diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:18:14 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:18:14 -0700 |
| commit | 094a87b3c2b6bb97cb2bf5793688cbba18f2c696 (patch) | |
| tree | 898dcb8c71fac3b9fe2c01bb5b650c27ea5e6c9a /old | |
Diffstat (limited to 'old')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/8year10.txt | 9873 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/8year10.zip | bin | 0 -> 199293 bytes |
2 files changed, 9873 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/8year10.txt b/old/8year10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9400b25 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/8year10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9873 @@ +The Project Gutenberg Etext of Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon +by Samuel White Baker + + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove this. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and +further information is included below. We need your donations. + + +Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon + +by Samuel White Baker + +January, 2000 [Etext #2036] + + +The Project Gutenberg Etext of Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon +******This file should be named 8year10.txt or 8year10.zip****** + +Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, 8year11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8year10a.txt + + +Etext prepared by Garry Gill (garrygill@hotmail.com) + +Project Gutenberg Etexts are usually created from multiple editions, +all of which are in the Public Domain in the United States, unless a +copyright notice is included. Therefore, we usually do NOT keep any +of these books in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +We are now trying to release all our books one month in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. + +Please note: neither this list nor its contents are final till +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg Etexts is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. To be sure you have an +up to date first edition [xxxxx10x.xxx] please check file sizes +in the first week of the next month. Since our ftp program has +a bug in it that scrambles the date [tried to fix and failed] a +look at the file size will have to do, but we will try to see a +new copy has at least one byte more or less. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any etext selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. This +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If our value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour this year as we release thirty-six text +files per month, or 432 more Etexts in 1999 for a total of 2000+ +If these reach just 10% of the computerized population, then the +total should reach over 200 billion Etexts given away this year. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away One Trillion Etext +Files by December 31, 2001. [10,000 x 100,000,000 = 1 Trillion] +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only ~5% of the present number of computer users. + +At our revised rates of production, we will reach only one-third +of that goal by the end of 2001, or about 3,333 Etexts unless we +manage to get some real funding; currently our funding is mostly +from Michael Hart's salary at Carnegie-Mellon University, and an +assortment of sporadic gifts; this salary is only good for a few +more years, so we are looking for something to replace it, as we +don't want Project Gutenberg to be so dependent on one person. + +We need your donations more than ever! + + +All donations should be made to "Project Gutenberg/CMU": and are +tax deductible to the extent allowable by law. (CMU = Carnegie- +Mellon University). + +For these and other matters, please mail to: + +Project Gutenberg +P. O. Box 2782 +Champaign, IL 61825 + +When all other email fails. . .try our Executive Director: +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> +hart@pobox.com forwards to hart@prairienet.org and archive.org +if your mail bounces from archive.org, I will still see it, if +it bounces from prairienet.org, better resend later on. . . . + +We would prefer to send you this information by email. + +****** + +To access Project Gutenberg etexts, use any Web browser +to view http://promo.net/pg. This site lists Etexts by +author and by title, and includes information about how +to get involved with Project Gutenberg. You could also +download our past Newsletters, or subscribe here. This +is one of our major sites, please email hart@pobox.com, +for a more complete list of our various sites. + +To go directly to the etext collections, use FTP or any +Web browser to visit a Project Gutenberg mirror (mirror +sites are available on 7 continents; mirrors are listed +at http://promo.net/pg). + +Mac users, do NOT point and click, typing works better. + +Example FTP session: + +ftp sunsite.unc.edu +login: anonymous +password: your@login +cd pub/docs/books/gutenberg +cd etext90 through etext99 +dir [to see files] +get or mget [to get files. . .set bin for zip files] +GET GUTINDEX.?? [to get a year's listing of books, e.g., GUTINDEX.99] +GET GUTINDEX.ALL [to get a listing of ALL books] + +*** + +**Information prepared by the Project Gutenberg legal advisor** + +(Three Pages) + + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this etext, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you can distribute copies of this etext if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS ETEXT +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +etext, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this etext by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this etext on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM ETEXTS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG- +tm etexts, is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor +Michael S. Hart through the Project Gutenberg Association at +Carnegie-Mellon University (the "Project"). Among other +things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this etext +under the Project's "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +To create these etexts, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's etexts and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other etext medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] the Project (and any other party you may receive this +etext from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext) disclaims all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this etext within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS ETEXT IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE ETEXT OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold the Project, its directors, +officers, members and agents harmless from all liability, cost +and expense, including legal fees, that arise directly or +indirectly from any of the following that you do or cause: +[1] distribution of this etext, [2] alteration, modification, +or addition to the etext, or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this etext electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + etext or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this etext in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word pro- + cessing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The etext, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The etext may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the etext (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + etext in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the etext refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Project of 20% of the + net profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Association/Carnegie-Mellon + University" within the 60 days following each + date you prepare (or were legally required to prepare) + your annual (or equivalent periodic) tax return. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +The Project gratefully accepts contributions in money, time, +scanning machines, OCR software, public domain etexts, royalty +free copyright licenses, and every other sort of contribution +you can think of. Money should be paid to "Project Gutenberg +Association / Carnegie-Mellon University". + +*END*THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + +Etext prepared by Garry Gill (garrygill@hotmail.com) + + + + + +Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon + +by Samuel White Baker + + + + +CONTENTS. + +CHAPTER I. Colombo - Dullness of the Town - Cinnamon Garden - A +Cingalese Appo - Ceylon Sport - Jungle Fever - Newera Ellia - +Energy of Sir E. Barnes - Influence of the Governor - Projected +Improvements. + +CHAPTER II. Past Scenes - Attractions of Ceylon - Emigration - +Difficulties in Settling - Accidents and Casualties - An +Eccentric Groom - Insubordination - Commencement of Cultivation - +Sagacity of the Elephant - Disappointments - "Death" in the +Settlement - Shocking Pasturage - Success of Emigrants - "A Good +Knock-about kind of a Wife". + +CHAPTER III. Task Completed - The Mountain-top - Change in the +Face of Nature - Original Importance of Newera Ellia - "The Path +of a Thousand Princes" - Vestiges of Former Population - +Mountains - The Highlands of Ouva - Ancient Methods of +Irrigation - Remains of Aqueducts - The Vale of Rubies - Ancient +Ophir - Discovery of Gold-Mineral Resources - Native +Blacksmiths. + +CHAPTER IV. Poverty of Soil - Ceylon Sugar - Fatality of Climate +- Supposed Fertility of Soil - Native Cultivation - Neglect of +Rice Cultivation - Abandoned Reservoirs - Former Prosperity - +Ruins of Cities - Pollanarua - The Great Dagoba - Architectural +Relics - The Rock Temple - Destruction of Population - Neglected +Capabilities - Suggestions for Increasing Population - Progress +of Pestilence - Deserted Villages - Difficulties in the +Cultivation of Rice - Division of Labor - Native Agriculture. + +CHAPTER V. Real Cost of Land - Want of Communication - +Coffee-planting - Comparison between French and English Settlers +- Landslips - Forest-clearing - Manuring - The Coffee Bug - Rats +- Fatted Stock - Suggestions for Sheep-farming - Attack of a +Leopard - Leopards and Chetahs - Boy Devoured - Traps - Musk Cats +and the Mongoose - Vermin of Ceylon. + +CHAPTER VI. "Game Eyes" for Wild Sports - Enjoyments of Wild Life +- Cruelty of Sports - Native Hunters - Moormen Traders - Their +wretched Guns - Rifles and Smooth-bores - Heavy Balls and Heavy +Metal - Beattie's Rifles - Balls and Patches - Experiments - The +Double-groove - Power of Heavy Metal - Curious Shot at a Bull +Elephant - African and Ceylon Elephants - Structure of Skull - +Lack of Trophies - Boar-spears and Hunting-knives - " Bertram" - +A Boar Hunt - Fatal Cut. + +CHAPTER VII. Curious Phenomenon - Panorama of Ouva - South-west +Monsoon - Hunting Followers - Fort M'Donald - River - Jungle +Paths - Dangerous Locality - Great Waterfall - Start for Hunting +- The Find - A Gallant Stag - "Bran" and Lucifer" - "Phrenzy's" +Death - Buck at Bay - The Cave Hunting-box- "Madcap's" Dive - Elk +Soup - Former Inundation - "Bluebeard" leads off - " Hecate's" +Course -The Elk's Leap - Variety of Deer - The Axis - Ceylon +Bears - Variety of Vermin - Trials for Hounds - Hounds and their +Masters - A Sportsman "shut up"- A Corporal and Centipede. + +CHAPTER VIII. Observations on Nature in the Tropics - The Dung +Beetle - The Mason-fly - Spiders - Luminous Insects - Efforts of +a Naturalist - Dogs Worried by Leeches - Tropical Diseases - +Malaria - Causes of Infection - Disappearance of the "Mina" - +Poisonous Water - Well-digging Elephants. + +CHAPTER IX. Instinct and Reason - Tailor Birds and Grosbeaks - +The White Ant - Black Ants at War - Wanderoo Monkeys - Habits of +Elephants - Elephants in the Lake - Herd of Elephants Bathing - +Elephant-shooting - The Rencontre - The Charge - Caught by the +Tail - Horse Gored by a Buffalo - Sagacity of Dogs - "Bluebeard" +- His Hunt - A True Hound. + +CHAPTER X. Wild Fruits - Ingredients for a "Soupe Maigre" - +Orchidaceous Plants - Wild Nutmegs - Native Oils - Cinnamon - +Primeval Forests - Valuable Woods - The Mahawelli River - Variety +of Palms - Cocoa-nut Toddy - Arrack - Cocoa-nut Oil - +Cocoa-nut-planting - The Talipot Palm - The Areca Palm - Betel +Chewing - Sago Nuts - Varicty of Bees - Waste of Beeswax - Edible +Fungi - Narcotic Puff-ball - Intoxicating Drugs - Poisoned Cakes +- The "Sack Tree" - No Gum Trees of Value in Ceylon. + +CHAPTER XI. Indigenous Productions - Botanical Gardens - +Suggested Experiments - Lack of Encouragement to Gold-diggers - +Prospects of Gold-digging - We want "Nuggets" - Who is to Blame? +- Governor's Salary - Fallacies of a Five Years' Reign - +Neglected Education of the People - Responsibilities of Conquest +- Progress of Christianity. + +CHAPTER XII. The Pearl Fishery - Desolation of the Coast - Harbor +of Trincomalee - Fatal Attack by a Shark - Ferocious Crocodiles - +Salt Monopoly - Salt Lakes - Method of Collection - Neglect of +Ceylon Hides - Fish and Fishing - Primitive Tackle - Oysters and +Penknives - A Night Bivouac for a Novice - No Dinner, but a Good +Fire - Wild Yams and Consequences -The Elephants' Duel - A +Hunting Hermitage - Bluebeard's last Hunt - The Leopard - +Bluebeard's Death - Leopard Shot. + +CHAPTER XIII. Wild Denizens of Forest and Lake - Destroyers of +Reptiles - The Tree Duck - The Mysteries of Night in the Forest - +The Devil-Bird - The Iguanodon in Miniature - Outrigger Canoes - +The Last Glimpse of Ceylon - A Glance at Old Times. + + + + +EIGHT YEARS' WANDERINGS + + +CHAPTER I. + +Colombo - Dullness of the Town - Cinnamon Garden - A Cingalese +Appo - Ceylon Sport - Jungle Fever - Newera Ellia - Energy of Sir +E. Barnes - Influence of the Governor - Projected Improvements. + +It was in the year 1845 that the spirit of wandering allured me +toward Ceylon: little did I imagine at that time that I should +eventually become a settler. + +The descriptions of its sports, and the tales of hairbreadth +escapes from elephants, which I had read in various publications, +were sources of attraction against which I strove in vain; and I +at length determined upon the very wild idea of spending twelve +months in Ceylon jungles. + +It is said that the delights of pleasures in anticipation exceed +the pleasures themselves: in this case doubtless some months of +great enjoyment passed in making plans of every description, +until I at length arrived in Colombo, Ceylon's seaport capital. + +I never experienced greater disappointment in an expectation than +on my first view of Colombo. I had spent some time at Mauritius +and Bourbon previous to my arrival, and I soon perceived that the +far-famed Ceylon was nearly a century behind either of those +small islands. + +Instead of the bustling activity of the Port Louis harbor in +Mauritius, there were a few vessels rolling about in the +roadstead, and some forty or fifty fishing canoes hauled up on +the sandy beach. There was a peculiar dullness throughout the +town - a sort of something which seemed to say, "Coffee does not +pay." There was a want of spirit in everything. The +ill-conditioned guns upon the fort looked as though not intended +to defend it; the sentinels looked parboiled; the very natives +sauntered rather than walked; the very bullocks crawled along in +the midday sun, listlessly dragging the native carts. Everything +and everybody seemed enervated, except those frightfully active +people in all countries and climates, "the custom-house +officers:" these necessary plagues to society gave their usual +amount of annoyance. + +What struck me the most forcibly in Colombo was the want of +shops. In Port Louis the wide and well-paved streets were lined +with excellent "magasins" of every description; here, on the +contrary, it was difficult to find anything in the shape of a +shop until I was introduced to a soi-disant store, where +everything was to be purchased from a needle to a crowbar, and +from satin to sail-cloth; the useful predominating over the +ornamental in all cases. It was all on a poor scale and after +several inquiries respecting the best hotel, I located myself at +that termed the Royal or Seager's Hotel. This was airy, white +and clean throughout; but there was a barn-like appearance, as +there is throughout most private dwellings in Colombo, which +banished all idea of comfort. + +A good tiffin concluded, which produced a happier state of mind, +I ordered a carriage for a drive to the Cinnamon Gardens. The +general style of Ceylon carriages appeared in the shape of a +caricature of a hearse: this goes by the name of a palanquin +carriage. Those usually hired are drawn by a single horse, whose +natural vicious propensities are restrained by a low system of +diet. + +In this vehicle, whose gaunt steed was led at a melancholy trot +by an equally small-fed horsekeeper, I traversed the environs of +Colombo. Through the winding fort gateway, across the flat Galle +Face (the race-course), freshened by the sea-breeze as the waves +break upon its western side; through the Colpettytopes of +cocoanut trees shading the road, and the houses of the better +class of European residents to the right and left; then turning +to the left - a few minutes of expectation - and behold the +Cinnamon Gardens! + +What fairy-like pleasure-grounds have we fondly anticipated! what +perfumes of spices, and all that our childish imaginations had +pictured as the ornamental portions of a cinnamon garden! + +A vast area of scrubby, low jungle, composed of cinnamon bushes, +is seen to the right and left, before and behind. Above, is a +cloudless sky and a broiling sun; below, is snow-white sand of +quartz, curious only in the possibility of its supporting +vegetation. Such is the soil in which the cinnamon delights; +such are the Cinnamon Gardens, in which I delight not. They are +an imposition, and they only serve as an addition to the +disappointments of a visitor to Colombo. In fact, the whole +place is a series of disappointments. You see a native woman +clad in snow-white petticoats, a beautiful tortoiseshell comb +fastened in her raven hair; you pass her - you look back - +wonderful! she has a beard! Deluded stranger, this is only +another disappointment; it is a Cingalese Appo - a man - no, not +a man - a something male in petticoats; a petty thief, a +treacherous, cowardly villain, who would perpetrate the greatest +rascality had he only the pluck to dare it. In fact, in this +petticoated wretch you see a type of the nation of Cingalese. + +On the morning following my arrival in Ceylon, I was delighted to +see several persons seated at the "table-d'hôte" when I entered +the room, as I was most anxious to gain some positive information +respecting the game of the island, the best localities, etc., +etc. I was soon engaged in conversation, and one of my first +questions naturally turned upon sport. + +"Sport!" exclaimed two gentlemen simultaneously - "sport!" there +is no sport to be had in Ceylon!" -- "at least the race-week is +the only sport that I know of," said the taller gentleman. + +"No sport!" said I, half energetically and half despairingly. +"Absurd! every book on Ceylon mentions the amount of game as +immense; and as to elephants -" + +Here I was interrupted by the same gentleman. "All gross +exaggerations," said he -"gross exaggerations; in fact, +inventions to give interest to a book. I have an estate in the +interior, and I have never seen a wild elephant. There may be a +few in the jungles of Ceylon, but very few, and you never see +them." + +I began to discover the stamp of my companion from his +expression, "You never see them." Of course I concluded that he +had never looked for them; and I began to recover front the first +shock which his exclamation, "There is no sport in Ceylon !" had +given me. + +I subsequently discovered that my new and non-sporting +acquaintances were coffee-planters of a class then known as the +Galle Face planters, who passed their time in cantering about the +Colombo race-course and idling in the town, while their estates +lay a hundred miles distant, uncared for, and naturally ruining +their proprietors. + +That same afternoon, to my delight and surprise, I met an old +Gloucestershire friend in an officer of the Fifteenth Regiment, +then stationed in Ceylon. From him I soon learnt that the +character of Ceylon for game had never been exaggerated; and from +that moment my preparations for the jungle commenced. + +I rented a good airy house in Colombo as headquarters, and the +verandas were soon strewed with jungle-baskets, boxes, tent, +gun-cases, and all the paraphernalia of a shooting-trip. + +What unforeseen and apparently trivial incidents may upset all +our plans for the future and turn our whole course of life! At +the expiration of twelve months my shooting trips and adventures +were succeeded by so severe an attack of jungle fever that from a +naturally robust frame I dwindled to a mere nothing, and very +little of my former self remained. The first symptom of +convalescence was accompanied by a peremptory order from my +medical attendant to start for the highlands, to the mountainous +region of Newera Ellia, the sanita rium of the island. + +A poor, miserable wretch I was upon my arrival at this elevated +station, suffering not only from the fever itself, but from the +feeling of an exquisite debility that creates an utter +hopelessness of the renewal of strength. + +I was only a fortnight at Newera Ellia. The rest-house or inn +was the perfection of everything that was dirty and +uncomfortable. The toughest possible specimen of a beef-steak, +black bread and potatoes were the choicest and only viands +obtainable for an invalid. There was literally nothing else; it +was a land of starvation. But the climate! what can I say to +describe the wonderful effects of such a pure and unpolluted air? +Simply, that at the expiration of a fortnight, in spite of the +tough beef, and the black bread and potatoes, I was as well and +as strong as I ever bad been; and in proof of this I started +instanter for another shooting excursion in the interior. + +It was impossible to have visited Newera Ellia, and to have +benefited in such a wonderful manner by the climate, without +contemplating with astonishment its poverty-stricken and +neglected state. + +At that time it was the most miserable place conceivable. There +was a total absence of all ideas of comfort or arrangement. The +houses were for the most part built of such unsubstantial +materials as stick and mud plastered over with mortar - pretty +enough in exterior, but rotten in ten or twelve years. The only +really good residence was a fine stone building erected by Sir +Edward Barnes when governor of Ceylon. To him alone indeed are +we indebted for the existence of a sanitarium. It was he who +opened the road, not only to Newera Ellia, but for thirty-six +miles farther on the same line to Badulla. At his own expense he +built a substantial mansion at a cost, as it is said, of eight +thousand pounds, and with provident care for the health of the +European troops, he erected barracks and officers' quarters for +the invalids. + +Under his government Newera Ellia was rapidly becoming a place of +importance, but unfortunately at the expiration of his term the +place became neglected. His successor took no interest in the +plans of his predecessor; and from that period, each successive +governor being influenced by an increasing spirit of parsimony, +Newera Ellia has remained "in statu quo," not even having been +visited by the present governor. + +In a small colony like Ceylon it is astonishing how the movements +and opinions of the governor influence the public mind. In the +present instance, however, the movements of the governor (Sir G. +Anderson) cannot carry much weight, as he does not move at all, +with the exception of an occasional drive from Colombo to Kandy. +His knowledge of the colony and of its wants or resources must +therefore, from his personal experience, be limited to the Kandy +road. This apathy, when exhibited by her Majesty's +representative, is highly contagious among the public of all +classes and colors, and cannot have other than a bad moral +tendency. + +Upon my first visit to Newera Ellia, in 1847, Lord Torrington was +the governor of Ceylon, a man of active mind, with an ardent +desire to test its real capabilities and to work great +improvements in the colony. Unfortunately, his term as governor +was shorter than was expected. The elements of discord were at +that time at work among all classes in Ceylon, and Lord +Torrington was recalled. + +>From the causes of neglect described, Newera Ellia was in the +deserted and wretched state in which I saw it; but so infatuated +was I in the belief that its importance must be appreciated when +the knowledge of its climate was more widely extended that I +looked forward to its becoming at some future time a rival to the +Neilgherries station in India. My ideas were based upon the +natural features of the place, combined with its requirements. + +It apparently produced nothing except potatoes. The soil was +supposed to be as good as it appeared to be. The quality of the +water and the supply were unquestionable; the climate could not +be surpassed for salubrity. There was a carriage road from +Colombo, one hundred and fifteen miles, and from Kandy, +forty-seven miles; the last thirteen being the Rambodde Pass, +arriving at an elevation of six thousand six hundred feet, from +which point a descent of two miles terminated the road to Newera +Ellia. + +The station then consisted of about twenty private residences, +the barracks and officers' quarters, the resthouse and the +bazaar; the latter containing about two hundred native +inhabitants. + +Bounded upon all sides but the east by high mountains, the plain +of Newera Ellia lay like a level valley of about two miles in +length by half a mile in width, bordered by undulating grassy +knolls at the foot of the mountains. Upon these spots of +elevated ground most of the dwellings were situated, commanding a +view of the plain, with the river winding through its centre. The +mountains were clothed from the base to the summit with dense +forests, containing excellent timber for building purposes. Good +building-stone was procurable everywhere; limestone at a distance +of five miles. + +The whole of the adjacent country was a repetition Of the Newera +Ellia plain with slight variations, comprising a vast extent of +alternate swampy plains and dense forests. + +Why should this place lie idle? Why should this great tract of +country in such a lovely climate be untenanted and uncultivated? +How often I have stood upon the hills and asked myself this +question when gazing over the wide extent of undulating forest +and plain! How often I have thought of the thousands of starving +wretches at home, who here might earn a comfortable livelihood! +and I have scanned the vast tract of country, and in my +imagination I have cleared the dark forests and substituted +waving crops of corn, and peopled a hundred ideal cottages with a +thriving peasantry. + +Why should not the highlands Of Ceylon, with an Italian climate, +be rescued from their state of barrenness? Why should not the +plains be drained, the forests felled, and cultivation take the +place of the rank pasturage, and supplies be produced to make +Ceylon independent of other countries? Why should not schools be +established, a comfortable hotel be erected, a church be built? +In fact, why should Newera Ellia, with its wonderful climate, so +easily attainable, be neglected in a country like Ceylon, +proverbial for its unhealthiness? + +These were my ideas when I first visited Newera Ellia, before I +had much experience in either people or things connected with the +island. My twelve months' tour in Ceylon being completed, I +returned to England delighted with what I had seen of Ceylon in +general, but, above all, with my short visit to Newera Ellia, +malgre its barrenness and want of comfort, caused rather by the +neglect of man than by the lack of resources in the locality. + +CHAPTER II. Past Scenes - Attractions of Ceylon - Emigration - +Difficulties in Settling - Accidents and Casualties - An +Eccentric Groom - Insubordination - Commencement of Cultivation - +Sagacity of the Elephant - Disappointments - "Death" in the +Settlement - Shocking Pasturage - Success of Emigrants - "A Good +Knock- about kind of a Wife". + +I had not been long in England before I discovered that my trip +to Ceylon had only served to upset all ideas of settling down +quietly at home. Scenes of former sports and places were +continually intruding themselves upon my thoughts, and I longed +to be once more roaming at large with the rifle through the +noiseless wildernesses in Ceylon. So delightful were the +recollections of past incidents that I could scarcely believe +that it lay within my power to renew them. Ruminating over all +that bad happened within the past year, I conjured up localities +to my memory which seemed too attractive to have existed in +reality. I wandered along London streets, comparing the noise +and bustle with the deep solitudes of Ceylon, and I felt like the +sickly plants in a London parterre. I wanted the change to my +former life. I constantly found myself gazing into gunmakers' +shops, and these I sometimes entered abstractedly to examine some +rifle exposed in the window. Often have I passed an hour in +boring the unfortunate gunmakers to death by my suggestions for +various improvements in rifles and guns, which, as I was not a +purchaser, must have been extremely edifying. + +Time passed, and the moment at length arrived when I decided once +more to see Ceylon. I determined to become a settler at Newera +Ellia, where I could reside in a perfect climate, and +nevertheless enjoy the sports of the low country at my own will. + +Thus, the recovery from a fever in Ceylon was the hidden cause of +my settlement at Newera Ellia. The infatuation for sport, added +to a gypsy-like love of wandering and complete independence, thus +dragged me away from home and from a much-loved circle. + +In my determination to reside at Newera Ellia, I hoped to be able +to carry out some of those visionary plans for its improvement +which I have before suggested; and I trusted to be enabled to +effect such a change in the rough face of Nature in that locality +as to render a residence at Newera Ellia something approaching to +a country life in England, with the advantage of the whole of +Ceylon for my manor, and no expense of gamekeepers. + +To carry out these ideas it was necessary to set to work; and I +determined to make a regular settlement at Newera Ellia, +sanguinely looking forward to establishing a little English +village around my own residence. + +Accordingly, I purchased an extensive tract of land from the +government, at twenty shillings per acre. I engaged an excellent +bailiff, who, with his wife and daughter, with nine other +emigrants, including a blacksmith, were to sail for my intended +settlement in Ceylon. + +I purchased farming implements of the most improved +descriptions, seeds of all kinds, saw-mills, etc., etc., and the +following stock: A half-bred bull (Durham and Hereford), a +well-bred Durham cow, three rams (a Southdown, Leicester and +Cotswold), and a thorough-bred entire horse by Charles XII.; also +a small pack of foxhounds and a favorite greyhound ("Bran"). + +My brother had determined to accompany me; and with emigrants, +stock, machinery, hounds, and our respective families, the good +ship "Earl of Hardwick," belonging to Messrs. Green & Co., +sailed from London in September, 1848. I had previously left +England by the overland mail of August to make arrangements at +Newera Ellia for the reception of the whole party. + +I had as much difficulty in making up my mind to the proper spot +for the settlement as Noah's dove experienced in its flight from +the ark. However, I wandered over the neighboring plains and +jungles of Newera Ellia, and at length I stuck my walking-stick +into the ground where the gentle undulations of the country would +allow the use of the plough. Here, then, was to be the +settlement. + +I had chosen the spot at the eastern extremity of the Newera +Ellia plain, on the verge of the sudden descent toward Badulla. +This position was two miles and a half from Newera Ellia, and was +far more agreeable and better adapted for a settlement, the land +being comparatively level and not shut in by mountains. + +It was in the dreary month of October, when the south-west +monsoon howls in all its fury across the mountains; the mist +boiled up from the valleys and swept along the surface of the +plains, obscuring the view of everything, except the pattering +rain which descended without ceasing day or night. Every sound +was hushed, save that of the elements and the distant murmuring +roar of countless waterfalls; not a bird chirped, the dank white +lichens hung from the branches of the trees, and the wretchedness +of the place was beyond description. + +I found it almost impossible to persuade the natives to work in +such weather; and it being absolutely necessary that cottages +should be built with the greatest expedition, I was obliged to +offer an exorbitant rate of wages. In about fortnight, however, +the wind and rain showed flags of truce in the shape of white +clouds set in a blue sky. The gale ceased, and the skylarks +warbled high in air, giving life and encouragement to the whole +scene. It was like a beautiful cool mid-summer in England. + +I had about eighty men at work; and the constant click-clack of +axes, the felling of trees, the noise of saws and hammers and the +perpetual chattering o the coolies gave a new character to the +wild spot upon which I had fixed. + +The work proceeded rapidly; neat white cottages soon appeared in +the forest; and I expected to have everything in readiness for +the emigrants on their arrival. I rented a tolerably good house +in Newera Ellia, and so far everything had progressed well. + +The "Earl of Hardwick" arrived after a prosperous voyage, with +passengers and stock all in sound health; the only casualty on +board had been to one of the hounds. In a few days all started +from Colombo for Newera Ellia. The only trouble was, How to get +the cow up? She was a beautiful beast, a thorough-bred +"shorthorn," and she weighed about thirteen hundredweight. She +was so fat that a march of one hundred and fifteen miles in a +tropical climate was impossible. Accordingly a van was arranged +for her, which the maker assured me would carry an elephant. But +no sooner had the cow entered it than the whole thing came down +with a crash, and the cow made her exit through the bottom. She +was therefore obliged to start on foot in company with the bull, +sheep, horse and hounds, orders being given that ten miles a day, +divided between morning and evening, should be the maximum march +during the journey. + +The emigrants started per coach, while our party drove up in a +new clarence which I had brought from England. I mention this, +as its untimely end will be shortly seen. + +Four government elephant-carts started with machinery, farming +implements, etc., etc., while a troop of bullock-bandies carried +the lighter goods. I had a tame elephant waiting at the foot of +the Newera Ellia Pass to assist in carrying up the baggage and +maidservants. + +There had been a vast amount of trouble in making all the +necessary arrangements, but the start was completed, and at +length we were all fairly off. In an enterprise of this kind many +disappointments were necessarily to be expected, and I had +prepared myself with the patience of Job for anything that might +happen. It was well that I had done so, for it was soon put to +the test. + +Having reached Ramboddé, at the foot of the Newera Ellia Pass, in +safety, I found that the carriage was so heavy that the horses +were totally unable to ascend the pass. I therefore left it at +the rest-house while we rode up the fifteen miles to Newera +Ellia, intending to send for the empty vehicle in a few days. + +The whole party of emigrants and ourselves reached Newera Ellia +in safety. On the following day I sent down the groom with a +pair of horses to bring up the carriage; at the same time I sent +down the elephant to bring some luggage from Ramboddé. + +Now this groom, "Henry Perkes," was one of the emigrants, and he +was not exactly the steadiest of the party; I therefore cautioned +him to be very careful in driving up the pass, especially in +crossing the narrow bridges and turning the corners. He started +on his mission. + +The next day a dirty-looking letter was put in my hand by a +native, which, being addressed to me, ran something in this +style: + +"Honord Zur "I'm sorry to hinform you that the carrige and osses +has met with a haccidint and is tumbled down a preccippice and +its a mussy as I didn't go too. The preccippice isn't very deep +bein not above heighy feet or therabouts - the hosses is got up +but is very bad - the carrige lies on its back and we can't stir +it nohow. Mr. _____ is very kind, and has lent above a hunderd +niggers, but they aint no more use than cats at liftin. Plese Zur +come and see whats to be done. "Your Humbel Servt, "H. PERKES." + +This was pleasant, certainly - a new carriage and a pair of fine +Australian horses smashed before they reached Newera Ellia! + +This was, however, the commencement of a chapter of accidents. I +went down the pass, and there, sure enough, I had a fine +bird's-eye view of the carriage down a precipice on the road +side. One horse was so injured that it was necessary to destroy +him; the other died a few days after. Perkes had been +intoxicated; and, while driving at a full gallop round a corner, +over went the carriages and horses. + +On my return to Newera Ellia, I found a letter informing me that +the short-horn cow had halted at Amberpussé, thirty-seven miles +from Colombo, dangerously ill. The next morning another letter +informed me that she was dead. This was a sad loss after the +trouble of bringing so fine an animal from England; and I +regretted her far more than both carriage and horses together, as +my ideas for breeding some thorough-bred stock were for the +present extinguished. + +There is nothing like one misfortune for breeding another; and +what with the loss of carriage, horses and cow, the string of +accidents had fairly commenced. The carriage still lay +inverted; and although a tolerable specimen of a smash, I +determined to pay a certain honor to its remains by not allowing +it to lie and rot upon the ground. Accordingly, I sent the +blacksmith with a gang of men, and Perkes was ordered to +accompany the party. I also sent the elephant to assist in +battling the body of the carriage up the precipice. + +Perkes, having been much more accustomed to riding than walking +during his career as groom, was determined to ride the elephant +down the pass; and he accordingly mounted, insisting at the same +time that the mahout should put the animal into a trot. In vain +the man remonstrated, and explained that such a pace would +injure the elephant on a journey; threats prevailed, and the +beast was soon swinging along at full trot, forced on by the +sharp driving-hook, with the delighted Perkes striding across its +neck, riding, an imaginary race. + +On the following day the elephant-driver appeared at the front +door, but without the elephant. I immediately foreboded some +disaster, which was soon explained. Mr. Perkes had kept up the +pace for fifteen miles, to Ramboddé, when, finding that the +elephant was not required, he took a little refreshment in the +shape of brandy and water, and then, to use his own expression, +"tooled the old elephant along till he came to a standstill." + +He literally forced the poor beast up the steep pass for seven +miles, till it fell down and shortly after died. + +Mr. Perkes was becoming an expensive man: a most sagacious and +tractable elephant was now added to his list of victims; and he +had the satisfaction of knowing that he was one of the few men +in the world who had ridden an elephant to death. + +That afternoon, Mr. Perkes was being wheeled about the bazaar in +a wheelbarrow, insensibly drunk, by a brother emigrant, who was +also considerably elevated. Perkes had at some former time lost +an eye by the kick of a horse, and to conceal the disfigurement +he wore a black patch, which gave him very much the expression of +a bull terrier with a similar mark. Notwithstanding this +disadvantage in appearance, he was perpetually making successful +love to the maidservants, and he was altogether the most +incorrigible scamp that I ever met with, although I must do him +the justice to say he was thoroughly honest and industrious. + +I shortly experienced great trouble with the emigrants; they +could not agree with the bailiff, and openly defied his +authority. I was obliged to send two of them to jail as an +example to the others. This produced the desired effect, and we +shortly got regularly to work. + +There were now about a hundred and fifty natives employed in the +tedious process of exterminating jungle and forest, not felling, +but regularly digging out every tree and root, then piling, and +burning the mass, and leveling the cleared land in a state to +receive the plough. This was very expensive work, amounting to +about thirty pounds per acre. The root of a large tree would +frequently occupy three men a couple of days in its extraction, +which, at the rate of wages, at one shilling per diem, was very +costly. The land thus cleared was a light sandy loam, about +eighteen inches in depth with a gravel subsoil, and was +considered to be far superior to the patina (or natural +grass-land) soil, which was, in appearance, black loam on the +higher ground and of a peaty nature in the swamps. + +The bailiff (Mr. Fowler) was of opinion that the patina soil was +the best; therefore, while the large native force was engaged in +sweeping the forest from the surface, operations were commenced +according to agricultural rules upon the patinas. + +A tract of land known as the "Moon Plains," comprising about two +hundred acres, was immediately commenced upon. As some persons +considered the settlement at Newera Ellia the idea of a lunatic, +the "Moon Plain" was an appropriate spot for the experiment. A +tolerably level field of twenty acres was fenced in, and the work +begun by firing the patina and burning off all the grass. Then +came three teams, as follows: + +Lord Ducie's patent cultivator, drawn by an elephant; a skim, +drawn by another elephant, and a long wood plough, drawn by eight +bullocks. + +The field being divided into three sections, was thus quickly +pared of the turf, the patent cultivator working admirably, and +easily drawn by the elephant. + +The weather being very dry and favorable for the work, the turf +was soon ready for burning; and being piled in long rows, much +trouble was saved in subsequently spreading the ashes. This +being completed, we had six teams at work, two horse, two +bullock, and two elephant; and the ploughing was soon finished. +The whole piece was then sown with oats. + +It was an interesting sight to see the rough plain yielding to +the power of agricultural implements, especially as some of these +implements were drawn by animals not generally seen in plough +harness at home. + +The "cultivator," which was sufficiently large to anchor any +twenty of the small native bullocks, looked a mere nothing +behind the splendid elephant who worked it, and it cut through +the wiry roots of the rank turf as a knife peels an apple. It +was amusing, to see this same elephant doing the work of three +separate teams when the seed was in the ground. She first drew a +pair of heavy harrows; attached to these and following behind +were a pair of light harrows, and behind these came a roller. +Thus the land had its first and second harrowing at the same time +with the rolling. + +This elephant was particularly sagacious; and her farming work +being completed, she was employed in making, a dam across a +stream. She was a very large animal, and it was beautiful to +witness her wonderful sagacity in carrying and arranging the +heavy timber required. The rough trunks of trees from the lately +felled forest were lying within fifty yards of the spot, and the +trunks required for the dam were about fifteen feet long and +fourteen to eighteen inches in diameter. These she carried in +her mouth, shifting her hold along the log before she raised it +until she had obtained the exact balance; then, steadying it with +her trunk, she carried every log to the spot, and laid them +across the stream in parallel rows. These she herself arranged, +under the direction of her driver, with the reason apparently of +a human being. + +The most extraordinary part of her performance was the arranging +of two immense logs of red keenar (one of the heaviest woods). +These were about eighteen feet long and two feet in diameter, and +they were in tended to lie on either bank of the stream, parallel +to the brook and close to the edge. These she placed greatest +with the care in their exact positions, unassisted by any one.* +She rolled them gently over with her head, then with one foot, +and keeping her trunk on the opposite side of the log, she +checked its way whenever its own momentum would have carried it +into the stream. Although I thought the work admirably done, she +did not seem quite satisfied, and she presently got into the +stream, and gave one end of the log an extra push with her head, +which completed her task, the two trees lying exactly parallel to +each other, close to the edge of either bank. + +*Directed of course by her driver. + +Tame elephants are constantly employed in building stone +bridges, when the stones required for the abutments are too heavy +to be managed by crowbars. + +Many were the difficulties to contend against when the first +attempts were made in agriculture at Newera Ellia. No sooner +were the oats a few inches above ground than they were subjected +to the nocturnal visits of elk and hogs in such numbers that they +were almost wholly destroyed. + +A crop of potatoes of about three acres on the newly-cleared +forest land was totally devoured by grubs. The bull and stock +were nearly starved on the miserable pasturage of the country, +and no sooner bad the clover sprung up in the new clearings than +the Southdown ram got hoven upon it and died. The two remaining +rams, not having been accustomed to much high living since their +arrival at Newera Ellia, got pugnacious upon the clover, and in a +pitched battle the Leicester ram killed the Cotswold, and +remained solus. An epidemic appeared among the cattle, and +twenty-six fine bullocks died within a few days; five Australian +horses died during the first year, and everything seemed to be +going into the next world as fast is possible. + +Having made up my mind to all manner of disappointments, these +casualties did not make much impression on me, and the loss of a +few crops at the outset was to be expected; but at length a +deplorable and unexpected event occurred. + +The bailiff's family consisted of a wife and daughter; the former +was the perfection of a respectable farmer's wife, whose gentle +manners and amiable disposition bad gained her many friends; the +daughter was a very pretty girl of nineteen. + +For some time Mrs. Fowler had been suffering from an illness of +long standing, and I was suddenly called to join in the mournful +procession to her grave. This was indeed a loss which I deeply +deplored. + +At length death left the little settlement, and a ray of sunshine +shone through the gloom which would have made many despond. +Fortune smiled upon everything. Many acres of forest were +cleared, and the crops succeeded each other in rapid succession. +I had, however, made the discovery that without manure nothing +would thrive. This had been a great disappointment, as much +difficulty lay in procuring the necessary item. + +Had the natural pasturage been good, it would soon have been an +easy matter to procure any amount of manure by a corresponding +number of cattle; but, as it happened, the natural pasturage was +so bad that no beast could thrive upon it. Thus everything, even +grass-land, had to be manured; and, fortunately, a cargo of guano +having arrived in the island, we were enabled to lay down some +good clover and seeds. + +The original idea of cultivation, driving the forests from the +neighborhood of Newera Ellia, was therefore dispelled. Every +acre of land must be manured, and upon a large scale at Newera +Ellia that is impossible. With manure everything will thrive to +perfection with the exception of wheat. There is neither lime +nor magnesia in the soil. An abundance of silica throws a good +crop of straw, but the grain is wanting: Indian corn will not +form grain from the same cause. On the other hand, peas, beans, +turnips, carrots, cabbages, etc., produce crops as heavy as those +of England. Potatoes, being the staple article of production, +are principally cultivated, as the price of twenty pounds per ton +yields a large profit. These, however, do not produce larger +crops than from four to six tons per acre when heavily manured; +but as the crop is fit to dig in three months from the day of +planting, money is quickly made. + +There are many small farmers, or rather gardeners, at Newera +Ellia who have succeeded uncommonly well. One of the emigrants +who left my service returned to England in three years with three +hundred pounds; and all the industrious people succeed. I am now +without one man whom I brought out. The bailiff farms a little +land of his own, and his pretty daughter is married ; the others +are scattered here and there, but I believe all are doing well, +especially the blacksmith, upon whose anvil Fortune has smiled +most kindly. + +By the bye, that same blacksmith has the right stamp of a "better +half" for an emigrant's wife. According to his own description +she is a "good knock-about kind of a wife." I recollect seeing +her, during a press of work, rendering assistance to her Vulcan +in a manner worthy of a Cyclop's spouse. She was wielding an +eighteen-pound sledgehammer, sending the sparks flying at every +blow upon the hot iron, and making the anvil ring again, while +her husband turned the metal at every stroke, as if attending on +Nasmyth's patent steam hammer. + +It has been a great satisfaction to me that all the people whom I +brought out are doing well; even Henry Perkes, of +elephant-jockeying notoriety, is, I believe, prospering as a +groom in Madras. + +CHAPTER III. Task Completed - The Mountain-top - Change in the +Face of Nature - Original Importance of Newera Ellia - "The Path +of a Thousand Princes" - Vestiges of Former Population - +Mountains - The Highlands of Ouva - Ancient Methods of Irrigation +- Remains of Aqueducts - The Vale of Rubies - Ancient Ophir - +Discovery of Gold-Mineral Resources - Native Blacksmiths. + +In a climate like that of Newera Ellia, even twelve months make a +great change in the appearance of a new settlement; plants and +shrubs spring up with wonderful rapidity, and a garden of one +year's growth, without attendance, would be a wilderness. + +A few years necessarily made a vast change in everything. All +kinds of experiments had been made, and those which succeeded +were persevered in. I discovered that excellent beer might be +made at this elevation (six thousand two hundred feet), and I +accordingly established a small brewery. + +The solitary Leicester ram had propagated a numerous family, and +a flock of fat ewes, with their lambs, throve to perfection. +Many handsome young heifers looked very like the emigrant bull in +the face, and claimed their parentage. The fields were green; +the axe no longer sounded in the forests: a good house stood in +the centre of cultivation; a road of two miles in length cut +through the estate, and the whole place looked like an adopted +"home." All the trials and disappointments of the beginning were +passed away, and the real was a picture which I had ideally +contemplated years before. The task was finished. + +In the interim, public improvements had not been neglected; an +extremely pretty church had been erected and a public +reading-room established; but, with the exception of one good +house which had been built, private enterprise had lain dormant. +As usual, from January to May, Newera Ellia was overcrowded with +months of visitors, and nearly empty during the other months of +the year. + +All Ceylon people dread the wet season at Newera Ellia, which +continues from June to December. + +I myself prefer it to what is termed the dry season, at which +time the country is burnt up by drought. There is never more +rain at Newera Ellia than vegetation requires, and not one-fourth +the quantity fills at this elevation, compared to that of the low +country. It may be more continuous, but it is of a lighter +character, and more akin to "Scotch mist." The clear days during +the wet season are far more lovely than the constant glare of the +summer months, and the rays of the sun are not so powerful. + +There cannot be a more beautiful sight than the view of sunrise +from the summit of Pedrotallagalla, the highest mountain in +Ceylon, which, rising to the height of 8300 feet, looks down upon +Newera Ellia, some two thousand feet below upon one side, and +upon the interminable depths of countless ravines and valleys at +its base. + +There is a feeling approaching the sublime when a solitary man +thus stands upon the highest point of earth, before the dawn of +day, and waits the first rising of the sun. Nothing above him +but the dusky arch of heaven. Nothing on his level but empty +space, - all beneath, deep beneath his feet. From childhood he +has looked to heaven as the dwelling of the Almighty, and he now +stands upon that lofty summit in the silence of utter solitude; +his hand, as he raises it above his head, the highest mark upon +the sea-girt land; his form above all mortals upon this land, the +nearest to his God. Words, till now unthought of, tingle in his +ears: "He went up into a mountain apart to pray." He feels the +spirit which prompted the choice of such a lonely spot, and he +stands instinctively uncovered, as the first ray of light spreads +like a thread of fire across the sky. + +And now the distant hill-tops, far below, struggle through the +snowy sheet of mist, like islands in a fairy sea; and far, how +far his eye can scan, where the faint line upon the horizon +marks the ocean! Mountain and valley, hill and plain, with +boundless forest, stretch beneath his feet, far as his sight can +gaze, and the scene, so solemnly beautiful, gradually wakens to +his senses; the birds begin to chirp; the dew-drops fall heavily +from the trees, as the light breeze stirs from an apparent sleep; +a golden tint spreads over the sea of mist below; the rays dart +lightning-like upon the eastern sky; the mighty orb rises in all +the fullness of his majesty, recalling the words of Omnipotence: +"Let there be light!" + +The sun is risen! the misty sea below mounts like a snowy wreath +around the hill-tops, and then, like a passing thought, it +vanishes. A glassy clearness of the atmosphere reveals the +magnificent view of Nature, fresh from her sleep; every dewy leaf +gilded by the morning sun, every rock glistening with moisture in +his bright rays, mountain and valley, wood and plain, alike +rejoicing in his beams. + +And now, the sun being risen, we gaze from our lofty post upon +Newera Ellia, lying at our feet. We trace the river winding its +silvery course through the plain, and for many miles the +alternate plains and forests joining in succession. + +How changed are some features of the landscape within the few +past years, and how wonderful the alteration made by man on the +face of Nature! Comparatively but a few years ago, Newera Ellia +was undiscovered - a secluded plain among the mountaintops, +tenanted by the elk and boar. The wind swept over it, and the +mists hung around the mountains, and the bright summer with its +spotless sky succeeded, but still it was unknown and unseen +except by the native bee-hunter in his rambles for wild honey. +How changed! The road encircles the plain, and carts are busy in +removing the produce of the land. Here, where wild forests +stood, are gardens teeming with English flowers; rosy-faced +children and ruddy countrymen are about the cottage doors; +equestrians of both sexes are galloping round the plain, and the +cry of the hounds is ringing on the mountain-side. + +How changed! There is an old tree standing upon a hill, whose +gnarled trunk has been twisted by the winter's wind for many an +age, and so screwed is its old stem that the axe has spared it, +out of pity, when its companions were all swept away and the +forest felled. And many a tale that old tree could tell of +winter's blasts and broken boughs, and storms which howled above +its head, when all was wilderness around. The eagle has roosted +in its top, the monkeys have gamboled in its branches, and the +elephants have rubbed their tough flanks against its stem in +times gone by; but it now throws a shadow upon a Christian's +grave, and the churchyard lies beneath its shade. The +church-bell sounds where the elephant trumpeted of yore. The +sunbeam has penetrated where the forest threw its dreary shade, +and a ray of light has shone through the moral darkness of the +spot. + +The completion of the church is the grand improvement in Newera +Ellia. + +Although Newera Ellia was in the wild state described when first +discovered by Europeans, it is not to be supposed that its +existence was unknown to the Cingalese. The name itself proves +its former importance to the kings of Kandy, as Newera Ellia +signifies "Royal Plains." Kandy is termed by the Cingalese +"Newera," as it was the capital of Ceylon and the residence of +the king. + +However wild the country may be, and in many portions unvisited +by Europeans, still every high mountain and every little plain in +this wilderness of forest is not only known to the natives of the +adjacent low country, but has its separate designation. There is +no feature of the country without its name, although the immense +tracts of mountain are totally uninhabited, and the nearest +villages are some ten or twelve miles distant, between two and +three thousand feet below. + +There are native paths from village to village across the +mountains, which, although in appearance no more than deer-runs, +have existed for many centuries, and are used by the natives even +to this day. The great range of forest-covered Newera Ellia +mountains divides the two districts of Ouva and Kotmalie, and +these native paths have been formed to connect the two by an +arduous accent upon either side, and a comparatively level cut +across the shoulders of the mountains, through alternate plain +and forest, for some twenty-five miles. These paths would never +be known to Europeans were it not for the distant runs of the +hounds, in following which, after some hours of fatiguing +jungle-work, I have come upon a path. The notches on the +treestems have proved its artificial character, and by following +its course I have learnt the country. + +There is not a path, stream, hill, or plain, within many miles of +Newera Ellia, that I do not know intimately, although, when the +character of the country is scanned by a stranger from some +mountain-top, the very act of traversing it appears impossible. +This knowledge has been gained by years of unceasing hunting, and +by perseveringly following up the hounds wherever they have gone. +From sunrise till nightfall I have often ploughed along through +alternate jungles and plains, listening eagerly for the cry of +the hounds, and at length discovering portions of the country +which I had never known to exist. + +There is a great pleasure in thus working out the features of a +wild country, especially in an island like Ceylon, which, in +every portion, exhibits traces of former prosperity and immense +population. Even these uninhabited and chilly regions, up to an +elevation of seven thousand feet, are not blank pages in the book +of Nature, but the hand of man is so distinctly traced that the +keen observer can read with tolerable certainty the existence of +a nation long since passed away. + +As I before mentioned, I pitched my settlement on the verge of +the highland, at the eastern extremity of the Newera Ellia plain, +where the high road commences a sudden descent toward Badulla, +thirty-three miles distant. This spot, forming, a shallow gap, +was the ancient native entrance to Newera Ellia from that side, +and the Cingalese designation for the locality is interpreted +"the Path of a Thousand Princes." This name assists in the proof +that Newera Ellia was formerly of some great importance. A far +more enticing name gives an interest to the first swampy portion +of the plain, some three hundred paces beyond, viz., "the Valley +of Rubies." + +Now, having plainly discovered