter +within a mile of home. I had him buried by the side of old Smut, and +there are no truer dogs on the earth than the two that there lie +together. + +A very few weeks after Bluebeard's death, however, I got a taste of +revenge out of one of the race. + +Palliser and I were out shooting, and we found a single bull elephant +asleep in the dry bed of a stream; we were stealing quietly up to him, +when his guardian spirit whispered something in his ear, and up he +jumped. However, we polished him off, and having reloaded, we passed +on. + +The country consisted of low, thorny jungle and small sandy plains of +short turf, and we were just entering one of these open spots within a +quarter of a mile of the dead elephant, when we observed a splendid +leopard crouching at the far end of the glade. He was about ninety +paces from us, lying broadside on, with his head turned to the opposite +direction, evidently looking out for game. His crest was bristled up +with excitement, and he formed a perfect picture of beauty both in +color and attitude. + +Halting our gun-bearers, we stalked him within sixty yards; he looked +quickly round, and his large hazel eyes shone full upon us, as the two +rifles made one report, and his white belly lay stretched upon the +ground. + +They were both clean shots: Palliser had aimed at his head, and had cut +off one ear and laid the skin open at the back of the neck. My ball +had smashed both shoulders, but life was not fairly extinct. We +therefore strangled him with my necktie, as I did not wish to spoil his +hide by any further wound. This was a pleasing sacrifice to the +"manes" of old Bluebeard. + +E. Palliser had at one time the luck to have a fair turn up with a +leopard with the dogs and hunting-knife. At that time he kept a pack +at Dimboola, about nine miles from my house. Old Bluebeard belonged to +him, and he had a fine dog named "Pirate," who was the heaviest and +best of his seizers. + +He was out hunting with two or three friends, when suddenly a leopard +sprang from the jungle at one of the smaller hounds as they were +passing quietly along a forest path. Halloaing the pack on upon the +instant, every dog gave chase, and a short run brought him to bay in +the usual place of refuge, the boughs of a tree. + +However, it so happened that there was a good supply of large sharp +stones upon the soil, and with these the whole party kept up a spirited +bombardment, until at length one lucky shot hit him on the head, and at +the same moment he fell or jumped into the middle of the pack. Here +Pirate came to the front in grand style and collared him, while the +whole pack backed him up without an exception. + +There was a glorious struggle of course, which was terminated by the +long arm of our friend Palliser, who slipped the hunting-knife into him +and became a winner. This is the only instance that I know of a +leopard being run into and killed with hounds and a knife. + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +Wild Denizens of Forest and Lake--Destroyers of Reptiles--The Tree +Duck--The Mysteries of Night in the Forest--The Devil-Bird--The +Iguanodon in Miniature--Outrigger Canoes--The Last Glimpse of Ceylon--A +Glance at Old Times. + + +One of the most interesting objects to a tourist in Ceylon is a +secluded lake or tank in those jungle districts which are seldom +disturbed by the white man. There is something peculiarly striking in +the wonderful number of living creatures which exist upon the +productions of the water. Birds of infinite variety and countless +numbers--fish in myriads--reptiles and crocodiles--animals that feed +upon the luxuriant vegetation of the shores--insects which sparkle in +the sunshine in every gaudy hue; all these congregate in the +neighborhood of these remote solitudes, and people the lakes with an +incalculable host of living beings. + +In such a scene there is scope for much delightful study of the habits +and natures of wild animals, where they can be seen enjoying their +freedom unrestrained by the fear of man. + +Often have I passed a quiet hour on a calm evening when the sun has +sunk low on the horizon, and lie cool breeze has stolen across the +water, refreshing all animal life. Here, concealed beneath the shade +of some large tree I have watched the masses of living things quite +unconscious of such scrutiny. In one spot the tiny squirrel nibbling +the buds on a giant limb of the tree above me, while on the opposite +shore a majestic bull elephant has commenced his evening bath, +showering the water above his head and trumpeting his loud call to the +distant herd. Far away in the dense jungles the ringing sound is +heard, as the answering females return the salute and slowly approach +the place of rendezvous. One by one their dark forms emerge from the +thorny coverts and loom large upon the green but distant shores, and +they increase their pace when they view the coveted water, and +belly-deep enjoy their evening draught. + +The graceful axis in dense herds quit the screening jungle and also +seek the plain. The short, shrill barks of answering bucks sound +clearly across the surface of the lake, and indistinct specks begin to +appear on the edge of the more distant forests. Now black patches are +clotted about the plain; now larger objects, some single and some in +herds, make toward the water. The telescope distinguishes the vast +herds of hogs busy in upturning the soil in search of roots, and the +ungainly buffaloes, some in herds and others single bulls, all +gathering at the hour of sunset toward the water. Peacocks spread +their gaudy plumage to the cool evening air as they strut over the +green plain; the giant crane stands statue-like among the shallows; the +pelican floats like a ball of snow upon the dark water; and ducks and +waterfowl of all kinds splash, and dive, and scream in a confused +noise, the volume of which explains their countless numbers. + +Foremost among the waterfowl for beauty is the water-pheasant. He is +generally seen standing upon the broad leaf of a lotus, pecking at the +ripe seeds and continually uttering his plaintive cry, like the very +distant note of a hound. This bird is most beautifully formed, and his +peculiarity of color is well adapted to his shape. He is something +like a cock pheasant in build and mode of carriage, but he does not +exceed the size of a pigeon. His color is white, with a fine brown +tinsel glittering head and long tail; the wings of the cock bird are +likewise ornamented with similar brown tinsel feathers. These birds +are delicious eating, but I seldom fire at them, as they are generally +among the lotus plants in such deep water that I dare not venture to +get them on account of crocodiles. The lotus seeds, which they devour +greedily, are a very good substitute for filberts, and are slightly +narcotic. + +The endless variety of the crane is very interesting upon these lonely +shores. From the giant crane, who stands nearly six feet high, down to +the smallest species of paddy bird, there is a numerous gradation. +Among these the gaunt adjutant stands conspicuous as he stalks with +measured steps through the high rushes, now plunging his immense bill +into the tangled sedges, then triumphantly throwing back his head with +a large snake writhing helplessly in his horny beak; open fly the +shear-like hinges of his bill--one or two sharp jerks and down goes one +half of an incredibly large snake; another jerk and a convulsive +struggle of the snake; one more jerk--snap, snap goes the bill and the +snake has disappeared, while the adjutant again stalks quietly on, as +though nothing had happened. Down goes his bill, presently, with a +sudden start, and again his head is thrown back; but this time it is +the work of a moment, as it is only an iguana, which not being above +eighteen inches long, is easy swallowing. + +A great number of the crane species are destroyers of snakes, which in +a country so infested with vermin as Ceylon renders them especially +valuable. Peacocks likewise wage perpetual war with all kinds of +reptiles, and Nature has wisely arranged that where these nuisances +most abound there is a corresponding provision for their destruction. + +Snipes, of course, abound in their season around the margin of the +lakes; but the most delicious birds for the table are the teal and +ducks, of which there are four varieties. The largest duck is nearly +the size of a wild goose, and has a red, fatty protuberance about the +beak very similar to a muscovy. The teal are the fattest and most +delicious birds that I have ever tasted. Cooked in Soyer's magic stove, +with a little butter, cayenne pepper, a squeeze of lime juice, a pinch +of salt, and a spoonful of Lea and Perrins' Worcester sauce (which, by +the by, is the best in the world for a hot climate), and there is no +bird like a Ceylon teal. They are very numerous, and I have seen them +in flocks of some thousands on the salt-water lakes on the eastern +coast, where they are seldom or ever disturbed. Nevertheless, they are +tolerably wary, which, of course, increases the sport of shooting them. +I have often thought what a paradise these lakes would have made for +the veteran Colonel Hawker with his punt gun. He might have paddled +about and blazed away to his heart's content. + +There is one kind of duck that would undoubtedly have astonished him, +and which would have slightly bothered the punt gun for an elevation: +this is the tree duck, which flies about and perches in the branches of +the lofty trees like any nightingale. This has an absurd effect, as a +duck looks entirely out of place in such a situation. I have seen a +whole cluster of them sitting on one branch, and when I first observed +them I killed three at one shot to make it a matter of certainty. + +It is a handsome light brown bird, about the size of an English +widgeon, but there is no peculiar formation in the feet to enable them +to cling to a bough; they are bona fide ducks with the common flat web +foot. + +A very beautiful species of bald-pated coot, called by the natives +keetoolle, is also an inhabitant of the lakes. This bird is of a +bright blue color with a brilliant pink horny head. He is a slow +flyer, being as bulky as a common fowl and short in his proportion of +wing. + +It is impossible to