that Newera Ellia was of some +great importance to the natives, let us consider in what that +value consisted. There are no buildings remaining, no ruins, as +in other parts of Ceylon, but a liquid mine of wealth poured from +these lofty regions. The importance of Newera Ellia lay first in +its supply of water, and, secondly, in its gems. + +In all tropical countries the first principle of cultivation is +the supply of water, without which the land would remain barren. +In a rice-growing country like Ceylon, the periodical rains are +insufficient, and the whole system of native agriculture depends +upon irrigation. Accordingly, the mountains being the reservoirs +from which the rivers spring, become of vital importance to the +country. + +The principal mountains in Ceylon are Pedrotallagalla, eight +thousand two hundred and eighty feet; Kirigallapotta, seven +thousand nine hundred; Totapella, eight thousand feet; and Adam's +Peak, seven thousand seven hundred; but although their altitude +is so considerable, they do not give the idea of grandeur which +such an altitude would convey. They do not rise abruptly from a +level base, but they are merely the loftiest of a thousand peaks +towering from the highlands of Ceylon. + +The greater portion of the highland district may therefore be +compared to one vast mountain; hill piled upon hill, and peak +rising over peak; ravines of immense depth, forming innumerable +conduits for the mountain torrents. Then, at the elevation of +Newera Ellia the heavings of the land appear to have rested, and +gentle undulations, diversified by plains and forests, extend for +some thirty miles. From these comparatively level tracts and +swampy plains the rivers of Ceylon derive their source and the +three loftiest peaks take their base; Pedrotallagalla rising from +the Newera Ellia Plain, "Totapella" and Kirigallapotta from the +Horton Plains. + +The whole of the highland district is thus composed of a +succession of ledges of great extent at various elevations, +commencing with the highest, the Horton Plains, seven thousand +feet above the sea. + +Seven hundred feet below the Horton Plain, the Totapella Plains +and undulating forests continue at this elevation as far as +Newera Ellia for about twenty miles, thus forming the second +ledge. + +Six miles to the west of Newera Ellia, at a lower elevation of +about nine hundred feet, the district of Dimboola commences, and +extends at this elevation over a vast tract of forest-covered +country, stretching still farther to the west, and containing a +small proportion of plain. + +At about the same elevation, nine miles on the north of Newera +Ellia, we descend to the Elephant Plains; a beautiful tract of +fine grass country, but of small extent. This tract and that of +Dimboola form the third ledge. + +Nine miles to the east of Newera Ellia, at a lower elevation of +one thousand five hundred feet, stretches the Ouva country, +forming the fourth ledge. + +The features of this country are totally distinct from any other +portion of Ceylon. A magnificent view extends as far as the +horizon, of undulating open grassland, diversified by the rich +crops of paddy which are grown in each of the innumerable small +valleys formed by the undulations of the ground. Not a tree is +to be seen except the low brushwood which is scantily +distributed upon its surface. We emerge suddenly from the +forest-covered mountains of Newera Ellia, and, from a lofty point +on the high road to Badulla, we look down upon the splendid +panorama stretched like a waving sea beneath our feet. The road +upon which we stand is scarped out of the mountain's side. The +forest has ceased, dying off gradually into isolated patches and +long ribbon-like strips on the sides of the mountain, upon which +rich grass is growing, in vivid contrast to the rank and coarse +herbage of Newera Ellia, distant only five miles from the point +upon which we stand. + +Descending until we reach Wilson's Plain, nine miles from Newera +Ellia, we arrive in the district of Ouva, much like the Sussex +Downs as any place to which it can be compared. + +This district comprises about six hundred square miles, and forms +the fourth and last ledge of the high lands of Ceylon. Passes +from the mountains which form the wall-like boundaries of this +table-land descend to the low country in various directions. + +The whole of the Ouva district upon the one side, and of the +Kotmalee district on the other side, of tilt Newera Ellia range +of mountains, are, with the exception of the immediate +neighborhood of Kandy and Colombo, the most populous districts of +Ceylon. + +This is entirely owing, to the never-failing supply of water +obtained from the mountains; and upon this supply the wealth and +prosperity of the country depend. + +The ancient history of Ceylon is involved in much obscurity, but +nevertheless we have sufficient data in the existing traces of +its former population to form our opinions of the position and +power which Ceylon occupied in the Eastern Hemisphere when +England was in a state of barbarism. The wonderful remains of +ancient cities, tanks and water-courses throughout the island all +prove that the now desolate regions were tenanted by a multitude +- not of savages, but of a race long since passed away, full of +industry and intelligence. + +Among the existing traces of former population few are more +interesting than those in the vicinity of Newera Ellia. + +Judging from the present supply of water required for the +cultivation of a district containing a certain population, we can +arrive at a tolerably correct idea of the former population by +comparing the present supply of water with that formerly +required. + +Although the district of Ouva is at present well populated, and +every hollow is taken advantage of for the cultivation of paddy, +still the demand for water in proportion to the supply is +comparatively small. + +The system of irrigation has necessarily involved immense labor. +For many miles the water is conducted from the mountains through +dense forests, across ravines, round the steep sides of opposing +hills, now leaping into a lower valley into a reservoir, from +which it is again led through this arduous country until it at +length reaches the land which it is destined to render fertile. + +There has been a degree of engineering skill displayed in forming +aqueducts through such formidable obstacles; the hills are lined +out in every direction with these proofs of industry, and their +winding course can be traced round the grassy sides of the steep +mountains, while the paddy-fields are seen miles away in the +valleys of Ouva stretched far beneath. + +At least eight out of ten of these watercourses are dry, and the +masonry required in the sudden angles of ravines, has, in most +cases, fallen to decay. Even those water-courses still in +existence are of the second class; small streams have been +conducted from their original course, and these serve for the +supply of the present population. + +>From the remains of deserted water-courses of the first class, +it is evident that more than fifty times the volume of water was +then required that is in use at present, and in the same ratio +must have been the amount of population. In those days rivers +were diverted from their natural channels; opposing hills were +cut through, and the waters thus were led into another valley to +join a stream flowing in, its natural bed, whose course, +eventually obstructed by a dam, poured its accumulated waters +into canals which branched to various localities. Not a river in +those times flowed in vain. The hill-sides were terraced out in +beautiful cultivation, which are now waving with wild vegetation +and rank lemon grass. The remaining traces of stone walls point +out the ancient boundaries far above the secluded valley now in +cultivation. + +The nation has vanished, and with it the industry and +perseverance of the era. + +We now arrive at the cause of the former importance of Newera +Ellia, or the "Royal Plains." + +It has been shown that the very existence of the population +depended upon the supply of water, and that supply was obtained +from the neighborhood of Newera Ellia. Therefore, a king in +possession of Newera Ellia had the most complete command over his +subjects; he could either give or withhold the supply of water at +his pleasure, by allowing its free exit or by altering its +course. + +Thus, during rebellion, he could starve his people into +submission, or lay waste the land in time of foreign invasion. I +have seen in an impregnable position the traces of an ancient +fort, evidently erected to defend the pass to the main +water-course from the low country. + +This gives us a faint clue to the probable cause of the +disappearance of the nation. + +In time of war or intestine commotion, the water may have been +cut off from the low country, and the exterminating effects of +famine may have laid the whole land desolate. It is, therefore, +no longer a matter of astonishment that the present plain of +Newera Ellia should have received its appellation of the "Royal +Plain." In those days there was no very secure tenure to the +throne, and by force alone could a king retain it. The more +bloodthirsty and barbarous the tyrant, the more was he dreaded by +the awe-stricken and trembling population. The power of such a +weapon of annihilation as the command of the waters may be easily +conceived as it invested a king with almost divine authority in +the eyes of his subjects. + +Now there is little doubt that the existence of precious gems at +Newera Ellia may have been accidentally discovered in digging the +numerous water-courses in the vicinity; there is, however, no +doubt that at some former period the east end of the plain, +called the "Vale of Rubies," constituted the royal "diggings." +That the king of Kandy did not reside at Newera Ellia there is +little wonder, as a monarch delighting in a temperature of 85 +Fahrenheit would have regarded the climate of a mean temperature +of 60 Fahrenheit as we should that of Nova Zembla. + +We may take it for granted, therefore, that when the king came to +Newera Ellia his visit had some object, and we presume that he +came to look at the condition of his water-courses and to +superintend the digging for precious stones; in the same manner +that Ceylon governors of past years visited Arippo during the +pearlfishing. + +The "diggings" of the kings of Kandy must have been conducted on +a most extensive scale. Not only has the Vale of Rubies been +regularly turned up for many acres, but all the numerous plains +in the vicinity are full of pits, some of very large size and of +a depth varying from three to seventeen feet. The Newera Ellia +Plain, the Moonstone Plain, the Kondapallé Plain, the Elk Plains, +the Totapella Plains, the Horton Plains, the Bopatalava Plains, +the Augara Plains (translated "the Diggings"), and many others +extending over a surface of thirty miles, are all more or less +studded by deep pits formed by the ancient searchers for gems, +which in those days were a royal monopoly. + +It is not to be supposed that the search for gems would have been +thus persevered in unless it was found to be remunerative; but it +is a curious fact that no Englishmen are ever to be seen at work +at this employment. The natives would still continue the search, +were they permitted, upon the "Vale of Rubies;" but I warned +them off on purchasing the land; and I have several good +specimens of gems which I have discovered by digging two feet +beneath the surface. + +The surface soil being of a light, peaty quality, the stones, +from their greater gravity, lie beneath, mixed with a rounded +quartz gravel, which in ages past must have been subjected to the +action of running water. This quartz gravel, with its mixture of +gems, rests upon a stiff white pipe-clay. + +In this stratum of gravel an infinite number of small, and for +the most part worthless, specimens of gems are found, consisting +of sapphire, ruby, emerald, jacinth, tourmaline, chrysoberyl, +zircon, cat's-eye, "moonstone," and "star-stone." Occasionally a +stone of value rewards the patient digger; but, unless he +thoroughly understands it, he is apt to pass over the gems of +most value as pieces of ironstone. + +The mineralogy of Ceylon has hitherto been little understood. It +has often been suggested as the "Ophir" of the time of Solomon, +and doubtless, from its production of gems, it might deserve the +name. + +It has hitherto been the opinion of most writers on Ceylon that +the precious metals do not exist in the island; and Dr. Davy in +his work makes an unqualified assertion to that effect. But from +the discoveries recently made, I am of opinion that it exists in +very large quantities in the mountainous districts of the island. + +It is amusing to see the positive assertions of a clever man +upset by a few uneducated sailors. + +A few men of the latter class, who had been at the gold diggings +both in California and Australia, happened to engage in a ship +bound for Colombo. Upon arrival they obtained leave from the +captain for a stroll on shore, and they took the road toward +Kandy, and when about half-way it struck them, from the +appearance of the rocks in the uneven bed of a river, called the +Maha Oya, "that gold must exist in its sands." They had no +geological reason for this opinion; but the river happened to be +very like those in California in which they had been accustomed +to find gold. They accordingly set to work with a tin pan to +wash the sand, and to the astonishment of every one in Ceylon, +and to the utter confusion of Dr. Davy's opinions, they actually +discovered gold! + +The quantity was small, but the men were very sanguine of +success, and were making their preparations for working on a more +extensive scale, when they were all prostrated by jungle fever - +a guardian-spirit of the gold at Amberpussé, which will ever +effectually protect it from Europeans. + +They all returned to Colombo, and, when convalescent, they +proceeded to Newera Ellia, naturally concluding that the gold +which existed in dust in the rivers below must be washed down +from the richer stores of the mountains. + +Their first discovery of gold at Newera Ellia was on the 14th +June, 1854, on the second day of their search in that locality. +The first gold was found in the "Vale of Rubies." + +I had advised them to make their first search in that spot for +this reason: that, as the precious stones had there settled in +the largest numbers, from their superior gravity, it was natural +to conclude that, if gold should exist, it would, from its +gravity, be somewhere below the precious stones or in their +vicinity. + +>From the facility with which it has been discovered, it is +impossible to form an opinion as to the quantity or the extent to +which it will eventually be developed. It is equally impossible +to predict the future discoveries which may be made of other +minerals. It is well known that quicksilver was found at Cotta, +six miles from Colombo, in the year 1797. It was in small +quantities, and was neglected by the government, and no extended +search was prosecuted. The present search for gold may bring to +light mineral resources of Ceylon which have hitherto lain +hidden. + +The minerals proved to exist up to the present time are gold, +quicksilver, plumbago and iron. The two latter are of the finest +quality and in immense abundance. The rocks of Ceylon are +primitive, consisting of granite, gneiss and quartz. Of these +the two latter predominate. Dolomite also exists in large +quantities up to an elevation of five thousand feet, but not +beyond this height. + +Plumbago is disseminated throughout the whole of both soil and +rocks in Ceylon, and may be seen covering the surface in the +drains by the road side, after a recent shower. + +It is principally found at Ratnapoora and at Belligam, in large, +detached kidney-shaped masses, from four to twenty feet below the +surface. The cost of digging and the transport are the only +expenses attending it, as the supply is inexhaustible. Its +component parts are nineteen of carbon and one of iron. + +It exists in such quantities, in the gneiss rocks that upon their +decomposition it is seen in bright specks like silver throughout. + +This gneiss rock, when in a peculiar stage of decomposition, has +the appearance and consistency of yellow brick, speckled with +plumbago. It exists in this state in immense masses, and forms a +valuable buildingstone, as it can be cut with ease to any shape +required, and, though soft when dug, it hardens by exposure to +the air. It has also the valuable property of withstanding the +greatest heat; and for furnace building it is superior to the +best Stourbridge fire-bricks. + +The finest quality of iron is found upon the mountains in various +forms, from the small iron-stone gravel to large masses of many +tons in weight protruding from the earth's surface. + +So fine is that considered at Newera Ellia and the vicinity that +the native blacksmiths have been accustomed from time immemorial +to make periodical visits for the purpose of smelting the ore. +The average specimens of this produce about eighty per cent. of +pure metal, even by the coarse native process of smelting. The +operations are as follows: + +Having procured the desired amount of ore, it is rendered as +small as possible by pounding with a hammer. + +A platform is then built of clay, about six feet in length by +three feet in height and width. + +A small well is formed in the centre of the platform, about +eighteen inches in depth and diameter, egg-shaped. + +A few inches from the bottom of this well is an air-passage, +connected with a pipe and bellows. + +The well is then filled with alternate layers of charcoal and +pulverized iron ore; the fire is lighted, and the process of +smelting commences. + +The bellows are formed of two inflated skins, like a double +"bagpipe." Each foot of the "bellows-blower" is strapped to one +skin, the pipes of the bellows being fixed in the air-hole of the +blast. He then works the skins alternately by moving his feet up +and down, being assisted in this treadmill kind of labor by the +elasticity of two bamboos, of eight or ten feet in length, the +butts of which, being firmly fixed in the ground, enable him to +retain his balance by grasping one with either hand. From the +yielding top of each bamboo, a string descends attached to either +big toe; thus the downward pressure of each foot upon the bellows +strains upon the bamboo top as a fish bears upon a fishing-rod, +and the spring of the bamboo assists him in lifting up his leg. +Without this assistance, it would be impossible to continue the +exertion for the time required. + +While the "bellows-blower" is thus getting up a blaze, another +man attends upon the well, which he continues to feed alternately +with fresh ore and a corresponding amount of charcoal, every now +and then throwing in a handful of fine sand as a flux. + +The return for a whole day's puffing and blowing will be about +twenty pounds weight of badly-smelted iron. This is subsequently +remelted, and is eventually worked up into hatchets, hoes, +betel-crackers, etc., etc. being of a superior quality to the +best Swedish iron. + +If the native blacksmith were to value his time at only sixpence +per diem from the day on which he first started for the mountains +till the day that he returned from his iron-smelting expedition, +he would find that his iron would have cost him rather a high +price per hundredweight; and if he were to make the same +calculation of the value of time, he would discover that by the +time he had completed one axe he could have purchased ready made, +for one-third the money, an English tool of superior manufacture. +This, however, is not their style of calculation. Time has no +value, according to their crude ideas; therefore, if they want an +article, and can produce it without the actual outlay of cash, no +matter how much time is expended, they will prefer that method of +obtaining it. + +Unfortunately, the expense of transit is so heavy from Newera +Ellia to Colombo, that this valuable metal, like the fine timber +of the forests, must remain useless. + +CHAPTER IV. Poverty of Soil - Ceylon Sugar - Fatality of Climate +- Supposed Fertility of Soil - Native Cultivation - Neglect of +Rice Cultivation - Abandoned Reservoirs - Former Prosperity - +Ruins of Cities - Pollanarua - The Great Dagoba - Architectural +Relics - The Rock Temple - Destruction of Population - Neglected +Capabilities - Suggestions for Increasing Population - Progress +of Pestilence - Deserted Villages - Difficulties in the +Cultivation of Rice - Division of Labor - Native Agriculture. + +>From the foregoing description, the reader will have inferred +that Newera Ellia is a delightful place of residence, with a mean +temperature of 60 Fahrenheit, abounding with beautiful views of +mountain and plain and of boundless panoramas in the vicinity. +He will also have discovered that, in addition to the healthiness +of its climate, its natural resources are confined to its timber +and mineral productions, as the soil is decidedly poor. + +The appearance of the latter has deceived every one, especially +the black soil of the patina, which my bailiff, on his first +arrival declared to be excellent. Lord Torrington, who is well +known as an agriculturist, was equally deceived. He was very +confident in the opinion that "it only required draining to +enable it to produce anything." The real fact is, that it is +far inferior to the forest-land, and will not pay for the +working. + +Nevertheless, it is my decided opinion that the generality of the +forest-land at Newera Ellia and the vicinity is superior to that +in other parts of Ceylon. + +There are necessarily rich lots every now end then in such a +large extent as the surface of the low country; but these lots +usually lie on the banks of rivers which have been subjected to +inundations, and they are not fair samples of Ceylon soil. A +river's bank or a valley's bottom must be tolerably good even in +the poorest country. + +The great proof of the general poverty of Ceylon is shown in the +failure of every agricultural experiment in which a rich soil is +required. + +Cinnamon thrives; but why? It delights in a soil of quartz sand, +in which nothing else would grow. + +Cocoa-nut trees flourish for the same reason ; sea air, a sandy +soil and a dry subsoil are all that the cocoa-nut requires. + +On the other hand, those tropical productions which require a +strong soil invariably prove failures, and sugar, cotton, indigo, +hemp and tobacco cannot possibly be cultivated with success. + +Even on the alluvial soil upon the banks of rivers sugar does not +pay the proprietor. The only sugar estate in the island that can +keep its head above water is the Peredinia estate, within four +miles of Kandy. This, again, lies upon the bank of the Mahawelli +river, and it has also the advantage of a home market for its +produce, as it supplies the interior of Ceylon at the rate of +twenty-three shillings per cwt. upon the spot. + +Any person who thoroughly understands the practical cultivation +of the sugar-cane can tell the quality of sugar that will be +produced by an examination of the soil. I am thoroughly +convinced that no soil in Ceylon will produce a sample of fine, +straw-colored, dry, bright, large-crystaled sugar. The finest +sample ever produced of Ceylon sugar is a dull gray, and always +moist, requiring a very large proportion of lime in the +manufacture, without which it could neither be cleansed nor +crystalized. + +The sugar cane, to produce fine sugar, requires a rich, stiff, +and very dry soil. In Ceylon, there is no such thing as a stiff +soil existing. The alluvial soil upon the banks of rivers is +adapted for the growth of cotton and tobacco, but not for the +sugar-cane. In such light and moist alluvial soil the latter +will grow to a great size, and will yield a large quantity of +juice in which the saccharometer may stand well; but the degree +of strength indicated will proceed from an immense proportion of +mucilage, which will give much trouble in the cleansing during +boiling; and the sugar produced must be wanting in dryness and +fine color. + +There are several rivers in Ceylon whose banks would produce good +cotton and tobacco, especially those in the districts of +Hambantotte and Batticaloa; such as the "Wallawé," the "Yallé +river," the "Koombookanaar," etc.; but even here the good soil is +very limited, lying on either bank for only a quarter of a mile +in width. In addition to this, the unhealthiness of the climate +is so great that I am convinced no European constitution could +withstand it. Even the natives are decimated at certain seasons +by the most virulent fevers and dysentery. + +These diseases generally prevail to the greatest extent during +the dry season. This district is particularly subject to severe +droughts; months pass away without a drop of rain or a cloud upon +the sky. Every pool and tank is dried up; the rivers forsake +their banks, and a trifling stream trickles over the sandy bed. +Thus all the rotten wood, dead leaves and putrid vegetation +brought down by the torrent during the wet season are left upon +the dried bed to infect the air with miasma. + +This deadly climate would be an insurmountable obstacle to the +success of estates. Even could managers be found to brave the +danger, one season of sickness and death among the coolies would +give the estate a name which would deprive it of all future +supplies of labor. + +Indigo is indigenous to Ceylon, but it is of an inferior quality, +and an experiment made in its cultivation was a total failure. + +In fact, nothing will permanently succeed in Ceylon soil without +abundance of manure, with the exception of cinnamon and +cocoa-nuts. Even the native gardens will not produce a tolerable +sample of the common sweet potato without manure, a positive +proof of the general poverty of the soil. + +Nevertheless, Ceylon has had a character for fertility. +Bennett, in his work entitled "Ceylon and its Capabilities," +describes the island in the most florid terms, as "the most +important and valuable of all the insular possessions of the +imperial crown." Again he speaks of "its fertile soil, and +indigenous vegetable productions," etc., etc. Again: "Ceylon, +though comparatively but little known, is pre-eminent in natural +resources." All this serves to mislead the public opinion. +Agricultural experiments in a tropical country in a little garden +highly manured may be very satisfactory and very amusing. +Everything must necessarily come to perfection with great +rapidity; but these experiments are no proof of what Ceylon will +produce, and the popular idea of its fertility has been at length +proved a delusion. + +It is a dangerous thing for any man to sit down to "make" a book. +If he has had personal experience, let him write a description of +those subjects which he understands; but if he attempts to "make" +a book, he must necessarily collect information from hearsay, +when he will most probably gather some chaff with his grain. + +Can any man, when describing the "fertility" of Ceylon, be aware +that newly-cleared forest-land will only produce one crop of the +miserable grain called korrakan? Can he understand why the +greater portion of Ceylon is covered by dense thorny jungles? It +is simply this - that the land is so desperately poor that it +will only produce one crop, and thus an immense acreage is +required for the support of a few inhabitants; thus, from ages +past up to the present time, the natives have been continually +felling fresh forest and deserting the last clearing, which has +accordingly grown into a dense, thorny jungle, forming what are +termed the Chénars" of Ceylon. + +So fully aware are the natives of the impossibility of getting +more than one crop out of the land that they plant all that they +require at the same time. Thus may be seen in a field of +korrakan (a small grain), Indian corn, millet and pumpkins, all +growing together, and harvested as they respectively become +ripe. + +The principal articles of native cultivation are rice, korrakan, +Indian corn, betel, areca-nuts, pumpkins, onions, garlic, +gingelly-oil seed, tobacco, millet, red peppers, curry seed and +sweet potatoes. + +The staple articles of Ceylon production are coffee cinnamon and +cocoa-nut oil, which are for the most part cultivated and +manufactured by Europeans. + +The chief article of native consumption, "rice," should be an +export from Ceylon; but there has been an unaccountable neglect +on the part of government regarding the production of this +important grain, for the supply of which Ceylon is mainly +dependent upon importation. In the hitherto overrated general +resources of Ceylon, the cultivation of rice has scarcely been +deemed worthy of notice; the all-absorbing subject of coffee +cultivation has withdrawn the attention of the government from +that particular article, for the production of which the +resources of Ceylon are both naturally and artificially immense. + +This neglect is the more extraordinary as the increase of coffee +cultivation involves a proportionate increase in the consumption +of rice, by the additional influx of coolie labor from the coast +of India; therefore the price and supply of rice in Ceylon become +questions of similar importance to the price of corn in England. +This dependence upon a foreign soil for the supply involves the +necessary fluctuations in price caused by uncertain arrivals and +precarious harvests; and the importance of an unlimited supply at +an even rate may be imagined when it is known that every native +consumes a bushel of rice per month, when he can obtain it. + +Nevertheless, the great capabilities of Ceylon for the +cultivation of this all-important "staff of life" are entirely +neglected by the government. The tanks which afforded a supply +of water for millions in former ages now lie idle and out of +repair; the pelican sails in solitude upon their waters, and the +crocodile basks upon their shores; the thousands of acres which +formerly produced rice for a dense population are now matted over +by a thorny and impenetrable jungle. The wild buffalo, +descendant from the ancient stock which tilled the ground of a +great nation, now roams through a barren forest, which in olden +times was a soil glistening with fertility. The ruins of the +mighty cities tower high above the trees, sad monuments of +desolation, where all was once flourishing, and where thousands +dwelt within their walls. + +All are passed away; and in the wreck of past ages we trace the +great resources of the country, which produced sufficient food to +support millions; while for the present comparatively small +population Ceylon is dependent upon imports. + +These lakes, or tanks, were works of much art and of immense +labor for the purpose of reservoirs, from the supply of which the +requisite amount of land could be irrigated for rice +cultivation. A valley of the required extent being selected, the +courses of neighboring or distant rivers were conducted into it, +and the exit of the waters was prevented by great causeways, or +dams, of solid masonry, which extended for some miles across the +lower side of the valley thus converted into a lake. The exit of +the water was then regulated by means of sluices, from which it +was conducted by channels to the rice-lands. + +These tanks are of various extent, and extremely numerous +throughout Ceylon. The largest are those of Minneria, Kandellai, +Padavellkiellom, and the Giant Tank. These are from fifteen to +twenty-five miles in circumference; but in former times, when the +sluices were in repair and the volume of water at its full +height, they must have been much larger. + +In those days the existence of a reservoir of water was a certain +indication of a populous and flourishing neighborhood; and the +chief cities of the country were accordingly situated in those +places which were always certain of a supply. So careful were +the inhabitants in husbanding those liquid resources upon which +their very existence depended that even the surplus waters of one +lake were not allowed to escape unheeded. Channels were cut, +connecting a chain of tanks of slightly varying elevations, over +an extent of sixty or seventy miles of apparently flat country, +and the overflow of one tank was thus conducted in succession +from lake to lake, until they all attained the desired level. + +In this manner was the greater portion of Ceylon kept in the +highest state of cultivation. From the north to the south the +island was thickly peopled, and the only portions which then +remained in the hands of nature were those which are now seen in +the state of primeval forest. + +Well may Ceylon in those times have deserved the name of the +"Paradise of the East." The beauties which nature has showered +upon the land were heightened by cultivation; the forest-capped +mountains rose from a waving sea of green; the valleys teemed +with wealth; no thorny jungles gave a barren terminable prospect, +but the golden tints of ripening crops spread to the horizon. +Temples stood upon the hill-tops; cities were studded over the +land, their lofty dagobas and palaces reflected on the glassy +surface of the lakes, from which their millions of inhabitants +derived their food, their wealth and their very life. + +The remains of these cities sufficiently attest the former amount +of population and the comparative civilization which existed at +that remote era among the progenitors of the present degraded +race of barbarians. The ruins of "Anaradupoora," which cover two +hundred and fifty-six square miles of ground, are all that remain +of the noble city which stood within its walls in a square of +sixteen miles. Some idea of the amount of population may be +arrived at, when we consider the present density of inhabitants +in all Indian houses and towns. Millions must, therefore, have +streamed from the gates of a city to which our modern London was +comparatively a village. + +There is a degree of sameness in the ruins of all the ancient +cities of Ceylon which renders a description tedious. Those of +"Anaradupoora" are the largest in extent, and the buildings +appear to have been more lofty, the great dagoba having exceeded +four hundred feet in height; but the ruins do not exhibit the +same "finish" in the style of architecture which is seen in the +remains of other towns. + +Among these, "Toparé," anciently called "Pollanarua," stands +foremost. This city appears to have been laid out with a degree +of taste which would have done credit to our modern towns. + +Before its principal gate stretched a beautiful lake of about +fifteen miles circumference (now only nine). The approach to this +gate was by a broad road, upon the top of a stone causeway, of +between two and three miles in length, which formed a massive dam +to the waters of the lake which washed its base. To the right of +this dam stretched many miles of cultivation; to the left, on the +farther shores of the lake, lay park-like grass-lands, studded +with forest trees, some of whose mighty descendants still exist +in the noble "tamarind," rising above all others. Let us return +in imagination to Pollanarua as it once stood. Having arrived +upon the causeway in the approach to the city, the scene must +have been beautiful in the extreme: the silvery lake, like a +broad mirror, in the midst of a tropical park; the flowering +trees shadowing its waters; the groves of tamarinds sheltering +its many nooks and bays; the gorgeous blossoms of the pink lotus +resting on its glassy surface; and the carpet-like glades of +verdant pasturage, stretching far away upon the opposite shores, +covered with countless elephants, tamed to complete obedience. +Then on the right, below the massive granite steps which form the +causeway, the water rushing from the sluice carries fertility +among a thousand fields, and countless laborers and cattle till +the ground: the sturdy buffaloes straining at the plough, the +women, laden with golden sheaves of corn and baskets of fruit, +crowding along the palm-shaded road winding toward the city, from +whose gate a countless throng are passing and returning. Behold +the mighty city! rising like a snow-white cloud from the broad +margin of the waters. The groves of cocoa-nuts and palms of +every kind, grouped in the inner gardens, throwing a cool shade +upon the polished walls; the lofty palaces towering among the +stately areca trees, and the gilded domes reflecting a blaze of +light from the rays of a midday sun. Such let us suppose the +exterior of Pollanarua. + +The gates are entered, and a broad street, straight as an arrow, +lies before us, shaded on either side by rows of palms. Here +stand, on either hand, the dwellings of the principal +inhabitants, bordering the wide space, which continues its +straight and shady course for about four miles in length. In the +centre, standing in a spacious circle, rises the great Dagoba, +forming a grand coup d'oeil from the entrance gate. Two hundred +and sixty feet from the base the Dagoba rears its lofty summit. +Two circular terraces, each of some twenty feet in height, rising +one upon the other, with a width of fifty feet, and a diameter at +the base of about two hundred and fifty, from the step-like +platform upon which the Dagoba stands. These are ascended by +broad flights of steps, each terrace forming a circular +promenade around the Dagoba; the whole having the appearance of +white marble, being covered with polished stucco ornamented with +figures in bas-relief. The Dagoba is a solid mass of brickwork in +the shape of a dome, which rises from the upper terrace. The +whole is covered with polished stucco, and surmounted by a gilded +spire standing upon a square pedestal of stucco, highly +ornamented with large figures, also in bas-relief; this pedestal +is a cube of about thirty feet, supporting the tall gilded spire, +which is surmounted by a golden umbrella. + +Around the base of the Dagoba on the upper terrace are eight +small entrances with highly-ornamented exteriors. These are the +doors to eight similar chambers of about twelve feet square, in +each of which is a small altar and carved golden idol. This +Dagoba forms the main centre of the city, from which streets +branch off in all directions, radiating from the circular space +in which it stands. + +The main street from the entrance-gate continues to the further +extremity of the city, being crossed at right angles in the +centre by a similar street, thus forming two great main streets +through the city, terminating in four great gates or entrances to +the town - north, south, east and west. Continuing along the +main street from the great Dagoba for about a mile, we face +another Dagoba of similar appearance, but of smaller dimensions, +also standing in a spacious circle. Near this rises the king's +palace, a noble building of great height, edged at the corner by +narrow octagon towers. + +At the further extremity of this main street, close to the +opposite entrance- gate, is the rock temple, with the massive +idols of Buddha flanking the entrance. + +This, from the form and position of the existing ruins, we may +conceive to have been the appearance of Pollanarua in its days of +prosperity. But what remains of its grandeur? It has vanished +like "a tale that is told;" it is passed away like a dream; the +palaces are dust; the grassy sod has grown in mounds over the +ruins of streets and fallen houses; nature has turfed them in one +common grave with their inhabitants. The lofty palms have faded +away and given place to forest trees, whose roots spring from the +crumbled ruins; the bear and the leopard crouch in the porches of +the temples; the owl roosts in the casements of the palaces; the +jackal roams among the ruins in vain; there is not a bone left +for him to gnaw of the multitudes which have passed away. There +is their handwriting upon the temple wall, upon the granite slab +which has mocked at Time; but there is no man to decipher it. +There are the gigantic idols before whom millions have bowed; +there is the same vacant stare upon their features of rock which +gazed upon the multitudes of yore; but they no longer stare upon +the pomp of the glorious city, but upon ruin, and rank weeds, and +utter desolation. How many suns have risen and how many nights +have darkened the earth since silence has reigned amidst the +city, no man can tell. No mortal can say what fate befell those +hosts of heathens, nor when they vanished from the earth. Day +and night succeed each other, and the shade of the setting sun +still falls from the great Dagoba; but it is the "valley of the +shadow of death" upon which that shadow falls like a pall over +the corpse of a nation. + +The great Dagoba now remains a heap of mouldering brickwork, +still retaining its form, but shorn of all its beauty. The +stucco covering has almost all disappeared, leaving a patch here +and there upon the most sheltered portions of the building. +Scrubby brushwood and rank grass and lichens have for the most +part covered its surface, giving it the appearance rather of a +huge mound of earth than of an ancient building. A portion of +the palace is also standing, and, although for the most part +blocked up with ruins, there is still sufficient to denote its +former importance. The bricks, or rather the tiles, of which all +the buildings are composed, are of such an imperishable nature +that they still adhere to each other in large masses in spots +where portions of the buildings have fallen. + +In one portion of the ruins there are a number of beautiful +fluted columns, with carved capitals, still remaining in a +perfect state. Among these are the ruins of a large flight of +steps; near them, again, a stone-lined tank, which was evidently +intended as a bath; and everything denotes the former comfort and +arrangement of a first-class establishment. There are +innumerable relics, all interesting and worthy of individual +attention, throughout the ruins over a surface of many miles, but +they are mostly overgrown with jungle or covered with rank grass. +The apparent undulations of the ground in all directions are +simply the remains of fallen streets and buildings overgrown in +like manner with tangled vegetation. + +The most interesting, as being the most perfect, specimen, is the +small rock temple, which, being hewn out of the solid stone, is +still in complete preservation. This is a small chamber in the +face of an abrupt rock, which, doubtless, being partly a natural +cavern, has been enlarged to the present size by the chisel; and +the entrance, which may have been originally a small hole, has +been shaped into an arched doorway. The interior is not more +than perhaps twenty-five feet by eighteen, and is simply fitted +up with an altar and the three figures of Buddha, in the +positions in which he is usually represented -the sitting, the +reclining and the standing postures. + +The exterior of the temple is far more interesting. The narrow +archway is flanked on either side by two inclined planes, hewn +from the face of the rock, about eighteen feet high by twelve in +width. These are completely covered with an inscription in the +old Pali language, which has never been translated. Upon the +left of one plain is a kind of sunken area hewn out of the rock, +in which sits a colossal figure of Buddha, about twenty feet in +height. On the right of the other plane is a figure in the +standing posture about the same height; and still farther to the +right, likewise hewn from the solid rock, is an immense figure in +the recumbent posture, which is about fifty-six feet in length, +or, as I measured it, not quite nineteen paces. + +These figures are of a far superior class of sculpture to the +idols usually seen in Ceylon, especially that in the reclining +posture, in which the impression of the head upon the pillow is +so well executed that the massive pillow of gneiss rock actually +appears yielding to the weight of the head. + +This temple is supposed to be coeval with the city, which was +founded about three hundred years before Christ, and is supposed +to have been in ruins for upward of six hundred years. The +comparatively recent date of its destruction renders its +obscurity the more mysterious, as there is no mention made of its +annihilation in any of the Cingalese records, although the city +is constantly mentioned during the time of its prosperity in the +native history of Ceylon. It is my opinion that its destruction +was caused by famine. + +In those days the kings of Ceylon were perpetually at war with +each other. The Queen of the South, from the great city of +Mahagam in the Hambantotte district, made constant war with the +kings of Pollanarua. They again made war with the Arabs and +Malabars, who had invaded the northern districts of Ceylon; and +as in modern warfare the great art consists in cutting off the +enemy's supplies, so in those days the first and most decisive +blow to be inflicted was the cutting off the "water." Thus, by +simply turning the course of a river which supplied a principal +tank, not only would that tank lose its supply, but the whole of +the connected chain of lakes dependent upon the principal would +in like manner be deprived of water. + +This being the case, the first summer or dry season would lay +waste the country. I have myself seen the lake of Minneria, +which is twenty-two miles in circumference, evaporate to the +small dimensions of four miles circuit during a dry season. + +A population of some millions wholly dependent upon the supply of +rice for their existence would be thrown into sudden starvation +by the withdrawal of the water. Thus have the nations died out +like a fire for lack of fuel. This cause will account for the +decay of the great cities of Ceylon. The population gone, the +wind and the rain would howl through the deserted dwellings, the +white ants would devour the supporting beams, the elephants would +rub their colossal forms against the already tottering houses, +and decay would proceed with a rapidity unknown in a cooler +clime. As the seed germinates in a few hours in a tropical +country, so with equal haste the body of both vegetable and +animal decays when life is extinct. A perpetual and hurrying +change is visible in all things. A few showers, and the surface +of the earth is teeming with verdure; a few days of drought, and +the seeds already formed are falling to the earth, springing in +their turn to life at the approach of moisture. The same +rapidity of change is exhibited in their decay. The heaps of +vegetable putridity upon the banks of rivers, when a swollen +torrent has torn the luxuriant plants from the loosened soil, are +but the effects of a few hours' change. The tree that arrives at +maturity in a few years rots in as short a time when required for +durability: thus it is no mystery, that either a house or a city +should shortly fall to decay when the occupant is gone. + +In like manner, and with still greater rapidity, is a change +effected in the face of nature. As the flowers usurp the place +of weeds under the care of man, so, when his hand is wanting, a +few short weeks bury them beneath an overwhelming mass of thorns. +In one year a jungle will conceal all signs of recent +cultivation. Is it, therefore, a mystery that Ceylon is covered +with such vast tracts of thorny jungle, now that her inhabitants +are gone? + +Throughout the world there is a perpetual war between man and +nature, but in no country has the original curse of the earth +been carried out to a fuller extent than in Ceylon: "thorns also +and thistles shall it bring forth to thee." This is indeed +exemplified when a few months neglect of once-cultivated land +renders it almost impassable, and where man has vanished from the +earth and thorny jungles have covered the once broad tracts of +prosperous cultivation. + +A few years will thus produce an almost total ruin throughout a +deserted city. The air of desolation created by a solitude of +six centuries can therefore be easily imagined. There exists, +however, among the ruins of Pollanarua a curious instance of the +power of the smallest apparent magnitude to destroy the works of +man. At some remote period a bird has dropped the seed of the +banian tree (ficus Indicus) upon the decaying summit of a dagoba. +This, germinating has struck its root downward through the +brickwork, and, by the gradual and insinuating progress of its +growth, it has split the immense mass of building into two +sections; the twisted roots now appearing through the clefts, +while the victorious tree waves in exultation above the ruin: an +emblem of the silent growth of "civilization" which will overturn +the immense fabric of heathen superstition. + +It is placed beyond a doubt that the rice-growing resources of +Ceylon have been suffered to lie dormant since the disappearance +of her ancient population; and to these neglected capabilities +the attention of government should be directed. + +An experiment might be commenced on a small scale by the repair +of one tank - say Kandellai, which is only twenty-six miles from +Trincomalee on the highroad to Kandy. This tank, when the dam +and sluices were repaired, would rise to about nine feet above +its present level, and would irrigate many thousand acres. + +The grand desideratum in the improvement of Ceylon is the +increase of the population; all of whom should, in some measure, +be made to increase the revenue. + +The government should therefore hazard this one experiment to +induce the emigration of the industrious class of Chinese to the +shores of Ceylon. Show them a never-failing supply of water and +land of unlimited extent to be hid on easy terms, and the country +would soon resume its original prosperity. A tax of five per +cent. upon the produce of the land, to commence in the ratio of 0 +per cent. for the first year, three per cent. for the second and +third, and the full amount of five for the fourth, would be a +fair and easy rent to the settler, and would not only repay the +government for the cost of repairing the tank, but would in a few +cars become a considerable source of revenue, in addition to the +increased value of the land, now worthless, by a system of +cultivation. + +Should the first experiment succeed, the plan might be continued +throughout Ceylon, and the soil of her own shores would produce a +supply for the island consumption. The revenue would be derived +direct from the land which now produces nothing but thorny +jungle. The import trade of Ceylon would be increased in +proportion to the influx of population, and the duties upon +enlarged imports would again tend to swell the revenue of the +country. + +The felling and clearing of the jungle, which cultivation would +render necessary, would tend, in a great measure, to dispel the +fevers and malaria always produced by a want of free circulation +of air. In a jungle-covered country like Ceylon, diseases of the +most malignant character are harbored in these dense and +undisturbed tracts, which year after year reap a pestilential +harvest from the thinly-scattered population. Cholera, +dysentery, fever and small-pox all appear in their turn and +annually sweep whole villages away. I have frequently hailed +with pleasure the distant tope of waving cocoa-nut trees after a +long day's journey in a broiling sun, when I have cantered toward +these shady warders of cultivation in hopes of a night's halt at +a village. But the palms have sighed in the wind over tenantless +abodes, and the mouldering dead have lain beneath their shade. +Not a living soul remaining; all swept away by pestilence; huts +recently fallen to decay, fruits ripening, on the trees, and no +hand left to gather them; the shaddock and the lime falling to +the earth to be preyed upon by the worm, like their former +masters. All dead; not one left to tell the miserable tale. + +The decay of the population is still progressing, and the next +fifty years will see whole districts left uninhabited unless +something can be done to prevent it. There is little doubt that +if land and water could be obtained from government in a +comparatively healthy and populous neighborhood, many would +migrate to that point from the half-deserted districts, who might +assist in the cultivation of the country instead of rotting in a +closing jungle. + +One season of pestilence, even in a large village, paves the road +for a similar visitation in the succeeding year, for this reason: + +Say that a village comprising two hundred men is reduced by +sickness to a population of one hundred. The remaining one +hundred cannot keep in cultivation the land formerly open; +therefore, the jungle closes over the surface and rapidly +encroaches upon the village. Thus the circulation of air is +impeded and disease again halves the population. In each +successive year the wretched inhabitants are thinned out, and +disease becomes the more certain as the jungle continues to +advance. At length the miserable few are no longer sufficient to +cultivate the rice-lands; their numbers will not even suffice for +driving their buffaloes. The jungle closes round the village; +cholera finishes the scene by sweeping off the remnant; and +groves of cocoa-nut trees, towering over the thorny jungle, +become monuments sacred to the memory of an exterminated +village. + +The number of villages which have thus died out is almost +incredible. In a day's ride of twenty miles, I have passed the +remains of as many as three or four, how many more may have +vanished in the depths of the jungle! + +Wherever the cocoa-nut trees are still existing, the ruin of the +village must have been comparatively recent, as the wild +elephants generally overturn them in a few years after the +disappearance of the inhabitants, browsing upon the succulent +tops, and destroying every trace of a former habitation. + +There is no doubt that when sickness is annually reducing the +population of a district, the inhabitants, and accordingly the +produce of the land, must shortly come to an end. In all times +of pestilence the first impulse among the natives is to fly from +the neighborhood, but at present there is no place of refuge. It +is, therefore, a matter of certainty that the repair of one of +the principal tanks would draw together in thousands the +survivors of many half-perished villages, who would otherwise +fall victims to succeeding years of sickness. + +The successful cultivation of rice at all times requires an +extensive population, and large grazing-grounds for the support +of the buffaloes necessary for the tillage of the land. + +The labor of constructing dams and forming watercourses is +performed by a general gathering, similar to the American +principle of a "bee;" and, as "many hands make light work," the +cultivation proceeds with great rapidity. Thus a large +population can bring into tillage a greater individual proportion +of ground than a smaller number of laborers, and the rice is +accordingly produced at a cheaper rate. + +Few people understand the difficulties with which a small village +has to contend in the cultivation of rice. The continual repairs +of temporary dams, which are nightly trodden down and destroyed +by elephants; the filling up of the water-courses from the same +cause; the nocturnal attacks upon the crops by elephants and +hogs; the devastating attacks of birds as the grain becomes ripe; +a scarcity of water at the exact moment it is required; and other +numerous difficulties which are scarcely felt by a large +population. + +By the latter the advantage is enjoyed of the division of labor. +The dams are built of permanent material; every work is rapidly +completed; the night-fires blaze in the lofty watch-house,, while +the shouts of the watchers scare the wild beasts from the crops. +Hundreds of children are daily screaming from their high perches +to scare away the birds. Rattles worked by long lines extend in +every direction, unceasingly pulled by the people in the +watch-houses; wind-clackers (similar to our cherry-clackers) are +whirling in all places; and by the division of the toil among a +multitude the individual work proceeds without fatigue. + +Every native is perfectly aware of this advantage in rice +cultivation; and were the supply of water ensured to them by the +repair of a principal tank, they would gather around its margin. +The thorny jungles would soon disappear from the surface of the +ground, and a densely-populated and prosperous district would +again exist where all has been a wilderness for a thousand years. + +The system of rice cultivation is exceedingly laborious. The +first consideration being a supply of water, the second is a +perfect level, or series of levels, to be irrigated. Thus a +hill-side must be terraced out into a succession of platforms or +steps; and a plain, however apparently flat, must, by the +requisite embankments, be reduced to the most perfect surface. + +This being completed, the water is laid on for a certain time, +until the soil has become excessively soft and muddy. It is then +run off, and the land is ploughed by a simple implement, which, +being drawn by two buffaloes, stirs up the soil to a depth of +eighteen inches. This finished, the water is again laid on until +the mud becomes so soft that a man will sink knee-deep. In this +state it is then trodden over by buffaloes, driven backward and +forward in large gangs, until the mud is so thoroughly mixed that +upon the withdrawal of the water it sinks to a perfect level. + +Upon this surface the paddy, having been previously soaked in +water, is now sown; and, in the course of a fortnight, it attains +a height of about four inches. The water is now again laid on, +and continued at intervals until within a fortnight of the grain +becoming ripe. It is then run off; the ground hardens, the ripe +crop is harvested by the sickle, and the grain is trodden out by +buffaloes. The rice is then separated from the paddy or husk by +being pounded in a wooden mortar. + +This is a style of cultivation in which the Cingalese +particularly excel; nothing can be more beautifully regular than +their flights of green terraces from the bottoms of the valleys +to the very summits of the hills: and the labor required in their +formation must be immense, is they are frequently six feet one +above the other. The Cingalese are peculiarly a rice-growing +nation; give them an abundant supply of water and land on easy +terms, and they will not remain idle. + +CHAPTER V. Real Cost of Land - Want of Communication - +Coffee-planting - Comparison between French and English Settlers +- Landslips - Forest-clearing - Manuring - The Coffee Bug - Rats +- Fatted Stock - Suggestions for Sheep-farming - Attack of a +Leopard - Leopards and Chetahs - Boy Devoured - Traps - Musk Cats +and the Mongoose - Vermin of Ceylon. + +What is the government price of land in Ceylon? and what is the +real cost of the land? These are two questions which should be +considered separately, and with grave attention by the intending +settler or capitalist. + +The upset price of government land is twenty shillings per acre; +thus, the inexperienced purchaser is very apt to be led away by +the apparently low sum per acre into a purchase of great extent. +The question of the real cost will then be solved at his expense. +There are few colonies belonging to Great Britain where the +government price of land is so high, compared to the value of the +natural productions of the soil. + +The staple commodity of Ceylon being coffee, I will assume that a +purchase is concluded with the government for one thousand acres +of land, at the upset price of twenty shillings per acre. What +has the purchaser obtained for this sum? One thousand acres of +dense forest, to which there is no road. The one thousand pounds +passes into the government chest, and the purchaser is no longer +thought of; he is left to shift for himself and to make the most +of his bad bargain. + +He is, therefore, in this position: He has parted with one +thousand pounds for a similar number of acres of land, which will +not yield him one penny in any shape until he has cleared it from +forest. This he immediately commences by giving out contracts, +and the forest is cleared, lopped and burnt. The ground is then +planted with coffee and the planter has to wait three years for a +return. By the time of full bearing the whole cost of felling, +burning, planting and cleaning will be about eight pounds per +acre; this, in addition to the prime cost of the land, and about +two thousand pounds expended in buildings, machinery etc., etc., +will bring the price of the land, when in a yielding condition, +to eleven pounds an acre at the lowest calculation. Thus before +his land yields him one fraction, he will have invested eleven +thousand pounds, if he clears the whole of his purchase. Many +persons lose sight of this necessary outlay when first purchasing +their land, and subsequently discover to their cost that their +capital is