convey a correct idea of the number and variety of +birds in these localities, and I will not trouble the reader by a +description which would be very laborious to all parties; but to those +who delight in ornithological studies there is a wild field which would +doubtless supply many new specimens. + +I know nothing more interesting than the acquaintance with all the wild +denizens of mountain and plain, lake and river. There is always +something fresh to learn, something new to admire, in the boundless +works of creation. There is a charm in every sound in Nature where the +voice of man is seldom heard to disturb her works. Every note gladdens +the ear in the stillness of solitude, when night has overshadowed the +earth, and all sleep but the wild animals of the forest. Then I have +often risen from my bed, when the tortures of mosquitoes have banished +all ideas of rest, and have silently wandered from the tent to listen +in the solemn quiet of night. + +I have seen the tired coolies stretched round the smouldering fires +sound asleep after their day's march, wrapped in their white clothes, +like so many corpses laid upon the ground. The flickering logs on the +great pile of embers crackling and sinking as they consume; now falling +suddenly and throwing up a shower of sparks, then resting again in a +dull red heat, casting a silvery moonlike glare upon the foliage of the +spreading trees above. A little farther on, and the horses standing +sleepily at their tethers, their heads drooping in a doze. Beyond +them, and all is darkness and wilderness. No human dwelling or being +beyond the little encampment I have quitted; the dark lake reflecting +the stars like a mirror, and the thin crescent moon giving a pale and +indistinct glare which just makes night visible. + +It is a lovely hour then to wander forth and wait for wild sounds. All +is still except the tiny hum of the mosquitoes. Then the low chuckling +note of the night hawk sounds soft and melancholy in the distance; and +again all is still, save the heavy and impatient stamp of a horse as +the mosquitoes irritate him by their bites. Quiet again for a few +seconds, when presently the loud alarm of the plover rings over the +plain--"Did he do it?"--the bird's harsh cry speaks these words as +plainly as a human being. This alarm is a certain warning that some +beast is stalking abroad which has disturbed it from its roost, but +presciently it is again hushed. + +The loud hoarse bark of an elk now unexpectedly startles the ear; +presently it is replied to by another, and once more the plover shrieks +"Did he do it?" and a peacock waking on his roost gives one loud scream +and sleeps again. + +The heavy and regular splashing of water now marks the measured tread +of a single elephant as he roars out into the cooled lake, and you can +hear the more gentle falling of water as he spouts a shower over his +body. Hark at the deep guttural sigh of pleasure that travels over the +lake like a moan of the wind!--what giant lungs to heave such a breath; +but hark again! There was a fine trumpet! as clear as any bugle note +blown by a hundred breaths it rung through the still air. How +beautiful! There, the note is answered; not by so fine a tone, but by +discordant screams and roars from the opposite side, and the louder +splashing tells that the herd is closing up to the old bull. Like +distant thunder a deep roar growls across the lake as the old monarch +mutters to himself in angry impatience. + +Then the long, tremulous hoot of the owl disturbs the night, mingled +with the harsh cries of flights of waterfowl, which doubtless the +elephants have disturbed while bathing. + +Once more all sounds sink to rest for a few minutes, until the low, +grating roar of a leopard nearer home warns the horses of their danger +and wakes up the sleeping horsekeeper, who piles fresh wood upon the +fires, and the bright blaze shoots up among the trees and throws a +dull, ruddy glow across the surface of the water. And morning comes at +length, ushered in, before night has yet departed, by the strong, +shrill cry of the great fish-eagle, as he sits on the topmost bough of +some forest tree and at measured periods repeats his quivering and +unearthly yell like an evil spirit calling. But hark at that dull, low +note of indescribable pain and suffering! long and heavy it swells and +dies away. It is the devil-bird; and whoever sees that bird must +surely die soon after, according to Cingalese superstition. + +A more cheering sound charms the ear as the gray tint of morning makes +the stars grow pale; clear, rich, notes, now prolonged and full, now +plaintive and low, set the example to other singing birds, as the +bulbul, first to awake, proclaims the morning. Wild, jungle-like songs +the birds indulge in; not like our steady thrushes of Old England, but +charming in their quaintness. The jungle partridge now wakes up, and +with his loud cry subdues all other sounds, until the numerous +peacocks, perched on the high trees around the lake, commence their +discordant yells, which master everything. + +The name for the devil-bird is "gualama," and so impressed are the +natives