insufficient to bring the estate into cultivation. + +Then comes the question of a road. The government will give him +no assistance; accordingly, the whole of his crop must be +conveyed on coolies' heads along an arduous path to the nearest +highway, perhaps fifteen miles distant. Even this rough path of +fifteen miles the planter must form at his own expense. + +Considering the risks that are always attendant upon agricultural +pursuits, and especially upon coffee-planting, the price of rough +land must be acknowledged as absurdly high under the present +conditions of sales. There is a great medium to be observed, +however, in the sales of crown land; too low a price is even a +greater evil than too high a rate, as it is apt to encourage +speculators in land, who do much injury to a colony by locking up +large tracts in an uncultivated state, to take the chance of a +future rise in the price. + +This evil might easily be avoided by retaining the present bona +fide price of the land per acre, qualified by an arrangement that +one-half of the purchase money should be expended in the +formation of roads from the land in question. This would be of +immense assistance to the planters, especially in a populous +planting neighborhood, where the purchases of land were large and +numerous, in which case the aggregate sum would be sufficient to +form a carriage road to the main highway, which might be kept in +repair by a slight toll. An arrangement of this kind is not only +fair to the planters, but would be ultimately equally beneficial +to the government. Every fresh sale of land would ensure either +a new road or the improvement of an old one; and the country +would be opened up through the most remote districts. This very +fact of good communication would expedite the sales of crown +lands, which are now valueless from their isolated position. + +Coffee-planting in Ceylon has passed through the various stages +inseparable from every "mania." + +In the early days of our possession, the Kandian district was +little known, and sanguine imaginations painted the hidden +prospect in their ideal colors, expecting that a trace once +opened to the interior would be the road to fortune. + +How these golden expectations have been disappointed the broken +fortunes of many enterprising planters can explain. + +The protective duty being withdrawn, a competition with foreign +coffee at once reduced the splendid prices of olden times to a +more moderate standard, and took forty per cent. out of the +pockets of the planters. Coffee, which in those days brought +from one hundred shillings to one hundred and forty shillings per +hundred-weight, is now reduced to from sixty shillings to eighty +shillings. + +This sudden reduction created an equally sudden panic among the +planters, many of whom were men of straw, who had rushed to +Ceylon at the first cry of coffee "fortunes," and who had +embarked on an extensive scale with borrowed capital. These were +the first to smash. In those days the expenses of bringing land +into cultivation were more than double the present rate, and, the +cultivation of coffee not being so well understood, the produce +per acre was comparatively small. This combination of untoward +circumstances was sufficient cause for the alarm which ensued, +and estates were thrust into the market and knocked down for +whatever could be realized. Mercantile houses were dragged down +into the general ruin, and a dark cloud settled over the Cinnamon +isle. + +As the after effects of a "hurricane" are a more healthy +atmosphere and an increased vigor in all vegetation, so are the +usual sequels to a panic in the commercial world. Things are +brought down to their real value and level; men of straw are +swept away, and affairs are commenced anew upon a sound and +steady basis. Capital is invested with caution, and improvements +are entered upon step by step, until success is assured. + +The reduction in the price of coffee was accordingly met by a +corresponding system of expenditure and by an improved state of +cultivation; and at the present time the agricultural prospects +of the colony are in a more healthy state than they have ever +been since the commencement of coffee cultivation. + +There is no longer any doubt that a coffee estate in a good +situation in Ceylon will pay a large interest for the capital +invested, and will ultimately enrich the proprietor, provided +that he has his own capital to work his estate, that he gives his +own personal superintendence and that he understands the +management. These are the usual conditions of success in most +affairs; but a coffee-estate is not unfrequently abused for not +paying when it is worked with borrowed capital at a high rate of +interest under questionable superintendence. + +It is a difficult thing to define the amount which constitutes a +"fortune:" that which is enough for one man is a pittance for +another; but one thing is certain, that, no matter how small his +first capital, the coffee-planter hopes to make his "fortune." + +Now, even allowing a net profit of twenty per cent. per annum on +the capital invested, it must take at least ten years to add +double the amount to the first capital, allowing no increase to +the spare capital required for working the estate. A rapid +fortune can never be made by working a coffee estate. Years of +patient industry and toil, chequered by many disappointments, may +eventually reward the proprietor; but it will be at a time of +life when a long residence in the tropics will have given him a +distaste for the chilly atmosphere of old England; his early +friends will have been scattered abroad, and he will meet few +faces to welcome him on his native shores. What cold is so +severe as a cold reception? - no thermometer can mark the degree. +No fortune, however large, can compensate for the loss of home, +and friends, and early associations. + +This feeling is peculiarly strong throughout the British nation. +You cannot convince an English settler that he will be abroad for +an indefinite number of years; the idea would be equivalent to +transportation: he consoles himself with the hope that something +will turn up to alter the apparent certainty of his exile; and in +this hope, with his mind ever fixed upon his return, he does +nothing for posterity in the colony. He rarely even plants a +fruit tree, hoping that his stay will not allow him to gather +from it. This accounts for the poverty of the gardens and +enclosures around the houses of the English inhabitants, and the +general dearth of any fruits worth eating. + +How different is the appearance of French colonies, and how +different are the feelings of the settler! The word "adieu" once +spoken, he sighs an eternal farewell to the shores of "La belle +France," and, with the natural light-heartedness of the nation, +he settles cheerfully in a colony as his adopted country. He +lays out his grounds with taste, and plants groves of exquisite +fruit trees, whose produce will, he hopes, be tasted by his +children and grandchildren. Accordingly, in a French colony +there is a tropical beauty in the cultivated trees and flowers +which is seldom seen in our possessions. The fruits are brought +to perfection, as there is the same care taken in pruning and +grafting the finest kinds as in our gardens in England. + +A Frenchman is necessarily a better settler; everything is +arranged for permanency, from the building of a house to the +cultivation of an estate. He does not distress his land for +immediate profit, but from the very commencement he adopts a +system of the highest cultivation. + +The latter is now acknowledged as the most remunerative course in +all countries; and its good effects are already seen in Ceylon, +where, for some years past, much attention has been devoted to +manuring on coffee estates. + +No crop has served to develop the natural poverty of the soil so +much as coffee; and there is no doubt that, were it possible to +procure manure in sufficient quantity, the holes should be well +filled at the time of planting. This would give an increased +vigor to the young plant that would bring the tree into bearing +at an earlier date, as it would the sooner arrive at perfection. + +The present system of coffee-planting on a good estate is +particularly interesting. It has now been proved that the best +elevation in Ceylon to combine fine quality with large crops is +from twenty-five hundred to four thousand feet. At one time it +was considered that the finest quality was produced at the +highest range; but the estates at an elevation of five thousand +feet are so long at arriving at perfection, and the crop +produced is so small, that the lower elevation is preferred. + +In the coffee districts of Ceylon there is little or no level +ground to be obtained, and the steep sides of the hills offer +many objections to cultivation. The soil, naturally light and +poor, is washed by every shower, and the more soluble portions, +together with the salts of the manure applied to the trees, are +being continually robbed by the heavy rains. Thus it is next to +impossible to keep an estate in a high state of cultivation, +without an enormous expense in the constant application of +manure. + +Many estates are peculiarly subject to landslips, which are +likewise produced by the violence of the rains. In these cases +the destruction is frequently to a large extent; great rocks are +detached from the summits of the hills, and sweep off whole lines +of trees in their descent. + +Wherever landslips are frequent, they may be taken as an evidence +of a poor, clay subsoil. The rain soaks through the surface; and +not being able to percolate through the clay with sufficient +rapidity, it lodges between the two strata, loosening the upper +surface, which slides from the greasy clay; launched, as it were, +by its own gravity into the valley below. + +This is the worst kind of soil for the coffee tree, whose long +tap-root is ever seeking nourishment from beneath. On this soil +it is very common to see a young plantation giving great promise; +but as the trees increase in growth the tap-root reaches the clay +subsoil and the plantation immediately falls off. The subsoil is +of far more importance to the coffee-tree than the upper surface; +the latter may be improved by manure, but if the former is bad +there is no remedy. + +The first thing to be considered being the soil, and the planter +being satisfied with its quality, there is another item of equal +importance to be taken into consideration when choosing a +locality for a coffee estate. This is an extent of grazing land +sufficient for the support of the cattle required for producing +manure. + +In a country with so large a proportion of forest as Ceylon, this +is not always practicable; in which case land should be cleared +and grass planted, as it is now proved that without manure an +estate will never pay the proprietor. + +The locality being fixed upon, the clearing of the forest is +commenced. The felling is begun from the base of the hills, and +the trees being cut about half through, are started in sections +of about an acre at one fall. This is easily effected by felling +some large tree from the top, which, falling upon its +half-divided neighbor, carries everything before it like a pack +of cards. + +The number of acres required having been felled, the boughs and +small branches are all lopped, and, together with the cleared +underwood, they form a mass over the surface of the ground +impervious to man or beast. This mass, exposed to a powerful +sun, soon becomes sufficiently dry for burning, and, the time of +a brisk breeze being selected,. the torch is applied. + +The magnificent sight of so extensive a fire is succeeded by the +desolate appearance of blackened stumps and smouldering trunks of +trees: the whole of the branches and tinderwood having been swept +away by the mighty blaze, the land is comparatively clear. + +Holes two feet square are now dug in parallel lines at a distance +of from six to eight feet apart throughout the estate, and +advantage being taken of the wet season, they are planted with +young coffee trees of about twelve inches high. Nothing is now +required but to keep the land clean until the trees attain the +height of four feet and come into bearing. This, at an elevation +of three thousand feet, they generally do in two years and a +half. The stem is then topped, to prevent its higher growth and +to produce a large supply of lateral shoots. + +The system of pruning is the same as with all fruit trees; the +old wood being kept down to induce fruit bearing shoots, whose +number must be proportioned to the strength of the tree. + +The whole success of the estate now depends upon constant +cleaning, plentiful manuring and careful pruning, with a due +regard to a frugal expenditure and care in the up-keep of +buildings, etc., etc. Much attention is also required in the +management of the cattle on the estate, for without a proper +system the amount of manure produced will be proportionately +small. They should be bedded up every night hock deep with fresh +litter and the manure thus formed should be allowed to remain in +the shed until it is between two and three feet deep. It should +then be treated on a "Geoffrey" pit (named after its inventor). + +This is the simplest and most perfect method for working up the +weeds from an estate, and effectually destroying their seeds at +the same time that they are converted into manure. + +A water-tight platform is formed of stucco - say forty feet +square - surrounded by a wall two feet high, so as to form a +tank. Below this is a sunken cistern -say eight feet square - +into which the drainage would be conducted from the upper +platform. In this cistern a force-pump is fitted, and the +cistern is half filled with a solution of saltpetre and +sal-ammoniac. + +A layer of weeds and rubbish is now laid upon the platform for a +depth of three feet, surmounted by a layer of good dung from the +cattle sheds of one foot thick. These layers are continued +alternately in the proportion of three to one of weeds, until the +mass is piled to a height of twenty feet, the last layer being +good dung. Upon this mass the contents of the cistern are pumped +and evenly distributed by means of a spreader. + +This mixture promotes the most rapid decomposition of vegetable +matter, and, combining with the juices of the weeds and the salts +of the dung, it drains evenly through the whole mass, forming a +most perfect compost. The surplus moisture, upon reaching the +bottom of the heap, drains from the slightly inclined platform +into the receiving cistern, and is again pumped over the mass. + +This is the cheapest and best way of making manure upon an +estate, the cattle sheds and pits being arranged in the different +localities most suitable for reducing the labor of transport. + +The coffee berry, when ripe, is about the size of a cherry, and +is shaped like a laurel berry. The flesh has a sweet but vapid +taste, and encloses two seeds of coffee. These are carefully +packed by nature in a double skin. + +The cherry coffee is gathered by coolies at the rate of two +bushels each per diem, and is cleared from the flesh by passing +through a pulper, a machine consisting of cylindrical copper +graters, which tear the flesh from the berry and leave the coffee +in its second covering of parchment, The coffee is then exposed +to a partial fermentation by being piled for some hours in a +large heap. This has the effect of loosening the fleshy +particles, which, by washing in a cistern of running water, are +detached from the berry. It is then rendered perfectly dry in the +sun or by means of artificially heated air; and, being packed in +bags, it is forwarded to Colombo. Here, it is unpacked and sent +to the mill, which, by means of heavy rollers, detaches the +parchment and under silver skin, and leaves the grayish-blue +berry in a state for market. The injured grains are sorted out +by women, and the coffee is packed for the last time and shipped +to England. + +A good and well-managed estate should produce an average crop of +ten hundredweight per acre, leaving a net profit of fifteen +shillings per hundredweight under favorable circumstances. +Unfortunately, it is next to impossible to make definite +calculations in all agricultural pursuits: the inclemency of +seasons and the attacks of vermin are constantly marring the +planter's expectations. Among the latter plagues the "bug" +stands foremost. This is a minute and gregarious insect, which +lives upon the juices of the coffee tree, and accordingly is most +destructive to an estate. It attacks a variety of plants, but +more particularly the tribe of jessamine; thus the common +jessamine, the "Gardenia" (Cape jessamine) and the coffee +(Jasminum Arabicum) are more especially subject to its ravages. + +The dwelling of this insect is frequently confounded with the +living creature itself. This dwelling is in shape and +appearance like the back shell of a tortoise, or, still more, +like a "limpet," being attached to the stem of the tree in the +same manner that the latter adheres to a rock. This is the nest +or house, which, although no larger than a split hempseed +contains some hundreds of the "bug." As some thousands of these +scaly nests exist upon one tree, myriads of insects must be +feeding upon its juices. + +The effect produced upon the tree is a blackened and sooty +appearance, like a London shrub; the branches look withered, and +the berries do not plump out to their full size, but, for the +most part, fall unripened from the tree. This attack is usually +of about two years' duration; after which time the tree loses its +blackened appearance, which peels off the surface of the leaves +like gold-beaters' skin, -and they appear in their natural color. +Coffee plants of young growth are liable to complete destruction +if severely attacked by " bug." + +Rats are also very destructive to an estate ; they are great +adepts at pruning, and completely strip the trees of their young +shoots, thus utterly destroying a crop. These vermin are more +easily guarded against than the insect tribe, and should be +destroyed by poison. Hog's lard, ground cocoa-nut and phosphorus +form the most certain bait and poison combined. + +These are some of the drawbacks to coffee-planting, to say +nothing of bad seasons and fluctuating prices, which, if properly +calculated, considerably lessen the average profits of an estate, +as it must be remembered that while a crop is reduced in +quantity, the expenses continue at the usual rate, and are +severely felt when consecutive years bring no produce to meet +them. + +Were it not for the poverty of the soil, the stock of cattle +required on a coffee estate for the purpose of manure might be +made extremely profitable, and the gain upon fatted stock would +pay for the expense of manuring the estate. This would be the +first and most reasonable idea to occur to an agriculturist - +"buy poor cattle at a low price, fatten them for the butcher, and +they give both profit and manure." + +Unfortunately, the natural pasturage is not sufficiently good to +fatten beasts indiscriminately. There are some few out of a herd +of a hundred who will grow fat upon anything, but the generality +will not improve to any great degree. This accounts for the +scarcity of fine meat throughout Ceylon. Were the soil only +tolerably good, so that oats, vetches, turnips and mangel wurtzel +could be could be grown on virgin land without manure, beasts +might be stall-fed, the manure doubled by that method, and a +profit made on the animals. Pigs are now kept extensively on +coffee estates for the sake of their manure, and being fed on +Mauritius grass (a coarse description of gigantic " couch") and a +liberal allowance of cocoa-nut oil cake ("poonac"), are found to +succeed, although the manure is somewhat costly. + +English or Australian sheep have hitherto been untried - for what +reason I cannot imagine, unless from the expense of their prime +cost, which is about two pounds per head. These thrive to such +perfection at Newera Ellia, and also in Kandy, that they should +succeed in a high degree in the medium altitudes of the coffee +estates. There are immense tracts of country peculiarly adapted +for sheep-farming throughout the highlands of Ceylon, especially +in the neighborhood of the coffee estates. There are two +enemies, however, against which they would have to contend - +viz., "leopards" and "leeches." The former are so destructive +that the shepherd could never lose sight of his flock without +great risk; but the latter, although troublesome, are not to be +so much dreaded as people suppose. They are very small, and the +quantity of blood drawn by their bite is so trifling that no +injury could possibly follow, unless from the flies, which would +be apt to attack the sheep on the smell of blood. These are +drawbacks which might be easily avoided by common precaution, +and I feel thoroughly convinced that sheep-farming upon the +highland pasturage would be a valuable adjunct to a coffee +estate, both as productive of manure and profit. I have heard the +same opinion expressed by an experienced Australian +sheep-farmer. + +This might be experimented upon in the "down" country of Ouva +with great hopes of success, and by a commencement upon a small +scale the risk would be trifling. Here there is an immense tract +of country with a peculiar short grass in every way adapted for +sheep-pasturage, and with the additional advantage of being +nearly free from leopards. Should sheep succeed on an extensive +scale the advantage to the farmer and to the colony would be +mutual. + +The depredations of leopards among cattle are no inconsiderable +causes of loss. At Newera Ellia hardly a week passes without +some casualty among the stock of different proprietors. Here the +leopards are particularly daring, and cases have frequently +occurred where they have effected their entrance to a cattle-shed +by scratching a hole through the thatched roof. They then commit +a wholesale slaughter among sheep and cattle. Sometimes, +however, they catch a "Tartar." The native cattle are small, but +very active, and the cows are particularly savage when the calf +is with them. + +About three years ago a leopard took it into his head to try the +beefsteaks of a very savage and sharp-horned cow, who with her +calf was the property of the blacksmith. It was a dark, rainy +night, the blacksmith and his wife were in bed, and the cow and +her calf were nestled in the warm straw in the cattle-shed. The +door was locked, and all was apparently secure, where the hungry +leopard prowled stealthily round the cowhouse, sniffing the prey +within. The scent of the leopard at once aroused the keen senses +of the cow, made doubly acute by her anxiety for her little +charge, and she stood ready for the danger as the leopard, having +mounted on the roof, commenced scratching his way through the +thatch. + +Down he sprang!- but at the same instant, with a splendid charge, +the cow pinned him against the wall, and a battle ensued which +can easily be imagined. A coolie slept in the corner of the +cattle-shed, whose wandering senses were completely scattered +when he found himself the unwilling umpire of the fight. He +rushed out and shut the door. In a few minutes he succeeded in +awakening the blacksmith, who struck a light and proceeded to +load a pistol, the only weapon that he possessed. During the +whole of this time the bellowing of the cow, the roars of the +leopard and the thumping, trampling and shuffling which +proceeded from the cattle-shed, explained the savage nature of +the fight. + +The blacksmith, who was no sportsman, shortly found himself with +a lanthorn in one hand, a pistol in the other, and no idea of +what he meant to do. He waited, therefore, at the cattle-shed +door, and holding the light so as to shine through the numerous +small apertures in the shed, he looked in. + +The leopard no longer growled; but the cow was mad with fury. +She alternately threw a large dark mass above her head, then +quickly pinned it to the ground on its descent, then bored it +against the wall as it crawled helplessly toward a corner of the +shed. This was the "beef-eater" in reduced circumstances! The +gallant little cow had nearly killed him, and was giving him the +finishing strokes. The blacksmith perceived the leopard's +helpless state, and, boldly opening the door, he discharged his +pistol, and the next moment was bolting as hard as he could run, +with the warlike cow after him. She was regularly "up," and was +ready for anything or anybody. However, she was at length +pacified, and the dying leopard was put out of his misery. + +There are two distinct species of the leopard in Ceylon - viz., +the "chetah," and the "leopard" or "panther." There have been +many opinions on the subject, but I have taken particular notice +of the two animals, and nothing can be more clear than the +distinction. + +The "chetah" is much smaller than the leopard, seldom exceeding +seven feet from the nose to the end of tile tail. He is covered +with round black "spots" of the size of a shilling, and his +weight rarely exceeds ninety pounds. + +The leopard varies from eight to nine feet in length, and has +been known to reach even ten feet. His body is covered with black +"rings," with a rich brown centre - his muzzle and legs are +speckled with black "spots," and his weight is from one hundred +and ten to one hundred and seventy pounds. There is little or no +distinction between the leopard and the panther, they are +synonymous terms for a variety of species in different countries. +In Ceylon all leopards are termed "chetahs" which proceeds from +the general ignorance of the presence of the two species. + +The power of a leopard is wonderful in proportion to his weight. +I have seen a full-grown bullock with its neck broken by the +leopard that attacked it. It is the popular belief that the +effect is produced by a blow of the paw; this is not the case; it +is not simply the blow, but it is the combination of the weight, +the power and the momentum of the spring which renders the +effects of a leopard's attack so surprising. + +Few leopards rush boldly to the attack like a dog; they stalk +their game and advance crouchingly, making use of every object +that will afford them cover until they are within a few bounds of +their prey. Then the immense power of muscle is displayed in the +concentrated energy of the spring; he flies through the air and +settles on the throat, usually throwing his own body over the +animal, while his teeth and claws are fixed on the neck; this is +the manner in which the spine of an animal is broken - by a +sudden twist, and not by a blow. + +The blow from the paw is nevertheless immensely powerful, and at +one stroke will rip open a bullock like a knife ; but the after +effects of the wound are still more to be dreaded than the force +of the blow. There is a peculiar poison in the claw which is +highly dangerous. This is caused by the putrid flesh which they +are constantly tearing, and which is apt to cause gangrene by +inoculation. + +It is a prevalent idea that a leopard will not eat putrid meat, +but that he forsakes a rotten carcase and seeks fresh prey. +There is no doubt that a natural love of slaughter induces him to +a constant search for prey, but it has nothing to do with the +daintiness of his appetite. A leopard will eat any stinking +offal that offers, and I once had a melancholy proof of this. + +I was returning from a morning's hunting; it was a bitter day; +the rain was pouring in torrents, the wind was blowing a gale and +sweeping the water in sheets along the earth. The hounds were +following at my horse's heels, with their cars and sterns down, +looking very miserable, and altogether it was a day when man and +beast should have been at home. Presently, upon turning a corner +of the road, I saw a Malabar boy of about sixteen years of age, +squatted shivering by the roadside. His only covering being a +scanty cloth round his loins, I told him to get up and go on or +he would be starved with cold. He said something in reply, which +I could not understand, and repeating my first warning, I rode +on. It was only two miles to my house, but upon arrival I could +not help thinking that the boy must be ill, and having watched +the gate for some time to see if he passed by, I determined to +send for him. + +Accordingly, I started off a couple of men with orders to carry +him up if he were sick. + +They returned in little more than an hour, but the poor boy was +dead! - sitting crouched in the same position in which I had seen +him. He must have died of cold and starvation; he was a mere +skeleton. + +I sent men to the spot, and had him buried by the roadside, and a +few days after I rode down to see where they had laid him. + +A quantity of fresh-turned earth lay scattered about, mingled +with fragments of rags. Bones much gnawed lay here and there on +the road, and a putrid skull rolled from a shapeless hole among a +confused and horrible heap. The leopards had scratched him up +and devoured him; their footprints were still fresh upon the damp +ground. + +Both leopards and chetahs are frequently caught at Newera Ellia. +The common trap is nothing more or less than an old-fashioned +mouse-trap, with a falling door on a large scale; this is baited +with a live kid or sheep; but the leopard is naturally so wary +that he frequently refuses to enter the ominous-looking building, +although he would not hesitate to break into an ordinary shed. +The best kind of trap is a gun set with a line, and the bait +placed so that the line must be touched as the animal advances +toward it. This is certain destruction to the leopard, but it is +extremely dangerous, in case any stranger should happen to be in +the neighborhood who might inadvertently touch the cord. + +Leopards are particularly fond of stealing dogs, and have +frequently taken them from the very verandas of the houses at +Newera Ellia in the dusk of the evening. Two or three cases have +occurred within the last two years where they have actually +sprung out upon dogs who have been accompanying their owners upon +the high road in broad daylight. Their destruction should be +encouraged by a government reward of one pound per head, in which +case their number would be materially decreased in a few years. + +The best traps for chetahs would be very powerful vermin-gins, +made expressly of great size and strength, so as to lie one foot +square when open. Even a common jackal-trap would hold a +leopard, provided the chain was fastened to an elastic bough, so +that it would yield slightly to his spring; but if it were +secured to a post, or to anything that would enable him to get a +dead pull against it, something would most likely give way. I +have constantly set these traps for them, but always without +success, as some other kind of vermin is nearly certain to spring +the trap before the chetah's arrival. Among the variety of small +animals thus caught I have frequently taken the civet cat. This +is a very pretty arid curious creature, about forty inches long +from nose to tip of tail. The fur is ash-gray, mottled with +black spots, and the tail is divided by numerous black rings. It +is of the genius Viverra, and is exceedingly fierce when +attacked. It preys chiefly upon fowls, hares, rats, etc. Its +great peculiarity is the musk-bag or gland situated nearly under +the tail; this is a projecting and valued gland, which secretes +the musk, and is used medicinally by the Cingalese, on which +account it is valued at about six shillings a pod. The smell is +very powerful, and in my opinion very offensive, when the animal +is alive; but when a pod of musk is extracted and dried, it has +nothing more than the well-known scent of that used by perfumers. +The latter is more frequently the production of the musk-deer, +although the scent is possessed by many animals, and also +insects, as the musk-ox, the musk-deer, the civet or musk-cat, +the musk-rat, the musk-beetle, etc. + +Of these, the musk-rat is a terrible plague, as he perfumes +everything that he passes over, rendering fruit, cake, bread, +etc., perfectly uneatable, and even flavoring bottled wine by +running over the bottles. This, however, requires a little +explanation, although it is the popular belief that he taints the +wine through the glass. + +The fact is, he taints the cork, and the flavor of musk is +communicated to the wine during the process of uncorking the +bottle. + +There is a great variety of rats in Ceylon, from the tiny shrew +to the large "bandicoot". This is a most destructive creature in +all gardens, particularly among potato crops, whole rows of which +he digs out and devours. He is a perfect rat in appearance, but +he would rather astonish one of our English tom-cats if +encountered during his rambles in search of rats, as the +"bandicoot" is about the same size as the cat. + +There is an immense variety of vermin throughout Ceylon, +including many of that useful species the ichneumon, who in +courage and strength stands first of his tribe. The destruction +of snakes by this animal renders him particularly respected, and +no person ever thinks of destroying him. No matter how venomous +the snake, the ichneumon, or mongoose, goes straight at him, and +never gives up the contest until the snake is vanquished. + +It is the popular belief that the mongoose eats some herb which +has the property of counteracting the effects of a venomous bite; +but this has been proved to be a fallacy, as pitched battles have +been witnessed between a mongoose and the most poisonous snakes +in a closed room, where there was no possibility of his procuring +the antidote. His power consists in his vigilance and activity; +he avoids the dart of the snake, and adroitly pins him by the +back of the neck. Here he maintains his hold, in spite of the +contortions and convulsive writhing of the snake, until he +succeeds in breaking the spine. A mongoose is about three feet +long from the nose to the tip of the tail, and is of the same +genus as the civet cat. Unfortunately, he does not confine his +destruction to vermin, but now and then pays a visit to a +hen-roost, and sometimes, poor fellow! he puts his foot in the +traps. + +Ceylon can produce an enticing catalogue of attractions, from the +smallest to the largest of the enemies to the human race - ticks, +bugs, fleas, tarantulas, centipedes, scorpions, leeches, snakes, +lizards, crocodiles, etc., of which more hereafter. + +CHAPTER VI. "Game Eyes" for Wild Sports - Enjoyments of Wild +Life - Cruelty of Sports - Native Hunters - Moormen Traders - +Their wretched Guns - Rifles and Smooth-bores - Heavy Balls and +Heavy Metal - Beattie's Rifles - Balls and Patches - Experiments +- The Double-groove - Power of Heavy Metal - Curious Shot at a +Bull Elephant - African and Ceylon Elephants - Structure of Skull +- Lack of Trophies - Boar-spears and Hunting-knives - " Bertram" +- A Boar Hunt - Fatal Cut. + +In traveling through Ceylon, the remark is often made by the +tourist that "he sees so little game." From the accounts +generally written of its birds and beasts, a stranger would +naturally expect to come upon them at every turn, instead of +which it is a well-known fact that one hundred miles of the +wildest country may be traversed without seeing a single head of +game, and the uninitiated might become skeptical as to its +existence. + +This is accounted for by the immense proportion of forest and +jungle, compared to the open country. The nature of wild animals +is to seek cover at sunrise, and to come forth at sunset; +therefore it is not surprising that so few are casually seen by +the passing traveler. There is another reason, which would +frequently apply even in an open country. Unless the traveler is +well accustomed to wild sports, he his not his "game eye" open in +fact; he either passes animals without observing them, or they +see him and retreat from view before he remarks them. + +It is well known that the color of most animals is adapted by +Nature to the general tint of the country which they inhabit. +Thus, having no contrast, the animal matches with surrounding +objects, and is difficult to be distinguished. + +It may appear ridiculous to say that an elephant is very +difficult to be seen! - he would be plain enough certainly on the +snow, or on a bright green meadow in England, where the +contrasted colors would make him at once a striking object; but +in a dense jungle his skin matches so completely with the dead +sticks and dry leaves, and his legs compare so well with the +surrounding tree-stems, that he is generally unperceived by a +stranger, even when pointed out to him. I have actually been +taking aim at an elephant within seven or eight paces, when he +has been perfectly unseen by a friend at my elbow, who was +peering through the bushes in quest of him. + +Quickness of eye is an indispensable quality in sportsmen, the +possession of which constitutes one of their little vanities. +Nothing is so conducive to the perfection of all the senses as +the constant practice in wild and dangerous sports. The eye and +the ear become habituated to watchfulness, and their powers are +increased in the same proportion as the muscles of the body are +by exercise. Not only is an animal immediately observed, but +anything out of the common among surrounding objects instantly +strikes the attention; the waving of one bough in particular when +all are moving in the breeze; the switching of a deer's ear above +the long grass; the slight rustling of an animal moving in the +jungle. The senses are regularly tuned up, and the limbs are in +the same condition from continual exercise. + +There is a peculiar delight, which passes all description, in +feeling thoroughly well-strung, mentally and physically, with a +good rifle in your hand and a trusty gun-bearer behind you with +another, thus stalking quietly through a fine country, on the +look-out for "anything," no matter what. There is a delightful +feeling of calm excitement, if I might so express it, which +nothing but wild sports will give. There is no time when a man +knows himself so thoroughly as when he depends upon himself, and +this forms his excitement. With a thorough confidence in the +rifle and a bright lookout, he stalks noiselessly along the open +glades, picking out the softest places, avoiding the loose stones +or anything that would betray his steps; now piercing the deep +shadows of the jungles, now scanning the distant plains, nor +leaving a nook or hollow unsearched by his vigilant gaze. The +fresh breakage of a branch, the barking of a tree-stem, the +lately nibbled grass, with the sap still oozing from the delicate +blade, the disturbed surface of a pool; everything is noted, even +to the alarmed chatter of a bird : nothing is passed unheeded by +an experienced hunter. + +To quiet, steady-going people in England there is an idea of +cruelty inseparable from the pursuit of large game; people talk +of "unoffending elephants," "poor buffaloes," "pretty deer," and +a variety of nonsense about things which they cannot possibly +understand. Besides, the very person who abuses wild sports on +the plea of cruelty indulges personally in conventional +cruelties which are positive tortures. His appetite is not +destroyed by the knowledge that his cook his skinned the eels +alive, or that the lobsters were plunged into boiling water to be +cooked. He should remember that a small animal has the same +feeling as the largest and if he condemns any sport as cruel, he +must condemn all. + +There is no doubt whatever that a certain amount of cruelty +pervades all sports. But in "wild sports" the animals are for +the most part large, dangerous and mischievous, and they are +pursued and killed in the most speedy, and therefore in the most +merciful, manner. + +The government reward for the destruction of elephants in Ceylon +was formerly ten shillings per tail; it is now reduced to seven +shillings in some districts, and is altogether abolished in +others, as the number killed was so great that the government +imagined they could not afford the annual outlay. + +Although the number of these animals is still so immense in +Ceylon, they must nevertheless have been much reduced within the +last twenty years. In those days the country was overrun with +them, and some idea of their numbers may be gathered from the +fact that three first-rate shots in three days bagged one hundred +and four elephants. This was told to me by one of the parties +concerned, and it throws our modern shooting into the shade. In +those days, however, the elephants were comparatively +undisturbed, and they were accordingly more easy to approach. +One of the oldest native hunters has assured me that he has seen +the elephants, when attacked, recklessly expose themselves to the +shots and endeavour to raise their dead comrades. This was at a +time when guns were first heard in the interior of Ceylon, and +the animals had never been shot at. Since that time the decrease +in the game of Ceylon has been immense. Every year increases the +number of guns in the possession of the natives, and accordingly +diminishes the number of animals. From the change which has come +over many parts of the country within my experience of the last +eight years, I am of opinion that the next ten years will see the +deer-shooting in Ceylon completely spoiled, and the elephants +very much reduced. There are now very few herds of elephants in +Ceylon that have not been shot at by either Europeans or natives, +and it is a common occurrence to kill elephants with numerous +marks of old bullet wounds. Thus the animals are constantly on +the "qui vive," and at the report of a gun every herd within +hearing starts off for the densest jungles. + +A native can now obtain a gun for thirty shillings; and with two +shillings' worth of ammunition, he starts on a hunting trip. +Five elephants, at a reward of seven shillings per tail, more +than pay the prime cost of his gun, to say nothing of the deer +and other game that he has bagged in the interim. + +Some, although very few, of the natives are good sportsmen in a +potting way. They get close to their game, and usually bag it. +This is a terrible system for destroying, and the more so as it +is increasing. There is no rest for the animals; in the day-time +they are tracked up, and on moonlight nights the drinking-places +are watched, and an unremitting warfare is carried on. This is +sweeping both deer and buffalo from the country, and must +eventually almost annihilate them. + +The Moormen are the best hunters, and they combine sport with +trade in such a manner that "all is fish that comes to their +net." Five or six good hunters start with twenty or thirty +bullocks and packs. Some of these are loaded with common cloths, +etc., to exchange with the village people for dried venison; but +the intention in taking so many bullocks is to bring borne the +spoils of their hunting trip - in fact, to "carry the bag." They +take about a dozen leaves of the talipot palm to form a tent, and +at night-time, the packs, being taken off the bullocks, are piled +like a pillar in the centre, and the talipot leaves are formed in +a circular roof above them. The bullocks are then secured round +the tent to long poles, which are thrown upon the ground and +pinned down by crooked pegs. + +These people have an intimate knowledge of the country, and are +thoroughly acquainted with the habits of the animals and the most +likely spots for game. Buffaloes, pigs and deer are +indiscriminately shot, and the flesh being cut in strips from the +bones is smoked over a green-wood fire, then thoroughly dried in +the sun and packed up for sale. The deer skins are also +carefully dried and rolled up, and the buffaloes' and deer horns +are slung to the packs. + +Many castes of natives will not eat buffalo meat, others will not +eat pork, but all are particularly fond of venison. This the +Moorman fully understands, and overcomes all scruples by a +general mixture of the different meats, all of which he sells as +venison. Thus no animal is spared whose flesh can be passed off +for deer. Fortunately, their guns are so common that they will +not shoot with accuracy beyond ten or fifteen paces, or there +would be no game left within a few years. How these common guns +stand the heavy charges of powder is a puzzle. A native thinks +nothing of putting four drachms down a gun that I should be sorry +to fire off at any rate. It is this heavy charge which enables +such tools to kill elephants which would otherwise be +impossible. These natives look upon a first-class English rifle +with a sort of veneration. Such a weapon would be a perfect +fortune to one of these people, and I have often been astonished +that robberies of such things are not more frequent. + +There is much difference of opinion among Ceylon sportsmen as to +the style of gun for elephant-shooting. But there is one point +upon which all are agreed, that no matter what the size of the +bore may be, all the guns should be alike, and the battery for +one man should consist of four double-barrels. The confusion in +hurried loading where guns are of different calibres is beyond +conception. + +The size and the weight of guns must depend as much on the +strength and build of a man as a ship's armament does upon her +tonnage; but let no man speak against heavy metal for heavy game, +and let no man decry rifles and uphold smooth-bores (which is +very general), but rather let him say, "I cannot carry a heavy +gun," and "I cannot shoot with a rifle." + +There is a vast difference between shooting at a target and +shooting at live game. Many men who are capital shots at +target-practice cannot touch a deer, and cannot even use the +rifle as a rifle at live game, but actually knock the sights out +and use it as a smoothbore. This is not the fault of the weapon; +it is the fault of the man. It is a common saying in Ceylon, and +also in India, that you cannot shoot quick enough with the rifle, +because you cannot get the proper sight in an instant. + +Whoever makes use of this argument must certainly be in the habit +of very random shooting with a smoothbore. How can he possibly +get a correct aim with "ball" out of a smoothbore, without +squinting along the barrel and taking the muzzle-sight +accurately? The fact is, that many persons fire so hastily at +game that they take no sight at all, as though they were +snipe-shooting with many hundred grains of shot in the charge. +This will never do for ball-practice, and when the rifle is +placed in such hands, the breech-sights naturally bother the eye +which is not accustomed to recognize any sight; and while the +person is vainly endeavouring to get the sight correctly on a +moving object, the animal is increasing his distance. By way of +cutting the Gordian knot, he therefore knocks his sight out, and +accordingly spoils the shooting of the rifle altogether. + +Put a rifle in the hands of a man who knows how to handle it, and +let him shoot against the mutilated weapon deprived of its sight, +and laugh at the trial. Why, a man might as well take the rudder +off a ship because he could not steer, and then abuse the vessel +for not keeping her course! + +My idea of guns and rifles is this, that the former should be +used for what their makers intended them, viz., shot-shooting, +and that no ball should be fired from any but the rifle. Of +course it is just as easy and as certain to kill an elephant with +a smooth-bore as with a rifle, as he is seldom fired at until +within ten or twelve paces; but a man, when armed for wild sport, +should be provided with a weapon which is fit for any kind of +ball-shooting at any reasonable range, and his battery should be +perfect for the distance at which he is supposed to aim. + +I have never seen any rifles which combine the requisites for +Ceylon shooting to such a degree as my four double-barreled No. +10, which I had made to order. Then some persons exclaim against +their weight, which is fifteen pounds per gun. But a word upon +that subject. + +No person who understands anything about a rifle would select a +light gun with a large bore, any more than he would have a heavy +carriage for a small horse. If the man objects to the weight of +the rifle, let him content himself with a smaller bore, but do +not rob the barrels of their good metal for the sake of a heavy +ball. The more metal that the barrel possesses in proportion to +the diameter of the bore, the better will the rifle carry, nine +times out of ten. Observe the Swiss rifles for accurate +target-practice - again, remark the American pea rifle; in both +the thickness of metal is immense in proportion to the size of +the ball, which, in great measure, accounts for the precision +with which they carry. + +In a light barrel, there is a vibration or jar at the time of +explosion, which takes a certain effect upon the direction of the +ball. This is necessarily increased by the use of a heavy charge +of powder; and it is frequently seen that a rifle which carries +accurately enough with a very small charge, shoots wide of the +mark when the charge is increased. This arises from several +causes, generally from the jar of the barrel in the stock, +proceeding either from the want of metal in the rifle or from +improper workmanship in the fittings. + +To avoid this, a rifle should be made with double bolts and a +silver plate should always be let into the stock under the +breech; without which the woodwork will imperceptibly wear, and +the barrel will become loose in the stock and jar when fired. + +There is another reason for the necessity of heavy barrels, +especially for two-grooved rifles. Unless the grooves he +tolerably deep, they will not hold the ball when a heavy charge +is behind it; it quits the grooves, strips its belt, and flies +out as though fired from a smoothbore. + +A large-bore rifle is a useless incumbrance, unless it is so +constructed that it will bear a proportionate charge of powder, +and shoot as accurately with its proof charge as with a single +drachm. The object in a large bore is to possess an extra +powerful weapon, therefore the charge of powder must be increased +in proportion to the weight of the ball, or the extra power is +not obtained. Nevertheless, most of the heavy rifles that I have +met with will not carry an adequate charge of powder, and they +are accordingly no more powerful than guns of lighter bore which +carry their proportionate charge - the powder has more than its +fair amount of work. + +Great care should be therefore taken in making rifles for heavy +game. There cannot be a better calibre than No 10; it is large +enough for any animal in the world, and a double-barreled rifle +of this bore, without a ramrod, is not the least cumbersome, even +at the weight of fifteen pounds. A ramrod is not required to be +in the gun for Ceylon shooting, as there is always a man behind +with a spare rifle, who carries a loading rod, and were a ramrod +fitted to a rifle of this size, it would render it very unhandy, +and would also weaken the stock. + +The sights should be of platinum at the muzzle, and blue steel, +with a platinum strip with a broad and deep letter V cut in the +breech-sights. In a gloomy forest it is frequently difficult to +catch the muzzle sight, unless it is of some bright metal, such +as silver or platinum; and a broad cut in the breech-sights, if +shaped as described, allows a rapid aim, and may be taken fine or +coarse at option. + +The charge of powder must necessarily depend upon its strength. +For elephant-shooting, I always rise six drachms of the best +powder for the No. 10 rifles, and four drachms as the minimum +charge for deer and general shooting; the larger charge is then +unnecessary; it both wastes ammunition and alarms the country by +the loudness of the report. + +There are several minutiae to be attended to in the sports of +Ceylon. The caps should always be carried in a shot-charger (one +of the common spring-lid chargers) and never be kept loose in the +pocket. The heat is so intense that the perspiration soaks +through everything, and so injures the caps that the very best +will frequently miss fire. + +The powder should be dried for a few minutes in the sun before it +is put into the flask, and it should be well shaken and stirred +to break any lumps that may be in it. One of these, by +obstructing the passage in the flask, may cause much trouble in +loading quickly, especially when a wounded elephant is regaining +his feet. In such a case you must keep your eyes on the animal +when loading, and should the passage of the powder-flask be +stopped by a lump, you may fancy the gun is loaded when in fact +not a grain of powder has entered it. + +The patches should be of silk, soaked in a mixture of one part of +beeswax and two of fresh hog's lard, free from salt. If they are +spread with pure grease, it melts out of them in a hot country, +and they become dry. Silk is better than linen as it is not so +liable to be cut down by the sharp grooves of the rifle. It is +also thinner than linen or calico, and the ball is therefore more +easily rammed down. + +All balls should be made of pure lead, without any hardening +mixture. It was formerly the fashion to use zinc balls, and lead +with a mixture of tin, etc., in elephant-shooting. This was not +only unnecessary, but the balls, from a loss of weight by +admixture with lighter metals, lost force in a proportionate +degree. Lead may be a soft metal, but it is much harder than any +animal's skull, and if a tallow candle can be shot through a deal +board, surely a leaden bullet is hard enough for an elephant's +head. + +I once tried a very conclusive experiment on the power of balls +of various metals propelled by an equal charge of powder. + +I had a piece of wrought iron five-eights of an inch thick, and +six feet high by two in breadth. I fired at this at one hundred +and seventy yards with my two-grooved four-ounce rifle, with a +reduced charge of six drachms of powder and a ball of pure lead. +It bulged the iron like a piece of putty, and split the centre of +the bulged spot into a star, through the crevice of which I could +pass a pen-blade. + +A ball composed of half zinc and half lead, fired from the same +distance, hardly produced a perceptible effect upon the iron +target. It just slightly indented it. + +I then tried a ball of one-third zinc and two-thirds lead, but +there was no perceptible difference in the effect. + +I subsequently tried a tin bill, and again a zinc ball, but +neither of them produced any other effect than slightly to indent +the iron. + +I tried all these experiments again at fifty yards' range, with +the same advantage in favor of the pure lead; and at this reduced +distance a double-barreled No. 16 smoothbore, with a large charge +of four drachms of powder and a lead ball, also bulged and split +the iron into a star. This gun, with a hard tin ball and the +same charge of powder, did not produce any other effect than an +almost imperceptible indentation. + +if a person wishes to harden a bill for any purpose, it should be +done by an admixture of quicksilver to the lead while the latter +is in a state of fusion, a few seconds before the ball is cast. +The mixture must be then quickly stirred with an iron rod, and +formed into the moulds without loss of time, as at this high +temperature the quicksilver will evaporate. Quicksilver is +heavier than lead, and makes a ball excessively hard; so much so +that it would very soon spoil a rifle. Altogether, the hardening +of a ball has been shown to be perfectly unnecessary, and the +latter receipt would be found very expensive. + +If a wonderful effect is required, the steel-tipped conical ball +should be used. I once shot through fourteen elm planks, each +one inch thick, with a four-ounce steel-tipped cone, with the +small charge (for that rifle) of four drachms of powder. The +proper charge for that gun is one-fourth the weight of the ball, +or one ounce of powder, with which it carries with great nicety +and terrific effect, owing to its great weight of metal +(twenty-one pounds); but it is a small piece of artillery which +tries the shoulder very severely in the recoil. + +I have frequently watched a party of soldiers winding along a +pass, with their white trousers, red coats, white cross-belts and +brass plates, at about four hundred yards, and thought what a +raking that rifle would give a body, of troops in such colors for +a mark. A ball of that weight with an ounce of powder, would +knock down six or eight men in a row. A dozen of such weapons +well handled on board a ship would create an astonishing effect; +but for most purposes the weight of the ammunition is a serious +objection. + +There is a great difference of opinion among sportsmen regarding +the grooves of a rifle; some prefer the two-groove and belted +ball; others give preference to the eight or twelve-groove and +smoothbore. There are good arguments on both sides. + +There is no doubt that the two-groove is the hardest hitter and +the longest ranger; it also has the advantage of not fouling so +quickly as the many-grooved. On the other hand, the +many-grooved is much easier to load; it hits quite hard enough; +and it ranges truly much farther than any person would think of +firing at an animal. Therefore, for sporting purposes, the only +advantage which the two-groove possesses is the keeping clean, +while the many-groove claims the advantage of quick loading. + +The latter is by far the more important recommendation, +especially as the many-groove can be loaded without the +assistance of the eye, as the ball, being smooth and round, can +only follow the right road down the barrel. The two-grooved +rifle, when new, is particularly difficult to load, as the ball +must be tight to avoid windage, and it requires some nicety in +fitting and pressing the belt of the ball into the groove, in +such a manner that it shall start straight upon the pressure of +the loading-rod. If it gives a slight heel to one side at the +commencement, it is certain to stick in its course, and it then +occupies much time and trouble in being rammed home. Neither +will it shoot with accuracy, as, from the amount of ramming to +get the ball to its place, it has become so misshapen that it is +a mere lump of lead, and no longer a rifle-ball. My +double-barreled No. 10 rifles are two-grooved, and an infinity +of trouble they gave me for the first two years. Many a time I +have been giving my whole weight to the loading rod, with a ball +stuck half-way down the barrel, while wounded elephants lay +struggling upon the ground, expected every moment to rise. >From +constant use and repeated cleaning they have now become so +perfect that they load with the greatest ease; but guns of their +age are not fair samples of their class, and for rifles in +general for sporting purposes I should give a decided preference +to the many-groove. I have had a long two-ounce rifle of the +latter class, which I have shot with for many years, and it +certainly is not so hard a hitter as the two-grooved No. 10's; +but it hits uncommonly hard, too; and if I do not bag with it, it +is always my fault, and no blame can be attached to the rifle. + +For heavy game-shooting, I do not think there can be a much +fairer standard for the charge of powder than one-fifth the +weight of the ball for all bores. Some persons do not use so +much as this; but I am always an advocate for strong guns and +plenty of powder. + +A heavy charge will reach the brain of an elephant, no matter in +what position he may stand, provided a proper angle is taken for +attaining it. A trifling amount of powder is sufficient, if the +elephant offers a front shot, or the temple at right angles, or +the ear shot; but if a man pretend to a knowledge of +elephant-shooting, he should think of nothing but the brain, and +his knowledge of the anatomy of the elephant's head should be +such that he can direct a straight line to this mark from any +position. He then requires a rifle of such power that the ball +will crash through every obstacle along the course directed. To +effect this he must not be stingy of the powder. + +I have frequently killed elephants by curious shots with the +rifles in this manner; but I once killed a bull elephant by one +shot in the upper jaw, which will at once exemplify the +advantage of a powerful rifle in taking the angle for the brain. + +My friend Palliser and I were out shooting on the day previous, +and we had spent some hours in vainly endeavouring to track up a +single bull elephant. I forget what we bagged, but I recollect +well that we were unlucky in finding our legitimate game. That +night at dinner we heard elephants roaring in the Yallé river, +upon the banks of which our tent was pitched in fine open forest. +For about an hour the roaring was continued, apparently on both +sides the river, and we immediately surmised that our gentleman +friend on our side of the stream was answering the call of the +ladies of some