with the belief that a sight of it is equivalent to a call to +the nether world that they frequently die from sheer fright and +nervousness. A case of this happened to a servant of a friend of mine. +He chanced to see the creature sitting on a bough, and he was from that +moment so satisfied of his inevitable fate that he refused all food, +and fretted and died, as, of course, any one else must do, if starved, +whether he saw the devil-bird or not. + +Although I have heard the curious, mournful cry of this creature nearly +every night, I have never seen one; this is easily accounted for, as, +being a night-bird, it remains concealed in the jungle during the day. +In so densely wooded a country as Ceylon it is not to be wondered at +that owls, and all other birds of similar habit are so rarely met with. +Even woodcocks are rarely noticed; so seldom, indeed, that I have never +seen more than two during my residence in the island. + +From the same cause many interesting animals pass unobserved, although +they are very numerous. The porcupine, although as common as the +hedge-hog in England, is very seldom seen. Likewise the manis, or great +scaled ant-eater, who retires to his hole before break of day, is never +met with by daylight. Indeed, I have had some trouble in persuading +many persons in Ceylon that such an animal exists in the country. + +In the same manner the larger kinds of serpents conceal themselves by +day and wander forth at night, like all other reptiles except the +smaller species of lizard, of which we have in Ceylon an immense +variety, from the crocodile himself down to the little house-lizard. + +Of this tribe the "cabra goya" and the "iguana" grow to a large size; +the former I have killed as long as eight or nine feet, but the latter +seldom exceeds four. I have often intended to eat one, as the natives +consider them a great delicacy, but I have never been quite hungry +enough to make the trial whenever one was at hand. The "cabra goya" is +a horrid brute, and is not considered eatable even by the Cingalese. + +One curious species of lizard exists in Ceylon; it is little brown +species with a peculiarly rough skin and a serrated spine. A long horn +projects from the snout, and it is a fac-simile in miniature of the +antediluvian monster, the "iguanodon," who was about a hundred feet +long and twelve feet thick--an awkward creature to meet in a narrow +road. However, the crocodiles of modern times are awkward enough for +the present day, and sometimes grow to the immense length of twenty two +feet. + +It has frequently surprised me that they do not upset the small canoes +in which the natives paddle about the lakes and rivers. These are +formed in the simplest manner, of very rude materials, by hollowing out +a small log of wood and attaching an outrigger. Some of these are so +small that the gunwale is close to the water's edge when containing +only one person. + +Even the large sea-canoes are constructed on a similar principle; but +they are really very wonderful boats for both speed and safety. + +A simple log of about thirty feet in length is hollowed out. This is +tapered off at either end, so as to form a kind of prow. The +cylindrical shape of the log is preserved as much as possible in the +process of hollowing, so that no more than a section of one fourth of +the circle is pared away upon the upper side. + +Upon the edges of this aperture the top sides of the canoe are formed +by simple planks, which are merely sewn upon the main body of the log +parallel to each other, and slightly inclining outward, so as to admit +the legs of persons sitting on the canoe. + +A vessel of this kind would of course capsize immediately, as the top +weight of the upper works would overturn the flute-like body upon which +they rested. This is prevented by an outrigger, which is formed of +elastic rods of tough wood, which, being firmly bound together, project +at right angles from the upper works. At the extremity of these two +rods, there is a tapering log of light wood, which very much resembles +the bottom log of the canoe in miniature. This, floating on the water, +balances the canoe in an upright position; it cannot be upset until +some force is exerted upon the mast of the canoe which is either +sufficient to lift the outrigger out of the water, or on the other hand +to sink it altogether; either accident being prevented by the great +leverage required. Thus, when a heavy breeze sends the little vessel +flying like a swallow over the waves, and the outrigger to windward +shows symptoms of lifting, a man rims out upon the connecting rod, and, +squatting upon the outrigger, adds his weight to the leverage. Two +long bamboos, spreading like a letter V from the bottom of the canoe, +form the masts, and support a single square sail, which is immensely +large in proportion to the size and weight of the vessel. + +The motion of these canoes under a stiff breeze is most delightful; +there is a total absence of rolling, which is prevented by the +outrigger, and the steadiness of their course under a press of sail is +very remarkable. I have been in these boats in a considerable surf, +which