herd on the opposite bank. We went to sleep with +the intention of waking at dawn of day, and then strolling +quietly along with only two gun-bearers each, who were to carry +my four double No 10's, while we each carried a single barrel for +deer. + +The earliest gray tint of morning saw us dressed and ready, the +rifles loaded, a preliminary cup of hot chocolate swallowed, and +we were off while the forest was still gloomy; the night seemed +to hang about it, although the sky was rapidly clearing above. + +A noble piece of Nature's handiwork is that same Yallé forest. +The river flows sluggishly through its centre in a breadth of +perhaps ninety yards, and the immense forest trees extend their +giant arms from the high banks above the stream, throwing dark +shadows upon its surface, enlivened by the silvery glitter of the +fish as they dart against the current. Little glades of rank +grass occasionally break the monotony of the dark forest; sandy +gullies in deep beds formed by the torrents of the rainy season +cut through the crumbling soil and drain toward the river. Thick +brushwood now and then forms an opposing barrier, but generally +the forest is beautifully open, consisting of towering trees, the +leviathans of their race, sheltering the scanty saplings which +have spring from their fallen seeds. For a few hundred yards on +either side of the river the forest extends in a ribbon-like +strip of lofty vegetation in the surrounding sea of low scrubby +jungle. The animals leave the low jungle at night, passing +through the forest on their way to the river to bathe and drink; +they return to the low and thick jungle at break of day and we +hoped to meet some of the satiated elephants on their way to +their dense habitations. + +We almost made sure of finding our friend of yesterday's trek, +and we accordingly kept close to the edge of the river, keeping a +sharp eye for tracks upon the sandy bed below. + +We had strolled for about a mile along the high bank of the river +without seeing a sign of an elephant, when I presently heard a +rustle in the branches before me, and upon looking up I saw a lot +of monkeys gamboling in the trees. I was carrying my long +two-ounce rifle, and I was passing beneath the monkey-covered +boughs, when I suddenly observed a young tree of the thickness of +a man's thigh shaking violently just before me. + +It happened that the jungle was a little thicker in his spot, and +at the same moment that I observed the tree shaking almost over +me, I passed the immense stem of one of those smooth-barked trees +which grow to such an enormous size on the banks of rivers. At +the same moment that I passed it I was almost under the trunk of +a single bull elephant, who was barking the stem with his tusk as +high as he could reach, with his head thrown back. I saw in an +instant that the only road to his brain lay through his upper +jaw, in the position in which he was standing; and knowing that +he would discover me in another moment, I took the eccentric line +for his brain, and fired upward through his jaw. He fell stone +dead, with the silk patch of the rifle smoking in the wound. + +Now in this position no light gun could have killed that +elephant; the ball had to pass through the roots of the upper +grinders, and keep its course through hard bones and tough +membranes for about two feet before it could reach the brain; but +the line was all right, and the heavy metal and charge of powder +kept the ball to its work. + +This is the power which every elephant-gun should possess: it +should have an elephant's head under complete command in every +attitude. + +There is another advantage in heavy metal; a heavy ball will +frequently stun a vicious elephant when in full charge, when a +light ball would not check him; his quietus is then soon arranged +by another barrel. Some persons, however, place too much +confidence in the weight of the metal, and forget that it is +necessary to hold a powerful rifle as straight as the smallest +gun. It is then very common during a chase of a herd to see the +elephants falling tolerably well to the shots, but on a return +for their tails, it is found that the stunned brutes have +recovered and decamped. + +Conical balls should never be used for elephants; they are more +apt to glance, and the concussion is not so great as that +produced by a round ball. In fact there is nothing more perfect +for sporting purposes than a good rifle from a first-rate maker, +with a plain ball of from No. 12 to No. 10. There can be no +improvement upon such a weapon for the range generally required +by a good shot. + +I am very confident that the African elephant would be killed by +the brain-shot by Ceylon sportsmen with as much case as the +Indian species. The shape of the head has nothing whatever to do +with the shooting, provided the guns are powerful and the hunter +knows where the brain lies. + +When I arrived in Ceylon one of my first visits was to the +museum at Colombo where I carefully examined the transverse +sections of an elephant's skull, until perfectly acquainted with +its details. From the museum I cut straight to the +elephant-stables and thoroughly examined the head of the living +animal, comparing it in my own mind with the skull, until I was +thoroughly certain of the position of the brain and the +possibility of reaching it from any position. + +An African sportsmen would be a long time in killing a Ceylon +elephant, if he fired at the long range described by most +writers; in fact, he would not kill one out of twenty that he +fired at in such a jungle-covered country as Ceylon, where, in +most cases, everything depends upon the success of the first +barrel. + +It is the fashion in Ceylon to get as close as possible to an +elephant before firing; this is usually at about ten yards' +distance, at which range nearly every shot must be fatal. In +Africa, according to all accounts, elephants are fired at thirty, +forty, and even at sixty yards. It is no wonder, therefore, that +African sportsmen take the shoulder shot, as the hitting of the +brain would be a most difficult feat at such a distance, seeing +that the even and dusky color of an elephant's head offers no +peculiar mark for a delicate aim. + +The first thing that a good sportsmen considers with every animal +is the point at which to aim so to bag him as speedily as +possible. It is well known that all animals, from the smallest to +the largest, sink into instant death when shot through the brain; +and that a wound through the lungs or heart is equally fatal, +though not so instantaneous. These are accordingly the points for +aim, the brain, from its small size, being the most difficult to +hit. Nevertheless, in a jungle country, elephants must be shot +through the brain, otherwise they would not be bagged, as they +would retreat with a mortal wound into such dense jungle that no +man could follow. Seeing how easily they are dropped by the +brainshot if approached sufficiently near to ensure the +correctness of the aim, no one would ever think of firing at the +shoulder who had been accustomed to aim at the head. + +A Ceylon sportsman arriving in Africa would naturally examine the +skull of the African elephant, and when once certain of the +position of the brain he would require no further information. +Leave him alone for hitting it if he knew where it was. + +What a sight for a Ceylon elephant-hunter would be the first view +of a herd of African elephants - all tuskers! In Ceylon, a +"tusker" is a kind of spectre, to be talked of by a few who have +had the good luck to see one. And when he is seen by a good +sportsman, it is an evil hour for him - he is followed till he +gives up his tusks. + +It is a singular thing that Ceylon is the only part of the world +where the male elephant has no tusks; they have miserable little +grubbers projecting two or three inches from the upper jaw and +inclining downward. Thus a man may kill some hundred elephants +without having a pair of tusks in his possession. The largest +that I have seen in Ceylon were about six feet long, and five +inches in diameter in the thickest part. These would be +considered rather below the average in Africa, although in Ceylon +they were thought magnificent. + +Nothing produces either ivory or horn in fine specimens +throughout Ceylon. Although some of the buffaloes have tolerably +fine heads, they will not bear a comparison with those of other +countries. The horns of the native cattle are not above four +inches in length. The elk and the spotted deer's antlers are +small compared with deer of their size on the continent of India. +This is the more singular, as it is evident from the geological +formation that at some remote period Ceylon was not an island, +but formed a portion of the mainland, from which it is now only +separated by a shallow and rocky of some few miles. In India the +bull elephants have tusks, and the cattle and buffaloes have very +large horns. My opinion is that there are elements wanting in +the Ceylon pasturage (which is generally poor) for the formation +of both horn and ivory. Thus many years of hunting and shooting +are rewarded by few trophies of the chase. So great is the +natural inactivity of the natives that no one understands the +preparation of the skins; thus all the elk and deer hides are +simply dried in the sun, and the hair soon rots and fills off. +In India, the skin of the Samber deer (the Ceylon elk) is prized +above all others, and is manufactured into gaiters, belts, +pouches, coats. breeches, etc.; but in Ceylon, these things are +entirety neglected by the miserable and indolent population, +whose whole thoughts are concentrated upon their bread, or rather +their curry and rice. + +At Newera Ellia, the immense number of elk that I have killed +would have formed a valuable collection of skins had they been +properly prepared, instead of which the hair has been singed from +them, and they have been boiled up for dogs' meat. + +Boars' hides have shared the same fate. These are far thicker +than those of the tame species, and should make excellent +saddles. So tough are they upon the live animal that it requires +a very sharp-pointed knife to penetrate them, and too much care +cannot be bestowed upon the manufacture of a knife for this style +of hunting, as the boar is one of the fiercest and dangerous of +animals. + +Living in the thickest jungles, he rambles out at night in search +of roots, fruits, large earthworms, or anything else that he can +find, being, like his domesticated brethren, omnivorous. He is a +terrible enemy to the pack, and has cost me several good dogs +within the last few years. Without first-rate seizers it would +be impossible to kill him with the knife without being ripped, as +he invariably turns to bay after a short run in the thickest +jungle he can find. There is no doubt that a good stout +boar-spear, with a broad blade and strong handle, is the proper +weapon for the attack; but a spear is very unhandy and even +dangerous to carry in such a hilly country as the neighbourhood +of Newera Ellia. The forests are full of steep ravines and such +tangled underwood that following the hounds is always an arduous +task, but with a spear in the hand it is still more difficult, +and the point is almost certain to get injured by striking +against the numerous rocks, in which case it is perfectly useless +when perhaps most required. I never carry a spear for these +reasons, but am content with the knife, as in my opinion any +animal that can beat off good bounds and a long knife deserves to +escape. + +My knife was made to my own pattern by Paget of Piccadilly. The +blade is one foot in length, and two inches broad in the widest +part, and slightly concave in the middle. The steel is of the +most exquisite quality, and the entire knife weighs three pounds. +The peculiar shape added to the weight of the blade gives an +extraordinary force to a blow, and the blade being double-edged +for three inches from the point, inflicts a fearful wound: +altogether it is a very desperate weapon, and admirably adapted +for this kind of sport. + +A feat is frequently performed by the Nepaulese by cutting off a +buffalo's head at one blow of a sabre or tulwal. The blade of +this weapon is peculiar, being concave, and the extremity is far +heavier than the hilt; the animal's neck is tied down to a post, +so as to produce a tension on the muscles, without which the +blow, however great, would have a comparatively small effect. + +The accounts of this feat always appeared very marvellous to my +mind, until I one day unintentionally performed something similar +on a small scale with the hunting-knife. + +I was out hunting in the Elk Plains, and having drawn several +jungles blank, I ascended the mountains which wall in the western +side of the patinas (grass-plains), making sure of finding an elk +near the summit. It was a lovely day, perfectly calm and +cloudless; in which weather the elk, especially the large bucks, +are in the habit of lying high up the mountains. + +I had nine couple of hounds out, among which were some splendid +seizers, "Bertram," "Killbuck," "Hecate," "Bran," "Lucifer," and +"Lena," the first three being progeny of the departed hero, old +"Smut," who had been killed by a boar a short time before. They +were then just twelve months old, and "Bertram" stood +twenty-eight and a half inches high at the shoulder. To him his +sire's valor had descended untarnished, and for a dog of his +young age he was the most courageous that I have ever seen. In +appearance he was a tall Manilla bloodhound, with the strength of +a young lion; very affectionate in disposition, and a general +favorite, having won golden opinions in every contest. Whenever +a big buck was at bay, and punishing the leading hounds, he was +ever the first to get his hold; no matter how great the danger, +he never waited but recklessly dashed in. "There goes Bertram! +Look at Bertram! Well done, Bertram!" were the constant +exclamations of a crowd of excited spectators when a powerful +buck was brought to bay. He was a wonderful dog, but I +prophesied an early grave for him, as no dog in the world could +long escape death who rushed so recklessly upon his dangerous +game.* His sister "Hecate," was more careful, and she is alive at +this moment, and a capital seizer of great strength combined with +speed, having derived the latter from her dam, "Lena," an +Australian greyhound, than whom a better or truer bitch never +lived. "Old Bran," and his beautiful son "Lucifer," were fine +specimens of grayhound and deerhound, and as good as gold. +*Speared through the body by the horns of a buck elk and killed +shortly after this was written. + +There was not a single elk track the whole of the way up the +mountain, and upon arriving at the top, I gave up all hope of +finding for that day, and I enjoyed the beautiful view over the +vast valley of forest which lay below, spangled with green +plains, and bounded by the towering summit of Adam's Peak, at +about twenty-five miles' distance. The coffee estates of +Dimboola lay far beneath upon the right, and the high mountains +of Kirigallapotta and Totapella bounded the view upon the left. + +There is a good path along the narrow ridge on the summit of the +Elk Plain hills, which has been made by elephants. This runs +along the very top of the knife-like ridge, commanding a view of +the whole country to the right and left. The range is terminated +abruptly by a high peak, which descends in a sheer precipice at +the extremity. + +I strolled along the elephant-path, intending to gain the extreme +end of the range for the sake of the view, when I suddenly came +upon the track of a "boar," in the middle of the path. It was +perfectly fresh, as were also the ploughings in the ground close +by, and the water of a small pool was still curling with clouds +of mud, showing most plainly that he had been disturbed from his +wallowing by my noise in ascending the mountain-side. + +There was no avoiding the find; and away went "Bluebeard," +"Ploughboy," "Gaylass" and all the leading hounds, followed by +the whole pack, in full chorus, straight along the path at top +speed. Presently they turned sharp to the left into the thick +jungle, dashing down the hillside as though off to the Elk Plains +below. At this pace I knew the hunt would not last long, and +from my elevated stand I waited impatiently for the first sounds +of the bay. Round they turned again, up the steep hillside, and +the music slackened a little, as the bounds had enough to do in +bursting through the tangled bamboo up the hill. + +Presently, I heard the rush of the boar in the jungle, coming +straight up the hill toward the spot where I was standing; and, +fearing that he might top the ridge and make down the other side +toward Dimboola, I gave him a halloo to head him back. Hark, +for-r-rard to him! yo-o-ick! to him! + +Such a yell, right in his road, astonished him, and, as I +expected, he headed sharp back. Up came the pack, going like +race-horses, and wheeling off where the game had turned, a few +seconds running along the side of the mountain, and then such a +burst of music! such a bay! The boar had turned sharp round, and +had met the hounds on a level platform on the top of a ridge. + +"Lucifer" never leaves my side until we are close up to the bay; +and plunging and tearing through the bamboo grass and tangled +nillho for a few hundred yards, I at length approached the spot, +and I heard Lord Bacon grunting and roaring loud above the din of +the hounds. + +Bertram has him for a guinea! Hold him, good lad! and away +dashed "Lucifer" from my side at the halloo. + +In another moment I was close up, and with my knife ready I broke +through the dense jungle and was immediately in the open space +cleared by the struggles of the boar and pack. Unluckily, I had +appeared full in the boar's front, and though five or six of the +large seizers had got their holds, he made a sudden charge at me +that shook them all off, except "Bertram" and "Lena." + +It was the work of an instant, as I jumped quickly on one side, +and instinctively made a downward cut at him in passing. He fell +all of a heap, to the complete astonishment of myself and the +furious pack. + +He was dead! killed by one blow with the hunting knife. I had +struck him across the back just behind the shoulders, and the +wound was so immense that he had the appearance of being nearly +half divided. Not only was the spine severed, but the blade had +cut deep into his vitals and produced instant death. + +One of the dogs was hanging on his hind quarters when he charged, +and as the boar was rushing forward, the muscles of the back were +accordingly stretched tight, and thus the effect of the cut was +increased to this extraordinary degree. He was a middling-sized +boar, as near as I could guess, about two and a half +hundredweight. + +Fortunately, none of the pack were seriously hurt, although his +tusks were as sharp as a knife. This was owing to the short +duration of the fight, and also to the presence of so many +seizers, who backed each other up without delay. + +There is no saying to what size a wild boar grows. I have never +killed them with the hounds above four hundredweight; but I have +seen solitary boars in the low country, that must have weighed +nearly double. + +I believe the flesh is very good; by the natives it is highly +prized; but I have so strong a prejudice against it from the +sights I have seen of their feasting upon putrid elephants that I +never touch it. + +The numbers of wild hogs in the low country is surprising, and +these are most useful in cleaning up the carcases of dead animals +and destroying vermin. I seldom or never fire at hog in those +districts, as their number is so great that there is no sport in +shooting them. They travel about in herds of one and two hundred, +and even more. These are composed of sows and young boars, as +the latter leave the herd when arrived at maturity. + +CHAPTER VII. Curious Phenomenon - Panorama of Ouva - South-west +Monsoon - Hunting Followers - Fort M'Donald - River - Jungle +Paths - Dangerous Locality - Great Waterfall - Start for Hunting +- The Find - A Gallant Stag - "Bran" and Lucifer" - "Phrenzy's" +Death - Buck at Bay - The Cave Hunting-box- "Madcap's" Dive - Elk +Soup - Former Inundation - " Bluebeard" leads off - " Hecate's" +Course -The Elk's Leap - Variety of Deer - The Axis - Ceylon +Bears - Variety of Vermin - Trials for Hounds - Hounds and their +Masters - A Sportsman "shut up"- A Corporal and Centipede. + +>From June to November the south-west monsoon brings wind and +mist across the Newera Ellia mountains. + +Clouds of white fog boil up from the Dimboola valley like the +steam from a huge cauldron, and invade the Newera Ellia plain +through the gaps in the mountains to the westward. + +The wind howls over the high ridges, cutting the jungle with its +keen edge, so that it remains as stunted brushwood, and the +opaque screen of driving fog and drizzling rain is so dense that +one feels convinced there is no sun visible within at least a +hundred miles. + +There is a curious phenomenon, however, in this locality. When +the weather described prevails at Newera Ellia, there is actually +not one drop of rain within four miles of my house in the +direction of Badulla. Dusty roads, a cloudless sky and dazzling +sunshine astonish the thoroughly-soaked traveler, who rides out +of the rain and mist into a genial climate, as though he passed +through a curtain. The wet weather terminates at a mountain +called Hackgalla (or more properly Yakkadagalla, or iron rock). +This bold rock, whose summit is about six thousand five hundred +feet above the sea, breasts the driving wind and seems to command +the storm. The rushing clouds halt in their mad course upon its +crest and curl in sudden impotence around the craggy summits. +The deep ravine formed by an opposite mountain is filled with the +vanquished mist, which sinks powerless in its dark gorge; and the +bright sun, shining from the east, spreads a perpetual rainbow +upon the gauze-like cloud of fog which settles in the deep +hollow. + +This is exceedingly beautiful. The perfect circle of the rainbow +stands like a fairy spell in the giddy depth of the hollow, and +seems to forbid the advance of the monsoon. All before is bright +and cloudless; the lovely panorama of the Ouva country spreads +before the eye for many miles beneath the feet. All behind is +dark and stormy; the wind is howling, the forests are groaning, +the rain is pelting upon the hills. + +The change appears impossible; but there it is, ever the same; +season after season, year after year, the rugged top of Hackgalla +struggles with the storms, and ever victorious the cliffs smile +in the sunshine on the eastern side; the rainbow reappears with +the monsoon, and its vivid circle remains like the guardian +spirit of the valley,. + +It is impossible to do justice to the extraordinary appearance of +this scene by description. The panoramic view in itself is +celebrated; but as the point in the road is reached where the +termination of the monsoon dissolves the cloud and rain into a +thin veil of mist, the panorama seen through the gauze-like +atmosphere has the exact appearance of a dissolving view; the +depth, the height and distance of every object, all great in +reality, are magnified by the dim and unnatural appearance; and +by a few steps onward the veil gradually fades away, and the +distant prospect lies before the eye with a glassy clearness made +doubly striking by the sudden contrast. + +The road winds along about midway up the mountain, bounded on the +right by the towering cliffs and sloping forest of Hackgalla, and +on the left by the almost precipitous descent of nearly one +thousand feet, the sides of which are clothed by alternate forest +and waving grass. At the bottom flows a torrent, whose roar, +ascending from the hidden depth, increases the gloomy mystery of +the scene. + +On the north, east and south-east of Newera Ellia the sunshine is +perpetual during the reign of the misty atmosphere, which the +south-west monsoon drives upon the western side of the mountains. +Thus, there is always an escape open from the wet season at +Newera Ellia by a short walk of three or four miles. + +A long line of dark cloud is then seen, terminated by a bright +blue sky. So abrupt is the line and the cessation of the rain +that it is difficult to imagine how the moisture is absorbed. + +This sudden termination of the cloud-capped mountain gives rise +to a violent wind in the sunny valleys and bare hills beneath. +The chilled air of Newera Ellia pours down into the sun-warmed +atmosphere below, and creates a gale that sweeps across the +grassy hilltops with great force, giving the sturdy rhododendrons +an inclination to the north-east which clearly marks the +steadiness of the monsoon. + +It is not to be supposed, however, that Newera Ellia lies in +unbroken gloom for months together. One month generally brings a +share of uninterrupted bad weather; this is from the middle of +June to the middle of July. This is the commencement of the +south-west monsoon, which usually sets in with great violence. +The remaining portion of what is called the wet season, till the +end of November, is about as uncertain as the climate of England +- some days fine, others wet, and every now and then a week of +rain at one bout. + +A thoroughly saturated soil, with a cold wind, and driving rain +and forests as full of water as sponges, are certain destroyers +of scent; hence, hunting at Newera Ellia is out of the question +during such weather. The hounds would get sadly out of +condition, were it not for the fine weather in the vicinity which +then invites a trip. + +I have frequently walked ten miles to my hunting grounds, +starting before daybreak, and then after a good day's sport up +and down the steep mountains, I have returned home in the +evening. But this is twelve hours' work, and it is game thrown +away, as there is no possibility of getting the dead elk home. +An animal that weighs between four hundred and four hundred and +fifty pounds without his insides, is not a very easy creature to +move; at any time, especially in such a steep mountainous country +as the neighborhood of Newera Ellia. As previously described, at +the base of the mountains are cultivated rice-lands, generally +known as paddy-fields, where numerous villages have sprung up +from the facility with which a supply of water is obtained from +the wild mountains above them. I have so frequently given the +people elk and hogs which I have killed on the heights above +their paddy-fields that they are always on the alert at the sound +of the bugle, and a few blasts from the mountain-top immediately +creates a race up from the villages, some two or three thousand +feet below. Like vultures scenting carrion, they know that an +elk is killed, and they start off to the well-known sound like a +pack of trained hounds. Being thorough mountaineers, they are +extraordinary fellows for climbing the steep grassy sides. With +a light stick about six feet long in one hand, they will start +from the base of the mountains and clamber up the hillsides in a +surprisingly short space of time, such as would soon take the +conceit out of a "would-be pedestrian." This is owing to the +natural advantages of naked feet and no inexpressibles. + +Whenever an elk has given a long run in the direction of this +country, and after a persevering and arduous chase of many hours, +I have at length killed him on the grassy heights above the +villages, I always take a delight in watching the tiny specks +issuing from the green strips of paddy as the natives start off +at the sound of the horn. + +At this altitude, it requires a sharp eye to discern a man, but +at length they are seen scrambling up the ravines and gullies and +breasting the sharp pitches, until at last the first man arrives +thoroughly used up and a string of fellows of lesser wind come +in, in sections, all thoroughly blown. + +However, the first man in never gets the lion's share, as the +poor old men, with willing spirits and weak flesh, always bring +up the rear, and I insist upon a fair division between the old +and young, always giving an extra piece to a man who happens to +know a little English. This is a sort of reward for +acquirements, equivalent to a university degree, and he is +considered a literary character by his fellows. + +There is nothing that these people appreciate so much as elk and +hog's flesh. Living generally upon boiled rice and curry +composed of pumpkins and sweet potatoes, they have no +opportunities of tasting meat unless upon these occasions. + +During the very wet weather at Newera Ellia I sometimes take the +pack and bivouac for a fortnight in the fine-weather country. +About a week previous I send down word to the village people of +my intention, but upon these occasions I never give them the elk. +I always insist upon their bringing rice, etc., for the dogs and +myself in exchange for venison, otherwise I should have some +hundreds of noisy, idle vagabonds flocking up to me like +carrion-crows. + +Of course I give them splendid bargains, as I barter simply on +the principle that no man shall come for nothing. Thus, if a man +assist in building the kennel, or carrying a load, or cutting +bed-grass, or searching for lost hounds, he gets a share of meat. +The others bring rice, coffee, fowls, eggs, plantains, +vegetables, etc., which I take at ridiculous rates-a bushel of +rice for a full-grown elk, etc., the latter being worth a couple +of pounds and the rice about seven shillings. Thus the hounds +keep themselves in rice and supply me with everything that I +require during the trip, at the same time gratifying the natives. + +The direct route to this country was unknown to Europeans at +Newera Ellia until I discovered it one day, accidentally, in +following the hounds. + +A large tract of jungle-covered hill stretches away from the Moon +Plains at Newera Ellia toward the east, forming a hog's back of +about three and a half miles in length. Upon the north side this +shelves into a deep gorge, at the bottom of which flows, or +rather tumbles, Fort M'Donald river on its way to the low +country, through forest-covered hills and perpendicular cliffs, +until it reaches the precipitous patina mountains, when, in a +succession of large cataracts, it reaches the paddy-fields in the +first village of Peréwellé (guava paddy-field). Thus the river +in the gorge below runs parallel to the long hog's back of +mountain. This is bordered on the other side by another ravine +and smaller torrent, to which the Badulla road runs parallel +until it reaches the mountain of Hackgalla, at which place the +ravine deepens into the misty gorge already described. + +At one time, if an elk crossed the Badulla road and gained the +Hog's Back jungle, both he and the hounds were lost, as no one +could follow through such impenetrable jungle without knowing +either the distance or direction. + +"They are gone to Fort M'Donald river!" This was the despairing +exclamation at all times when the pack crossed the road, and we +seldom saw the hounds again until late that night or on the +following day. Many never returned, and Fort M'Donald river +became a by-word as a locality to be always dreaded. + +After a long run one day, the pack having gone off in this fatal +direction, I was determined, at any price, to hunt them up, and +accordingly I went some miles down the Badulla road to the +limestone quarries, which are five miles from the Newera Ellia +plain. From this point I left the road and struck down into the +deep, grassy valley, crossing the river (the same which runs by +the road higher up) and continuing along the side of the valley +until I ascended the opposite range of hills. Descending the +precipitous side, I at length reached the paddy-fields in the low +country, which were watered by Fort M'Donald river, and I looked +up to the lofty range formed by the Hog's Back hill, now about +three thousand feet above me. Thus I had gained the opposite +side of the Hog's Back, and, after a stiff pull lip the mountain, +I returned home by a good path which I had formerly discovered +along the course of the river through the forest to Newera Ellia, +via Rest-and-be-Thankful Valley and the Barrack Plains, having +made a circuit of about twenty-five miles and become thoroughly +conversant with all the localities. I immediately determined to +have a path cut from the Badulla Road across the Hog's Back +jungle to the patinas which looked down upon Fort M'Donald on the +other side and, up which I had ascended on my return. I judged +the distance would not exceed two miles across, and I chose the +point of junction with the Badulla road two miles and a half from +my house. My reason for this was, that the elk invariably took +to the jungle at this place, which proved it to be the easiest +route. + +This road, on completion, answered every expectation, connecting +the two sides of the Hog's Back by an excellent path of about two +miles, and débouching on the opposite side on a high patina peak +which commanded the whole country. Thus was the whole country +opened up by this single path, and should an elk play his old +trick and be off across the Hog's Back to Fort M'Donald river, I +could be there nearly as soon as he could, and also keep within +hearing of the bounds throughout the run. + +I was determined to take the tent and regularly hunt up the whole +country on the other side of the Hog's Back, as the weather was +very bad at Newera Ellia, while in this spot it was beautifully +fine, although very windy. + +I therefore sent on the tent, kennel-troughs and pots, and all +the paraphernalia indispensable for the jungle, and on the 31st +May, 1852, I started, having two companions - Capt. Pelly, +Thirty-seventh Regiment, who was then commandant of Newera Ellia, +and his brother on a visit. It was not more than an hour and a +half's good walking from my house to the high patina peak upon +which I pitched the tent, but the country and climate are so +totally distinct from anything at Newera Ellia that it gives +every one the idea of being fifty miles away. + +We hewed out a spacious arbor at the edge of the jungle, and in +this I had the tent pitched to protect it from the wind, which it +did effectually, as well as the kennel, which was near the same +spot. The servants made a good kitchen, and the encampment was +soon complete. + +There never could have been a more romantic or beautiful spot +for a bivouac. To the right lay the distant view of the low +country, stretching into an undefined distance, until the land +and sky appeared to melt together. Below, at a depth of about +three thousand feet, the river boiled through the rocky gorge +until it reached the village of Peréwellé at the base of the line +of mountains, whose cultivated paddy-fields looked no larger than +the squares upon a chess-board. On the opposite side of the +river rose a precipitous and impassable mountain, even to a +greater altitude than the facing ridge upon which I stood, +forming as grand a foreground as the eye could desire. Above, +below, around, there was the bellowing sound of heavy cataracts +echoed upon all sides. + +Certainly this country is very magnificent, but it is an awful +locality for hunting, as the elk has too great an advantage over +both hounds and hunters. Mountainous patinas of the steepest +inclination, broken here and there by abrupt precipices, and with +occasional level platforms of waving grass, descend to the +river's bed. These patina mountains are crowned by extensive +forests, and narrow belts of jungle descend from the summit to +the base, clothing the numerous ravines which furrow the +mountain's side. Thus the entire surface of the mountains forms +a series of rugged grasslands, so steep as to be ascended with +the greatest difficulty, and the elk lie in the forests on the +summits and also in the narrow belts which cover the ravines. + +The whole country forms a gorge, like a gigantic letter V. At the +bottom roars the dreaded torrent, Fort M'Donald river, in a +succession of foaming cataracts, all of which, however grand +individually, are completely eclipsed by its last great plunge of +three hundred feet perpendicular depth into a dark and narrow +chasm of wall-bound cliffs. + +The bed of the river is the most frightful place that can be +conceived, being choked by enormous fragments of rock, amidst +which the irresistible torrent howls with a fury that it is +impossible to describe. + +The river is confined on either side by rugged cliffs of gneiss +rock, from which these fragments have from time to time become +detached, and have accordingly fallen into the torrent, choking +the bed and throwing the obstructed waters into frightful +commotion. Here they lie piled one upon the other, like so many +inverted cottages; here and there forming dripping caverns; now +forming walls of slippery rock, over which the water falls in +thundering volumes into pools black from their mysterious depth, +and from which there is no visible means of exit. These dark and +dangerous pools are walled in by hoary-looking rocks, beneath +which the pent-up water dives and boils in subterranean caverns, +until it at length escapes through secret channels, and reappears +on the opposite side of its prison-walls; lashing itself into +foam in its mad frenzy, it forms rapids of giddy velocity through +the rocky bounds; now flying through a narrowed gorge, and +leaping, striving and wrestling with unnumbered obstructions, it +at length meets with the mighty fall, like death in a madman's +course. One plunge! without a single shelf to break the fall, +and down, down it sheets; at first like glass, then like the +broken avalanche of snow, and lastly! - we cannot see more - the +mist boils from the ruin of shattered waters and conceals the +bottom of the fall. The roar vibrates like thunder in the rocky +mountain, and forces the grandeur of the scene through every +nerve. + +No animal or man, once in those mysterious pools, could ever +escape without assistance. Thus in years post, when elk were not +followed up in this locality, the poor beast, being hard pressed +by the hounds, might have come to bay in one of these fatal +basins, in which case, both he and every bound who entered the +trap found sure destruction. + +The hard work and the danger to both man and bound in this +country may be easily imagined when it is explained that the +nature of the elk prompts him to seek for water as his place of +refuge when hunted; thus he makes off down the mountain for the +river, in which he stands at bay. Now the mountain itself is +steep enough, but within a short distance of the bottom the river +is in many places guarded by precipices of several hundred feet +in depth. A few difficult passes alone give access to the +torrent, but the descent requires great caution. + +Altogether, this forms the wildest and most arduous country that +can be imagined for hunting, but it abounds with elk. + +The morning was barely gray when I woke up the servants and +ordered coffee, and made the usual preparations for a start. At +last, thank goodness! the boots are laced! This is the +troublesome part of dressing before broad daylight, and +nevertheless laced ankle-boots must be worn as a protection +against sprains and bruises in such a country. Never mind the +trouble of lacing them; they, are on now, and there is a good +day's work in store for them. + +It was the 30th May, 1853, a lovely hunting morning and a fine +dew on the patinas; rather too windy, but that could not be +helped. + +Quiet now! - down, Bluebeard! - back, will you, Lucifer! Here's a +smash! there goes the jungle kennel! the pack squeezing out of it +in every direction as they hear the preparations for departure. + +Now we are all right; ten couple out, and all good ones. Come +along, yo-o-i, along here! and a note on the horn brings the pack +close together as we enter the forest on the very summit of the +ridge. Thus the start was completed just as the first tinge of +gold spread along the eastern horizon, about ten minutes before +sunrise. + +The jungles were tolerably good, but there were not as many elk +tracks as I had expected; probably the high wind on the ridge had +driven them lower down for shelter; accordingly I struck an +oblique direction downward, and I was not long before I +discovered a fresh track; fresh enough, certainly, as the thick +moss which covered the ground showed a distinct path where the +animal had been recently feeding. + +Every hound had stolen away; even the greyhounds buried their +noses in the broad track of the buck, so fresh was the scent; and +I waited quietly for "the find." The greyhounds stood round me +with their cars cocked and glistening eyes, intently listening +for the expected sound. + +There they are! all together, such a burst! They must have stolen +away mute and have found on the other side the ridge, for they +were now coming down at full speed from the very summit of the +mountain. + +>From the amount of music I knew they had a good start, but I had +no idea that the buck would stand to such a pack at the very +commencement of the hunt. Nevertheless there was a sudden bay +within a few hundred yards of me, and the elk had already turned +to fight. I knew that he was an immense fellow from his track, +and I at once saw that he would show fine sport. + +Just as I was running through the jungle toward the spot, the bay +broke and the buck had evidently gone off straight away, as I +heard the pack in full cry rapidly increasing their distance and +going off down the mountain. + +Sharp following was now the order of the day, and away we went. +The mountain was so steep that it was necessary every now and +then to check the momentum of a rapid descent by clinging to the +tough saplings. Sometimes one would give way and a considerable +spill would be the consequence. However, I soon got out on the +patina about one-third of the way down the mountain, and here I +met one of the natives, who was well posted. Not a sound of the +pack was now to be heard; but this man declared most positively +that the elk had suddenly changed his course, and, instead of +keeping down the hill, had struck off to his left along the side +of the mountain. Accordingly, off I started as hard as I could +go with several natives, who all agreed as to the direction. + +After running for about a mile along the patinas in the line +which I judged the pack had taken, I heard one hound at bay in a +narrow jungle high up on my left. It was only the halt of an +instant, for the next moment I heard the same hound's voice +evidently running on the other side of the strip of jungle, and +taking off down the mountain straight for the dreaded river. +Here was a day's work cut out as neatly as could be. + +Running toward the spot, I found the buck's track leading in that +direction, and I gave two or three view halloos at the top of my +voice to bring the rest of the pack down upon it. They were +close at hand, but the high wind had prevented me from hearing +them, and away they came from the jungle, rushing down upon the +scent like a flock of birds. I stepped of the track to let them +pass as they swept by, and "For-r-r-a-r-d to him! For-r--r-ard!" +was the word the moment they had passed, as I gave them a halloo +down the hill. It was a bad look-out for the elk now; every +hound knew that his master was close up, and they went like +demons. + +The "Tamby" * was the only man up, and he and I immediately +followed in chase down the precipitous patinas; running when we +could, scrambling, and sliding on our hams when it was too steep +to stand, and keeping good hold of the long tufts of grass, lest +we should gain too great an impetus and slide to the bottom. *An +exceedingly active Moorman, who was my great ally in hunting. + +After about half a mile passed in this manner, I heard the bay, +and I saw the buck far beneath, standing upon a level, grassy +platform, within three hundred yards of the river. The whole +pack was around him except the greyhounds, who were with me; but +not a hound had a chance with him, and he repeatedly charged in +among them, and regularly drove them before him, sending any +single hound spinning whenever he came within his range. But the +pack quickly reunited, and always returned with fresh vigor to +the attack. There was a narrow, wooded ravine between me and +them, and, with caution and speed combined, I made toward the +spot down the precipitous mountain, followed by the greyhounds " +Bran" and Lucifer." + +I soon arrived on a level with the bay, and, plunging into the +ravine, I swung myself down from tree to tree, and then climbed +up the opposite side. I broke cover within a few yards of him. +What a splendid fellow he looked! He was about thirteen hands +high, and carried the most beautiful head of horns that I had +ever seen upon an elk. His mane was bristled up, his nostril was +distended, and, turning from the pack, he surveyed me, as though +taking the measure of his new antagonist. Not seeming satisfied, +he deliberately turned, and, descending from the level space, he +carefully, picked his way. Down narrow elk-runs along the steep +precipices, and, at a slow walk, with the whole pack in single +file at his heels, he clambered down toward the river. I +followed on his track over places which I would not pass in cold +blood; and I shortly halted above a cataract of some eighty feet +in depth, about a hundred paces from the great waterfall of three +hundred feet. + +It was extremely grand; the roar of the falls so entirely hushed +all other sounds that the voices of the hounds were perfectly +inaudible, although within a few yards of me, as I looked down +upon them from a rock that overhung the river. + +The elk stood upon the brink of the swollen torrent; he could not +retreat, as the wall of rock was behind him, with the small +step-like path by which he had descended; this was now occupied +by the yelling pack. + +The hounds knew the danger of the place; but the buck, accustomed +to these haunts from his birth, suddenly leapt across the boiling +rapids, and springing from rock to rock along the verge of the +cataract, he gained the opposite side. Here he had mistaken his +landing-place, as a shelving rock, upon which he had alighted, +was so steep that he could not retain his footing, and he +gradually slid down toward the river. + +At this moment, to my horror, both "Bran" and Lucifer" dashed +across the torrent, and bounding from rock to rock, they sprung +at the already tottering elk, and in another moment both he and +they rolled over in a confused mass into the boiling torrent. +One more instant and they reappeared, the buck gallantly stemming +the current, which his great length of limb and weight enabled +him to do; the dogs, overwhelmed in the foam of the rapids, were +swept down toward the fall, in spite of their frantic exertions +to gain the bank. + +They were not fifteen feet from the edge of the fall, and I saw +them spun round and round in the whirlpools being hurried toward +certain destruction. The poor dogs seemed aware of the danger, +and made the most extraordinary efforts to avoid their fate. +They were my two favorites of the pack, and I screamed out words +of encouragement to them, although the voice of a cannon could +not have been heard among the roar of waters. They had nearly +gained the bank oil the very ver-e of the fall, when a few tufts +of lemon grass concealed them from my view. I thought they were +over, and I could not restrain a cry of despair at their horrible +fate. I felt sick with the idea. But the next moment I was +shouting hurrah! they are all right, thank goodness, they were +saved. I saw them struggling up the steep bank, through the same +lemon grass, which had for a moment obscured their fate. They +were thoroughly exhausted and half drowned. + +In the mean time, the elk had manfully breasted the rapids, +carefully choosing the shallow places; and the whole pack, being +mad with excitement, had plunged into the waters regardless of +the danger. I thought every hound would have been lost. For an +instant they looked like a flock of ducks, but a few moments +afterward they were scattered in the boiling eddies, hurrying +with fatal speed toward the dreadful cataract. Poor "Phrenzy!" +round she spun in the giddy vortex; nearer and nearer she +approached the verge - her struggles were unavailing - over she +went, and was of course never heard of afterward. + +This was a terrible style of hunting; rather too much so to be +pleasant. I clambered down to the edge of the river just in time +to see the elk climbing, as nimbly as a cat up the precipitous +bank on the opposite side, threading his way at a slow walk under +the overhanging rocks, and scrambling up the steep mountain with +a long string of hounds at his heels in single file. "Valiant," +"Tiptoe" and "Ploughboy" were close to him, and I counted the +other hounds in the line, fully expecting to miss half of them. +To my surprise and delight, only one was absent; this was poor +"Phrenzy." The others had all managed to save themselves. I now +crossed the river by leaping from rock to rock with some +difficulty, and with hands and knees I climbed the opposite bank. +This was about sixty feet high, from the top of which the +mountain commenced its ascent, which, though very precipitous was +so covered with long lemon grass that it was easy enough to +climb. I looked behind me, and there was the Tamby, all right, +within a few paces. + +The elk was no longer in sight, and the roar of the water was so +great that it was impossible to hear the hounds. However, I +determined to crawl along his track, which was plainly +discernible, the high grass being broken into a regular lane +which skirted the precipice of the great waterfall in the +direction of the villages. + +We were now about a hundred feet above, and on one side of the +great fall, looking into the deep chasm into which the river +leapt, forming a cloud of mist below. The lemon grass was so +high in tufts along the rocks that we could not see a foot before +us, and we knew not whether the next step would land us on firm +footing, or deposit us some hundred feet below. Clutching fast +to the long grass, therefore, we crept carefully on for about a +quarter of a mile, now climbing the face of the rocks, now +descending by means of their irregular surfaces, but still +stirring the dark gorge down which the river fell. + +At length, having left the fall some considerable distance +behind us, the ear was somewhat relieved from the bewildering +noise of water, and I distinctly heard the pack at bay not very +far in advance. In another moment I saw the elk standing on a +platform of rock about a hundred yards ahead, on a lower shelf of +the mountain, and the whole pack at bay. This platform was the +top of a cliff which overhung the deep gorge; the river flowing +in the bottom after its great fall, and both the elk and hounds +appeared to be in "a fix." The descent had been made to this +point by leaping down places which he could not possibly +reascend, and there was only one narrow outlet, which was covered +by the hounds. Should he charge through the hounds to force this +passage, half a dozen of them must be knocked over the +precipice. + +However, I carefully descended, and soon reached the platform. +This was not more than twenty feet square, and it looked down in +the gorge of about three hundred feet. The first seventy of this +depth were perpendicular, as the top of the rock overhung, after +which the side of the cliff was marked by great fissures and +natural steps formed by the detachment from time to time of +masses of rock which had fallen into the river below. Bushes and +rank grass filled the interstices of the rocks, and an old +deserted water-course lay exactly beneath the platform, being +cut and built out of the side of the cliff. + +It was a magnificent sight in such grand scenery to see the buck +at bay when we arrived upon the platform. He was a dare-devil +fellow, and feared neither hounds nor man, every now and then +charging through the pack, and coming almost within reach of the +Tamby's spear. It was a difficult thing to know how to kill him. +I was afraid to go in at him, lest in his struggles he should +drag the hounds over the precipice, and I would not cheer the +seizers on for the same reason. Indeed, they seemed well aware of +the danger, and every now and then retreated to me, as though to +entice the elk to make a move to some better ground. + +However, the buck very soon decided the question. I made up my +mind to halloo the hounds on, and to hamstring the elk, to +prevent him from nearing the precipice: and, giving a shout, the +pack rushed at him. Not a dog could touch him; he was too quick +with his horns and fore feet. He made a dash into the pack, and +then regained his position close to the verge of the precipice. +He then turned his back to the hounds, looked down over the edge, +and, to the astonishment of all, plunged into the abyss below! A +dull crash sounded from beneath, and then nothing was heard but +the roaring of the waters as before. The hounds looked over the +edge and yelled with a mixture of fear and despair. Their game +was gone! + +By making a circuit of about half a mile among these frightful +precipices and gorges, we at length arrived at the foot of the +cliff down which the buck had leapt. Here we of course found him +lying dead, as he had broken most of his bones. He was in very +fine condition; but it was impossible to move him from such a +spot. I therefore cut off his head, as his antlers were the +finest that I have ever killed before or since. + +To regain the tent, I had a pull for it, having to descend into +the village of Peréwellé, and then to reascend the opposite +mountain of three thousand feet; but even this I thought +preferable to returning in cold blood by the dangerous route I +had come. + +Tugging up such a mountain was no fun after a hard morning's +work, and I resolved to move the encampment to a large cave, some +eight hundred feet lower down the mountain. Accordingly, I +struck the tent, and after breakfast we took up our quarters in a +cavern worthy of Robin Hood. This had been formed by a couple of +large rocks the size of a moderate house, which had been detached +from the overhanging cliff above, and had fallen together. There +was a smaller cavern within, which made a capital kennel; rather +more substantial than the rickety building of yesterday + +Some of the village people, hearing that the buck was killed and +lying in the old water-course, went in a gang to cut him up. +What was their surprise on reaching the spot to find the carcase +removed! It had evidently been dragged along the water-course, as +the trail was distinct in the high grass, and upon following it +up, away went two fine leopards, bounding along the rocks to +their adjacent cave. They had consumed a large portion of the +flesh, but the villagers did not leave them much for another +meal. Skin, hoofs, and in fact every vestige of an elk, is +consumed by these people. + +For my own part, I do not think much of elk venison, unless it be +very fit, which is rarely the case. It is at all times more like +beef than any other meat, for which it is a very good substitute. +The marrow-bones are the "bonne bouche," being peculiarly rich +and delicate. Few animals can have a larger proportion of marrow +than the elk, as the bones are more hollow than those of most +quadrupeds. This cylindrical formation enables them to sustain +the severe shocks in descending rough mountains at full speed. +It is perfectly wonderful to see an animal of near six hundred +pounds' weight bounding down a hillside, over rocks and ruts and +every conceivable difficulty of ground, at a pace which will +completely distance the best hound; and even at this desperate +speed, the elk will never make a false step; sure-footed as a +goat, he will still fly on through bogs, ravines, tangled jungles +and rocky rivers, ever certain of his footing. + +The foregoing description of an elk-hunt will give the reader a +good idea of the power of this animal in stemming rapids and +climbing dangerous precipices; but even an elk is not proof +against the dangers of Fort M'Donald river, an example of which +we had on the following morning. + +The hounds found a doe who broke cover close to me in a small +patina and made straight running for the river. She had no +sooner reached it than I beard her cry out, and as she was +closely followed I thought she was seized. However, the whole +pack shortly returned, evidently thrown out, and I began to abuse +them pretty roundly, thinking that they had lost their game in +the river. So they had, but in an excusable manner; the poor doe +had been washed down a rapid, and had broken her thigh. We found +her dead under a hollow rock in the middle of the river. + +Here we had a fine exemplification of the danger of the +mysterious pools. + +While I was opening the elk, with the pack all round me licking +their lips in expectation, old "Madcap" was jostled by one of the +greyhounds, and slipped into a basin among the rocks, which +formed an edge of about two feet above the surface. + +The opposite side of the pool was hemmed in by rocks about six +feet high, and the direction of the under-current was at once +shown by poor old "Madcap" being swept up against this high wall +of rock, where she remained paddling with all her might in an +upright position. + +I saw the poor beast would be sucked under, and yet I could not +save her. However, I did my best at the risk of falling in +myself. + +I took off my handkerchief and made a slip-knot, and begging +Pelly to lie down on the top of the rock, I took his hand while I +clung to the face of the wall as I best could by a little ledge +of about two inches' width. + +With great difficulty I succeeded in hooking the bitch's head in +the slip-knot, but in my awkward position I could not use +sufficient strength to draw her out. I could only support her +head above the water, which I could distinctly feel was drawing +her from me. Presently she gave a convulsive struggle, which +freed her head from the loop, and in an instant she disappeared. + +I could not help going round the rock to see if her body should +be washed out when the torrent reappeared, when, to my +astonishment, up she popped all right, not being more than half +drowned by her subterranean excursion, and we soon helped her +safe ashore. Fortunately for her, the passage had been +sufficiently large to pass her, although I have no doubt a man +would have been held fast and drowned. + +There was so much water in the river that I determined to move +from this locality as too dangerous for hunting. I therefore +ordered the village people to assemble on the following morning +to carry the loads and tent. In the mean time I sent for the +dead elk. + +There could riot be a better place for a hunting-box than that +cave. We soon had a glorious fire roaring round the kennel-pot, +which, having been well scoured with sand and water, was to make +the soup. Such soup! - shades of gourmands, if ye only smelt +that cookery! The pot held six gallons, and the whole elk, except +a few steaks, was cut up and alternately boiled down in sections. +The flesh was then cut up small for the pack, the marrowbones +reserved for "master," and the soup was then boiled until it had +evaporated to the quantity required. A few green chilies, onions +in slices fried, and a little lime-juice, salt, black pepper and +mushroom ketchup, and - in fact, there is no rise thinking of it, +as the soup is not to be had again. The fire crackled and blazed +as the logs were heaped upon it as night grew near, and lit up +all the nooks and corners of the old cave. Three beds in a row +contained three sleepy mortals. The hounds snored and growled, +and then snored again. The servants jabbered, chewed betel, +spit, then jabbered a little more, and at last everything and +everybody was fast asleep within the cave. + +The next morning we had an early breakfast and started, the +village people marching off in good spirits with the loads. I was +now en route for Bertram's patinas, which lay exactly over the +mountain on the opposite side of the river. This being +perpendicular, I was obliged to make a great circuit by keeping +the old Newera Ellia path along the river for two or three miles, +and then, turning off at right angles, I knew an old native trace +over the ridge. Altogether, it was a round of about six miles, +although the patinas were not a mile from the cave in a straight +line. + +The path in fact terminates upon the high peak, exactly opposite +the cave, looking down upon my hunting-ground of the day before, +and on the other side the ridge lie Bertram's patinas. + +The extreme point of the ridge which I had now gained forms one +end of a horse -shoe or amphitheatre; the other extremity is +formed by a high mountain exactly opposite at about two miles' +distance. The bend of the horse-shoe forms a circuit of about +six miles, the rim of which is a wall of precipices and steep +patina mountains, which are about six or seven hundred feet above +the basin or the bottom of the amphitheatre. The tops of the +mountains are covered with good open forest, and ribbon-like +strips descend to the base. Now the base forms an uneven shelf +of great extent, about two thousand feet above the villages. This +shelf or valley appears to have suffered at some remote period +from a terrible inundation. Landslips of great size and +innumerable deep gorges and ravines furrow the bottom of the +basin, until at length a principal fissure carries away the +united streams to the paddy-fields below. + +The cause of this inundation is plain enough. The basin has been +the receptacle for the drainage of an extensive surface of +mountain. This drainage has been effected by innumerable small +torrents, which have united in one general channel through the +valley. The exit of this stream is through a narrow gorge, by +which it descends to the low country. During the period of heavy +rains a landslip has evidently choked up this passage, and the +exit of the water being thus obstructed, the whole area of the +valley has become a lake. The accumulated water has suddenly +burst through the obstruction and swept everything before it. +The elk are very fond of lying under the precipices in the strips +of jungle already mentioned. When found, they are accordingly +forced to take to the open country and come down to the basin +below, as they cannot possibly ascend the mountain except by one +or two remote deer-runs. Thus the whole hunt from the find to +the death is generally in view. + +>From every point of this beautiful locality there is a +boundless and unbroken panorama of the low country. + +Unfortunately, although the weather was perfectly fine, it was +the windy season, and a gale swept across the mountains that +rendered ears of little use, as a hound's voice was annihilated +in such a hurricane This was sadly against sport, as the main +body of the pack would have no chance of joining the finding +hound. + +However, the hounds were unkenneled at break of day, and, the +tent being pitched at the bottom of the basin, we commenced a +pull up the steep patinas, hoping to find somewhere on the edge +of the jungles. + +"There's scent to a certainty! - look at old Bluebeard's nose +upon the ground and the excited wagging of his stern. Ploughboy +notices it - now Gaylass they'll hit it off presently to a +certainty, though it's as cold as charity. That elk was feeding +here early in the night; the scent is four hours old if a minute. +There they go into the jungle, and we shall lose the elk, ten to +one, as not another hound in the pack will work it up. It can't +be helped; if any three hounds will rouse him out, those are the +three." + +For a couple of hours we had sat behind a rock, sheltered from +the wind, watching the immense prospect before us. The whole +pack were lying around us except the three missing hounds, of +whom we had seen nothing since they stole away upon the cold +scent. + +That elk must have gone up to the top of the mountains after +feeding, and a pretty run he must be having, very likely off to +Matturatta plains; if so, good-bye to all sport for to-day, and +the best hounds will be dead tired for to-morrow. + +I was just beginning to despair when I observed a fine large buck +at about half a mile distance, cantering easily toward us across +an extensive flat of table-land. This surface was a fine sward, +on the same level with the point upon which we sat, but separated +from us by two small wooded ravines, with a strip of patina +between them. I at once surmised that this was the hunted elk, +although, as yet, no hounds were visible. + +On arrival at the first ravine we immediately descended, and +shortly after he reappeared on the small patina between the two +ravines, within three hundred yards of us. Here the strong gale +gave him our scent. It was a beautiful sight to see him halt in +an instant, snuff the warning breeze and, drawing up to his full +height, and wind the enemy before him. + +Just at this moment I heard old "Bluebeard's" deep note swelling +in the distance, and I saw him leading across the table-land as +true as gold upon the track; "Ploughboy" and "Gaylass" were both +with him but they were running mute. + +The buck heard the hounds as well as we did, and I was afraid +that the whole pack would also catch the sound, and by hurrying +toward it, would head the elk him from his course. Up to the +present time and turn they had not observed him. + +Still the buck stood in an attitude of acute suspense. He winded +an enemy before him and he heard another behind, which was +rapidly closing up, and, as though doubting his own power of +scent, he gave preference to that of hearing, and gallantly +continued his course and entered the second ravine just beneath +our feet. + +I immediately jumped up, and, exciting the hounds in a subdued +voice, I waved my cap at the spot, and directed a native to run +at full speed to the jungle to endeavor to meet the elk, as I +knew the hounds would then follow him. This they did; and they +all entered the jungle with the man except the three greyhounds, +"Lucifer," "Bran" and "Hecate," who remained with me. + +A short time passed in breathless suspense, during which the +voices of the three following hounds rapidly approached as they +steadily persevered in the long chase; when suddenly, as I had +expected, the main body of the pack met the elk in the strip of +jungle. + +Joyful must have been the burst of music to the ears of old +"Bluebeard" after his long run. Out crashed the buck upon the +patinas near the spot where the pack had entered, and away he +went over the grassy hills at a pace which soon left the hounds +behind. The greyhounds will stretch his legs for him. Yo-i-ck +to him, Lucifer! For-r-r-ard to him, Hecate ! + +Off dashed the three greyhounds from my side at a railway pace, +but, as the buck was above them and had a start of about two +hundred yards, in such an uphill race both Bran and Lucifer +managed to lose sight of him in the undulations. + +Now was the time for Hecate's enormous power of loin and thigh to +tell, and, never losing a moment's view of her game, she sped up +the steep mountain side and was soon after seen within fifty +yards of the brick all alone, but going like a rocket. + +Now she has turned him ! that pace could not last up hill, and +round the elk doubled and came flying down the mountain side. + +>From the point of the hill upon which we stood we had a splendid +view of the course; the bitch gained upon him at every bound, and +there was a pitiless dash in her style of going that boded little +mercy to her game. What alarmed me, however, was the direction +that the buck was taking. An abrupt precipice of about two +hundred and fifty feet was lying exactly in his path; this sunk +sheer down to a lower series of grass-lands. + +At the tremendous pace at which they were going I feared lest +their own impetus should carry both elk and dog to destruction +before they could see the danger. + +Down they flew with unabated speed; they neared the precipice, +and a few more seconds would bring them to the verge. + +The stride of the buck was no match for the bound of the +greyhound: the bitch was at his flanks, and he pressed along at +flying speed. + +He was close to the danger and it was still unseen: a moment more +and "Hecate" sprang at his ear. Fortunately she lost her hold as +the ear split. This check saved her. I shouted, "He'll be +over!" and the next instant he was flying through the air to +headlong destruction. + +Bounding from a projecting rock upon which he struck, he flew +outward, and with frightfully increasing momentum he spun round +and round in his descent, until the centrifugal motion drew out +his legs and neck as straight as a line. A few seconds of this +multiplying velocity and - crash! + +It was all over. The bitch had pulled up on the very brink of +the precipice, but it was a narrow escape. + +Sportsmen are contradictory creatures. If that buck had come to +bay, I should have known no better sport than going in at him +with the knife to the assistance of the pack; but I now felt a +great amount of compassion for the poor brute who had met so +terrible a fate. It did not seem fair; and yet I would not have +missed such a sight for anything. Nothing can be conceived more +terribly grand than the rush of so large an animal through the +air; and it was a curious circumstance that within a few days no +less than two bucks had gone over precipices, although I had +never witnessed one such an accident more than once before. + +Upon reaching the fatal spot, I, of course, found him lying stone +dead. He had fallen at least two hundred and fifty feet to the +base of the precipice; and the ground being covered with detached +fragments of rock, he had broken most of his bones, beside +bursting his paunch and smashing in the face. However, we cut +him up and cleaned him, and, with the native followers heavily +laden, we reached the tent. + +The following morning I killed another fine buck after a good run +on the patinas, where he was coursed and pulled down by the +greyhounds; but the wind was so very high that it destroyed the +pleasure of hunting. I therefore determined on another move - to +the Matturatta Plains, within three miles of my present hunting +ground. + +After hunting four days at the Matturatta Plains, I moved on to +the Elephant Plains, and from thence returned home after twelve +days' absence, having killed twelve elk and two red deer. + +The animal known as the "red deer" in Ceylon is a very different +creature to his splendid namesake in Scotland; he is particularly +unlike a deer in the disproportionate size of his carcase to his +length of leg. He stands about twenty-six inches high at the +shoulder and weighs (live weight) from forty-five to fifty +pounds. He has two sharp tusks in the upper jaw, projecting +about an inch and a half from the gum. These are exactly like +the lower-jaw tusks of a boar, but they incline in the contrary +direction, viz., downward, and they are used as weapons of +defence. + +The horns of the red deer seldom exceed eight inches in length, +and have no more than two points upon each antler, formed by a +fork-like termination. This kind of deer has no brow antler. +They are very fast, and excel especially in going up hill, in +which ground they frequently escape from the best grey-hounds. + +There is no doubt that the red-deer venison is the best in +Ceylon, but the animal itself is not generally sought after for +sport. He gives a most uninteresting run; never going straight +away like a deer, but doubling about over fifty acres of ground +like a hare, until he is at last run into and killed. They exist +in extraordinary numbers throughout every portion of Ceylon, but +are never seen in herds. + +Next to the red deer is the still more tiny species, the "mouse +deer." This animal seldom exceeds twelve inches in height, and +has the same characteristic as the red deer in the heavy +proportion of body to its small length of limb. The skin is a +mottled ash-gray, covered with dark spots. The upper jaw is +furnished with sharp tusks similar to the red deer, but the head +is free from horns. + +The skull is perfectly unlike the head of a deer, and is closely +allied to the rat, which it would exactly resemble, were it not +for the difference in the teeth. The mouse deer lives +principally upon berries and fruits; but I have seldom found much +herbage upon examination of the paunch. Some people consider the +flesh very good, but my ideas perhaps give it a "ratty" flavor +that makes it unpalatable. + +These little deer make for some well-known retreat the moment +that they are disturbed by dogs, and they are usually found after +a short run safely ensconced in a hollow tree. + +It is a very singular thing that none of the deer tribe in Ceylon +have more than six points on their horns, viz., three upon each. +These are, the brow-antler point, and the two points which form +the extremity of each horn. I have seen them occasionally with +more, but these were deformities in the antlers. + +A stranger is always disappointed in a Ceylon elk's antlers; and +very naturally, for they are quite out of proportion to the great +size of the animal. A very large Scotch red deer in not more +than two-thirds the size of a moderately fine elk, and yet he +carries a head of horns that are infinitely larger. + +In fact, so rare are fine antlers in Ceylon that I could not pick +out more than a dozen of really handsome elk horns out of the +great numbers that I have killed. + +A handsome pair of antlers is a grand addition to the beauty of a +fine buck, and gives a majesty to his bearing which is greatly +missed when a fine animal breaks cover with only a puny pair of +horns. There is as great a difference in his appearance as there +would be in a life-guardsman in full uniform or in his shirt. + +The antlers of the axis, or spotted deer, are generally longer +than those of the elk; they are also more slender and graceful. +Altogether, the spotted deer is about the handsomest of that +beautiful tribe. A fine spotted stag is the perfection of +elegance, color, strength, courage and speed. He has a proud +and thorough-bred way of carrying his head, which is set upon his +neck with a peculiar grace. Nothing can surpass the beauty of +his full black eye. His hide is as sleek as satin - a rich +brown, slightly tinged with red, and spotted as though mottled +with flakes of snow. His weight is about two hundred and fifty +pounds (alive). + +It is a difficult thing to judge of a deer's weight with any +great accuracy; but I do not think I am far out in my estimation +of the average, as I once tried the experiment by weighing a dead +elk. I had always considered that a mountain elk, which is +smaller than those of the low country, weighed about four hundred +pounds when cleaned, or five hundred and fifty pounds live +weight. I happened one day to kill an average-sized buck, though +with very small horns, close to the road; so, having cleaned him, +I sent a cart for his carcase on my return home. This elk I +weighed whole, minus his inside, and he was four hundred and +eleven pounds. Many hours had elapsed since his death, so that +the carcase must have lost much weight by drying; this, with the +loss of blood and offal, must have been at least one hundred and +fifty pounds, which would have made his live weight five hundred +and sixty-one pounds. + +Of the five different species of deer in Ceylon, the spotted deer +is alone seen upon the plains. No climate can be too hot for his +exotic constitution, and he is never found at a higher elevation +than three thousand feet. In the low country, when the midday +sun has driven every other beast to the shelter of the densest +jungles, the sultan of the herd and his lovely mates are +sometimes contented with the shade of an isolated tree or the +simple border of the jungle, where they drowsily pass the day, +flipping their long ears in listless idleness until the hotter +hours have passed away. At about four in the afternoon they +stroll upon the open plains ,bucks, does and fawns, in beautiful +herds; when undisturbed, as many as a hundred together. This is +the only species of deer in Ceylon that is gregarious. + +Neither the spotted deer, nor the bear or buffalo, is to be found +at Newera Ellia. The axis and the buffalo being the usual +denizens of the hottest countries, are not to be expected to +exist in their natural state in so low a temperature; but it is +extraordinary that the bear, who in most countries inhibits the +mountains, should in Ceylon adhere exclusively to the low +country. + +The Ceylon bear is of that species which is to be seen in the +Zoological Gardens as the "sloth bear;" an ill-bred-looking +fellow with a long-haired black coat and a gray face. + +A Ceylon bear's skin is not worth preserving; there is no fur +upon it, but it simply consists of rather a stingy allowance of +black hairs. This is the natural effect of his perpetual +residence in a hot country, where his coat adapts itself to the +climate. He is desperately savage, and is more feared by the +natives than any other animal, as he is in the constant habit of +attacking people without the slightest provocation. His mode of +attack increases the danger, as there is a great want of fair +play in his method of fighting. Lying in wait, either behind a +rock or in a thick bush, he makes a sudden spring upon the unwary +wanderer, and in a moment he attacks his face with teeth and +claws. The latter are about two inches long, and the former are +much larger than a leopard's; hence it may easily be imagined how +even a few seconds of biting and clawing might alter the most +handsome expression of countenance. + +Bears have frequently been known to tear off a man's face like a +mask, leaving nothing but the face of a skull. + +Thus the quadrupeds of Newera Ellia and the adjacent highlands +are confined to the following classes: the elephant, the hog, the +leopard, the chetah, the elk, the red deer, the mouse deer, the +hare, the otter, the jackal, the civet cat, the mongoose and two +others (varieties of the species), the black squirrel, the gray +squirrel, the wanderoo monkey (the largest species in Ceylon), +the porcupine, and a great variety of the rat. + +Imagine the difficulty of breaking in a young hound for +elk-hunting when the jungles are swarming with such a list of +vermin! The better the pup the more he will persevere in hunting +everything that he can possibly find; and with such a variety of +animals, some of which have the most enticing scent, it is a +source of endless trouble in teaching a young hound what to limit +and what to avoid. + +It is curious to witness the sagacity of the old hounds in +joining or despising the opening note of a newcomer. + +The jungles are fearfully thick, and it requires great exertion +on the part of the dog to force his way through at a pace that +will enable him to join the finding hound; thus he fears +considerable disappointment if upon his arrival he finds the +scent of a monkey or a cat instead of his legitimate game. An +old hound soon marks the inexperienced voice of the babbler, and +after the cry of "wolf" has been again repeated, nothing will +induce him to join the false finder. + +Again, it is exceedingly interesting to observe the quickness of +all hounds in acknowledging their leader. Only let them catch the +sound of old "Bluebeard's" voice, and see the dash with which +they rush through the jungle to join him. They know the old +fellows note is true to an elk or hog, and, with implicit +confidence in his "find," they never hesitate to join. + +There are numerous obstacles to the breaking and training of dogs +of all kinds in such a country. A hound when once in the jungle +is his own master. He obeys the sound of the halloo or the born, +or not, as he thinks proper. It is impossible to correct him, as +he is out of sight. + +Now, the very fact of having one or two first-rate finders in a +pack, will very likely be the cause of spoiling the other hounds. +After repeated experience their instinct soon shows them that, no +matter how the whole pack may individually hunt, the "find" will +be achieved by one of the first-rate hounds, and gradually they +give up hunting and take to listening for the opening note of the +favorite. Of course in an open country they would be kept to +their work by the whip, but at Newera Ellia this is impossible. +This accounts for the extreme paucity of first-rate "finders." + +Hunting in a wild country is a far more difficult task for hounds +than the ordinary chase at home. Wherever a country is cultivated +it must be enclosed. Thus, should a flock of sheep have thrown +the hounds out by crossing the scent, a cast round the fences +must soon hit it off again if the fox has left the field. But in +elk-hunting it is scarcely possible to assist the hounds; a dozen +different animals, or even a disturbed elk, may cross the scent +in parts of the jungle where the cry of the hounds is even out of +hearing. Again, an elk has a constant habit of running or +swimming down a river, his instinct prompting him to drown his +own scent, and thus throw off his pursuers. Here is a trial for +the hounds! - the elk has waded or swum down the stream, and the +baffled pack arrive upon the bank; their cheering music has +ceased; the elk has kept the water for perhaps a quarter of a +mile, or he may have landed several times during that distance +and again have taken to water. + +Now the young hounds dash thoughtlessly across the river, +thinking of nothing but a straight course, and they are thrown +out on the barren bank on the other side. Back they come again, +wind about the last track for a few minutes, and then they are +forced to give it up - they are thrown out altogether. + +Mark the staunch old hounds! - one has crossed the river; there +is no scent, but he strikes down the bank with his nose close to +the ground, and away he goes along the edge of the river casting +for a scent. Now mark old "Bluebeard," swimming steadily down +the stream; he knows the habits of his game as well as I do, and +two to one that he will find, although "Ploughboy" has just +started along the near bank so that both sides of the river are +being hunted. + +Now this is what I call difficult hunting; bad enough if the +huntsman be up to assist his hounds, but nine times out of ten +this happens in the middle of a run, without a soul within a +mile. + +The only way to train hounds in this style of country is to +accustom them to complete obedience from puppyhood. This is +easily effected by taking them out for exercise upon a road +coupled to old hounds. A good walk every morning, accompanied by +the horn and the whip, and they soon fall into such a habit of +obedience that they may be taken out without the couples. + +The great desideratum, then, is to gain their affection and +confidence, otherwise they will obey upon the road and laugh at +you when in the jungle. Now "affection" is a difficult feeling +to instill into a foxhound, and can only be partially attained by +the exercise of cupboard love; thus a few pieces of dry liver or +bread, kept in the pocket to be given to a young hound who has +sharply answered to his call, will do more good than a month of +scolding and rating. + +" Confidence," or the want of it, in a hound depends entirely +upon the character of his master. There is an old adage of "like +master, like man;" and this is strongly displayed in the hound. +The very best seizer would be spoiled if his master were a leetle +slow in going in with the knife; and, on the other hand, dogs +naturally shy of danger turn into good seizers where their master +invariably leads them in. + +Not only is their confidence required and gained at these times, +but they learn to place implicit reliance upon their master's +knowledge of hunting, in the same manner that they acknowledge +the superiority of a particular hound. This induces them to obey +beyond any method of training, as they feel a certain dependence +upon the man, and they answer his halloo or the horn without a +moment's hesitation. + +Nothing is so likely to destroy the character of a pack as a +certain amount of laziness or incapacity upon the master's part +in following them up. This is natural enough, as the best +hounds, if repeatedly left unassisted for hours when at bay with +their game until they are regularly beaten off, will lose their +relish for the sport. On the other hand, perseverance on the +huntsman part will ensure a corresponding amount in the hounds; +they will become so accustomed to the certain appearance of their +master at the bay at some time or other that they will stick to +their game till night. I have frequently killed elk at two or +three o'clock in the afternoon that have been found at six in the +morning. Sometimes I have killed them even later than this when, +after wandering fruitlessly the whole day in every direction but +the right one, my ears have at length been gladdened by the +distant sound of the bay. The particular moment when hope and +certainty combined reward the day's toil is the very quintessence +of joy and delight. Nothing in the shape of enjoyment can come +near it. What a strange power has that helpless-looking mass - +the brain! One moment, and the limbs are fagged, the shins are +tender with breaking all day through the densest jungles, the +feet are worn with unrequited labor and - hark! The bay! no doubt +of it - the bay! There is the magic spell which, acting on the +brain, flies through every nerve. New legs, new feet, new +everything, in a moment! fresh as though just out of bed; here we +go tearing through the jungle like a buffalo, and as happy as +though we had just come in for a fortune - happier, a great +deal. + +Nevertheless, elk-hunting is not a general taste, as people have +not opportunities of enjoying it constantly. Accordingly, they +are out of condition, and soon be, come distressed and of +necessity "shut up" (a vulgar but expressive term). This must be +fine fun for a total stranger rather inclined to corpulency, who +has dauntlessly persevered in keeping up with the huntsman, +although at some personal inconvenience. There is a limit to all +endurance, and he is obliged to stop, quite blown, completely +done. He loses all sounds of hounds and huntsman, and everything +connected with the hunt. Where is he? How horrible the idea that +flashes across his mind! he has no idea where he is, except that +he is quite certain that he is in some jungle in Ceylon. + +Distraction! Ceylon is nearly all jungle, two hundred and eighty +miles long and he is in this - somewhere He tries to recollect by +what route he has come; impossible! He has been up one mountain, +and then he turned to the right, and got into a ravine; he +recollects the ravine, for he fell on his head with the end of a +dead stick in his stomach just as he got to the bottom; he +forgets every other part of his route, simply having an idea that +he went down a great many ravines and up a number of hills, and +turned to the right and left several times. He gives it up; he +finds himself "lost," and, if he is sensible, he will sit down +and wait till some one comes to look for him, when he will start +with joy at the glad sound of the horn. But should he attempt to +find his way alone through those pathless jungles, he will only +increase his distance from the right course. + +One great peculiarity in Newera Ellia is the comparative freedom +from poisonous vermin. There are three varieties of snakes, only +one of which is hurtful, and all are very minute. The venomous +species is the "carrawellé," whose bite is generally fatal; but +this snake is not often met with. There are no ticks, nor bugs, +nor leeches, nor scorpions, nor white ants, nor wasps, nor +mosquitoes; in fact, there is nothing venomous except the snake +alluded to, and a small species of centipede. Fleas there are +certainly - indeed, a fair sprinkling of fleas; but they are not +troublesome, except in houses which are unoccupied during a +portion of the year. This is a great peculiarity of a Ceylon +flea - he is a great colonist; and should a house be untenanted +for a few months, so sure will it swarm with these "settlers." +Even a grass hut built for a night's bivouac in the jungle, +without a flea in the neighborhood, will literally swarm with +them if deserted for a couple of months. Fleas have a great +fancy for settling upon anything white; thus a person with white +trowsers will be blackened with them, while a man in darker +colors will be comparatively free. I at first supposed that they +appeared in larger numbers on the white ground because they were +more easily distinguished; but I tried the experiment of putting +a sheet of writing-paper and a piece of brown talipot leaf in the +midst of fleas; the paper was covered with them, while only two +or three were on the talipot. + +The bite of the small species of centipede alluded to is not very +severe, being about equivalent to a wasp's sting. I have been +bitten myself, and I have seen another person suffering from the +bite, which was ludicrous enough. + +The sufferer was Corporal Phinn, of H.M. Fifteenth Regiment. At +that time he was one of Lieutenant de Montenach's servants, and +accompanied his master on a hunting-trip to the Horton Plains. + +Now Phinn was of course an Irishman; an excellent fellow, a dead +hand at tramping a bog and killing a snipe, but (without the +slightest intention of impugning his veracity) Phinn's ideality +was largely developed. He was never by himself for five minutes +in the jungle without having seen something wonderful before his +return; this he was sure to relate in a rich brogue with great +facetiousness. + +However, we had just finished dinner one night, and Phinn had +then taken his master's vacant place (there being only one room) +to commence his own meal, when up he jumped like a madman, +spluttering the food out of his mouth, and shouting and skipping +about the room with both hands clutched tightly to the hinder +part of his inexpressibles. "Oh, by Jasus! help, sir, help! I've +a reptile or some divil up my breeches! Oh! bad luck to him, he's +biting me! Oh! oh! it's sure a sarpint that's stinging me! quick, +sir, or he'll be the death o' me!" + +Phinn was frantic, and upon lowering his inexpressibles we found +the centipede about four inches long which had bitten him. A +little brandy rubbed on the part soon relieved the pain. + +CHAPTER VIII. Observations on Nature in the Tropics - The Dung +Beetle - The Mason-fly - Spiders - Luminous Insects - Efforts of +a Naturalist - Dogs Worried by Leeches - Tropical Diseases - +Malaria - Causes of Infection - Disappearance of the "Mina" - +Poisonous Water - Well-digging Elephants. + +How little can the inhabitant of a cold or temperate climate +appreciate the vast amount of "life" in a tropical country. The +combined action of light, heat and moisture calls into existence +myriads of creeping things, the offspring of the decay of +vegetation. "Life" appears to emanate from "death" - the +destruction of one material seems to multify the existence of +another - the whole surface of the earth seems busied in one vast +system of giving birth. + +An animal dies - a solitary beast - and before his unit life has +vanished for one week, bow many millions of living creatures owe +their birth to his death? What countless swarms of insects have +risen from that one carcase! - creatures which never could have +been brought into existence were it not for the presence of one +dead body which has received and hatched the deposited eggs of +millions that otherwise would have remained unvivified. + +Not a tree falls, not a withered flower droops to the ground, not +a fruit drops from the exhausted bough, but it is instantly +attacked by the class of insect prepared by Nature for its +destruction. The white ant scans a lofty tree whose iron-like +timber and giant stem would seem to mock at his puny efforts; but +it is rotten at the core and not a leaf adorns its branches, and +in less than a year it will have fallen to the earth a mere +shell; the whole of the wood will have been devoured. + +Rottenness of all kinds is soon carried from the face of the land +by the wise arrangements of Nature for preserving the world from +plagues and diseases, which the decaying and unconsumed bodies of +animals and vegetables would otherwise engender. + +How beautiful are all the laws of Nature! how perfect in their +details! Allow that the great duty of the insect tribe is to +cleanse the earth and atmosphere from countless impurities +noxious to the human race, how great a plague would our +benefactors themselves become were it not for the various classes +of carnivorous insects who prey upon them, and are in their turn +the prey of others! It is a grand principle of continual strife, +which keeps all and each down to their required level. + +What a feast for an observant mind is thus afforded in a tropical +country! The variety and the multitude of living things are so +great that a person of only ordinary observation cannot help +acquiring a tolerable knowledge of the habits of some of the most +interesting classes. In the common routine of daily life they +are continually in his view, and even should he have no taste for +the study of Nature and her productions, still one prevailing +characteristic of the insect tribe must impress itself upon his +mind. It is the natural instinct not simply of procreating their +species, but of laying by a provision for their expected +offspring. What a lesson to mankind! what an example to the +nurtured mind of mail from one of the lowest classes of living +things! + +Here we see no rash matrimonial engagements; no penniless lovers +selfishly and indissolubly linked together to propagate large +families Of starving children. Ail the arrangements of the +insect tribe, though prompted by sheer instinct are conducted +with a degree of rationality that in some cases raises the mere +instinct of the creeping thing above the assumed "reason" of man. + +The bird builds her nest and carefully provides for the comfort +of her young long ere she lays her fragile egg. Even look at +that vulgar-looking beetle, whose coarse form would banish the +idea of any rational feeling existing in its brain - the +Billingsgate fish-woman of its tribe in coarseness and rudeness +of exterior (Scarabaeus carnifex) - see with what quickness she +is running backward, raised almost upon her head, while with her +bind legs she trundles a large ball; herself no bigger than a +nutmeg, the ball is four times the size. There she goes along the +smooth road. The ball she has just manufactured from some +fresh-dropped horse-dung; it is as round as though turned by a +lathe, and, although the dung has not lain an hour upon the +ground, she and her confederates have portioned out the spoil, +and each has started off with her separate ball. Not a particle +of horsedung remains upon the road. Now she has rolled the ball +away from the hard road, and upon the soft, sandy border she has +stopped to rest. No great amount of rest; she plunges her head +into the ground, and with that shovel-like projection of stout +horn she mines her way below: she has disappeared even in these +few seconds. + +Presently the apparently deserted ball begins to move, as though +acted on by some subterranean force; gradually it sinks to the +earth, and it vanishes altogether. + +Some persons might imagine that she feeds upon the ordure, and +that she has buried her store as a dog hides a bone; but this is +not the case; she has formed a receptacle for her eggs, which she +deposits in the ball of dung, the warmth of which assists in +bringing the larvae into life, which then feed upon the manure. + +It is wonderful to observe with what rapidity all kinds of dung +are removed by these beetles. This is effected by the active +process of rolling the loads instead of carrying, by which method +a large mass is transported at once. + +The mason-fly is also a ball-maker, but she carries her load and +builds an elaborate nest. This insect belongs to the order +"Hymenoptera," and is of the Ichneumon tribe, being a variety of +upward of four hundred species of that interesting fly. + +The whole tribe of Ichneumon are celebrated for their courage; a +small fly will not hesitate to attack the largest cockroach, who +evinces the greatest terror at sight of his well-known enemy; but +the greatest proof of valor in a fly is displayed in the war of +the ichneumon against the spider. + +There is a great variety of this insect in Ceylon, from the large +black species, the size of the hornet down to the minute +tinsel-green fly, no bigger than a gnat; but every one of these +different species wages perpetual war against the arch enemy of +flies. + +In very dry weather in some districts, when most pools and +water-holes are dried up, a pail of water thrown upon the ground +will as assuredly attract a host of mason-flies as carrion will +bring together "blow-flies." They will be then seen in excessive +activity upon the wet earth, forming balls of mud, by rolling the +earth between their fore feet until they have manufactured each a +pill. With this they fly away to build their nest, and +immediately return for a further supply. + +The arrangement of the nest is a matter of much consideration, as +the shape depends entirely upon the locality in which it is +built: it may be in the corner of a room, or in a hole in a wall, +or in the hollow of a bamboo; but wherever it is, the principle +is the same, although the shape of the nest may vary. Everything +is to be hermetically sealed. + +The mason-fly commences by flattening the first pill of clay upon +the intended site (say the corner of a room); she then spreads it +in a thin layer over a surface of about two inches, and retires +for another ball of clay. This she dabs upon the plastic +foundation, and continues the apparently rude operation until +some twenty or thirty pills of clay are adhering at equal +distances. She then forms these into a number of neat +oval-shaped cells, about the size of a wren's egg, and in each +cell she deposits one egg. She then flies off in search of +spiders, which are to be laid tip in stores within the cells as +food for the young larvae, when hatched. + +Now the transition from the larva to the fly takes place in the +cell, and occupies about six weeks from the time the egg is first +laid; thus, as the egg itself is not vivified for some weeks +after it is deposited, the spiders have to be preserved in a +sound and fresh state during that interval until the larva is in +such an advanced stage as to require food. + +In a tropical country every one knows that a very few hours +occasion the putrefaction of all dead animal substances; +nevertheless these spiders are to be kept fresh and good, like +our tins of preserved meats, to be eaten when required. + +One, two, or even three spiders, according to their size, the +mason-fly deposits in each cell, and then closes it hermetically +with clay. The spiders she has pounced upon while sunning +themselves in the centre of their delicate nets, and they are +hurried off in a panic to be converted into preserved provisions. +Each cell being closed, the whole nest is cemented over with a +thick covering of clay. In due time the young family hatch, eat +their allowance of spiders, undergo their torpid change, and +emerge from their clay mansion complete mason-flies. + +Every variety of Ichneumon, however (in Ceylon), chooses the +spider as the food for its young. It is not at all uncommon to +find a gun well loaded with spiders, clay and grubs, some +mason-fly having chosen the barrel for his location. A bunch of +keys will invite a settlement of one of the smaller species, who +make its nest in the tube of a key, which it also fills with +minute spiders. + +In attacking the spider, the mason-fly his a choice of his +antagonist, and he takes good care to have a preponderance of +weight on his own side. His reason for choosing this in +preference to other insects for a preserved store may be that the +spider is naturally juicy, plump and compact, combining +advantages both for keeping and packing closely. + +There are great varieties of spiders in Ceylon, one of which is +of such enormous size as to resemble the Aranea avicularia of +America. This species stands on an area of about three inches, +and never spins a web, but wanders about and lives in holes; his +length of limb, breadth of thorax and powerful jaws give him a +most formidable appearance. There is another species of a +large-sized spider who spins a web of about two and a half feet +in diameter. This is composed of a strong, yellow, silky fibre, +and so powerful is the texture that a moderate-sized walking-cane +thrown into the web will be retained by it. This spider is about +two inches long, the color black, with a large yellow spot upon +the back, and the body nearly free from hair. + +Some years ago an experiment was made in France of substituting +the thread of the spider for the silk of the silkworm: several +pairs of stockings and various articles were manufactured with +tolerable success in this new material, but the fibre was +generally considered as too fragile. + +A sample of such thread as is spun by the spider described could +not have failed to produce the desired result, as its strength is +so great that it can be wound upon a card without the slightest +care required in the operation. The texture is far more silky +than the fibre commonly produced by spiders, which has more +generally the character of cotton than of silk. + +Should this ever be experimented on, a question might arise of +much interest to entomologists, whether a difference in the food +of the spider would affect the quality of the thread, as is well +known to be the case with the common silkworm. + +A Ceylon night after a heavy shower of rain is a brilliant sight, +when the whole atmosphere is teeming with moving lights bright as +the stars themselves, waving around the tree-tops in fiery +circles, now threading like distant lamps through the intricate +branches and lighting up the dark recesses of the foliage, then +rushing like a shower of sparks around the glittering boughs. +Myriads of bright fire-flies in these wild dances meet their +destiny, being entangled in opposing spiders' webs, where they +hang like fairy lamps, their own light directing the path of the +destroyer and assisting in their destruction. + +There are many varieties of luminous insects in Ceylon. That +which affords the greatest volume of light is a large white grub +about two inches in length, This is a fat, sluggish animal, whose +light is far more brilliant than could be supposed to emanate +from such a form. + +The light of a common fire-fly will enable a person to +distinguish the hour on a dial in a dark night, but the glow from +the grub described will render the smallest print so legible that +a page may be read with case. I once tried the experiment of +killing the grub, but the light was not extinguished with life, +and by opening the tail, I squeezed out a quantity of glutinous +fluid, which was so highly phosphorescent that it brilliantly +illumined the page of a book which I had been reading by its +light for a trial. + +All phosphorescent substances require friction to produce their +full volume of light; this is exemplified at sea during a calm +tropical night, when the ocean sleeps in utter darkness and +quietude and not a ripple disturbs the broad surface of the +water. Then the prow of the advancing steamer cuts through the +dreary waste of darkness and awakens into fiery life the spray +which dashes from her sides. A broad stream of light illumines +the sea in her wake, and she appears to plough up fire in her +rush through the darkened water. + +The simple friction of the moving mass agitates the millions of +luminous animalcules contained in the water; in the same manner a +fish darting through the sea is distinctly seen by the fiery +course which is created by his own velocity. + +All luminous insects are provided with a certain amount of +phosphorescent fluid, which can be set in action at pleasure by +the agitation of a number of nerves and muscles situated in the +region of the fluid and especially adapted to that purpose. It +is a common belief that the light of the glow-worm is used as a +lamp of love to assist in nocturnal meetings, but there can be +little doubt that the insect makes use of its natural brilliancy +without any specific intention. It is as natural for the +fire-fly to glitter by night as for the colored butterfly to be +gaudy by day. + +The variety of beautiful and interesting insects is so great in +Ceylon that an entomologist would consider it a temporary +elysium; neither would he have much trouble in collecting a host +of different species who will exhibit themselves without the +necessity of a laborious search. Thus, while he may be engaged +in pinning out some rare specimen, a thousand minute eye-flies +will be dancing so close to his eyeballs that seeing is out of +the question. These little creatures, which are no larger than +pin's heads, are among the greatest plagues in some parts of the +jungle; and what increases the annoyance is the knowledge of the +fact that they dance almost into your eyes out of sheer vanity. +They are simply admiring their own reflection in the mirror of +the eye; or, may be, some mistake their own reflected forms for +other flies performing the part of a "vis-à-vis" in their +unwearying quadrille. + +A cigar is a specific against these small plagues, and we will +allow that the patient entomologist has just succeeded in putting +them to flight and has resumed the occupation of setting out his +specimen. Ha! see him spring out of his chair as though +electrified. Watch how, regardless of the laws of buttons, he +frantically tears his trowsers from his limbs; he has him! no he +hasn't! - yes he has! - no - no, positively he cannot get him +off. It is a tick no bigger than a grain of sand, but his bite +is like a red-hot needle boring into the skin. If all the royal +family had been present, he could not have refrained from tearing +off his trowsers. + +The naturalist has been out the whole morning collecting, and a +pretty collection he has got - a perfect fortune upon his legs +alone. There are about a hundred ticks who have not yet +commenced to feed upon him; there are also several fine specimens +of the large flat buffalo tick; three or four leeches are +enjoying themselves on the juices of the naturalist; these he had +not felt, although they had bitten him half an hour before; a +fine black ant has also escaped during the recent confusion, +fortunately without using his sting. + +Oil is the only means of loosening the hold of a tick; this +suffocates him and he dies; but he leaves an amount of +inflammation in the wound which is perfectly surprising in so +minute an insect. The bite of the smallest species is far more +severe than that of the large buffalo or the deer tick, both of +which are varieties. + +Although the leeches in Ceylon are excessively annoying, and +numerous among the dead leaves of the jungle and the high grass, +they are easily guarded against by means of leech-gaiters: these +are wide stockings, made of drill or some other light and close +material, which are drawn over the foot and trowsers up to the +knee, under which they are securely tied. There are three +varieties of the leech : the small jungle leech, the common leech +and the stone leech. The latter will frequently creep up the +nostrils of a dog while he is drinking in a stream, and, unlike +the other species, it does not drop off when satiated, but +continues to live in the dog's nostril. I have known a leech of +this kind to have lived more than two months in the nose of one +of my hounds; he was so high up that I could only see his tail +occasionally when lie relaxed to his full length, and injections +of salt and water had no effect on him. Thus I could not relieve +the dog till one day when the leech descended, and I observed the +tail working in and out of the nostril; I then extracted him in +the usual way with the finger and thumb and the tail of the coat. + +I should be trespassing too much upon the province of the +naturalist, and attempting more than I could accomplish, were I +to enter into the details of the entomology of Ceylon; I have +simply mentioned a few of those insects most common to the +every-day observer, and I leave the description of the endless +varieties of classes to those who make entomology a study. + +It may no doubt appear very enticing to the lovers of such +things, to hear of the gorgeous colors and prodigious size of +butterflies, moths and beetles; the varieties of reptiles, the +flying foxes, the gigantic crocodiles; the countless species of +waterfowl, et hoc genus omne; but one very serious fact is apt to +escape the observation of the general reader, that wherever +insect and reptile life is most abundant, so sure is that +locality full of malaria and disease. + +Ceylon does not descend to second-class diseases: there is no +such thing as influenza; whooping-cough, measles, scarlatina, +etc., are rarely, if ever, heard of; we ring the changes upon +four first-class ailments - four scourges, which alternately +ascend to the throne of pestilence and annually reduce the circle +of our friends - cholera, dysentery, small-pox and fever. This +year (1854) there has been some dispute as to the routine of +succession; they have accordingly all raged at one time. + +The cause of infection in disease has long been a subject of +controversy among medical men, but there can be little doubt +that, whatever is the origin of the disease, the same is the +element of infection. The question is, therefore, reduced to the +prime cause of the disease itself. + +A theory that animalcules are the cause of the various contagious +and infectious disorders has created much discussion; and +although this opinion is not generally entertained by the +faculty, the idea is so feasible, and so many rational arguments +can be brought forward in its support, that I cannot help +touching upon a topic so generally interesting. + +In the first place, nearly all infectious diseases predominate in +localities which are hot, damp, swampy, abounding in stagnant +pools and excluded from a free circulation of air. In a tropical +country, a residence in such a situation would be certain death +to a human being, but the same locality will be found to swarm +with insects and reptiles of all classes. + +Thus, what is inimical to human life is propitious to the insect +tribe. This is the first step in favor of the argument. +Therefore, whatever shall tend to increase the insect life must +in an inverse ratio war with human existence. + +When we examine a drop of impure water, and discover by the +microscope the thousands of living beings which not only are +invisible to the naked eye, but some of whom are barely +discoverable even by the strongest magnifying power, it certainly +leads to the inference, that if one drop of impure fluid contains +countless atoms endowed with vitality, the same amount of impure +air may be equally tenanted with its myriads of invisible +inhabitants. + +It is well known that different mixtures, which are at first pure +and apparently free from all insect life, will, in the course of +their fermentation and subsequent impurity, generate peculiar +species of animalcules. Thus all water and vegetable or animal +matter, in a state of stagnation and decay, gives birth to insect +life; likewise all substances of every denomination which are +subjected to putrid fermentation. Unclean sewers, filthy hovels, +unswept streets, unwashed clothes, are therefore breeders of +animalcules, many of which are perfectly visible without +microscopic aid. + +Now, if some are discernible by the naked eye, and others are +detected in such varying sizes that some can only just be +distinguished by the most powerful lens, is it not rational to +conclude that the smallest discernible to human intelligence is +but the medium of a countless race? that millions of others still +exist, which are too minute for any observation? + +Observe the particular quarters of a city which suffers most +severely during the prevalence of an epidemic, In all dirty, +narrow streets, where the inhabitants are naturally of a low and +uncleanly class, the cases will be tenfold. Thus, filth is +admitted to have at least the power of attracting disease, and we +know that it not only attracts, but generates animalcules; +therefore filth, insects and disease are ever to he seen closely +linked together. + +Now, the common preventives against infection are such as are +peculiarly inimical to every kind of insect; camphor, chloride of +lime, tobacco-smoke, and powerful scents and smokes of any kind. +The first impulse on the appearance of an infectious disease is +to purify everything as much as possible, and by extra +cleanliness and fumigations to endeavor to arrest its progress. +The great purifier of Nature is a violent wind, which usually +terminates an epidemic immediately; this would naturally carry +before it all insect life with which the atmosphere might be +impregnated, and the disease disappears at the same moment. It +will he well remembered that the plague of locusts inflicted upon +Pharaoh was relieved in the same manner: "And the Lord turned a +mighty strong west wind, which took away the locusts and cast +them into the Red Sea; there remained not one locust in all the +coasts of Egypt." + +Every person is aware that unwholesome air is quite poisonous to +the human system as impure water; and seeing that the noxious +qualities of the latter are caused by animalcules, and that the +method used for purifying infected air are those most generally +destructive to insect life, it is not irrational to conclude that +the poisonous qualities of bad water and bad air arise from the +same cause. + +Man is being constantly preyed upon by insects; and were it not +for ordinary cleanliness, he would become a mass of vermin; even +this does not protect him from the rapacity of ticks, mosquitoes, +fleas and many others. Intestinal worms feed on him within, and, +unseen, use their slow efforts for his destruction. + +The knowledge of so many classes which actually prey upon the +human system naturally leads to the belief that many others +endowed with the same propensities exist, of which we have at +present no conception. Thus, different infectious disorders +might proceed from peculiar species of animalcules, which, at +given periods, are wafted into certain countries, carrying +pestilence and death in their invisible course. + +A curious phenomenon has recently occurred at Mauritus, where +that terrible scourge, the cholera, has been raging with +desolating effect. + +There is a bird in that island called the "martin," but it is +more property the "mina." This bird is about the size of the +starling, whose habits its possesses in a great degree. It +exists in immense numbers, and is a grand destroyer of all +insects. On this account it is seldom or never shot at, +especially as it is a great comforter to all cattle, whose hides +it entirely cleans from ticks and other vermin, remaining for +many hours perched upon the back of one animal, while its bill is +actively employed in searching out and destroying every insect. + +During the prevalence of the cholera at Mauritius these birds +disappeared. Such a circumstance had never before occurred, and +the real cause of their departure is still a mystery. + +May it not have been, that some species of insect upon which they +fed had likewise migrated, and that certain noxious animalcules, +which had been kept down by this class, had thus multiplied +within the atmosphere until their numbers caused disease? All +suppositions on such a subject must, however, remain in +obscurity, as no proof can be adduced of their correctness. The +time may arrive when science may successfully grapple with all +human ailments, but hitherto that king of pestilence, the +"cholera," has reduced the highest medical skill to miserable +uncertainty. + +Upon reconsidering the dangers of fevers, dysentery, etc., in the +swampy and confined districts described, the naturalist may +become somewhat less ardent in following his favorite pursuit. +Of one fact I can assure him that no matter how great the natural +strength of his constitution, the repeated exposure to the +intense heat of the sun, the unhealthy districts that he will +visit, the nights redolent of malaria, and the horrible water +that he must occasionally drink, will gradually undermine the +power of the strongest man. Both sportsman and naturalist in +this must share alike. + +No one who has not actually suffered from the effect can +appreciate the misery of bad water in a tropical country, or the +blessings of a cool, pure draught. I have been in districts of +Ceylon where for sixteen or twenty miles not a drop of water is +to be obtained fit for an animal to drink; not a tree to throw a +few yards of shade upon the parching ground; nothing but stunted, +thorny jungles and sandy, barren plains as far as the eye can +reach; the yellow leaves crisp upon the withered branches, the +wild fruits hardened for want of sap, all moisture robbed from +vegetation by the pitiless drought of several months. + +A day's work in such a country is hard indeed carrying a heavy +rifle for some five-and-twenty miles, sometimes in deep sand, +sometimes on good ground, but always exposed to the intensity of +that blaze, added to the reflection from the sandy soil, and the +total want of fresh air and water. All Nature seems stagnated; a +distant pool is seen, and a general rush takes place toward the +cheering sight. The water is thicker than pea soup, a green scum +floats through the thickened mass, and the temperature is upward +of 130 Fahrenheit. All kinds of insects are swarming in the +putrid fluid, and a saltish bitter adds to its nauseating flavor. +I have seen the exhausted coolies spread their dirty cloths on +the surface, and form them into filters by sucking the water +through them. Oh for a glass of Newera Ellia water, the purest +and best that ever flows, as it sparkles out of the rocks on the +mountain-tops! what pleasure so perfect as a long, deep and +undisturbed draught of such cold, clear nectar when the throat is +parched with unquenchable thirst! + +In some parts of Ceylon, especially in the neighborhood of the +coast, where the land is flat and sandy, the water is always +brackish, even during the rainy season, and in the dry months it +is undrinkable. + +The natives then make use of a berry for cleansing it and +precipitating the impurities. II know the shrub and the berry +well, but it has no English denomination. The berries are about +the size of a very large pea, and grow in clusters of from ten to +fifteen together, and one berry is said to be sufficient to +cleanse a gallon of water. The method of using them is curious, +although simple. The vessel which is intended to contain the +water, which is generally an earthen chatty, is well rubbed in +the inside with a berry until the latter, which is of a horny +consistency, like vegetable ivory, is completely worn away. The +chatty is then filled with the muddy water, and allowed to stand +for about an hour or more, until all the impurities have +precipitated to the bottom and the water remains clear. + +I have constantly used this berry, but I certainly cannot say +that the water has ever been rendered perfectly clear; it has +been vastly improved, and what was totally undrinkable before has +been rendered fit for use; but it has at the best been only +comparatively good; and although the berry has produced a decided +effect, the native accounts of its properties are greatly +exaggerated. + +During the prolonged droughts, many rivers of considerable +magnitude are completely exhausted, and nothing remains but a dry +bed of said between lofty banks. At these seasons the elephants, +being hard pressed for water, make use of their wonderful +instinct by digging holes in the dry sand of the river's bed; +this they perform with the horny toes of their fore feet, and +frequently work to a depth of three feet before they discover the +liquid treasure beneath. This process of well-digging almost +oversteps the boundaries of instinct and strongly, savors of +reason, the two powers being so nearly connected that it is +difficult in some cases to define the distinction. There are so +many interesting cases of the wonderful display of both these +attributes in animals, that I shall notice some features of this +subject in a separate chapter. + +CHAPTER IX. Instinct and Reason - Tailor Birds and Grosbeaks - +The White Ant - Black Ants at War - Wanderoo Monkeys - Habits of +Elephants - Elephants in the Lake - Herd of Elephants Bathing - +Elephant-shooting - The Rencontre - The Charge - Caught by the +Tail - Horse Gored by a Buffalo - Sagacity of Dogs - " Bluebeard +" - His Hunt - A True Hound. + +There can be no doubt that man is not the only animal endowed +with reasoning powers: he possesses that faculty to an immense +extent, but although the amount of the same power possessed by +animals may be infinitely small, nevertheless it is their share +of reason, which they occasionally use apart from mere instinct. + +Although instinct and reason appear to be closely allied, they +are easily separated and defined. + +Instinct is the faculty with which Nature has endowed all animals +for the preservation and continuation of their own species. This +is accordingly exhibited in various features, as circumstances +may call forth the operation of the power; but so wonderful are +the attributes of Nature that the details of her arrangements +throughout the animal and insect creation give to every class an +amount of sense