they fly through like a fish; and if the beach is sandy and the +inclination favorable, their own impetus will carry them high and dry. + +Sewing the portions of a boat together appears ill adapted to purposes +of strength; but all the Cingalese vessels are constructed upon this +principle: the two edges of the planks being brought together, a strip +of the areca palm stern is laid over the joints, and holes being +drilled upon each plank, the sewing is drawn tightly over the lath of +palm, which being thickly smeared with a kind of pitch, keeps the seams +perfectly water-tight. The native dhonies, which are vessels of a +hundred and fifty tons, are all fastened in this simple and apparently +fragile manner; nevertheless they are excellent sea-boats, and ride in +safety through many a gale of wind. The first moving object which met +my view on arrival within sight of Ceylon was an outrigger canoe, which +shot past our vessels as if we had been at anchor. + +The last object that my eyes rested on, as the cocoa-nut trees of +Ceylon faded from sight, was again the native canoe which took the last +farewell lines to those who were left behind. Upon this I gazed till +it became a gray speck upon the horizon and the green shores of the +Eastern paradise faded from my eyes for ever. + +How little did I imagine, when these pages were commenced in Ceylon, +that their conclusion would be written in England! + +An unfortunate shooting trip to one of the most unhealthy parts of the +country killed my old horse "Jack," one coolie, and very nearly +extinguished me rendering it imperative that I should seek a change of +climate in England. And what a dream-like change it is!--past events +appear unreal, and the last few years seem to have escaped from the +connecting chain of former life. Scarcely can I believe in the bygone +days of glorious freedom, when I wandered through that beautiful +country, unfettered by the laws or customs of conventional life. + +The white cliffs of Old England rose hazily on the horizon, and greeted +many anxious eyes as the vessel rushed proudly on with her decks +thronged with a living freight, all happy as children in the thoughts +of home. The sun shone brightly and gave a warm welcome on our +arrival; and as the steamer moored alongside the quay, an hour sufficed +to scatter the host of passengers who had so closely dwelt together, as +completely as the audience of a theatre when the curtain falls. That +act of life is past--"exeunt omnes," and a new scene commences. We are +in England. + +A sudden change necessarily induces a comparison, and I imagine there +are few who have dwelt much among the Tropics who do not acquire a +distaste for the English climate, and look back with lingering hopes to +the verdant shores they have left so far behind. The recollection of +absent years, which seem to have been the summer of life, makes the +chill of the present feel doubly cold, and our thoughts still cling to +the past, while we strive against the belief that we never can recall +those days again. + +How, as my thoughts wander back to former scenes every mountain and +valley reappears in the magic glass of memory! Every rock and dell, +every old twisted stem, every dark ravine and wooded cliff, the distant +outlines of the well-known hills, the jungle-paths known to my eye +alone, and the far, still spots where I have often sat in solitude and +pondered over the events of life, and conjured up the faces of those so +far away, doubtful if we should ever meet again. Thus even now I +picture to myself the past; and so vivid is the scene that I can almost +hear the fancied roar of the old waterfalls, and see the shadowy tints +which the evening sun throws upon the tree-tops. My old home rises +before me like a dissolving view, and I can see the very spot where it +was my delight to live, where a warm welcome awaited every friend. And +lastly, the faces of those friends seem clear before me, and bring back +the associations of old times. Those who have shared in common many of +these scenes I trust to meet again, and look back upon the events of +former days as landscapes on the road of life that we have viewed +together. + +For me Ceylon has always had a charm, and I shall ever retain a vivid +interest in the colony. + +I trust that a new and more prosperous era has now commenced, and that +Ceylon, having shaken off the incubus of mismanagement, may, under the +rule of a vigorous and enterprising governor, arrive at that prosperity +to which she is entitled by her capabilities. + +The governor recently appointed (Sir H. Ward,) has a task before him +which his well-known energy will doubtless enable him to perform. + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Eight Years' Wandering in Ceylon, by +Samuel White Baker + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EIGHT YEARS' WANDERING IN CEYLON *** + +***** This file should be named 2036.txt or 2036.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/3/2036/ + +Produced by Garry Gill. HTML version by Al Haines. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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