which in many instances surmounts the narrow +bounds of simple instinct. + +The great characteristic of sheer instinct is its want of +progression; it never increases, never improves. It is possessed +now in the nineteenth century by every race of living creatures +in no larger proportion than was bestowed upon them at the +creation. + +In general, knowledge increases like a rolling snowball; a +certain amount forms a base for extra improvement, and upon +successive foundations of increasing altitude the eminence has +been attained of the present era. This is the effect of +"reason;" but "instinct," although beautiful in its original +construction, remains, like the blossom of a tree, ever the same +- a limited effect produced by a given cause; an unchangeable law +of Nature that certain living beings shall perform certain +functions which require a certain amount of intelligence; this +amount is supplied by Nature for the performance of the duties +required; this is instinct. + +Thus, according to the requirements necessitated by the habits of +certain living creatures to an equivalent amount is their share +of instinct. Reason differs from instinct as combining the +effects of thought and reflection; this being a proof of +consideration, while instinct is simply a direct emanation from +the brain, confined to an impulse. + +In our observations of Nature, especially in tropical countries, +we see numberless exemplifications of these powers, in some of +which the efforts of common instinct halt upon the extreme +boundary and have almost a tinge of reason. + +What can be more curious than the nest of the tailor-bird - a +selection of tough leaves neatly sewn one over the other to form +a waterproof exterior to the comfortable little dwelling within? +Where does the needle and thread come from? The first is the +delicate bill of the bird itself, and the latter is the strong +fibre of the bark of a tree, with which the bird sews every leaf, +lapping one over the other in the same manner that slates are +laid upon a roof. + +Nevertheless this is simple instinct; the tailor-bird in the days +of Adam constructed her nest in a similar manner, which will be +continued without improvement till the end of time. + +The grosbeak almost rivals the tailor-bird in the beautiful +formation of its nest. These birds build in company, twenty or +thirty nests being common upon one tree. Their apparent +intention in the peculiar construction of their nests is to avoid +the attacks of snakes and lizards. These nests are about two +feet long, composed of beautifully woven grass, shaped like an +elongated pear. They are attached like fruit to the extreme end +of a stalk or branch, from which they wave to and fro in the +wind, as though hung out to dry. The bird enters at a +funnel-like aperture in the bottom, and by this arrangement the +young are effectually protected from reptiles. + +All nests, whether of birds or insects, are particularly +interesting, as they explain the domestic habits of the +occupants; but, however wonderful the arrangement and the beauty +of the work as exhibited among birds, bees, wasps, etc., still it +is the simple effect of instinct on the principle that they never +vary. + +The white ant - that grand destroyer of all timber - always works +under cover; he builds as he progresses in his work of +destruction, and runs a long gallery of fine clay in the +direction of his operations; beneath this his devastation +proceeds until he has penetrated to the interior of the beam, the +centre of which he entirely demolishes, leaving a thin shell in +the form of the original log encrusted over the exterior with +numerous galleries. + +There is less interest in the habits of these destructive +wretches than in all other of the ant tribe; they build +stupendous nests, it is true, but their interior economy is less +active and thrifty than that of many other species of ants, among +which there is a greater appearance of the display of reasoning +powers than in most animals of a superior class. + +On a fine sunny morning it is not uncommon, to see ants busily +engaged in bringing out all the eggs from the nest and laying +them in the sun until they become thoroughly warmed, after which +they carry them all back again and lay them in their respective +places. This looks very like a power of reasoning, as it is +decidedly beyond instinct. If they were to carry out the eggs +every morning, wet or dry, it would be an effort of instinct to +the detriment of the eggs; but as the weather is uncertain, it +is an effort of reason on the part of the ants to bring out the +eggs to the sun, especially as it is not an every-day occurrence, +even in fine weather. + +In Mauritius, the negroes have a custom of turning the reasoning +powers of the large black ant to advantage. + +White ants are frequently seen passing in and out of a small hole +from underneath a building, in which case their ravages could +only be prevented by taking up the flooring and destroying the +nest. + +The negroes avoid this by their knowledge of the habits of the +black ant, who is a sworn enemy to the white. + +They accordingly pour a little treacle on the ground within a +yard of the hole occupied by the white ants. The smell of the +treacle shortly attracts some of the black species, who, on their +arrival are not long in observing their old enemies passing in +and out of the hole. Some of them leave the treacle; these are +evidently messengers, as in the course of the day a whole army of +black ants will be seen advancing, in a narrow line of many yards +in length, to storm the stronghold of the white ants. They enter +the hole, and they destroy every white ant in the building. +Resistance there can be none, as the plethoric, slow-going white +ant is as a mouse to a cat in the encounter with his active +enemy, added to which the black ant is furnished with a most +venomous sting, in addition to a powerful pair of mandibles. I +have seen the black ants returning from their work of +destruction, each carrying a slaughtered white ant in his mouth, +which he devours at leisure. This is again a decided effort of +reason, as the black ant arrives at the treacle without a thought +of the white ant in his mind, but, upon seeing his antagonist, he +despatches messengers for reinforcements, who eventually bring up +the army to the "rendezvous." + +Numerous instances might be cited of the presence of reasoning +powers among the insect classes, but this faculty becomes of +increased interest when seen in the larger animals. + +Education is both a proof and a promoter of reason in all +animals. This removes them from their natural or instinctive +position, and brings forth the full development of the mental +powers. This is exhibited in the performance of well-trained +dogs, especially among pointers and setters. Again, in the feats +performed by educated animals in the circus, where the elephant +has lately endeavored to prove a want of common sense by standing +on his head. Nevertheless, however absurd the trick, which man +may teach the animal to perform, the very fact of their +performance substantiates an amount of reason in the animal. + +Monkeys, elephants and dogs are naturally endowed with a larger +share of the reasoning power than other animals, which is +frequently increased to a wonderful extent by education. The +former, even in their wild state, are so little inferior to some +natives, either in their habits or appearance, that I should feel +some reluctance in denying them an almost equal share of reason; +the want Of speech certainly places them below the Veddahs, but +the monkeys, on the other hand, might assert a superiority by a +show of tails. + +Monkeys vary in intelligence according to their species, and may +be taught to do almost anything. There are several varieties in +Ceylon, among which the great black wanderoo, with white +whiskers, is the nearest in appearance to the human race. This +monkey stands upward of three feet high, and weighs about eighty +pounds. He has immense muscular power, and he has also a great +peculiarity in the formation of the skull, which is closely +allied to that of a human being, the lower jaw and the upper +being in a straight line with the forehead. In monkeys the jaws +usually project. This species exists in most parts of Ceylon, +but I have seen it of a larger size at Newera Ellia thin in any +of the low-country districts. + +Elephants are proverbially sagacious, both in their wild state +and when domesticated. I have previously described the building +of a dam by a tame elephant, which was an exhibition of reason +hardly to be expected in any animal. They are likewise +wonderfully sagacious in a wild state in preserving themselves +from accidents, to which, from their bulk and immense weight, +they would be particularly liable, such as the crumbling of the +verge of a precipice, the insecurity of a bridge or the +suffocating depth of mud in a lake. + +It is the popular opinion, and I have seen it expressed in many +works, that the elephant shuns rough and rocky ground, over which +he moves with difficulty, and that he delights in level plains, +etc., etc. This may be the case in Africa, where his favorite +food, the mimosa, grows upon the plain, but in Ceylon it is +directly the contrary. In this country the elephant delights in +the most rugged localities; he rambles about rocky hills and +mountains with a nimbleness that no one can understand without +personal experience. So partial are elephants to rocky and +uneven ground that should the ruins of a mountain exist in rugged +fragments along a plain of low, thorny jungle, five chances to +one would be in favor of tracking the herd to this very spot, +where they would most likely be found, standing among the alleys +roamed by the fragments heaped around them. It is surprising to +witness the dexterity of elephants in traversing ground over +which a man can pass with difficulty. I have seen places on the +mountains in the neighborhood of Newera Ellia bearing the +unmistakable marks of elephants where I could not have conceived +it possible for such an animal to stand. On the precipitous +sides of jungle-covered mountains, where the ground is so steep +that a man is forced to cling to the underwood for support, the +elephants still plough their irresistible course. In descending +or ascending these places, the elephant a always describes a +zigzag, and thus lessens the abruptness of the inclination. +Their immense weight acting on their broad feet, bordered by +sharp horny toes, cuts away the side of the hill at every stride +and forms a level step; thus they are enabled to skirt the sides +of precipitous hills and banks with comparative case. The trunk +is the wonderful monitor of all danger to an elephant, from +whatever cause it may proceed. This may arise from the approach +of man or from the character of the country; in either case the +trunk exerts its power; in one by the acute sense of smell, in +the other by the combination of the sense of scent and touch. In +dense jungles, where the elephant cannot see a yard before him, +the sensitive trunk feels the hidden way, and when the roaring of +waterfalls admonishes him of the presence of ravines and +precipices, the never-failing trunk lowered upon the around keeps +him advised of every inch of his path. + +Nothing is more difficult than to induce a tame elephant to cross +a bridge which his sagacity assures him is insecure; he will +sound it with his trunk and press upon it with one foot, but he +will not trust his weight if he can perceive the slightest +vibration. + +Their power of determining whether bogs or the mud at the bottom +of tanks are deep or shallow is beyond my comprehension. +Although I have seen elephants in nearly every position, I have +never seen one inextricably fixed in a swamp. This is the more +extraordinary as their habits induce them to frequent the most +extensive morasses, deep lakes, muddy tanks and estuaries, and +yet I have never seen even a young one get into a scrape by being +overwhelmed. There appears to be a natural instinct which warns +them in their choice of ground, the same as that which influences +the buffalo, and in like manner guides him through his swampy +haunts. + +It is a grand sight to see a large herd of elephants feeding in a +fine lake in broad daylight. This is seldom witnessed in these +days, as the number of guns have so disturbed the elephants in +Ceylon that they rarely come out to drink until late in the +evening or during the night; but some time ago I had a fine view +of a grand herd in a lake in the middle of the day. + +I was out shooting with a great friend of mine, who is a +brother-in-arms against the game of Ceylon, and than whom a +better sportsman does not breathe, and we had arrived at a wild +and miserable place while en route home after a jungle trip. +Neither of us was feeling well; we had been for some weeks in the +most unhealthy part of the country, and I was just recovering +from a touch of dysentery: altogether, we were looking forward +with pleasure to our return to comfortable quarters, and for the +time we were tired of jungle life. However, we arrived at a +little village about sixty miles south of Batticaloa, called +"Gollagangwelléwevé" (pronunciation requires practice), and a +very long name it was for so small a place; but the natives +insisted that a great number of elephants were in the +neighborhood. + +They also declared that the elephants infested the neighboring +tank even during the forenoon, and that they nightly destroyed +their embankment, and would not be driven away, as there was not +a single gun possessed by the village with which to scare them. +This looked all right; so we loaded the guns and started without +loss of time, as it was then one P. M., and the natives described +the tank as a mile distant. Being perfectly conversant with the +vague idea of space described by a Cingalese mile, we mounted our +horses, and, accompanied by about five-and-twenty villagers, +twenty of whom I wished at Jericho, we started. By the by, I +have quite forgotten to describe who "we" are - F. H. Palliser, +Esq., and myself. + +Whether or not it was because I did not feel in brisk health, I +do not know, but somehow or other I had a presentiment that the +natives had misled us, and that we should not find the elephants +in the tank, but that, as usual, we should be led tip to some +dense, thorny jungle, and told that the elephants were somewhere +in that direction. Not being very sanguine, I had accordingly +taken no trouble about my gun-bearers, and I saw several of my +rifles in the bands of the villagers, and only one of my regular +gun-bearers had followed me; the rest, having already had a +morning's march, were glad of an excuse to remain behind. + +Our rate lay for about a quarter of a mile through deserted +paddy-land and low jungle, after which we entered fine open +jungle and forest. Unfortunately, the recent heavy rains bad +filled the tank, which had overflowed the broken dam and +partially flooded the forest. This was in all parts within two +hundred yards from the dam a couple of feet deep in water, with a +proportionate amount of sticky mud beneath, and through this we +splashed until the dam appeared about fifty yards on our right. +It was a simple earthen mound, which rose about ten feet from the +level of the forest, and was studded with immense trees, +apparently the growth of ages. We knew that the tank lay on the +opposite side, but we continued our course parallel with the dam +until we bad ridden about a mile from the village, the natives, +for a wonder, having truly described the distance. + +Here our guide, having motioned us to stop, ran quickly up the +dam to take a look out on the opposite side. He almost +immediately beckoned us to come up. This we did without loss of +time, and knowing that the game was in view, I ordered the horses +to retire for about a quarter of a mile. + +On our arrival on the dam there was a fine sight. The lake was +about five miles round, and was quite full of water, the surface +of which was covered with a scant, but tall, rushy grass. In the +lake, browsing upon the grass, we counted twenty-three elephants, +and there were many little ones, no doubt, that we could not +distinguish in such rank vegetation. Five large elephants were +not more than a hundred and twenty paces distant; the remaining +eighteen were in a long line about a quarter of a mile from the +shore, feeding in deep water. + +We were well concealed by the various trees which grew upon the +dam, and we passed half an hour in watching the manoeuvres of the +great beasts as they bathed and sported in the cool water. +However, this was not elephant-shooting, and the question was, +how to get at them? The natives had no idea of the sport, as +they seemed to think it very odd that we did not fire at those +within a hundred paces' distance. I now regretted my absent +gun-bearers, as I plainly saw that these village people would be +worse than useless. + +We determined to take a stroll along the base of the dam to +reconnoitre the ground, as at present it seemed impossible to +make an attack; and even were the elephants within the forest, +there appeared to be no possibility of following them up through +such deep water and heavy ground with any chance of success. +however, they were not in the forest, being safe, belly and +shoulder deep, in the tank. + +We strolled through mud and water thigh-deep for a few hundred +paces, when we suddenly came upon the spot where in ages past the +old dam had been carried away. Here the natives had formed a mud +embankment strengthened by sticks and wattles. Poor fellows! we +were not surprised at their wishing the elephants destroyed; the +repair of their fragile dam was now a daily occupation, for the +elephants, as though out of pure mischief, had chosen this spot +as their thoroughfare to and from the lake, and the dam was +trodden down in all directions. + +We found that the margin of the forest was everywhere flooded to +a width of about two hundred yards, after which it was tolerably +dry; we therefore returned to our former post. + +It struck me that the only way to secure a shot at the herd would +be to employ a ruse, which I had once practiced successfully some +years ago. Accordingly we sent the greater part of the villagers +for about a half a mile along the edge of the lake, with orders +to shout and make a grand hullaballoo on arriving at their +station. It seemed most probable that on being disturbed the +elephants would retreat to the forest by their usual +thoroughfare; we accordingly stood on the alert, ready for a rush +to any given point which the herd should attempt in their +retreat. + +Some time passed in expectation, when a sudden yell broke from +the far point, as though twenty demons had cramp in the stomach. +Gallant fellows are the Cingalese at making a noise, and a grand +effect this had upon the elephants; up went tails and trunks, the +whole herd closed together and made a simultaneous rush for their +old thoroughfare. Away we skipped through the water, straight in +shore through the forest, until we reached the dry ground, when, +turning sharp to our right, we soon halted exactly opposite the +point at which we knew the elephants would enter the forest. +This was grand excitement; we had a great start of the herd, so +that we had plenty of time to arrange gun-bearers and take our +position for the rencontre. + +In the mean time, the roar of water caused by the rapid passage +of so many large animals approached nearer and nearer. Palliser +and I had taken splendid positions, so as to command either side +of the herd on their arrival, with our gun-bearers squatted +around us behind our respective trees, while the non-sporting +village followers, who now began to think the matter rather +serious and totally devoid of fun, scrambled up various large +trees with ape-like activity. + +A few minutes of glorious suspense, and the grand crash and roar +of broken water approached close at hand, and we distinguished +the mighty phalanx, headed by the largest elephants, bearing down +exactly upon us, and not a hundred yards distant. Here was luck! +There was a grim and very murderous smile of satisfaction on +either countenance as we quietly cocked the rifles and awaited +the onset: it was our intention to let half the herd pass us +before we opened upon them, as we should then be in the very +centre of the mass, and he able to get good and rapid shooting. + +On came the herd in gallant style, throwing the spray from the +muddy water, and keeping a direct line for our concealed +position. They were within twenty yards, and we were still +undiscovered, when those rascally villagers, who had already +taken to the trees, scrambled still higher in their fright at the +close approach of the elephants, and by this movement they gave +immediate alarm to the elders of the herd. + +Round went the colossal heads; right about was the word, and away +dashed the whole herd back toward the tank. In the same instant +we made a rush in among them, and I floored one of the big +leaders by a shot behind the ear, and immediately after, as bad +luck would have it, Palliser and I both took the same bird, and +down went another to the joint shots. Palliser then got another +shot and bagged one more, when the herd pushed straight out to +the deep lake, with the exception of a few elephants, who turned +to the right; after which Palliser hurried through the mud and +water, while I put on all steam in chase of the main body of the +herd. It is astonishing to what an amount a man can get up this +said steam in such a pitch of excitement. However, it was of no +use in this case, as I was soon hip-deep in water, and there was +an end to all pursuit in that direction. + +It immediately struck me that the elephants would again retreat +to some other part of the forest after having made a circuit in +the tank. I accordingly waded back at my best speed to terra +firma, and then striking off to my right, I ran along parallel to +the water for about half a mile, fully expecting to meet the herd +once more on their entrance to the jungle. It was now that I +deplored the absence of my regular gun-bearers; the village +people had no taste for this gigantic scale of amusement, and the +men who carried my guns would not keep up; Fortunately, Carrasi, +the best gun-bearer, was there, and he had taken another loaded +rifle, after handing me that which he had carried at the onset. +I waited a few moments for the lagging men, and succeeded in +getting them well together just is I heard the rush of water, as +the elephants were again entering the jungle, not far in advance +of the spot upon which I stood. + +This time they were sharp on the qui vive, and the bulls, being +well to the front, were keeping a bright look-out. It was in +vain that I endeavored to conceal myself until the herd had got +well into the forest; the gun-bearers behind me did not take the +same precaution, and the leading elephants both saw and winded us +when at a hundred paces distant. This time, however, they were +determined to push on for a piece of thicker jungle, which they +knew lay in this direction, and upon seeing me running toward +them, they did not turn back to the lake, but slightly altered +their course in an oblique direction, still continuing to push on +through the forest, while I was approaching at right angles with +the herd. + +Hallooing and screaming at them with all my might to tease some +of the old bulls into a charge, I ran at top speed through the +fine open forest, and soon got among a whole crowd of half-grown +elephants, at which I would not fire; there were a lot of fine +beasts pushing along in the front, and toward these I ran as hard +as I could go. Unfortunately, the herd seeing me so near and +gaining upon them, took to the ruse of a beaten fleet and +scattered in all directions; but I kept a few big fellows in +view, who were still pretty well together, and managed to +overtake the rearmost and knock him over. Up went the tail and +trunk of one of the leading bulls at the report of the shot, and +trumpeting shrilly, he ran first to one side, then to the other, +with his ears cocked and sharply turning his head to either side. +I knew this fellow had his monkey up, and that a little teasing +would bring him round for a charge. I therefore redoubled my +shouts and yells and kept on in full chase, as the elephants were +straining every nerve to reached a piece of thick jungle within a +couple of hundred paces. + +I could not go any faster, and I saw that the herd, which was +thirty or forty yards ahead of me, would gain the jungle before I +could overtake them, as they were going at a slapping pace and I +was tolerably blown with a long run at full speed, part of which +had been through deep mud and water. But I still teased the +bull, who was now in such an excited state that I felt convinced +he would turn to charge. + +The leading elephants rushed into the thick jungle, closely +followed by the others, and, to my astonishment, my excited +friend, who had lagged to the rear, followed their example. But +it was only for a few seconds, for, on entering the thick bushes, +he wheeled sharp round and came rushing out in full charge. This +was very plucky, but very foolish, as his retreat was secured +when in the thick jungle, and yet he courted further battle. +This he soon had enough of, as I bagged him in his onset with my +remaining barrel by the forehead shot. + +I now heard a tremendous roaring, of elephants behind me, as +though another section was coming in from the tank; this I hoped +to meet. I therefore reloaded the empty rifles as quickly as +possible and ran toward the spot. The roaring still continued +and was apparently almost stationary; and what was my +disappointment, on arrival, to find, in place of the expected +herd, a young elephant of about four feet high, who, had missed +the main body in the retreat and was now roaring for his departed +friends! These young things are excessively foolhardy and +willful, and he charged me the moment I arrived. As I laid the +rifle upon the ground instead of firing at him, the rascally +gunbearers, with the exception of Carrasi, threw down the rifles +and ran up the trees like so many monkeys, just as I had jumped +on one side and caught the young elephant by the tail. He was +far too strong for me to hold, and, although I dug my heels into +the ground and held on with all my might, he fairly ran away with +me through the forest. Carrasi now came to my assistance and +likewise held on by his tail; but away we went like the tender to +a steam-engine; wherever the elephant went there we were dragged +in company. Another man now came to the rescue; but his +assistance was not of the slightest rise, as the animal was so +powerful and of such weight that he could have run away with half +a dozen of us unless his legs were tied. Unfortunately we had no +rope, or I could have secured him immediately, and seeing that we +had no power over him whatever, I was obliged to run back for one +of the guns to shoot him. On my return it was laughable to see +the pace at which he was running away with the two men, who were +holding on to his tail like grim death, the elephant not having +ceased roaring during the run. I accordingly settled him, and +returned to have a little conversation with the rascals were +still perched in the trees. I was extremely annoyed, as these +people, if they had possessed a grain of sense, might have tied +their long comboys (cotton cloths about eight feet long) +together, and we might have thus secured the elephant without +difficulty by tying his hind legs. It was a great loss, as he +was so tame that he might have been domesticated and driven to +Newera Ellia without the slightest trouble. All this was +occasioned by the cowardice of these villainous Cingalese, and +upon my lecturing one fellow on his conduct he began to laugh. +This was too much for any person's patience, and I began to look +for a stick, which the fellow perceiving he immediately started +off through the forest like a deer. He could run faster than I +could, being naked and having the advantage of bare feet; but I +knew I could run him down in the course of time, especially as, +being in a fright, he would soon get blown. We had a most +animated hunt through water, mud, roots of trees, open forest and +all kinds of ground, but I ran into him at last in heavy ground, +and I dare say he recollects the day of the month. + +In the mean time, Palliser had heard the roaring of the elephant, +followed by the screaming and yelling of the coolies, and +succeeded by a shot. Shortly after he heard the prolonged yells +of the hunted villager while he was hastening toward my +direction. This combination of sounds naturally led him to +expect that some accident had occurred, especially as some of the +yells indicated that somebody had come to grief. This caused him +a very laborious run, and he arrived thoroughly blown, and with a +natural desire to kick the recreant villager who bad caused the +yells. + +If the ground had been ever tolerably dry, we should have killed +a large number of elephants out of this herd; but, as it +happened, in such deep mud and water the elephants had it all +their own way, and our joint bag could not produce more than +seven tails; however, this was far more than I had expected when +I first saw the herd in such a secure position. + +On our return to the village we found Palliser's horse terribly +gored by a buffalo, and we were obliged to leave him behind for +some weeks; fortunately, there was an extra pony, which served +him as a mount home, a distance of a hundred and fifty miles. + +This has been a sad digression from our argument upon instinct +and reason, a most unreasonable departure from the subject; but +this is my great misfortune; so sure as I bring forward the name +of an elephant, the pen lays hold of some old story and runs +madly away in a day's shooting. I now have to speak of the +reasoning powers of the canine race, and I confess my weakness. +I feel perfectly certain that the pen will serve me the same +trick, and that it will be plunging through a day's hunting to +prove the existence of reason in a hound and the want of it in +the writer. Thrash me, good critics; I deserve it; lay it on +with an unsparing thong. I am humiliated, but still willful; I +know my fault, but still continue it. + +Let us think; what was the subject? Reason in dogs, to be sure. +Well, every one who has a dog must admit that he has a strong +share of reason; only observe him as he sits by your side and +wistfully watches the endless transit of piece after piece, bit +after bit, as the fork is conveying delicate morsels to your +mouth. There is neither hope nor despair exhibited in his +countenance - he knows those pieces are not for him. There is an +expression of impatience about the eye as he scans your features, +which seems to say, "Greedy fellow! what, not one bit for me?" +Only cut a slice from the exterior of the joint - a piece that he +knows you will not eat - and watch, the change and eagerness of +his expression; he knows as well as you do that this is intended +for him - he has reasoned upon it. + +This is the simple and every-day performance of a common +house-dog. Observe the pointers in a field of close-cut stubble +- two well-broken, reasonable old dogs. The birds are wild, and +have been flushed several times during the day, and the old dog +has winded them now in this close-cut stubble, from which he +knows the covey will rise at a long range. Watch his expression +of intense and yet careful excitement, as he draws upon his game, +step by step, crouching close to the ground, and occasionally +moving his head slowly round to see if his master is close up. +Look at the bitch at the other end of the field, backing him like +a statue, while the old dog still creeps on. Not a step farther +will he move: his lower jaw trembles with excitement; the guns +advance to a line with his shoulder; up they rise, +whiz-z-z-z-z-z-z! - bang! bang! See how the excitement of the +dog is calmed as he falls to the down charge, and afterward with +what pleasure he follows up and stands to the dead birds. If +this is not reason, there is no such thing in existence. + +Again, look at the sheep-dog. What can be more beautiful than to +watch the judgement displayed by these dogs in driving a large +flock of sheep? Then turn to the Mont St. Bernard dog and the +Newfoundland, and countless instances could be produced as proofs +of their wonderful share of reasoning power. + +The different classes of hounds, being kept in kennels, do not +exhibit this power to the same amount as many others, as they are +not sufficiently domesticated, and their intercourse with man is +confined to the one particular branch of hunting; but in this +pursuit they will afford many striking proofs that they in like +manner with their other brethren, are not devoid of the +reasoning power. + +Poor old "Bluebeard!" - he had an almost human share of +understanding, but being simply a hound, this was confined to elk +hunting; he was like the foxhunter of the last century, whose +ideas did not extend beyond his sport; but in this he was +perfect. + +Bluebeard was a foxhound, bred at Newera Ellia, in 1847, by F. J. +Templer, Esq. He subsequently belonged to F. H. Palliser, Esq., +who kindly added him to my kennel. + +He was a wonderful hound on a cold scent, and so thoroughly was +he versed in all the habits of an elk that he knew exactly where +to look for one. I am convinced that he knew the date of a track +from its appearance, as I have constantly seen him strove his +nose into the deep impression, to try for a scent when the track +was some eight or ten hours old. + +It was a curious thing to watch his cleverness at finding on a +patina. In most of the plains in the neighborhood of Newera Ellia +a small stream flows through the centre. To this the elk, who +are out feeding in the night, are sure to repair at about four in +the morning for their last drink, and I usually try along the +banks a little after daylight for a find, where the scent is +fresh and the tracks are distinctly visible. + +While every hound has been eagerly winding the scent upon the +circuitous route which the elk has made in grazing, Bluebeard +would never waste his time in attempting to follow the +innumerable windings, but, taking a fresh cast, he would +invariably strike off to the jungle and try along the edge, until +he reached the spot at which the elk had entered. At these times +he committed the only fault which he possessed (for an +elk-hound); he would immediately open upon the scent, and, by +alarming the elk at too great a distance, would give him too long +a start. Nevertheless, he made up for this by his wonderful +correctness and knowledge of his game, and if the run was +increased in length by his early note, we nevertheless ran into +our game at last. + +Some years ago he met with an accident which partly deprived him +of the use of one of his bind legs; this made the poor old fellow +very slow, but it did not interfere with his finding and hunting, +although the rest of the pack would shoot ahead, and the elk was +frequently brought to bay and killed before old Bluebeard had +finished his hunt; but he was never thrown out, and was sure to +come up at last; and if the pack were at fault during the run, he +was the hound to show them the right road on his arrival. + +I once saw an interesting proof of his reasoning powers during a +long and difficult hunt. + +I was hunting for a few days at the Augora patinas, accompanied +by Palliser. These are about five hundred feet lower than Newera +Ellia, and are situated in the district of Dimboola. They are +composed of undulating knolls of fine grass, with a large and +deep river flowing through the centre. These patinas are +surrounded by wooded hills of good open jungle. + +We had found upon the patina at break of day, and the whole pack +had gone off in full cry; but the whereabout was very uncertain, +and having long lost all sound of the hounds we wandered here and +there to no purpose. At length we separated, and took up our +stations upon different knolls to watch the patina and to listen. + +The hill upon which I stood commanded an extensive view of the +patina, while the broad river flowed at the base, after its exit +from the jungle. I had been only a few minutes at my post when I +observed, at about six hundred yards distant, a strong ripple in +the river like the letter V, and it immediately struck me that an +elk had come down the river from the jungle and was swimming down +the stream. This was soon proved to be the case, as I saw the +head of a doe elk in the acute angle of the ripple. + +I had the greyhounds with me, "Lucifer," "Lena," "Hecate" and +"Bran," and I ran down the hill with these dogs, hoping to get +them a view of her as she landed on the patina. I had several +bogs and hollows to cross, and I accordingly lost sight of the +elk; but upon arriving at the spot where I imagined the elk would +land, I saw her going off across the patina, a quarter of a mile +away. The greyhounds saw her, and away they flew over the short +grass, while the pack began to appear from the jungle, having +come down to the halloo that I had given on first seeing the elk +swimming down the river. + +The elk seemed determined to give a beautiful course for, instead +of pushing straight for the jungle, she made a great circuit on +the patina, as though in the endeavor to make once more for the +river. The long-legged ones were going at a tremendous pace, +and, being fresh, they rapidly overhauled her; gradually the +distance between them diminished, and at length they had a fair +course down a gentle inclination which led toward the river. Here +the greyhounds soon made an end of the hunt; their game was +within a hundred yards, going at top speed: but it was all up +with the elk; the pace was too good, and they ran into her and +pulled her down just as the other hounds had come down upon my +scent. + +We were cutting up the elk, when we presently heard old +Bluebeard's voice far away in the jungle, and, thinking that he +might perhaps be running another elk, we ran to a hill which +overlooked the river and kept a bright look-out. We soon +discovered that he was true upon the same game, and we watched +his plan of hunting, being anxious to see whether he could hunt +up an elk that had kept to water for so long a time. + +On his entrance to the patina by the river's bank he immediately +took to water and swam across the stream; here be carefully +hunted the edge for several hundred yards down the river, but, +finding nothing, he returned to the jungle at the point from +which the river flowed. Here he again took to water, and, +swimming back to the bank from which he had at first started, he +landed and made a vain cast down the hollow. Back he returned +after his fruitless search, and once more he took to water. I +began to despair of the possibility of his finding; but the true +old bound was now swimming steadily down the stream, crossing and +recrossing from either bank, and still pursuing his course down +the river. At length he neared the spot where I knew that the +elk had landed, and we eagerly watched to see if he would pass +the scent, as he was now several yards from the bank. He was +nearly abreast of the spot, when he turned sharp in and landed in +the exact place; his deep and joyous note rung across the +patinas, and away went the gallant old hound in full cry upon the +scent, while I could not help shouting, "Hurrah for old +Bluebeard!" In a few minutes he was by the side of the dead elk - +a specimen of a true hound, who certainly had exhibited a large +share of "reason." + +CHAPTER X. Wild Fruits - Ingredients for a "Soupe Maigre" - +Orchidaceous Plants - Wild Nutmegs - Native Oils - Cinnamon - +Primeval Forests - Valuable Woods - The Mahawelli River - Variety +of Palms - Cocoa-nut Toddy - Arrack - Cocoa-nut Oil - +Cocoa-nut-planting - The Talipot Palm - The Areca Palm - Betel +Chewing - Sago Nuts - Varicty of Bees - Waste of Beeswax - Edible +Fungi - Narcotic Puff-ball - Intoxicating Drugs - Poisoned Cakes +- The "Sack Tree" - No Gum Trees of Value in Ceylon. + +Among the inexperienced there is a prevalent idea connected with +tropical forests and jungles that they teem with wild fruits, +which Nature is supposed to produce spontaneously. Nothing can +be more erroneous than such an opinion; even edible berries are +scantily supplied by the wild shrubs and trees, and these, in +lieu of others of superior quality, are sometimes dignified by +the name of fruit. + +The guava and the katumbillé are certainly very numerous +throughout the Ouva district; the latter being a dark red, +rough-skinned kind of plum, the size of a greengage, but free +from stone. It grows upon a thorny bush about fifteen feet high; +but the fruit is too acid to please most palates; the extreme +thirst produced by a day's shooting in a burning sun makes it +refreshing when plucked from the tree; but it does not aspire to +the honor of a place at a table, where it can only appear in the +form of red currant jelly, for which it is an undeniable +substitute. + +Excellent blackberries and a very large and full-flavored black +raspberry grow at Newera Ellia; likewise the Cape gooseberry, +which is of the genus "solanum." The latter is a round yellow +berry, the size of a cherry; this is enclosed in a loose bladder, +which forms an outer covering. The flavor is highly aromatic, +but, like most Ceylon wild fruits, it is too acid. + +The sweetest and the best of the jungle productions is the +"morra." This is a berry about the size of a small nutmeg, which +grows in clusters upon a large tree of rich dark foliage. The +exterior of the berry is brown and slightly rough; the skin, or +rather the case, is brittle and of the consistence of an +egg-shell; this, when broken and peeled off, exposes a +semi-transparent pulp, like a skinned grape in appearance and in +flavor. It is extremely juicy but, unfortunately, a large black +stone occupies the centre and at least one-half of the bulk of +the entire fruit. + +The jambo apple is a beautiful fruit in appearance being the +facsimile of a snow-white pear formed of wax, with a pink blush +upon one side. Its exterior beauty is all that it can boast of, +as the fruit itself is vapid and tasteless. In fact, all wild +fruits are, for the most part, great exaggerations. I have seen +in a work on Ceylon the miserable little acid berry of the +rattan, which is no larger than a currant, described as a fruit; +hawthorn berries might, with equal justice, be classed among the +fruits of Great Britain. + +I will not attempt to describe these paltry productions in +detail; there is necessarily a great variety throughout the +island, but their insignificance does not entitle them to a +description which would raise them far above their real merit. + +It is nevertheless most useful to a sportsman in Ceylon to +possess a sufficient stock of botanical information for his +personal convenience. A man may be lost in the jungles or hard +up for provisions in some out-of-the-way place, where, if he has +only a saucepan, he can generally procure something eatable in +the way of herbs. It is not to be supposed, however, that he +would succeed in making a good dinner; the reader may at any time +procure something similar in England by restricting himself to +nettle-tops - an economical but not a fattening vegetable. +Anything, however simple, is better than an empty stomach, and +when the latter is positively empty it is wonderful how the +appetite welcomes the most miserable fare. + +At Newera Ellia the jungles would always produce a supply for a +soupe maigré. There is an esculent nillho which grows in the +forest in the bottoms of the swampy ravines. This is a most +succulent plant, which grows to the height or length of about +seven feet, as its great weight keeps it close to the ground. It +is so brittle that it snaps like a cucumber when struck by a +stick, and it bears a delicate, dark-blue blossom. When stewed, +it is as tender as the vegetable marrow, but its flavor +approaches more closely to that of the cucumber. Wild ginger +also abounds in the forests. This is a coarse variety of the +"amomum zintgiber." The leaves, which spring from the ground, +attain a height of seven or eight feet; a large, crimson, fleshy +blossom also springs from the ground in the centre of the +surrounding leaf-stems. The root is coarse, large, but wanting +in fine flavor, although the young tubers are exceedingly tender +and delicate. This is the favorite food of elephants on the +Ceylon mountains; but it is a curious fact that they invariably +reject the leaves, which any one would suppose would be their +choicest morsel, as they are both succulent and plentiful. The +elephants simply use them as a handle for tearing up the roots, +which they bite off and devour, throwing the leaves on one side. + +The wild parsnip is also indigenous to the plains on the +mountains. As usual with most wild plants of this class, it has +little or no root, but runs to leaf. The seeds are very highly +flavored, and are gathered by the natives for their curries. + +There is, likewise, a beautiful orchidaceous plant, which is very +common throughout the patinas on the mountains, and which +produces the very finest quality of arrowroot. So much is this +valued in the Nepaul country in India, that I have been assured +by a person well acquainted with that locality, that this +quality of arrowroot is usually sold for its weight in rupees. +In vain have I explained this to the Cingalese; they will not +attempt its preparation because their fathers did not eat it; and +yet these same men will walk forty miles to cut a bundle of +sticks of the galla gaha tree for driving buffaloes! -their +fathers did this, and therefore they do it. Thus this beautiful +plant is only appreciated by those whose instinct leads them to +its discovery. The wild hogs plough up the patinas and revel in +this delicate food. The plant itself is almost lost in the rank +herbage of the patinas, but its beautiful pink, hyacinth-shaped +blossom attracts immediate attention. Few plants combine beauty +of appearance, scent and utility, but this is the perfection of +each quality -nothing can surpass the delicacy and richness of +its perfume. It has two small bulbs about an inch below the +surface of the earth, and these, when broken, exhibit a highly +granulated texture, semi-transparent like half-boiled sago. From +these bulbs the arrowroot is produced by pounding them in water +and drying the precipitated farina in the sun. + +There are several beautiful varieties of orchidaceous plants upon +the mountains; among others, several species of the dendrobium. +Its rich yellow flowers hang in clusters from a withered tree, +the only sign of life upon a giant trunk decayed, like a wreath +upon a grave. The scent of this flower is well known as most +delicious; one plant will perfume a large room. + +There is one variety of this tribe in the neighborhood of Newera +Ellia, which is certainly unknown in English collections. It +blossoms in April; the flowers are a bright lilac, and I could +lay my band upon it at any time, as I have never seen it but in +one spot, where it flourishes in profusion. This is about +fourteen miles from Newera Ellia, and I have never yet collected +a specimen, as I have invariably been out hunting whenever I have +met with it. + +The black pepper is also indigenous throughout Ceylon. At +Newera Ellia the leaves of this vine are highly pungent, although +at this elevation it does not produce fruit. A very short +distance toward a lower elevation effects a marked change, as +within seven miles it fruits in great perfection. + +At a similar altitude, the wild nutmeg is very common throughout +the forests. This fruit is a perfect anomaly. The tree is +entirely different to that of the cultivated species. The latter +is small, seldom exceeding the size of an apple-tree, and bearing +a light green myrtle-shaped leaf, which is not larger than that +of a peach. The wild species, on the contrary, is a large forest +tree, with leaves equal in size to those of the horse chestnut; +nevertheless, it produces a perfect nutmeg. There is the outer +rind of fleshy texture, like an unripe peach; enclosed within is +the nutlike shell, enveloped in the crimson network of mace, and +within the shell is the nutmeg itself. All this is perfect +enough, but, alas, the grand desideratum is wanting - it has no +flavor or aroma whatever. + +It is a gross imposition on the part of Nature; a most stingy +trick upon the public, and a regular do. The mace has no taste +whatever, and the nutmeg has simply a highly acrid and pungent +taste, without any spicy flavor, but merely abounding in a rank +and disagreeable oil. The latter is so plentiful that I am +astonished it has not been experimented upon, especially by the +natives, who are great adepts in expressing oils from many +substances. + +Those most common in Ceylon are the cocoa-nut and gingerly oils. +The former is one of the grand staple commodities of the island; +the latter is the produce of a small grain, grown exclusively by +the natives. + +But, in addition to these, there are various other oils +manufactured by the Cingalese. These are the cinnamon oil, +castor oil, margosse oil, mee oil, kenar oil, meeheeria oil; and +both clove and lemon-grass oil are prepared by Europeans. + +The first, which is the cinnamon oil, is more properly a kind of +vegetable wax, being of the consistence of stearine. This is +prepared from the berries of the cinnamon shrubs which are boiled +in water until the catty substance or so-called oil, floats upon +the surface; this is then skimmed off and, when a sufficient +quantity is collected, it is boiled down until all watery +particles are evaporated, and the melted fat is turned out into a +shallow vessel to cool. It has a pleasant, though , perhaps, a +rather faint aromatic smell, and is very delicious as an adjunct +in the culinary art. In addition to this it possesses gentle +aperient properties, which render it particularly wholesome. + +Castor oil is also obtained by the natives by boiling, and it is +accordingly excessively rank after long keeping. The castor-oil +plant is a perfect weed throughout Ceylon, being one of the few +useful shrubs that will flourish in such poor soil without +cultivation. + +Margosse oil is extracted from the fruit of a tree of that name. +It has an extremely fetid and disagreeable smell, which will +effectually prevent the contact of flies or any other insect. On +this account it is a valuable preventive to the attacks of flies +upon open wounds, in addition to which it possesses powerful +healing properties. + +Mee oil is obtained from the fruit of the mee tree. This fruit +is about the size of an apricot, and is extremely rich in its +produce; but the oil is of a coarse description, and is simply +used by the natives for their rude lamps. Kenar oil and +meeheeria oil are equally coarse, and are quite unfit for any but +native purposes. + +Lemon-grass oil, which is known in commerce as citronella oil, is +a delightful extract from the rank lemon grass, which covers most +of' the hillsides in the more open districts of Ceylon. An +infusion of the grass is subsequently distilled; the oil is then +discovered on the surface. This is remarkably pure, with a most +pungent aroma. If rubbed upon the skin, it will prevent the +attacks of insects while its perfume remains; but the oil is so +volatile that the scent quickly evaporates and the spell is +broken. + +Clove oil is extracted from the leaves of the cinnamon tree, and +not from cloves, as its name would imply. The process is very +similar to that employed in the manufacture of citronella oil. + +Cinnamon is indigenous throughout the jungles of Ceylon. Even at +the high elevation of Newera Ellia, it is one of the most common +woods, and it grows to the dimensions of a forest tree, the trunk +being usually about three feet in circumference. At Newera Ellia +it loses much of its fine flavor, although it is still highly +aromatic. + +This tree flourishes in a white quartz sandy soil, and in its +cultivated state is never allowed to exceed the dimensions of a +bush, being pruned down close to the ground every year. This +system of close cutting induces the growth of a large number of +shoots, in the same manner that withes are produced in England. + +Every twelve months these shoots attain the length of six or +seven feet, and the thickness of a man's finger. In the interim, +the only cultivation required is repeated cleaning. The whole +plantation is cut down at the proper period, and the sticks are +then stripped of their bark by the peelers. These men are called +"chalias," and their labor is confined to this particular branch. +The season being over, they pass the remaining portion of the +year in idleness, their earnings during one crop being sufficient +to supply their trifling wants until the ensuing harvest. + +Their practice in this employment naturally renders them +particularly expert, and in far less time than is occupied in the +description they run a sharp knife longitudinally along a stick, +and at once divest it of the bark. On the following day the +strips of bark are scraped so as entirely to remove the outer +cuticle. One strip is then laid within the other, which, upon +becoming dry, contract, and form a series of enclosed pipes. It +is subsequently packed in bales, and carefully sewed up in double +sacks for exportation. + +The essential oil of cinnamon is usually made from the refuse of +the crop; but the quantity produced, in proportion to the weight +of cinnamon, is exceedingly small, being about five ounces of oil +to half a hundred-weight of the spice. + +Although the cinnamon appears to require no more than a common +quartz sand for its production, it is always cultivated with the +greatest success where the subsoil is light, dry and of a loamy +quality. + +The appearance of the surface soil is frequently very deceitful. +It is not uncommon to see a forest of magnificent trees growing +in soil of apparently pure sand, which will not even produce the +underwood with which Ceylon forests are generally choked. In such +an instance the appearance of the trees is unusually grand as +their whole length and dimensions are exposed to view, and their +uniting crowns throw a sombre shade over the barren ground +beneath. It is not to be supposed that these mighty specimens of +vegetation are supported by the poor sandy soil upon the surface; +their tap-roots strike down into some richer stratum, from which +their nourishment is derived. + +These forests are not common in Ceylon; their rarity accordingly +enhances their beauty. The largest English oak would be a mere +pigmy among the giants of these wilds, whose stature is so +wonderful that the eye never becomes tired of admiration. Often +have I halted on my journey to ride around and admire the +prodigious height and girth of these trees. Their beautiful +proportions render them the more striking; there are no gnarled +and knotty stems, such as we are accustomed to admire in the +ancient oaks and beeches of England, but every trunk rises like a +mast from the earth, perfectly free from branches for ninety or a +hundred feet, straight as an arrow, each tree forming a dark +pillar to support its share of the rich canopy above, which +constitutes a roof perfectly impervious to the sun. It is +difficult to guess the actual height of these forest trees; but I +have frequently noticed that it is impossible to shoot a bird on +the higher branches with No. 5 shot. + +It is much to be regretted that the want of the means of +transport renders the timber of these forests perfectly +valueless. From age to age these magnificent trees remain in +their undisturbed solitudes, gradually increasing in their +apparently endless growth, and towering above the dark vistas of +everlasting silence. No on can imagine the utter stillness which +pervades these gloomy shades. There is a mysterious effect +produced by the total absence of animal life. In the depths of +these forests I have stood and listened for some sound until my +cars tingled with overstrained attention; not a chirp of a bird, +not the hum of an insect, but the mouth of Nature is sealed. Not +a breath of air has rustled a leaf, not even a falling fruit has +broken the spell of silence; the undying verdure, the freshness +of each tree, even in its mysterious age, create an idea of +eternal vegetation, and the silvery yet dim light adds to the +charm of the fairylike solitude which gradually steals over the +senses. + +I have ridden for fifteen or twenty miles through one of these +forests without hearing a sound, except that of my horse's hoof +occasionally striking against a root. Neither beast nor bird is +to be seen except upon the verge. The former has no food upon +such barren ground; and the latter can find no berries, as the +earth is sunless and free from vegetation. Not even monkeys are +to be seen, although the trees must produce fruit and seed. +Everything appears to have deserted the country, and to have +yielded it as the sole territory of Nature on a stupendous scale. +The creepers lie serpent-like along the ground to the thickness +of a man's waist, and, rearing their twisted forms on high, they +climb the loftiest trees, hanging in festoons from stern to stem +like the cables of a line-of-battle-ship, and extending from tree +to tree for many hundred yards; now felling to the earth and +striking a fresh root; then, with increased energy, remounting +the largest trunks, and forming a labyrinth of twisted ropes +along the ceiling of the forest. From these creepers hang the +sabre-beans. Everything seems on a supernatural scale - the +bean-pod four feet or more in length, by three inches in breadth; +the beans two inches in diameter. + +Here may be seen the most valuable woods of Ceylon. The ebony +grows in great perfection and large quantity. This tree is at +once distinguished from the surrounding stems by its smaller +diameter and its sooty trunk. The bark is crisp, jet black, and +has the appearance of being charred. Beneath the bark the wood +is perfectly white until the heart is reached, which is the fine +black ebony of commerce. Here also, equally immovable, the +calamander is growing, neglected and unknown. This is the most +esteemed of all Ceylon woods, and it is so rare that it realizes +a fancy price. It is something similar to the finest walnut, the +color being a rich hazel brown, mottled and striped with +irregular black marks. It is superior to walnut in the extreme +closeness of the grain and the richness of its color. + +There are upward of eighty different woods produced in Ceylon, +which are made use of for various purposes; but of these many are +very inferior. Those most appreciated are- + +Calamander, Ebony, chiefly used for furniture and cabinet work. +Satin-wood, Suria (the tulip tree). Tamarind. Jackwood. +Halmileel. Cocoa-nut. Palmyra. + +The suria is an elegant tree, bearing a beautiful yellow blossom +something similar to a tulip, from which it derives its name. +The wood is of an extremely close texture and of a reddish-brown +color. It is exceedingly tough, and it is chiefly used for +making the spokes of wheels. + +The tamarind is a fine, dark red wood, mottled with black marks; +but it is not in general use, as the tree is too valuable to be +felled for the sake of its timber. This is one of the handsomest +trees of the tropics, growing to a very large size, the branches +widely spreading, something like the cedars of Lebanon. + +Jackwood is a coarse imitation of mahogany, and is used for a +variety of purposes, especially for making cheap furniture. The +latter is not only economical, but exceedingly durable, and is +manufactured at so low a rate that a moderate-sized house might +be entirely furnished with it for a hundred and fifty pounds. + +The fruit of the jack grows from the trunk and branches of the +tree, and when ripe it weighs about twenty pounds. The rind is +rough, and when cut it exposes a yellow, pulpy mass. This is +formed of an infinite number of separate divisions of fleshy +matter, which severally enclose an oval nut. The latter are very +good when roasted, having a close resemblance to a chestnut. The +pulp, which is the real fruit, is not usually eaten by Europeans +on account of its peculiar odor. This perfume is rather +difficult to describe, but when a rainy day in London crams an +omnibus with well-soaked and steaming multitudes, the atmosphere +in the vehicle somewhat approaches to the smell of the +jack-fruit. The halmileel is one of the most durable and useful +woods in Ceylon, and is almost the only kind that is thoroughly +adapted for making staves for casks. Of late years the great +increase of the oil-trade has brought this wood into general +request, consequent upon the increased demand for casks. So +extensive and general is the present demand for this wood that +the natives are continually occupied in conveying it from certain +districts which a few years ago were utterly neglected. +Unfortunately, the want of roads and the means of transport +confine their operations to the banks of rivers, down which the +logs are floated at the proper season. + +I recollect some eight years ago crossing the Mahawelli river +upon a raft which my coolies had hastily constructed, and +reaching a miserable village near Monampitya, in the extreme +north of the Veddah country. The river is here about four +hundred paces wide, and, in the rainy season a fine volume of +water rolls along in a rapid stream toward Trincomalee, at which +place it meets the sea. I was struck it the time with the +magnificent timber in the forests on its banks, and no less +surprised that with the natural facilities of transport it should +be neglected. Two years ago I crossed at this same spot, and I +remarked the wonderful change which a steady demand had effected +in this wild country. Extensive piles of halmileel logs were +collected along the banks of the river, while the forests were +strewed with felled trees in preparation for floating down the +stream. A regular demand usually ensures a regular supply, which +could not be better exemplified than in this case. + +Among fancy woods the bread-fruit tree should not be omitted. +This is something similar to the jack, but, like the tamarind, +the value of the produce saves the tree from destruction. + +This tree does not attain a very large size, but its growth is +exceedingly regular and the foliage peculiarly rich and +plentiful. The fruit is something similar in appearance to a +small, unripe jack-fruit, with an equally rough exterior. In the +opinion of most who have tasted it, its virtues have been grossly +exaggerated. To my taste it is perfectly uneatable, unless fried +in thin slices with butter; it is even then a bad imitation of +fried potatoes. The bark of this tree produces a strong fibre, +and a kind of very adhesive pitch is also produced by decoction. + +The cocoa-nut and palmyra woods at once introduce us to the palms +of Ceylon, the most useful and the most elegant class in +vegetation. For upward of a hundred and twenty miles along the +western and southern coasts of Ceylon, one continuous line of +cocoa-nut groves wave their green leaves to the sea-breeze, +without a single break, except where some broad clear river +cleaves the line of verdure as it meets the sea. + +Ceylon is rich in palms, including the following varieties: The +Cocoa-nut. The Palmyra. The Kittool. The Areca The Date. The +Sago. The Talipot. + +The wonderful productions of this tribe can only be appreciated +by those who thoroughly understand the habits and necessities of +the natives; and, upon examination, it will be seen that Nature +has opened wide her bountiful hand, and in the midst of a barren +soil she has still remembered and supplied the wants of the +inhabitants. + +As the stream issued from the rock in the wilderness, to the +cocoa-nut tree yields a pure draught from a dry and barren land; +a cup of water to the temperate and thirsty traveler; a cup of +cream from the pressed kernel; a cup of refreshing and sparkling +toddy to the early riser; a cup of arrack to the hardened +spirit-drinker, and a cup of oil, by the light of which I now +extol its merits-five separate and distinct liquids from the same +tree! + +A green or unripe cocoa-nut contains about a pint of a sweetish +water. In the hottest weather this is deliciously cool, in +comparison to the heat of the atmosphere. + +The ripe nut, when scraped into a pulp by a little serrated, +semi-circular iron instrument, is squeezed in a cloth by the +hand, and about a quarter of a pint of delicious thick cream, +highly flavored by cocoa-nut, is then expressed. This forms the +chief ingredient in a Cingalese curry, from which it entirely +derives its richness and fine flavor. + +The toddy is the sap which would nourish and fructify the blossom +and young nuts, were it allowed to accomplish its duties. The +toddy-drawer binds into one rod the numerous shoots, which are +garnished with embryo nuts, and he then cuts off the ends, +leaving an abrupt and brush-like termination. Beneath this he +secures an earthen chatty, which will hold about a gallon. This +remains undisturbed for twenty-four hours, from sunrise to +sunrise on the following morning; the toddy-drawer then reascends +the tree, and lowers he chatty by a line to an assistant below, +who empties the contents into a larger vessel, and the chatty is +replaced under the productive branch, which continues to yield +for about a month. + +When first drawn the toddy has the appearance of thin milk and +water, with a combined flavor of milk and soda-water, with a +tinge of cocoa-nut. It is then very pleasant and refreshing, but +in a few hours after sunrise a great charts takes place, and the +rapidity of the transition from the vinous to the acetous +fermentation is so great that by midday it resembles a poor and +rather acid cider. It now possesses intoxicating properties, and +the natives accordingly indulge in it to some extent; but from +its flavor and decided acidity I should have thought the stomach +would be affected some time before the head. + +>From this fermented toddy the arrack is procured by simple +distillation. + +This spirit, to my taste, is more palatable than most distilled +liquors, having a very decided and peculiar flavor. It is a +little fiery when new, but as water soon quenches fire, it is not +spared by the native retailers, whose arrack would be of a most +innocent character were it not for their infamous addition of +stupefying drugs and hot peppers. + +The toddy contains a large proportion of saccharine, without +which the vinous fermentation could not take place. This is +procured by evaporation in boiling, on the same principle that +sugar is produced from cane-juice. The syrup is then poured into +small saucers to cool, and it shortly assumes the consistence of +hardened sugar. This is known in Ceylon as "jaggery," and is +manufactured exclusively by the natives. + +Cocoa-nut oil is now one of the greatest exports of Ceylon, and +within the last few years the trade has increased to an +unprecedented extent. In the two years of 1849 and 1850, the +exports of cocoa-nut oil did not exceed four hundred and +forty-three thousand six hundred gallons, while in the year 1853 +they had increased to one million thirty-three thousand nine +hundred gallons; the trade being more than quadrupled in three +years. + +The manufacture of the oil is most simple. The kernel is taken +from the nut, and being divided, it is exposed to the sun until +all the watery particles are evaporated. The kernel thus dried +is known as "copperah." This is then pressed in a mill, and the +oil flows into a reservoir. + +This oil, although clear and limpid in the tropics, hardens to +the consistence of lard at any temperature below 72 Fahrenheit. +Thus it requires a second preparation on its arrival in England. +There it is spread upon mats (formed of coir) to the thickness of +an inch, and then covered by a similar protection. These fat +sandwiches are two feet square, and being piled one upon the +other to a height of about six feet in an hydraulic press, are +subjected to a pressure of some hundred tons. This disengages +the pure oleaginous parts from the more insoluble portions, and +the fat residue, being increased in hardness by its extra +density, is mixed with stearine, and by a variety of +preparations is converted into candles. The pure oil thus +expressed is that known in the shops as cocoa-nut oil. + +The cultivation of the cocoa-nut tree is now carried to a great +extent, both by natives and Europeans; by the former it is grown +for a variety of purposes, but by the latter its profits are +confined to oil, coir and poonac. The latter is the refuse Of +the nut after the oil has been expressed, and corresponds in its +uses to the linseed-oil cake of England, being chiefly employed +for fattening cattle, pigs and poultry. + +The preparation of coir is a dirty and offensive occupation. The +husk of the cocoa-nut is thrown into tanks of water, until the +woody or pithy matter is loosened by fermentation from the coir +fibre. The stench of putrid vegetable matter arising from these +heaps must be highly deleterious. Subsequently the husks are +beaten and the fibre is separated and dried. Coir rope is useful +on account of its durability and power of resisting decay during +long immersion. In the year 1853, twenty-three hundred and +eighty tons of coir were exported from Ceylon. + +The great drawback to the commencement of a cocoa-nut plantation +is the total uncertainty of the probable alteration in the price +of oil during the interval of eleven years which must elapse +before the estate comes into bearing. In this era of invention, +when improvements in every branch of science follow each other +with such rapid strides, it is always a dangerous speculation to +make any outlay that will remain so long invested without +producing a return. Who can be so presumptuous as to predict the +changes of future years? Oil may have ceased to be the common +medium of light - our rooms may be illumined by electricity, or +from fifty other sources which now are never dreamed of. In the +mean time, the annual outlay during eleven years is an additional +incubus upon the prime cost of the plantation, which, at the +expiration of this term, may be reduced to one-tenth of its +present value. + +The cocoa-nut tree requires a sandy and well-drained soil; and +although it flourishes where no other tree will grow, it welcomes +a soil of a richer quality and produces fruit in proportion. +Eighty nuts per annum are about the average income from a healthy +tree in full bearing, but this, of course, depends much upon the +locality. This palm delights in the sea-breeze, and never attains +the same perfection inland that it does in the vicinity of the +coast. There are several varieties, and that which is considered +superior is the yellow species, called the "king cocoanut." I +have seen this on the Maldive Islands in great perfection. There +it is the prevailing description. + +At the Seychelles, there is a variety peculiar to those islands, +differing entirely in appearance from the common cocoa-nut. It +is fully twice the size, and is shaped like a kidney that is laid +open. This is called by the French the "coco de mer" from the +large numbers that are found floating in the sea in the +neighborhood of the islands. + +The wood of the cocoa-nut tree is strong and durable; it is a +dark brown, traversed by longitudinal black lines. + +There are three varieties of toddy-producing palms in Ceylon; +these are the cocoa-nut, the kittool and the palmyra. The latter +produces the finest quality of jaggery. This cannot be easily +distinguished from crumbled sugar-candy which it exactly +resembles in flavor, The wood of the palmyra is something similar +to the cocoa-nut, but it is of a superior quality, and is much +used for rafters, being durable and of immense strength. + +The kittool is a very sombre and peculiar palm. Its crest very +much resembles the drooping plume upon a hearse, and the foliage +is a dark green with a tinge of gray. The wood of this palm is +almost black, being apparently a mass of longitudinal strips, or +coarse linen of whalebone running close together from the top to +the root of the tree. This is the toughest and most pliable of +all the palm-woods, and is principally used by the natives in +making "pingos." These are flat bows about eight feet in length, +and are used by the Cingalese for carrying loads upon the +shoulder. The weight is slung at either end of the pingo, and the +elasticity of the wood accommodates itself to the spring of each +step, thereby reducing the dead weight of the load. In this +manner a stout Cingalese will carry and travel with eighty pounds +if working on his own account, or with fifty if hired for a +journey. A Cingalese will carry a much heavier weight than an +ordinary Malabar, as he is a totally different man in form and +strength. In fact, the Cingalese are generally a compactly built +and well-limbed race, while the Malabar is a man averaging full a +stone lighter weight. + +The most extraordinary in the list of palms is the talipot. The +crest of this beautiful tree is adorned by a crown of nearly +circular, fan-shaped leaves of so touch and durable a texture +that they are sewn together by the natives for erecting portable +tents or huts. The circumference of each leaf at the extreme +edge is from twenty to thirty feet, and even this latter size is +said to be frequently exceeded. + +Every Cingalese throughout the Kandian district is provided with +a section of one of these leaves, which forms a kind of fan about +six feet in length. This is carried in the hand, and is only +spread in case of rain, when it forms an impervious roofing of +about three feet in width at the broad extremity. Four or five +of these sections will form a circular roof for a small hut, +which resembles a large umbrella or brobdignag mushroom. + +There is a great peculiarity in the talipot palm. Is blossoms +only once in a long period of years, and after this it dies. No +flower can equal the elegance and extraordinary dimensions of +this blossom; its size is proportionate to its leaves, and it +usurps the place of the faded crest of green, forming a +magnificent crown or plume of snow-white ostrich feathers, which +stand upon the summit of the tall stem as though they were the +natural head of the palm. + +There is an interesting phenomenon at the period of flowering. +The great plume already described, prior to its appearing in +bloom, is packed in a large case or bud, about four feet long. In +this case the blossom comes to maturity, at which time the +tightened cuticle of the bard can no longer sustain the pressure +of the expanding flower. It suddenly bursts with a loud report, +and the beautiful plume, freed from its imprisonment, ascends at +this signal and rapidly unfolds its feathers, towering above the +drooping leaves which are hastening to decay. + +The areca is a palm of great elegance; it rises to a height of +about eighty feet, and a rich feathery crest adorns the summit. +This is the most delicate stem of all the palm tribe; that of a +tree of eighty feet in length would not exceed five inches in +diameter. Nevertheless, I have never seen an areca palm +overturned by a storm; they bow gracefully to the wind, and the +extreme elasticity of the wood secures them from destruction. + +This tree produces the commonly-called "betel-nut," but more +properly the areca-nut. They grow in clusters beneath the crest +of the palm, in a similar manner to the cocoa-nut; but the tree +is more prolific, as it produces about two hundred nuts per +annum. The latter are very similar to large nutmegs both in +size and appearance, and, like the cocoa-nut, they are enclosed +in an outer husk of a fibrous texture. + +The consumption of these nuts may be imagined when it is +explained that every native is perpetually chewing a mixture of +this nut and betel leaf. Every man carries a betel bag, which +contains the following list of treasures: a quantity of +areca-nuts, a parcel of betel leaves, a roll of tobacco, a few +pieces of ginger, an instrument similar to pruning scissors and a +brass or silver case (according to the wealth of the individual) +full of chunam paste - viz., a fine lime produced from burnt +coral, slacked. This case very much resembles an old-fashioned +warming-pan breed of watch and chateleine, as numerous little +spoons for scooping out the chunam are attached to it by chains. + +The betel is a species of pepper, the leaf of which very much +resembles that of the black pepper, but is highly aromatic and +pungent. It is cultivated to a very large extent by the natives, +and may be seen climbing round poles and trees in every garden. + +It has been said by some authors that the betel has powerful +narcotic properties, but, on the contrary, its stimulating +qualities have a directly opposite effect. Those who have +attributed this supposed property to the betel leaf must have +indulged in a regular native "chew" as an experiment, and have +nevertheless been ignorant of the mixture. + +We will make up a native "chew" after the most approved fashion, +and the reader shall judge for himself in which ingredient the +narcotic principle is displayed. + +Take a betel leaf, and upon this spread a piece of chunam as +large as a pea; then with the pruning scissors cut three very +thin slices of areca-nut, and lay them in the leaf; next, add a +small piece of ginger; and, lastly, a good-sized piece of +tobacco. Fold up this mixture in another betel leaf in a compact +little parcel, and it is fit for promoting several hours' +enjoyment in chewing, and spitting a disgusting blood-red dye in +every direction. The latter is produced by the areca-nut. It is +the tobacco which possesses the narcotic principle; if this is +omitted, the remaining ingredients are simple stimulants. + +The teeth of all natives are highly discolored by the perpetual +indulgence in this disgusting habit; nor is this the only effect +produced; cancer in the cheek is a common complaint among them, +supposed to be produced by the caustic lime which is so +continually in the mouth. + +The exports of areca-nuts from Ceylon will give some idea of the +supply of palms. In 1853 no less than three thousand tons were +shipped from this colony, valued at about 45,000 l. The greater +portion of these is consumed in India. + +Two varieties of palms remain to be described - the date and the +sago. The former is a miserable species, which does not exceed +the height of three to five feet, and the fruit is perfectly +worthless. + +The latter is indigenous throughout the jungles in Ceylon, but it +is neither cultivated, nor is the sago prepared from it. + +The height of this palm does not exceed fifteen or twenty feet, +and even this is above the general average. It grows in the +greatest profusion in the Veddah country. The stem is rough and +a continuation of rings divides it into irregular sections. The +leaves are a rich dark green, and very light and feathery, +beneath which the nuts grow in clusters similar to those of the +areca palm. + +The only use that the natives make of the produce of this tree +is in the preparation of flour from the nuts. Even this is not +very general, which is much to be wondered at, as the farina is +far superior in flavor to that produced from most grains. + +The natives ascribe intoxicating properties to the cakes made +from this flour; but I have certainly eaten a fair allowance at +one time, and I cannot say that I had the least sensation of +elevation. + +The nut, which is something similar to the areca in size, is +nearly white when divested of its outer husk, and this is soaked +for about twenty-four hours in water. During this time a slight +fermentation takes place and the gas generated splits the nut +open at a closed joint like an acorn. This fermentation may, +perhaps, take some exhilarating effect upon the natives' weak +heads. + +The nuts being partially softened by this immersion are dried in +the sun, and subsequently pounded into flour in a wooden mortar. +This flour is sifted, and the coarser parts being separated, are +again pounded until a beautiful snow-white farina is produced. +This is made into a dough by a proper admixture with water, and +being formed into small cakes, they are baked for about a quarter +of an hour in a chatty. The fermentation which has already taken +place in the nut has impregnated the flower with a leaven; this, +without any further addition, expands the dough when in the oven, +and the cake produced is very similar to a crumpet, both in +appearance and flavor. + +The village in which I first tasted this preparation of the +sago-nut was a tolerable sample of such places, on the borders of +the Veddah country. The population consisted of one old man and +a corresponding old woman, and one fine stout young man and five +young women. A host of little children, who were so similar in +height that they must have been one litter, and three or four +most miserable dogs and cats, were additional tenants of the +soi-disant village. + +These people lived upon sago cakes, pumpkins, wild fruits and +berries, river fish and wild honey. The latter is very plentiful +throughout Ceylon, and the natives are very expert in finding out +the nests, by watching the bees in their flight and following +them up. A bee-hunter must be a most keen-sighted fellow, +although there is not so much difficulty in the pursuit as may at +first appear. No one can mistake the flight of a bee en route +home, if he has once observed him. He is no longer wandering +from flower to flower in an uncertain course, but he rushes +through the air in a straight line for the nest. If the +bee-hunter sees one bee thus speeding homeward, he watches the +vacant spot in the air, until assured of the direction by the +successive appearance of these insects, one following the other +nearly every second in their hurried race to the comb. Keeping +his eye upon the passing bees, he follows them until he reaches +the tree in which the nest is found. + +There are five varieties of bees in Ceylon; these are all +honey-makers, except the carpenter bee. This species is entirely +unlike a bee in all its habits. It is a bright tinsel-green +color, and the size of a large walnut, but shaped like the humble +bees of England. The month is armed with a very powerful pair of +mandibles, and the tail with a sting even larger and more +venomous than that of the hornet. These carpenter bees are +exceedingly destructive, as they bore holes in beams and posts, +in which they lay their eggs, the larvae of which when hatched +greedily feed upon the timber. + +The honey bees are of four very distinct varieties, each of which +forms its nest on a different principle. The largest and most +extensive honey-maker is the "bambera". This is nearly as large +as a hornet, and it forms its nest upon the bough of a tree, from +which it lines like a Cheshire cheese, being about the same +thickness, but five or six inches greater in diameter. The honey +of this bee is not so much esteemed as that from the smaller +varieties, as the flavor partakes too strongly of the particular +flower which the bee has frequented; thus in different seasons +the honey varies in flavor, and is sometimes so highly aperient +that it must be used with much caution. This property is of +course derived from the flower which the bee prefers at that +particular season. The wax of the comb is the purest and whitest +of any kind produced in Ceylon. So partial are these bees to +particular flowers that they migrate from place to place at +different periods in quest of flowers which are then in bloom. + +This is a very wonderful and inexplicable arrangement of Nature, +when it is considered that some flowers which particularly +attract these migrations only blossom once in "seven years." This +is the case at Newera Ellia, where the nillho blossom induces +such a general rush of this particular bee to the district that +the jungles are swarming with them in every direction, although +during the six preceding years hardly a bee of the kind is to be +met with. + +There are many varieties of the nillho. These vary from a tender +dwarf plant to the tall and heavy stern of the common nillho, +which is nearly as thick as a man's arm and about twenty feet +high. + +The next honey-maker is very similar in size and appearance to +our common hive bee in England. This variety forms its nest in +hollow trees and in holes in rocks. Another bee, similar in +appearance, but not more than half the size, suspends a most +delicate comb to the twigs of a tree. This nest is no larger +than an orange, but the honey of the two latter varieties is of +the finest quality, and quite equal in flavor to the famed "miel +vert" of the Isle de Burbon, although it has not the delicate +green tint which is so much esteemed in the latter. + +The last of the Ceylon bees is the most tiny, although an equally +industrious workman. He is a little smaller than our common +house-fly, and he builds his diminutive nest in the hollow of a +tree, where the entrance to his mansion is a hole no larger than +would be made by a lady's stiletto. + +It would be a natural supposition that so delicate an insect +would produce a honey of corresponding purity, but instead of the +expected treasure we find a thick, black and rather pungent but +highly aromatic molasses. The natives, having naturally coarse +tastes and strong stomachs, admire this honey beyond any other. +Many persons are surprised at the trifling exports of wax from +Ceylon. In 1853 these amounted to no more than one ton. + +Cingalese are curious people, and do not trouble themselves +about exports; they waste or consume all the beeswax. While we +are contented with the honey and carefully reject the comb, the +native (in some districts) crams his mouth with a large section, +and giving it one or two bites, he bolts the luscious morsel and +begins another. In this manner immense quantities of this +valuable article are annually wasted. Some few of the natives in +the poorest villages save a small quantity, to exchange with the +travelling Moormen for cotton cloths, etc., and in this manner +the trifling amount exported is collected. + +During the honey year at Newera Ellia I gave a native permission +to hunt bees in my forests, on condition that he should bring me +the wax. Of course he stole the greater portion, but +nevertheless, in a few weeks he brought me seventy-two pounds' +weight of well-cleaned and perfectly white wax, which he had made +up into balls about the size of an eighteen-pound shot. Thus, in +a few weeks, one man had collected about the thirtieth part of +the annual export from Ceylon; or, allowing that he stole at +least one-half, this would amount to the fifteenth. + +It would be a vain attempt to restrain these people from their +fixed habit; they would as soon think of refraining from +betel-chewing as giving up a favorite food. Neither will they be +easily persuaded to indulge in a food of a new description. I +once showed them the common British mushroom, which they declared +was a poisonous kind. To prove the contrary, I had them several +times at table, and found them precisely similar in appearance +and flavor to the well-known, "Agaricus campestris;" but, +notwithstanding this actual proof, the natives would not be +convinced, and, although accustomed to eat a variety of this +tribe, they positively declined this experiment. There is an +edible species which they prefer, which, from its appearance, an +Englishman would shun: this is perfectly white, both above and +below, and the upper cuticle cannot be peeled off. I have tasted +this, but it is very inferior in flavor to the common mushroom. + +Experiments in these varieties of fungi are highly dangerous, as +many of the most poisonous so closely resemble the edible species +that they can with difficulty be distinguished. There is one +kind of fungus that I have met with in the forests which, from +its offensive odor and disgusting appearance, should be something +superlatively bad. It grows about four inches high; the top is +round, with a fleshy and inflamed appearance; the stalk is out of +all proportion in its thickness, being about two inches in +diameter and of a livid white color; this, when broken, is full +of a transparent gelatinous fluid, which smells like an egg in +the last stage of rottenness. + +This fungus looks like an unhealthy excrescence on the face of +Nature, who, as though ashamed of the disgusting blemish, has +thrown a veil over the defect. The most exquisite fabric that +can be imagined - a scarlet veil, like a silken net - falls over +this ugly fungus, and, spreading like a tent at its base, it is +there attached to the ground. + +The meshes of this net are about as fine as those of a very +delicate silk purse, and the gaudiness of the color and the size +of the fungus make it a very prominent object, among the +surrounding vegetation. In fact, it is a diminutive, though +perfect circular tent of net-work, the stem of the fungus forming +the pole in the centre. + +I shall never forget my first introduction to this specimen. It +was growing in an open forest, free from any underwood, land it +seemed like a fairy bivouac beneath the mighty trees which +overshadowed it. Hardly believing my own eyes at so strange and +exquisite a structure, I jumped off my horse and hastened to +secure it. But the net-work once raised was like the uncovering +of the veiled prophet of Khorassan, and the stem, crushing in my +fingers, revealed all the disgusting properties of the plant, and +proved the impossibility of removing it entire. The elegance of +its exterior only served to conceal its character-like Madame +Mantilini, who, when undressed, "tumbled into ruins." + +There are two varieties of narcotic fungi whose properties are so +mild that they are edible in small quantities. One is a bright +crimson on the surface; this is the most powerful, and is seldom +used. The other is a white solid puff-ball, with a rough outer +skin or rind. + +I have eaten the latter on two occasions, having been assured by +the natives that they were harmless. The flavor somewhat +resembles a truffle, but I could not account for the extreme +drowsiness that I felt soon after eating; this wore off in the +course of two or three hours. On the following day I felt the +same effect, but to a still greater degree as, having convinced +myself that they were really eatable, I bad taken a larger +quantity. Knowing that the narcotic principle is the common +property of a great variety of fungi, it immediately struck me +that the puff-balls were the cause. On questioning the natives, +it appeared that it was this principle that they admired, as it +produced a species of mild intoxication. + +All people, of whatever class or clime, indulge in some narcotic +drug or drink. Those of the Cingalese are arrack, tobacco, fungi +and the Indian hemp. The use of the latter is, however, not so +general among the Cingalese as the Malabars. This drug has a +different effect from opium, as it does not injure the +constitution, but simply exhilarates, and afterward causes a +temporary lethargy. + +In appearance it very nearly resembles the common hemp, but it +differs in the seed. The leaves and blossoms are dried, and are +either smoked like tobacco, or formed into a paste with various +substances and chewed. + +When the plant approaches maturity, a gummy substance exudes from +the leaves; this is gathered by men clothed in dry raw hides, +who, by walking through the plantation, become covered with this +gum or glue. This is scraped off and carefully preserved, being +the very essence of the plant, and exceedingly powerful in its +effects. + +The sensation produced by the properties of this shrub is a wild, +dreamy kind of happiness; the ideas are stimulated to a high +degree, and all that are most pleasurable are exaggerated till +the senses at length sink into a vague and delightful elysium. + +The reaction after this unnatural excitement is very +distressing, but the sufferer is set all right again by some +trifling stimulant, such as a glass of wine or spirits. + +It is supposed, and confidently asserted by some, that the Indian +hemp is the foundation of the Egyptian "hashisch," the effects of +which are precisely similar. + +However harmless the apparent effect of a narcotic drug, common +sense must at once perceive that a repeated intoxication, no +matter how it is produced, must be ultimately hurtful to the +system. The brain, accustomed to constant stimulants, at length +loses its natural power, and requires these artificial assistants +to enable it to perform its ordinary functions, in the same +manner that the stomach, from similar treatment, would at length +cease to act. This being continued, the brain becomes +semi-torpid, until wakened up by a powerful stimulant, and the +nervous system is at length worn out by a succession of exciting +causes and reactions. Thus, a hard drinker appears dull and +heavy until under the influence of his secret destroyer when he +brightens up and, perhaps, shines in conversation; but every +reaction requires a stronger amount of stimulant to lessen its +effect, until mind and body at length become involved in the +common ruin. + +The seed of the lotus is a narcotic of a mild description, and it +is carefully gathered when ripe and eaten by the natives. + +The lotus is seen in two varieties in Ceylon - the pink and the +white. The former is the most beautiful, and they are both very +common in all tanks and sluggish streams. The leaves are larger +than those of the waterlily, to which they bear a great +resemblance, and the blossoms are full double the size. When the +latter fade, the petals fall, and the base of the flower and +seed-pod remains in the shape of a circular piece of honeycomb, +full of cells sufficiently large to contain a hazel-nut. This is +about the size of the seed, but the shape is more like an acorn +without its cup. The flavor is pleasant, being something like a +filbert, but richer and more oily. + +Stramonium (Datura stramonium), which is a powerful narcotic, is +a perfect weed throughout the island, but it is not used by the +natives otherwise than medicinally, and the mass of the people +are ignorant of its qualities, which are only known to the +Cingalese doctors. I recollect some years ago, in Mauritius, +where this plant is equally common, its proprieties were not only +fully understood, but made use of by some of the Chinese +emigrants. These fellows made cakes of manioc and poisoned them +with stramonium. Hot manioc cakes are the common every-day +accompaniment to a French planter's breakfast at Mauritius, and +through the medium of these the Chinese robbed several houses. +Their plan was simple enough. + +A man with cakes to sell appeared at the house at an early hour, +and these being purchased, he retired until about two hours after +breakfast was concluded. By this time the whole family were +insensible, and the thieves robbed the house at their leisure. +None of these cases terminated fatally; but, from the instant +that I heard of it, I made every cake-seller who appeared at the +door devour one of his own cakes before I became a purchaser. +These men, however, were bona fide cake-merchants, and I did not +meet with an exception. + +There are a great variety of valuable medicinal plants in the +jungles of Ceylon, many of which are unknown to any but the +native doctors. Those most commonly known to us, and which may +be seen growing wild by the roadside, are the nux vomica, +ipecacuanha, gamboge, sarsaparilla, cassia fistula, cardamoms, +etc. + +The ipecacuanha is a pretty, delicate plant, which bears a bright +orange-colored cluster of flowers. + +The cassia fistula is a very beautiful tree, growing to the size +of an ash, which it somewhat resembles in foliage. The blossom +is very beautiful, being a pendant of golden flowers similar to +the laburnum, but each blossom is about two and a half feet long, +and the individual flowers on the bunch are large in proportion. +When the tree is in full flower it is very superb, and equally as +singular when its beauty has faded and the seed-pods are formed. +These grow to a length of from two to three feet, and when ripe +are perfectly black, round, and about three-quarters of an inch +in diameter. The tree has the appearance of bearing, a prolific +crop of ebony rulers, each hanging from the bough by a short +string. + +There is another species of cassia fistula, the foliage of which +assimilates to the mimosa. This bears a thicker, but much +shorter, pod, of about a foot in length. The properties of both +are the same, being laxative. Each seed within the pod is +surrounded by a sweet, black and honey-like substance, which +contains the property alluded to. + +The gamboge tree is commonly known in Ceylon as the "ghorka." +This grows to the common size of an apple tree, and bears a +corrugated and intensely acid fruit. This is dried by the +natives and used in curries. The gamboge is the juice of the +tree obtained by incisions in the bark. This tree grows in great +numbers in the neighborhood of Colombo, especially among the +cinnamon gardens. Here, also, the cashew tree grows to great +perfection. The bark of the latter is very rich in tannin, and +is used by the natives in the preparation of hides. The fruit is +like an apple in appearance, and small, but is highly astringent. +The well-known cashew-nut grows like an excrescence from the end +of the apple. + +Many are the varieties and uses of vegetable productions in +Ceylon, but of these none are more singular and interesting than +the "sack tree," the Riti Gaha of the Cingalese. From the bark +of this tree an infinite number of excellent sacks are procured, +with very little trouble or preparation. The tree being felled, +the branches are cut into logs of the length required, and +sometimes these are soaked in water; but this is not always +necessary. The balk is then well beaten with a wooden mallet, +until it is loosened from the wood; it is then stripped off the +log as a stocking is drawn off the leg. It is subsequently +bleached, and one end being sewn lip, completes a perfect sack of +a thick fibrous texture, somewhat similar to felt. + +These sacks are in general use among the natives, and are +preferred by them to any other, as their durability is such that +they sometimes descend from father to son. By constant use they +stretch and increase their original size nearly one half. The +texture necessarily becomes thinner, but the strength does not +appear to be materially decreased. + +There are many fibrous barks in Ceylon, some which are so strong +that thin strips require a great amount of strength to break +them, but none of these have yet been reduced to a marketable +fibre. Several barks are more or less aromatic; others would be +valuable to the tanners; several are highly esteemed by the +natives as most valuable astringents, but hitherto none have +received much notice from Europeans. This may be caused by the +general want of success of all experiments with indigenous +produce. Although the jungles of Ceylon produce a long list of +articles of much interest, still their value chiefly lies in +their curiosity; they are useful to the native, but +comparatively of little worth to the European. In fact, few +things will actually pay for the trouble and expense of +collecting and transporting. Throughout the vast forests and +jungles of Ceylon, although the varieties of trees are endless, +there is not one valuable gum known to exist. There is a great +variety of coarse, unmarketable productions, about equal to the +gum of the cherry tree, etc., but there is no such thing as a +high-priced gum in the island. + +The export of dammer is a mere trifle - four tons in 1852, twelve +tons in 1853. This is a coarse and comparatively valueless +commodity. No other tree but the doom tree produces any gum +worth collecting; this species of rosin exudes in large +quantities from an incision in the bark, but the amount of +exports shows its insignificance. It is a fair sample of Ceylon +productions; nothing that is uncultivated is of much pecuniary +value. + +CHAPTER XI. Indigenous Productions - Botanical Gardens - +Suggested Experiments - Lack of Encouragement to Gold-diggers - +Prospects of Gold-digging - We want "Nuggets" - Who is to Blame? +- Governor's Salary - Fallacies of a Five Years' Reign - +Neglected Education of the People - Responsibilities of Conquest +- Progress of Christianity. + +The foregoing chapter may appear to decry in toto the indigenous +productions of Ceylon, as it is asserted that they are valueless +in their natural state. Nevertheless, I do not imply that they +must necessarily remain useless. Where Nature simply creates a +genus, cultivation extends the species, and from an insignificant +parent stock we propagate our finest varieties of both animals +and vegetables. Witness the wild kale, parsnip, carrot, +crab-apple, sloe, etc., all utterly worthless, but nevertheless +the first parents of their now choice descendants. + +It is therefore impossible to say what might not he done in the +improvement of indigenous productions were the attention of +science bestowed upon them. But all this entails expense, and +upon whom is this to fall? Out of a hundred experiments +ninety-nine might fail. In Ceylon we have no wealthy +experimentalists, no agricultural exhibitions, no model farms, +but every man who settles in a colony has left the mother country +to better himself; therefore, no private enterprise is capable of +such speculation. It clearly rests upon the government to +develop the resources of the country, to prove the value of the +soil, which is delivered to the purchaser at so much per acre, +good or bad. But no; it is not in the nature of our government +to move from an established routine. As the squirrel revolves +his cage, so governor after governor rolls his dull course along, +pockets his salary, and leaves the poor colony as he found it. + +The government may direct the attention of the public, in reply, +to their own establishment - to the botanical gardens. Have we +not botanical gardens? We have, indeed, and much good they +should do, if conducted upon the principle of developing local +resources; but this would entail expense, and, like everything in +the hands of government, it dies in its birth for want of +consistent management. + +With an able man as superintendent at a good salary, the +beautiful gardens at Peredenia are rendered next to useless for +want of a fund at his disposal. Instead of being conducted as an +experimental farm, they are little more than ordinary +pleasure-grounds, filled with the beautiful foliage of the +tropics and kept in perfect order. What benefit have they been +to the colony? Have the soils of various districts been tested? +have new fibres been manufactured from the countless indigenous +fibrous plants? have new oils been extracted? have medicinal +drugs been produced? have dyes been extracted? have improvements +been suggested in the cultivation of any of the staple articles +of Ceylon export? In fact, has ANYTHING ever been done by +government for the interest of the private settler? + +This is not the fault of the manager of the gardens; he has the +will, but no funds. My idea of the object of a botanical garden +is, that agricultural theories should be reduced to facts, upon +which private enterprise may speculate, and by such success the +government should ultimately benefit. + +It is well known to the commonest school-boy that soil which may +be favorable to one plant is not adapted to another; therefore, +where there is a diversity of soils it stands to reason that +there should be a corresponding variety of crops to suit those +soils, so as to make the whole surface of the land yield its +proportion. + +In Ceylon, where the chief article of production is coffee, land +(upon an estate) which is not suitable to this cultivation is +usually considered waste. Thus the government and the private +proprietor are alike losers in possessing an amount of +unprofitable soil. + +Now, surely it is the common sense object in the establishment of +a botanical garden to discover for each description of soil a +remunerating crop, so that an estate should be cultivated to its +uttermost, and the word "waste" be unknown upon the property. + +Under the present system of management this is impossible; the +sum allowed per annum is but just sufficient to keep the gardens +in proper condition, and the abilities of the botanist in charge +are sacrificed. Many a valuable plant now lies screened in the +shades of remote jungles, which the enterprising botanist would +bring to light were he enabled by government to make periodical +journeys through the interior. These journeys should form a part +of his duties; his botanical specimens should be his game, and +they should be pursued with the ardor of the chase itself, and +subsequently transferred to the gardens and their real merits +discovered by experiments. + +But what can be expected from an apathetic system of government? +Dyes, fibres, gums may abound in the forests, metals and even +gold may be concealed beneath our feet; but the governor does not +consider it a part of his duty to prosecute the search, or even +to render facilities to those of a more industrious temperament. +What can better exemplify the case than the recent discovery of +gold at Newera Ellia? + +Here was the plain fact that gold was found in small specks, not +in one spot, but everywhere throughout the swamps for miles in +the vicinity - that at a depth of two or three feet from the +surface this proof was adduced of its presence; but the governor +positively refused to assist the discoverers ("diggers," who were +poor sailors visiting Ceylon), although they merely asked for +subsistence until they should be able to reach a greater depth. +This may appear too absurd to be correct, but it is nevertheless +true. + +At the time that I commenced these sketches of Ceylon the gold +was just discovered, and I touched but lightly upon it, in the +expectation that a few months of labor, aided by government +support, would have established its presence in remunerating +quantities. The swampy nature of the soil rendered the digging +impossible without the aid of powerful pumps to reduce the water, +which filled the shaft so rapidly that no greater depth could be +obtained than eighteen feet, and even this at immense labor. + +The diggers were absolutely penniless, and but for assistance +received from private parties they must have starved. The rainy +season was at its height, and torrents fell night and day with +little intermission. Still, these poor little fellows worked +early and late, wet and dry, ever sanguine of success, and they +at length petitioned the Government to give them the means of +subsistence for a few months - "subsistence" for two men, and the +assistance of a few coolies. This was refused, and the reply +stated that the government intended to leave the search for gold +to "private enterprise." No reward was offered for its discovery +as in other colonies, but the governor would leave it to "private +enterprise." A promising enterprise truly, when every landholder +in Ceylon, on referring to his title-deeds, observes the +reservation of all precious metals to the crown. This is a fair +sample of the narrow-minded, selfish policy of a government +which, in endeavoring to save a little, loses all; a miserable +tampering with the public in attempting to make a cat's paw of +private enterprise. + +How has this ended? The diggers left the island in disgust. If +the gold is there in quantity, there in quantity it remains to +the present time, unsought for. The subject of gold is so +generally interesting, and in this case of such importance to the +colony, that, believing as I do that it does exist in large +quantities, I must claim the reader's patience in going into this +subject rather fully. + +Let us take the matter as it stands. + +The reader will remember that I mentioned at an early part of +these pages that gold was first discovered in Ceylon by the +diggers in the bed of a stream near Kandy - that they +subsequently came to Newera Ellia, and there discovered gold +likewise. + +It must be remembered that the main features of the country at +Newera Ellia and the vicinity are broad flats or swampy plains, +surrounded by hills and mountains: the former covered with rank +grass and intersected by small streams, the latter covered with +dense forest. The soil abounds with rocks of gneiss and quartz, +some of the latter rose-color, some pure white. The gold has +hitherto been found in the plains only. These plains extend over +some thirty miles of country, divided into numerous patches by +intervening jungles. + +The surface soil is of a peaty nature, perfectly black, soapy +when wet, and as light as soot when dry; worthless for +cultivation. This top soil is about eighteen inches thick, and +appears to have been the remains of vegetable matter washed down +from the surrounding hills and forests. + +This swampy black soil rests upon a thin stratum of brownish +clay, not more than a few inches thick, which, forming a second +layer, rests in its turn upon a snow white rounded quartz gravel +intermixed with white pipe-clay. + +This contains gold, every shovelful of earth producing, when +washed, one or more specks of the precious metal. + +The stratum of rounded quartz is about two feet thick, and is +succeeded by pipe-clay, intermixed with quartz gravel, to a depth +of eighteen feet. Here another stratum of quartz gravel is met +with, perfectly water-worn and rounded to the size of a +twelve-pound shot. + +In this stratum the gold was of increased size, and some pieces +were discovered as large as small grains of rice; but no greater +depth was attained at the time Of writing than to this stratum, +viz., eighteen feet from the surface. + +No other holes were sunk to a greater depth than ten feet, on +account of the influx of water, but similar shafts were made in +various places, and all with equal success. + +>From the commencement of the first stratum of quartz throughout +to the greatest depth attained gold was present. + +Upon washing away the clay and gravel, a great number of gems of +small value remained (chiefly sapphire, ruby, jacinth and green +tourmaline). These being picked out, there remained a jet-black +fine sand, resembling gunpowder. This was of great specific +gravity, and when carefully washed, discovered the gold - some in +grains, some in mere specks, and some like fine, golden flour. + +At this interesting stage the search has been given up: although +the cheering sight of gold can be obtained in nearly every pan of +earth at such trifling depths, and literally in every direction, +the prospect is abandoned. The government leaves it to private +enterprise, but the enterprising public have no faith in the +government. + +Without being over-sanguine, or, on the other side, closing our +cars with asinine stubbornness, let us take an impartial view of +the facts determined, and draw rational conclusions. + +It appears that from a depth of two and a half feet from the +surface to the greatest depth as yet attained (eighteen feet), +gold exists throughout. + +It also appears that this is not only the case in one particular +spot, but all over this part of the country, and that this fact +is undeniable; and, nevertheless, the government did not believe +in the existence of gold in Ceylon until these diggers discovered +it; and when discovered, they gave the diggers neither reward nor +encouragement, but they actually met the discovery by a published +prohibition against the search; they then latterly withdrew the +prohibition and left it to private enterprise, but neglected the +unfortunate diggers. In this manner is the colony mismanaged; in +this manner is all public spirit damped, all private enterprise +checked, and all men who have anything to venture disgusted. + +The liberality of a government must be boundless where the actual +subsistence for a few months is refused to the discoverers of +gold in a country where, hitherto, its presence had been denied. + +It would be speculative to anticipate the vast changes that in +extended discovery would effect in such a colony as Ceylon. We +have before us the two pictures of California and Australia, +which have been changed as though by the magician's wand within +the last few years. It becomes us now simply to consider the +probability of the gold being in such quantities in Ceylon as to +effect such changes. We have it present these simple data - that +in a soft, swampy soil gold has been found close to the surface +in small specks, gradually increasing in size and quantity as a +greater depth has been attained. + +>From the fact that gold will naturally lie deep, from its +specific gravity, it is astonishing that any vestige of such a +metal should be discovered in such soil so close to the surface. +Still more astonishing that it should be so generally +disseminated throughout the locality. This would naturally be +accepted as a proof that the soil is rich in gold. But the +question will then arise, Where is the gold? The quantities found +are a mere nothing - it is only dust: we want "nuggets." + +The latter is positively the expression that I myself frequently +heard in Ceylon - "We want nuggets." + +Who does not want nuggets? But people speak of "nuggets" as they +would of pebbles, forgetting that the very principle which keeps +the light dust at the surface has forced the heavier gold to a +greater depth, and that far from complaining of the lack of +nuggets when digging has hardly commenced, they should gaze with +wonder at the bare existence of the gold in its present form and +situation. + +The diggings at Ballarat are from a hundred to an hundred and +sixty feet deep in hard ground, and yet people in Ceylon expect +to find heavy gold in mere mud, close to the surface. The idea +is preposterous, and I conceive it only reasonable to infer from +the present appearances that gold does exist in large quantities +in Ceylon. But as it is reasonable to suppose such to be the +case, so it is unreasonable to suppose that private individuals +will invest capital in so uncertain a speculation as mining +without facilities from the government, and in the very face of +the clause in their own title-deeds "that all precious metals +belong to the crown." + +This is the anomalous position of the gold in Ceylon under the +governorship of Sir G. Anderson. + +Nevertheless, it becomes a question whether we should blame the +man or the system, but the question arises in this case, as with +everything else in which government is concerned, "Where is the +fault?" "Echo answers 'Where?'" But the public are not satisfied +with echoes, and in this matter-of-fact age people look to those +who fill ostensible posts and draw bona fide salaries; and if +these men hold the appointments, no matter under what system, +they become the deserved objects of either praise or censure. + +Thus it may appear too much to say that Sir G. Anderson is liable +for the mismanagement of the colony in toto -for the total +neglect of the public roads. It may appear too much to say, When +you came to the colony you found the roads in good order: they +are now impassable; communication is actually cut off from places +of importance. This is your fault, these are the fruits of your +imbecility; your answer to our petitions for repairs was, "There +is no money;" and yet at the close of the year you proclaimed and +boasted of a saving of twenty-seven thousand pounds in the +treasury! This seems a fearful contradiction; and the whole +public received it as such. The governor may complain that the +public expect too much; the public may complain that the governor +does too little. + +Upon these satisfactory terms, governors and their dependants bow +each other out, the colony being a kind of opera stall, a +reserved seat for the governor during the performance of five +acts (as we will term his five years of office); and the fifth +act, as usual in tragedies, exposes the whole plot of the +preceding four, and winds up with the customary disasters. + +Now the question is, how long this age of misrule will last. + +Every one complains, and still every one endures. Each man has a +grievance, but no man has a remedy. Still, the absurdity of our +colonial appointments is such that if steps were purposely taken +to ensure the destruction of the colonies, they could not have +been more certain. + +We will commence with a new governor dealt out to a colony. We +will simply call him a governor, not troubling ourselves with his +qualifications, as of course they have not been considered at the +Colonial Office. He may be an upright, clear-headed, +indefatigable man, in the prime of life, or he may be old, +crotchety, pigheaded, and mentally and physically incapable. He +may be either; it does not much matter, as he can only remain for +five years, at which time his term expires. + +We will suppose that the crotchety old gentleman arrives first. +The public will be in a delightful perplexity as to what the new +governor will do - whether he will carry out the views of his +predecessor, or whether he will upset everything that has been +done in the past five years; all is uncertainty. The only thing +known positively is, that, good or bad, he will pocket seven +thousand a year!* *[since reduced to five thousand pounds]. + +His term of government will be chequered by many disappointments +to the public, and, if he has any feeling at all, by many +heartburnings to himself. Physically incapable of much +exertion, he will be unable to travel over so wild a country as +Ceylon. A good governor in a little island may be a very bad +governor in a large island, as a good cab-driver might make a bad +four-in hand man; thus our old governor would have no practical +knowledge of the country, but would depend upon prejudiced +accounts for his information. Thus he would never arrive at any +correct information; he would receive all testimony with doubt, +considering that each had some personal motive in offering +advice, and one tongue would thus nullify the other until he +should at length come to the conclusion of David in his haste, +"that all men are liars," and turn a deaf ear to all. This would +enable him to pass the rest of his term without any active +blunders, and he might vary the passive monotony of his existence +by a system of contradiction to all advice gratis. A little +careful pruning of expenses during the last two years of his term +might give a semblance of increase o£ revenue over expenditure, +to gain a smile from the Colonial Office. On his return the +colony would be left with neglected roads, consequent upon the +withdrawal of the necessary funds. + +This incubus at length removed from the colony, may be succeeded +by a governor of the first class. + +He arrives; finds everything radically wrong; the great arteries +of the country (the roads) in disorder; a large outlay required +to repair them. Thus his first necessary act begins by an outlay +at a time when all outlay is considered equivalent to crime. +This gains him a frown from the Colonial Office. Conscious of +right, however, he steers his own course; he travels over the +whole country, views its features personally, judges of its +requirements and resources, gathers advice from capable persons, +forms his own opinion, and acts accordingly. + +We will allow two years of indefatigable research to have passed +over our model governor; by that time, and not before, he may +have become thoroughly conversant with the colony in all its +bearings. He has comprehended the vast natural capabilities, he +has formed his plans methodically for the improvement of the +country; not by any rash and speculative outlay, but, step by +step, he hopes to secure the advancement of his schemes. + +This is a work of time; he has much to do. The country is in an +uncivilized state; he sees the vestiges of past grandeur around +him, and his views embrace a wide field for the renewal of former +prosperity. Tanks must be repaired, canals reopened, emigration +of Chinese and Malabars encouraged, forests and jungles cleared, +barren land brought into fertility. The work of years is before +him, but the expiration of his term draws near. Time is +precious, but nevertheless he must refer his schemes to the +Colonial Office. What do they know of Ceylon? To them his plans +seem visionary; at all events they will require an outlay. A +correspondence ensues - that hateful correspondence! This ensures +delay. Time flies; the expiration of his term draws near. Even +his sanguine temperament has ceased to hope; his plans are not +even commenced, to work out which would require years; he never +could see them realized, and his successor might neglect them and +lay the onus of the failure upon him, the originator, or claim +the merit of their success. + +So much for a five years' term of governorship, the absurdity of +which is superlative. It is so entirely contrary to the system +of management in private affairs that it is difficult to imagine +the cause that could have given rise to such a regulation. In +matters great or small, the capability of the manager is the +first consideration; and if this be proved, the value of the man +is enhanced accordingly; no employer would lose him. + +But in colonial governments the system is directly opposite, for +no sooner does the governor become competent than he is withdrawn +and transferred to another sphere. Thus every colony is like a +farm held on a short lease, which effectually debars it from +improvement, as the same feeling which actuates the individual in +neglecting the future, because he will not personally enjoy the +fruits of his labor, must in some degree fetter the enterprise of +a five years' governor. He is little better than the Lord Mayor, +who flutters proudly for a year, and then drops his borrowed +feathers in his moulting season. + +Why should not governors serve an apprenticeship for five years +as colonial secretaries to the colonies they are destined for, if +five years is still to be the limited term of their office? This +would ensure a knowledge of the colony at a secretary's salary, +and render them fit for both the office and salary of governor +when called upon; whereas, by the present system, they at once +receive a governor's salary before they understand their duties. + +In casually regarding the present picture of Ceylon, it is hard +to say which point has been most neglected; but a short +residence in the island will afford a fair sample of government +inactivity in the want of education among the people. + +Upon this subject more might be said than lies in my province to +dwell upon; nevertheless, after fifty years' possession of the +Kandian districts, this want is so glaring that I cannot withhold +a few remarks upon the subject, as I consider the ignorant state +of the native population a complete check to the advancement of +the colony. + +In commencing this subject, I must assume that the conquerors of +territory are responsible for the moral welfare of the +inhabitants; therefore our responsibility increases with our +conquests. A mighty onus thus rests upon Great Britain, which +few consider when they glory in the boast, "that the sun never +sets upon her dominions." + +This thought leads us to a comparison of power between ourselves +and other countries, and we trace the small spot upon the world's +map which marks our little island, and in every sphere we gaze +with wonder at our vast possessions. This is a picture of the +present. What will the future be in these days of advancement? +It were vain to hazard a conjecture; but we can look back upon +the past, and build upon this foundation our future hopes. + +When the pomps and luxuries of Eastern cities spread throughout +Ceylon, and millions of inhabitants fed on her fertility, when +the hands of her artists chiseled the figures of her gods from +the rude rock, when her vessels, laden with ivory and spices, +traded with the West, what were we? A forest-covered country, +peopled by a fierce race of savages clad in skins, bowing before +druidical idolatry, paddling along our shores in frames of +wickerwork and hide. + +The ancient deities of Ceylon are in the same spots, unchanged; +the stones of the Druids stand unmoved; but what has become of +the nations? Those of the East have faded away and their strength +has perished. Their ships are crumbled; the rude canoe glides +over their waves; the spices grow wild in their jungles; and, +unshorn and unclad, the inhabitants wander on the face of the +land. + +Is it "chance" that has worked this change? Where is the +forest-covered country and its savage race, its skin-clad +warriors and their frail coracles? + +There, where the forest stood, from north to south and from east +to west, spreads a wide field of rich fertility. There, on those +rivers where the basket-boats once sailed, rise the taut spars of +England's navy. Where the rude hamlet rested on its banks in +rural solitude, the never-weary din of commerce rolls through the +city of the world. The locomotive rushes like a thunder-clap +upon the rail; the steamer ploughs against the adverse wind, and, +rapid as the lightning, the telegraph cripples time. The once +savage land is the nucleus of the arts and civilization. The +nation that from time to time was oppressed, invaded, conquered, +but never subjected, still pressed against the weight of +adversity, and, as age after age rolled on, and mightier woes and +civil strife gathered upon her, still the germ of her destiny, as +it expanded, threw off her load, until she at length became a +nation envied and feared. + +It was then that the powers of the world were armed against her, +and all Europe joined to tear the laurels from her crown, and +fleets and armies thronged from all points against the devoted +land, and her old enemy, the Gaul, hovered like his own eagle +over the expected prey. + +The thunder of the cannon shook the world, and blood tinged the +waves around the land, and war and tumult shrieked like a tempest +over the fair face of Nature; the din of battle smothered all +sounds of peace, and years passed on and thicker grew the gloom. +It was then the innate might of the old Briton roused itself to +action and strained those giant nerves which brought us victory. +The struggle was past, and as the smoke of battle cleared from +the surface of the world, the flag of England waved in triumph on +the ocean, her fleets sat swan-like on the waves, her standard +floated on the strongholds of the universe, and far and wide +stretched the vast boundaries of her conquests. + +Again I ask, is this the effect of "chance?" or is it the mighty +will of Omnipotence, which, choosing his instruments from the +humbler ranks, has snatched England from her lowly state, and has +exalted her to be the apostle of Christianity throughout the +world? + +Here lies her responsibility. The conquered nations are in her +hands; they have been subject to her for half a century, but they +know neither her language nor her religion. + +How many millions of human beings of all creeds and colors does +she control? Are they or their descendants to embrace our faith? +- that is, I are we the divine instrument for accomplishing the +vast change that we expect by the universal acknowledgement of +Christianity? or are we - I pause before the suggestion - are we +but another of those examples of human insignificance, that, as +from dust we rose, so to dust we shall return? shall we be but +another in the long list of nations whose ruins rest upon the +solitudes of Nature, like warnings to the proud cities which +triumph in their strength? Shall the traveler in future ages +place his foot upon the barren sod and exclaim, "Here stood their +great city!" + +The inhabitants of Nineveh would have scoffed at such a +supposition. And yet they fell, and yet the desert sand shrouded +their cities as the autumn leaves fall on the faded flowers of +summer. + +To a fatalist it can matter but little whether a nation fulfills +its duty, or whether, by neglecting it, punishment should be +drawn down upon its head. According to his theory, neither good +nor evil acts would alter a predestined course of events. There +are apparently fatalist governments as well as individuals, +which, absorbed in the fancied prosperity of the present, +legislate for temporal advantages only. + +Thus we see the most inconsistent and anomalous conditions +imposed in treaties with conquered powers; we see, for instance, +in Ceylon, a protection granted to the Buddhist religion, while +flocks of missionaries are sent out to convert the heathen. We +even stretch the point so far as to place a British sentinel on +guard at the Buddhist temple in Kandy, as though in mockery of +our Protestant church a hundred paces distant. + +At the same time that we acknowledge and protect the Buddhist +religion, we pray that Christianity shall spread through the +whole world; and we appoint bishops to our colonies at the same +time we neglect the education of the inhabitants. + +When I say we neglect the education I do not mean to infer that +there are no government schools, but that the education of the +people, instead of being one of the most important objects of the +government, is considered of so little moment that it is +tantamount to neglected. + +There are various opinions as to the amount of learning which +constitutes education, and at some of the government schools the +native children are crammed with useless nonsense, which, by +raising them above their natural position, totally unfits them +for their proper sphere. This is what the government calls +education; and the same time and expense thus employed in +teaching a few would educate treble the number in plain English. +It is too absurd to hear the arguments in favor of mathematics, +geography, etc., etc., for the native children, when a large +proportion of our own population in Great Britain can neither +read nor write. + +The great desideratum in native education is a thorough knowledge +of the English tongue, which naturally is the first stone for any +superstructure of more extended learning. This brings them +within the reach of the missionary, not only in conversation, but +it enables them to benefit by books, which are otherwise useless. +It lessens the distance between the white man and the black, and +an acquaintance with the English language engenders a taste for +English habits. The first dawn of civilization commences with a +knowledge of our language. The native immediately adopts some +English customs and ideas, and drops a corresponding number of +his own. In fact, he is a soil fit to work up on, instead of +being a barren rock as hitherto, firm in his own ignorance and +prejudices. + +In the education of the rising native generation lies the hope of +ultimate conversion. You may as well try to turn pitch into snow +as to eradicate the dark stain of heathenism from the present +race. Nothing can be done with them; they must be abandoned like +the barren fig-tree, and the more attention bestowed upon the +young shoots. + +But, unfortunately, this is a popular error, and, like all such, +one full of prejudice. Abandon the present race! Methinks I hear +the cry from Exeter Hall. But the good people at home have no +idea to what an extent they are at present, and always have been, +abandoned. Where the children who can be educated with success +are neglected at the present day, it may be imagined that the +parents have been but little cared for; thus, in advocating their +abandonment, it is simply proposing an extra amount of attention +to be bestowed upon the next generation. + +There are many large districts of Ceylon where no schools of any +kind are established. In the Ouva country, which is one of the +most populous, I have had applications from the natives, begging +me to interest myself in obtaining some arrangement of the kind. +Throngs of natives applied, describing the forlorn condition of +their district, all being not only anxious to send their children +to some place where they could learn free of expense, but +offering to pay a weekly stipend in return. "They are growing up +as ignorant as our young buffaloes," was a remark made by one of +the headmen of the villages, and this within twelve miles of +Newera Ellia. + +Now, leaving out the question of policy in endeavoring to make +the language of our own country the common tongue of a conquered +colony, it must be admitted that, simply as a question of duty, +it is incumbent upon the government to do all in its power for +the moral advancement of the native population. It is known that +the knowledge of our language is the first step necessary to this +advancement, and nevertheless it is left undone; the population +is therefore neglected. + +I have already adverted to the useless system in the government +schools of forcing a superabundant amount of knowledge into the +children's brains, and thereby raising them above their position. +A contrasting example of good common-sense education has recently +been given by the Rev. Mr. Thurston (who is indefatigable in his +profession) in the formulation of an industrial school at +Colombo. + +This is precisely the kind of education which is required; and it +has already been attended with results most beneficial on its +limited scale. + +This school is conducted on the principle that the time of every +boy shall not only be of service to himself, but shall likewise +tend to the support of the establishment. The children are +accordingly instructed in such pursuits as shall be the means of +earning a livelihood in future years: some are taught a trade, +others are employed in the cultivation of gardens, and +subsequently in the preparation of a variety of produce. Among +others, the preparation of tapioca from the root of the manioc +has recently been attended with great success. In fact, they are +engaged during their leisure hours in a variety of experiments, +all of which tend to an industrial turn of mind, benefiting not +only the lad and the school, but also the government, by +preparing for the future men who will be serviceable and +industrious in their station. + +Here is a lesson for the government which, if carried out on an +extensive scale, would work a greater change in the colony within +the next twenty years than all the preaching of the last fifty. + +Throughout Ceylon, in every district, there should be established +one school upon this principle for every hundred boys, and a +small tract of land granted to each. One should be attached to +the botanical gardens at Peredenia, and instruction should be +given to enable every school to perform its own experiments in +agriculture. By this means, in the course of a few years we +should secure an educated and useful population, in lieu of the +present indolent and degraded race: an improved system of +cultivation, new products, a variety of trades, and, in fact, a +test of the capabilities of the country would be ensured, without +risk to the government, and to the ultimate prosperity of the +colony. Heathenism could not exist in such a state of affairs; +it would die out. Minds exalted by education upon such a system +would look with ridicule upon the vestiges of former idolatry, +and the rocky idols would remain without a worshiper, while a new +generation flocked to the Christian altar. + +This is no visionary prospect. It has been satisfactorily proved +that the road to conversion to Christianity is through knowledge, +and this once attained, heathenism shrinks into the background. +This knowledge can only be gained by the young when such schools +are established as I have described. + +Our missionaries should therefore devote their attention to this +object, and cease to war against the impossibility of adult +conversion. If one-third of the enormous sums hitherto expended +with little or no results upon missionary labor had been employed +in the establishments as proposed, our colonies would now possess +a Christian population. But are our missionaries capable? Here +commences another question, which again involves others in their +turn, all of which, when answered, thoroughly explain the +stationary, if not retrograde, position of the Protestant Church +among the heathen. + +What is the reader's conceived opinion of the duties and labors +of a missionary in a heathen land? Does he, or does he not +imagine, as he pays his subscription toward this object, that the +devoted missionary quits his native shores, like one of the +apostles of old, to fight the good fight? that he leaves all to +follow "Him?" and that he wanders forth in his zeal to propagate +the gospel, penetrating into remote parts, preaching to the +natives, attending on the sick, living a life of hardship and +self-denial? + +It is a considerable drawback to this belief in missionary labor +when it is known that the missionaries are not educated for the +particular colonies to which they are sent; upon arrival, they +are totally ignorant of the language of the natives, accordingly, +they are perfectly useless for the purpose of "propagating the +gospel among the heathen." Their mission should be that of +instructing the young, and for this purpose they should first be +instructed themselves. + +I do not wish to throw a shade upon the efforts of missionary +labor; I have no doubt that they use great exertions privately, +which the public on the spot do not observe; but taking this for +granted as the case, the total want of success in the result +becomes the more deplorable. I have also no doubt that the +missionaries penetrate into the most remote parts of Ceylon and +preach the gospel. For many years I have traversed the +wildernesses of Ceylon at all hours and at all seasons. I have +met many strange things during my journeys, but I never recollect +having met a missionary. The bishop of Colombo is the only man I +know who travels out of the high road for this purpose; and he, +both in this and many other respects, offers an example which few +appear to follow. + +Nevertheless, although Protestant missionaries are so rare in the +jungles of the interior, and, if ever there, no vestige ever +remains of such a visit, still, in spots where it might be least +expected, may be seen the humble mud hut, surmounted by a cross, +the certain trace of some persevering priest of the Roman faith. +These men display an untiring zeal, and no point is too remote +for their good offices. Probably they are not so comfortable in +their quarters in the towns as the Protestant missionaries, and +thus they have less hesitation in leaving home. + +The few converts that have been made are chiefly Roman Catholics, +as among the confusion arising from our multitudinous sects and +schisms the native is naturally bewildered. What with High +Church, Low Church, Baptists, Wesleyans, Presbyterians, etc., +etc., etc., the ignorant native is perfectly aghast at the +variety of choice. + +With the members of our Church in such a dislocated state, +progression cannot be expected by simple attempts at conversion; +even were the natives willing to embrace the true faith, they +would have great difficulty in finding it amidst the crowd of +adverse opinions. Without probing more deeply into these social +wounds, I must take leave of the missionary labors in Ceylon, +trusting that ere long the eyes of the government will be fixed +upon the true light to guide the prosperity of the island by +framing an ordinance for the liberal education of the people. + +CHAPTER XII. The Pearl Fishery - Desolation of the Coast - +Harbor of Trincomalee - Fatal Attack by a Shark - Ferocious +Crocodiles - Salt Monopoly - Salt Lakes - Method of Collection - +Neglect of Ceylon Hides - Fish and Fishing - Primitive Tackle - +Oysters and Penknives - A Night Bivouac for a Novice - No Dinner, +but a Good Fire - Wild Yams and Consequences -The Elephants' Duel +- A Hunting Hermitage - Bluebeard's last Hunt - The Leopard - +Bluebeard's Death - Leopard Shot. + +While fresh from the subject of government mismanagement, let us +turn our eyes in the direction of one of those natural resources +of wealth for which Ceylon has ever been renowned - the "pearl +fishery." This was the goose which laid the golden egg, and Sir +W. Horton, when governor of Ceylon, was the man who killed the +goose. + +Here was another fatal instance of the effects of a five years' +term of governorship. + +It was the last year of his term, and he wished to prove to the +Colonial Office that "his talent" had not been laid up in a +napkin, but that he bad left the colony with an excess of income +over expenditure. To obtain this income he fished up all the +oysters, ruined the fishery in consequence; and from that day to +the present time it has been unproductive. + +This is a serious loss of income to the colony, and great doubts +are entertained as to the probability, of the oyster-banks ever +recovering their fertility. + +Nothing can exceed the desolation of the coast in the +neighborhood of the pearl-banks. For many miles the shore is a +barren waste of low sandy ground, covered for the most part with +scrubby, thorny jungle, diversified by glades of stunted herbage. +Not a hill is to be seen as far as the eye can reach. The tracks +of all kind of game abound on the sandy path, with occasionally +those of a naked foot, but seldom does a shoe imprint its +civilized mark upon these lonely shores. + +The whole of this district is one of the best in Ceylon for +deer-shooting, which is a proof of its want of inhabitants. This +has always been the case, even in the prosperous days of the +pearl fishery. So utterly worthless is the soil, that it remains +in a state of nature, and its distance from Colombo (one hundred +and fifty miles) keeps it in entire seclusion. + +It is a difficult to conceive that any source of wealth should +exist in such a locality. When standing on the parched sand, +with the burning sun shining in pitiless might upon all around, +the meagre grass burnt to a mere straw, the tangled bushes +denuded of all verdure save a few shriveled leaves, the very +insects seeking shelter from the rays, there is not a tree to +throw a shadow, but a dancing haze of molten air hovers upon the +ground, and the sea like a mirror reflects a glare, which makes +the heat intolerable. And yet beneath the wave on this wild and +desolate spot glitter those baubles that minister to man's +vanity; and, as though in mockery of such pursuits, I have seen +the bleached skulls of bygone pearl-seekers lying upon the sand, +where they have rotted in view of the coveted treasures. + +There is an appearance of ruin connected with everything in the +neighborhood. Even in the good old times this coast was simply +visited during the period for fishing. Temporary huts were +erected for thousands of natives, who thronged to Ceylon from all +parts of the East for the fascinating speculations of the pearl +fishery. No sooner was the season over than every individual +disappeared; the wind swept away the huts of sticks and leaves; +and the only vestiges remaining of the recent population were the +government stores and house at Arripo, like the bones of the +carcase after the vultures had feasted and departed. All +relapsed at once into its usual state of desolation. + +The government house was at one time a building of some little +pretension, and from its style it bore the name of the "Doric." +It is now, like everything else, in a state of lamentable decay. +The honeycombed eighteen pounder, which was the signal gun of +former years, is choked with drifting sand, and the air of misery +about the place is indescribable. + +Now that the diving helmet has rendered subaqueous discoveries, +so easy, I am surprised that a government survey has not been +made of the whole north-west coast of Ceylon. It seems +reasonable to suppose that the pearl oyster should inhabit depths +which excluded the simple diver of former days, and that our +modern improvements might discover treasures in the neighborhood +of the old pearl-beds of which we are now in ignorance. The best +divers, without doubt, could never much exceed a minute in +submersion. I believe the accounts of their performances +generally to have been much exaggerated. At all events, those of +the present day do not profess to remain under water much more +than a minute. + +The accounts of Ceylon pearl fisheries are so common in every +child's book that I do not attempt to describe the system in +detail. Like all lotteries, there are few prizes to the +proportion of blanks. + +The whole of this coast is rich in the biche de mer more commonly +called the sea-slug. This is a disgusting species of mollusca, +which grows to a large size, being commonly about a foot in +length and three or four inches in diameter. The capture and +preparation of these creatures is confined exclusively to the +Chinese, who dry them in the sun until they shrink to the size of +a large sausage and harden to the consistency of horn; they are +then exported to China for making soups. No doubt they are more +strengthening than agreeable; but I imagine that our common +garden slug would be an excellent substitute to any one desirous +of an experiment, as it exactly resembles its nautical +representative in color and appearance. Trincomalee is the great +depot for this trade, which is carried on to a large extent, +together with that of sharks' fins, the latter being used by the +Chinese for the same purpose as the biche de mer. Trincomalee +affords many facilities for this trade, as the slugs are found in +large quantities on the spot, and the finest harbor of the East +is alive with sharks. Few things surpass the tropical beauty of +this harbor; lying completely land-locked, it seems like a glassy +lake surrounded by hills covered with the waving foliage of +groves of cocoa-nut trees and palms of great variety. The white +bungalows with their red-tiled roofs, are dotted about along the +shore, and two or three men-of-war are usually resting at their +ease in this calm retreat. So deep is the water that the harbor +forms a perfect dock, as the largest vessel can lie so close to +the shore that her yards overhang it, which enables stores and +cargo to be shipped with great facility. + +The fort stands upon a projecting point of land, which rises to +about seventy feet above the level of the galle face (the +race-course) which faces it. Thus it commands the land approach +across this flat plain on one side and the sea on the other. +This same fort is one of the hottest corners of Ceylon, and forms +a desirable residence for those who delight in a temperature of +from 90 degrees to 140 degrees in the shade. Bathing is the +great enjoyment, but the pleasure in such a country is destroyed +by the knowledge that sharks are looking out for you in the sea, +and crocodiles in the rivers and tanks; thus a man is nothing +more than an exciting live-bait when he once quits terra firma. +Accidents necessarily must happen, but they are not so frequent +as persons would suppose from the great number of carnivorous +monsters that exist. Still, I am convinced that a white man +would run greater risk than a black; he is a more enticing bait, +being bright and easily distinguished in the water. Thus in +places where the natives are in the habit of bathing with +impunity it would be most dangerous for a white man to enter. + +There was a lamentable instance of this some few years ago at +Trincomalee. In a sheltered nook among the rocks below the fort, +where the natives were always in the habit of bathing, a party of +soldiers of the regiment then in garrison went down one sultry +afternoon for a swim. It was a lovely spot for bathing; the +water was blue, clear and calm, as the reef that stretched far +out to sea served as a breakwater to the heavy surf, and +preserved the inner water as smooth as a lake. Here were a fine +lot of English soldiers stripped to bathe; and although the ruddy +hue of British health had long since departed in the languid +climate of the East, nevertheless their spirits were as high as +those of Englishmen usually are, no matter where or under what +circumstances. However, one after the other took a run, and then +a "header" off the rocks into the deep blue water beneath. In +the long line of bathers was a fine lad of fifteen, the son of +one of the sergeants of the regiment; and with the emulation of +his age he ranked himself among the men, and on arriving at the +edge he plunged head-foremost into the water and disappeared. A +crowd of men were on the margin watching the bathing; the boy +rose to the surface within a few feet of them, but as he shook +the water from his hair, a cloudy shadow seemed to rise from the +deep beneath him, and in another moment the distinct outline of a +large shark was visible as his white belly flashed below. At the +same instant there was a scream of despair; the water was +crimsoned, and a bloody foam rose to the surface - the boy was +gone! Before the first shock of horror was well felt by those +around, a gallant fellow of the same regiment shot head first +into the bloody spot, and presently reappeared from his devoted +plunge, bearing in his arms one-half of the poor boy. The body +was bitten off at the waist, and the lower portion was the prize +of the ground shark. + +For several days the soldiers were busily employed in fishing for +this monster, while the distracted mother sat in the burning sun, +watching in heart-broken eagerness, in the hope of recovering +some trace of her lost son. This, however, was not to be; the +shark was never seen again. + +There is as much difference in the characters of sharks as among +other animals or men. Some are timid and sluggish, moving as +though too lazy to seek their food; and there is little doubt +that such would never attack man. Others, on the contrary, dash +through the water as a pike would seize its prey, and refuse or +fear nothing. There is likewise a striking distinction in the +habits of crocodiles; those that inhabit rivers being far more +destructive and fearless than those that infest the tanks. The +natives hold the former in great terror, while with the latter +they run risks which are sometimes fatal. I recollect a large +river in the southeast of Ceylon, which so abounds with ferocious +crocodiles that the natives would not enter the water in depths +above the knees, and even this they objected to, unless necessity +compelled them to cross the river. I was encamped on the banks +for some little time, and the natives took the trouble to warn me +especially not to enter; and, as proof of the danger, they showed +me a spot where three men had been devoured in the course of one +year, all three of whom are supposed to have ministered to the +appetite of the same crocodile. + +Few reptiles are more disgusting in appearance than these brutes; +but, nevertheless, their utility counterbalances their bad +qualities, as they cleanse the water from all impurities. So +numerous are they that their heads may be seen in fives and tens +together, floating at the top of the water like rough corks; and +at about five P.M. they bask on the shore close to the margin of +the shore ready to scuttle in on the shortest notice. They are +then particularly on the alert, and it is a most difficult thing +to stalk them, so as to get near enouogh to make a certain shot. +This is not bad amusement when no other sport can be had. Around +the margin of a lake, in a large plain far in the distance, may +be seen a distinct line upon the short grass like the fallen +trunk of a tree. As there are no trees at hand, this must +necessarily be a crocodile. Seldom can the best hand at stalking +then get within eighty yards of him before he lifts his scaly +head, and, listening for a second, plunges off the bank. + +I have been contradicted in stating that a ball will penetrate +their scales. It is absurd, however, to hold the opinion that +the scales will turn a ball - that is to say, stop the ball (as +we know that a common twig will of course turn it from its +direction, if struck obliquely). + +The scales of a crocodile are formed of bone exquisitely jointed +together like the sections of a skull; these are covered +externally with a horny skin, forming, no doubt, an excellent +defensive armor, about an inch in thickness; but the idea of +their being impenetrable to a ball, if struck fair, is a great +fallacy. People may perhaps complain because a pea rifle with a +mere pinch of powder may be inefficient, but a common No. 16 +fowling-piece, with two drachms of powder, will penetrate any +crocodile that was ever hatched. + +Among the most harmless kinds are those which inhabit the salt +lakes in the south of Ceylon. I have never beard of an accident +in these places, although hundreds of persons are employed +annually in collecting salt from the bottom. + +These natural reservoirs are of great extent, some of them being +many miles in circumference. Those most productive are about +four miles round, and yield a supply in August, during the height +of the dry season. + +Salt in Ceylon is a government monopoly; and it has hitherto been +the narrow policy of the government to keep up an immense price +upon this necessary of life, when the resources of the country +could produce any amount required for the island consumption. + +These are now all but neglected, and the government simply +gathers the salt as the wild pig feeds upon the fruit which falls +from the tree in its season. + +The government price of salt is now about three shillings per +bushel. This is very impure, being mixed with much dirt and +sand. The revenue obtained by the salt monopoly is about forty +thousand pounds per annum, two-thirds of which is an unfair +burden upon the population, as the price, according to the +supply obtainable, should never exceed one shilling per bushel. + +Let us consider the capabilities of the locality from which it is +collected. + +The lakes are some five or six in number, situated within half a +mile of the sea, separated only by a high bank of drift sand, +covered for the most part with the low jungle which clothes the +surrounding country. Flat plains of a sandy nature form the +margins of the lakes. The little town of Hambantotte, with a +good harbor for small craft, is about twenty miles distant, to +which there is a good cart road. + +The water of these lakes is a perfect brine. In the dry season +the evaporation, of course, increases the strength until the +water can no longer retain the amount of salt in solution it +therefore precipitates and crystalizes at the bottom in various +degrees of thickness, according to the strength of the brine. + +Thus, as the water recedes from the banks by evaporation and the +lake decreases in size, it leaves a beach, not of shingles, but +of pure salt in crystallized cubes, to the depth of several +inches, and sometimes to half a foot or more. The bottom of the +lake is equally coated with this thick deposit. + +These lakes are protected by watchers, who live upon the margin +throughout the year. Were it not for this precaution, immense +quantities of salt would be stolen. In the month of August the +weather is generally most favorable for the collection, at which +time the assistant agent for the district usually gives a few +days' superintendence. + +The salt upon the shore being first collected, the natives wade +into the lake and gather the deposit from the bottom, which they +bring to the shore in baskets; it is then made up into vast +piles, which are subsequently thatched over with cajans (the +plaited leaf of the cocoanut). In this state it remains until an +opportunity offers for carting it to the government salt stores. + +This must strike the reader as being a rude method of collecting +what Nature so liberally produces. The waste is necessarily +enormous, as the natives cannot gather the salt at a greater +depth than three feet; hence the greater proportion of the annual +produce of the lake remains ungathered. The supply at present +afforded might be trebled with very little trouble or expense. + +If a stick is inserted in the mud, so that one end stands above +water, the salt crystallizes upon it in a large lump of several +pounds' weight. This is of a better quality than that which is +gathered from the bottom, being free from sand or other +impurities. Innumerable samples of this may be seen upon the +stakes which the natives have stuck in the bottom to mark the +line of their day's work. These, not being removed, amass a +collection of salt as described. + +Were the government anxious to increase the produce of these +natural reservoirs, nothing could be more simple than to plant +the whole lake with rows of stakes. The wood is on the spot, and +the rate of labor sixpence a day per man; thus it might be +accomplished for a comparatively small amount. + +This would not only increase the produce to an immense degree, +but it would also improve the purity of the collection, and would +render facilities for gathering the crop by means of boats, and +thus obviate the necessity of entering the water; at present the +suffering caused by the latter process is a great drawback to the +supply of labor. So powerful is the brine that the legs and feet +become excoriated after two or three days' employment, and the +natives have accordingly a great aversion to the occupation. + +Nothing could be easier than gathering the crop by the method +proposed. Boats would paddle along between the rows of stakes, +while each stick would be pulled up and the salt disengaged by a +single blow; the stick would then be replaced n its position +until the following season. + +Nevertheless, although so many specimens exist of this +accumulation, the method which was adopted by the savage is still +followed by the soi-disant civilized man. + +In former days, when millions occupied Ceylon, the demand for +salt must doubtless have been in proportion, and the lakes which +are now so neglected must have been taxed to their utmost +resources. There can be little doubt that the barbarians of +those times had some more civilized method of increasing the +production than the enlightened race of the present day. + +The productive salt lakes are confined entirely to the south of +Ceylon. Lakes and estuaries of sea-water abound all round the +island, but these are only commonly salt, and do not yield. The +north and the east coasts are therefore supplied by artificial +salt-pans. These are simple enclosed levels on the beach, into +which the sea-water is admitted, and then allowed to evaporate by +the heat of the sun. The salt of course remains at the bottom. +More water is then admitted, and again evaporated; and this +process continues until the thickness of the salt at the bottom +allows of its being collected. + +This simple plan might be adopted with great success with the +powerful brine of the salt lakes, which might be pumped from its +present lower level into dry reservoirs for evaporation. + +The policy of the government, however, does not tend to the +increase of any production. It is preferred to keep up the high +rate of salt by a limited supply, which meets with immediate +demand, rather than to increase the supply for the public benefit +at a reduced rate. This is a mistaken mode of reasoning. At the +present high price the consumption of salt is extremely small, is +its rise is restricted to absolute necessaries. On the other +hand, were the supply increased at one half the present rate, the +consumption would augment in a far greater proportion, as salt +would then be used for a variety of purposes which at the present +cost is impossible, viz. For the purpose of cattle-feeding, +manures, etc., etc. In addition to this, it would vastly affect +the price of salt fish (the staple article of native +consumption), and by the reduction in cost of this commodity +there would be a corresponding extension in the trade. + +The hundreds of thousands of hides which are now thrown aside to +rot uncared for would then be preserved and exported, which at +the present rate of salt is impossible. The skins of buffaloes, +oxen, deer, swine, all valuable in other parts of the world, in +Ceylon are valueless. The wild buffalo is not even skinned when +shot; he is simply opened for his marrow-bones, his tail is cut +off for soup, his brains taken out for cotelettes, and his tongue +salted. The beast himself, hide and all, is left as food for the +jackal. The wandering native picks up his horns, which find their +way to the English market; but the "hide," the only really +valuable portion, is neglected. + +Within a short distance of the salt lakes, buffaloes, boars, and +in fact all kind of animals abound, and I have no doubt that if +it were once proved to the natives that the hides could be made +remunerative, they would soon learn the method of preparation. + +Some persons have an idea that a native will not take the trouble +to do anything that would turn a penny; in this I do not agree. +Certainly a native has not sufficient courage for a speculation +which involves the risk of loss; but provided he is safe in that +respect, he will take unbounded trouble for his own benefit, not +valuing his time or labor in pursuit of his object. + +I have noticed a great change in the native habits along the +southern coast which exemplifies this, since the steamers have +touched regularly at Galle. + +Some years ago, elephants, buffaloes, etc., when shot by +sportsmen, remained untouched except by wild beast; but now +within one hundred and fifty miles of Galle every buffalo horn is +collected and even the elephant's grinders are extracted from the +skulls, and brought into market. + +An elephant's grinder averages seven pounds in weight, and is not +worth more than from a penny to three half-pence a pound; +nevertheless they are now brought to Galle in large quantities to +be made into knife-handles and sundry ornaments, to tempt the +passengers of the various steamers. If the native takes this +trouble for so small a recompense, there is every reason to +suppose that the hides now wasted would be brought into market +and form a valuable export, were salt at such a rate as would +admit of their preparation. + +The whole of the southern coast, especially in the neighborhood +of the salt lakes, abounds with fish. These are at present nearly +undisturbed; but I have little doubt that a reduction in the +price of salt would soon call forth the energies of the Moormen, +who would establish fisheries in the immediate neighborhood. This +would be of great importance to the interior of the country, as a +road has been made within the last few years direct from this +locality to Badulla, distant about eighty miles, and situated in +the very heart of the most populous district of Ceylon. This +road, which forms a direct line of communication from the port of +Hambantotte to Newera Ellia, is now much used for the transport +of coffee from the Badulla estates, to which a cheap supply of +salt and fish would he a great desideratum. + +The native is a clever fellow at fishing. Every little boy of +ten years old along the coast is an adept in throwing the casting +net; and I have often watched with amusement the scientific +manner in which some of these little fellows handle a fine fish +on a single line; Isaak Walton would have been proud of such +pupils. + +There is nothing like necessity for sharpening a man's intellect, +and the natives of the coast being a class of ichthyophagi, it +may be imagined that they excel in all the methods of capturing +their favorite food. + +The sea, the rivers, and in fact every pool, teem with fish of +excellent quality, from the smallest to the largest kind, not +forgetting the most delicious prawns and crabs. Turtle likewise +abound, and are to be caught in great numbers in their season. + +Notwithstanding the immense amount of fish in the various rivers, +there is no idea of fishing as a sport among the European +population of Ceylon. This I cannot account for, unless from the +fear of fever, which might be caught with more certainty than +fish by standing up to the knees in water under a burning sun. +Nevertheless, I have indulged in this every now and then, when +out on a jungle trip, although I have never started from home +with such an intention. Seeing some fine big fellows swimming +about in a deep hole is a great temptation, especially when you +know they are grey mullet, and the chef de cuisine is short of +the wherewithal for dinner. + +This is not infrequently the case during a jungle trip; and the +tent being pitched in the shade of a noble forest on the steep +banks of a broad river, thoughts of fishing naturally intrude +themselves. + +The rivers in the dry season are so exhausted that a simple bed +of broad dry sand remains, while a small stream winds along the +bottom, merely a few inches deep, now no more than a few feet in +width, now rippling over a few opposing rocks, while the natural +bed extends its dry sand for many yards on either side. At every +bend in the river there is of course a deep hole close to the +bank; these holes remain full of water, as the little stream +continues to flow through them; and the water, in its entrance +and exit being too shallow for a large fish, all the finny +monsters of the river are compelled to imprison themselves in the +depths of these holes. Here the crocodiles have fine feeding, as +they live in the same place. + +With a good rod and tackle there would be capital sport in these +places, as some of the fish run ten and twelve pounds weight; but +I have never been well provided, and, while staring at the +coveted fish from the bank, I have had no means of catching them, +except by the most primitive methods. + +Then I have cut a stick for a rod, and made a line with some +hairs from my horse's tail, with a pin for a hook, baited with a +shrimp, and the fishing has commenced. + +Fish and fruit are the most enjoyable articles of food in a +tropical country, and in the former Ceylon is rich. The seir +fish is little inferior to salmon, and were the flesh a similar +color, it might sometimes form a substitute. Soles and whiting +remind us of Old England, but a host of bright red, blue, green, +yellow, and extraordinary-looking creatures in the same net +dispel all ideas of English fishing. + +Oysters there are likewise in Ceylon; but here, alas I there is a +sad falling off in the comparison with our well-remembered +"native." Instead of the neat little shell of the English oyster, +the Ceylon species is a shapeless, twisted, knotty, rocky-looking +creature, such as a legitimate oyster would be in a fit of spasms +or convulsions. In fact, there is no vestige of the true breed +about it, and the want of flavor equals its miserable exterior. + +There are few positions more tantalizing to a hungry man than +that of being surrounded b oysters without a knife. It is an +obstinate and perverse wretch that will not accommodate itself to +man's appetite, and it requires a forcible attack to vanquish it; +so that every oyster eaten is an individual murder, in which the +cold steel has been plunged into its vitals, and the animal finds +itself swallowed before it as quite made up its mind that it has +been opened. But take away the knife, and see how vain is the +attempt to force the stronghold. How utterly useless is the +oyster! You may turn it over and over, and look for a weak place, +but there is no admittance; you may knock it with a stone, but +the knock will be unanswered. How would you open such a creature +without a knife? + +This was one of the many things that had never occurred to me +until one day when I found myself with some three or four +friends and a few boatmen on a little island, or rather a rock, +about a mile from the shore. This rock was rich in the spasmodic +kind of oyster, large detached masses of which lay just beneath +the water in lumps of some hundredweight each, which had been +formed by the oysters clustering and adhering together. It so +happened that our party were unanimous in the love of these +creatures, and we accordingly exerted ourselves to roll out of +the water a large mass; which having accomplished, we discovered +to our dismay that nothing but one penknife was possessed among +us. This we knew was a useless weapon against such armor; +however, in our endeavors to perform impossibilities, we tickled +the oyster and broke the knife. After gazing for seine time in +blank despair at our useless prize, a bright thought struck one +of the party, and drawing his ramrod he began to screw it Into +the weakest part of an oyster; this, however, was proof, and the +ramrod broke. + +Stupid enough it may appear, but it was full a quarter of an hour +before any of us thought of a successful plan of attack. I +noticed a lot of drift timber scattered upon the island, and then +the right idea was hit. We gathered the wood, which was bleached +and dry, an we piled it a few feet to windward of the mass of +oysters. Striking a light with a cap and some powder, we lit the +pile. It blazed and the wind blew the heat strong upon the +oysters, which accordingly began to squeak and hiss, until one by +one they gave up the ghost, and, opening their shells, exposed +their delightfully roasted bodies, which were eaten forthwith. + +How very absurd and uninteresting this is! but nevertheless it is +one of those trifling incidents which sharpen the imagination +when you depend upon your own resources. + +It is astonishing how perfectly helpless some people are if taken +from the artificial existence of every-day life and thrown +entirely upon themselves. One man would be in superlative misery +while another would enjoy the responsibility, and delight in the +fertility of his own invention in accommodating himself to +circumstances. A person can scarcely credit the unfortunate +number of articles necessary for his daily and nightly comfort, +until he is deprived of them. To realize this, lose yourself, +good reader, wander off a great distance from everywhere, and be +benighted in a wild country, with nothing but your rifle and +hunting-knife. You will then find yourself dinnerless, +supperless, houseless, comfortless, sleepless, cold and +miserable, if you do not know how to manage for yourself. You +will miss your dinner sadly if you are not accustomed to fast for +twenty-four hours. You will also miss your bed decidedly, and +your toothbrush in the morning; but if, on the other hand, you +are of the right stamp, it is astonishing how lightly these +little troubles will sit on you, and how comfortable you will +make yourself under the circumstances. + +The first thing you will consider is the house. The +architectural style will of course depend upon the locality. If +the ground is rocky and hilly, be sure to make a steep pitch in +the bank or the side of a rock form a wall, to leeward of which +you will lie when your mansion is completed by a few sticks +simply inclined from the rock and covered with grass. If the +country is flat, you must cut four forked sticks, and erect a +villa after this fashion in skeleton-work, which you then cover +with grass. + +You will then strew the floor with grass or, small boughs, in +lieu of a feather bed, and you will tie up a bundle of the same +material into a sheaf, which will form a capital pillow. If +grass and sticks are at hand, this will be completed thus far in +an hour. + +Then comes the operation of fire-making, which is by no means +easy; and as warmth comes next to food, and a blaze both scares +wild animals and looks cheerful, I advise some attention to be +paid to the fire. There must be a good collection of old fallen +logs, if possible, together with some green wood to prevent too +rapid a consumption of fuel. But the fire is not yet made. + +First tear off a bit of your shirt and rub it with moistened +gunpowder. Wind this in a thick roll round your ramrod just +below the point of the screw, with the rough torn edge uppermost. +Into these numerous folds sprinkle a pinch of gunpowder; then put +a cap on the point of the screw, and a slight tap with your +hunting-knife explodes it and ignites the linen. + +Now, fire in its birth requires nursing like a young baby, or it +will leave you in the lurch. A single spark will perhaps burn +your haystacks, but when you want a fire it seldom will burn, out +of sheer obstinacy; therefore, take a wisp of dry grass, into +which push the burning linen and give it a rapid, circular motion +through the air, which will generally set it in a blaze. + +Then pile gently upon it the smallest and driest sticks, +increasing their size as the fire grows till it is all right; and +you will sit down proudly before your own fire, thoroughly +confident that you are the first person that ever made one +properly. + +There is some comfort in that; and having manufactured your own +house and bed, you will lie down snugly and think of dinner till +you fall asleep, and the crowing of the jungle-cocks will wake +you in the morning. + +The happiest hours of my life have been passed in this rural +solitude. I have started from home with nothing but a couple of +blankets and the hounds, and, with one blanket wrapped round me I +have slept beneath a capital tent formed of the other with two +forked sticks and a horizontal pole - the ends of the blanket +being secured by heavy stones, thus- + +This is a more comfortable berth than it may appear at first +sight, especially if one end is stopped up with boughs. The +ridge-pole being only two feet and a half high, renders it +necessary to crawl in on all-fours; but this lowness of ceiling +has its advantages in not catching the wind, and likewise in its +warmth. A blanket roof, well secured and tightly strained, will +keep off the heaviest rain for a much longer period than a common +tent; but in thoroughly wet weather any woven roof is more or +less uncomfortable. + +I recollect a certain bivouac in the Angora patinas for a few +days' hunting, when I was suddenly seized with a botanical fit in +a culinary point of view, and I was determined to make the jungle +subscribe something toward the dinner. To my delight, I +discovered some plants which, from the appearance of their +leaves, I knew were a species of wild yam; they grew in a ravine +on the swampy soil of a sluggish spring, and the ground being +loose, I soon grubbed them up and found a most satisfactory +quantity of yams about the size of large potatoes - not bad +things for dinner. Accordingly, they were soon transferred to +the pot. Elk steaks and an Irish stew, the latter to be made of +elk chops, onions and the prized yams; this was the bill of fare +expected. But, misericordia! what a change cone over the yams +when boiled! they turned a beautiful slate color, and looked like +imitations of their former selves in lead. + +Their appearance was uncommonly bad, certainly. There were three +of us to feed upon them, viz., Palliser, my huntsman Benton and +myself. No one wishing to be first, it was then, I confess, that +the thought just crossed my mind that Benton should make the +experiment, but, repenting at the same moment, I punished myself +by eating a very little one on the spot. Benton, who was blessed +with a huge appetite, picked out a big one. Greedy fellow, to +choose the largest! but, n'importe, it brought its punishment. + +Palliser and I having eaten carefully, were just beginning to +feel uncomfortable, when up jumped Benton, holding his throat +with both hands, crying, "My throat's full of pins. I'm choked." +We are poisoned, no doubt of it," said Palliser, in his turn. "I +am choking likewise." "So am I." There we were all three, with +our throats in an extraordinary state of sudden contraction and +inflammation, with a burning and pricking sensation, in addition +to a feeling of swelling and stoppage of the windpipe. Having +nothing but brandy at hand, we dosed largely instanter, and in +the course of ten minutes we found relief; but Benton, having, +eaten his large yam, was the last to recover. + +There must have been highly poisonous qualities in this root, as +the quantity eaten was nothing in proportion to the effects +produced. It is well known that many roots are poisonous when +raw (especially the manioc), which become harmless when cooked, +as the noxious properties consist of a very volatile oil, which +is thrown off during the process of boiling. These wild yams +must necessarily be still worse in their raw state; and it +struck me, after their effects became known, that I had never +seen them grubbed up by the wild hogs; this neglect being a sure +proof of their unfitness for food. + +In these Augora patinas a curious duel was lately fought by a +pair of wild bull elephants, both of whom were the raree aves of +Ceylon, "tuskers." These two bulls had consorted with a herd, +and had no doubt quarreled about the possession of the females. +They accordingly fought it out to the death, as a large tusker +was found recently killed, with his body bored in many directions +by his adversary's tusks, the ground in the vicinity being +trodden down with elephant tracks proving the obstinacy of the +fight. + +The last time that I was in this locality poor old Bluebeard was +alive, and had been performing feats in elk-hunting which no dog +could surpass. A few weeks later and he ran his last elk, and +left a sad blank in the pack. + +Good and bad luck generally come in turn; but when the latter +does pay a visit, it falls rather. heavily, especially among the +hounds. In one year I lost nearly the whole pack. Seven died in +one week from an attack upon the brain, appearing in a form +fortunately unknown in England. In the same year I lost no less +than four of the best hounds by leopards, in addition to a +fearful amount of casualties from other causes. + +Shortly after the appearance of the epidemic alluded to, I took +the hounds to the Totapella Plains for a fortnight, for chance of +air, while their kennel was purified and re-whitewashed. + +In these Totapella Plains I had a fixed encampment, which, being +within nine miles of my house, I could visit at any time with the +hounds, without the slightest preparation. There was an immense +number of elk in this part of the country; in fact this was a +great drawback to the hunting, as two or more were constantly on +foot at the same time, which divided the hounds and scattered +them in all directions. This made hard work of the sport, as +this locality is nothing but a series of ups and downs. The +plains, as they are termed, are composed of some hundred grassy +hills, of about a hundred feet elevation above the river; these +rise like half oranges in every direction, while a high chain of +precipitous mountains walls in one side of the view. +Forest-covered hills abound in the centre and around the skirts +of the plains, while a deep river winds in a circuitous route +between the grassy hills. + +My encampment was well chosen in this romantic spot. It was a +place where you might live all your life without seeing a soul +except a wandering bee-hunter, or a native sportsman who had +ventured up from the low country to shoot an elk. + +Surrounded on all sides but one with steep hills, my hunting +settlement lay snugly protected from the wind in a little valley. +A small jungle about a hundred yards square grew at the base of +one of these grassy hills, in which, having cleared the underwood +for about forty yards, I left the rarer trees standing, and +erected my huts under their shelter at the exact base of the +knoll. This steep rise broke off into an abrupt cliff about +sixty yards from my tent, against which the river had waged +constant war, and, turning in an endless vortex, had worn a deep +hole, before it shot off in a rapid torrent from the angle, +dashing angrily over the rocky masses which had fallen from the +overhanging cliff, and coming to a sudden rest in a broad deep +pool within twenty yards of the tent door. + +This was a delicious spot. Being snugly hidden in the jungle, +there was no sign of my encampment from the plain, except the +curling blue smoke which rose from the little hollow. A plot of +grass of some two acres formed the bottom of the valley before my +habitation, at the extremity of which the river flowed, backed on +the opposite side by an abrupt hill covered with forest and +jungle. + +This being a chilly part of Ceylon, I had thatched the walls of +my tent, and made a good gridiron bedstead, to keep me from the +damp ground, by means of forked upright sticks, two horizontal +bars and numerous cross-pieces. This was covered with six +inches' thickness of grass, strapped down with the bark of a +fibrous shrub. My table and bench were formed in the same +manner, being of course fixtures, but most substantial. The +kitchen, huts for attendants and kennel were close adjoining. I +could have lived there all my life in fine weather. I wish I was +there now with all my heart. However, I had sufficient bad luck +on my last visit to have disgusted most people. Poor Matchless, +who was as good as her name implied, died of inflammation of the +lungs; and I started one morning in very low spirits at her loss, +hoping to cheer myself up by a good hunt. + +It was not long before old Bluebeard's opening note was heard +high upon the hill-tops; but, at the same time, a portion of the +pack had found another elk, which, taking an opposite direction, +of course divided them. Being determined to stick to Bluebeard +to the last, I made straight through the jungle toward the point +at which I had heard a portion of the pack join him, intending to +get upon their track and follow up. This I soon did; and after +running for some time through the jungle, which, being young +"nillho," was unmistakably crushed by the elk and hounds, I came +to a capital though newly-made path, as a single elephant, having +been disturbed by the cry of the hounds, had started off at full +speed; and the elk and hounds, naturally choosing the easiest +route through the jungle, had kept upon his track. This I was +certain of, as the elk's print sunk deep in that of the elephant, +whose dung, lying upon the spot, was perfectly hot. + +I fully expected that the hounds would bring the elephant to bay, +which is never pleasant when you are without a gun; however, they +did not, but, sticking to their true game, they went straight +away toward the chain of mountains at the end of the plain. The +river, in making its exit, is checked by abrupt precipices, and +accordingly makes an angle and then descends a ravine toward the +low country. + +I felt sure, from the nature of the ground and the direction of +the run, that the elk would come to bay in this ravine; and, +after half an hour's run, I was delighted, on arriving on the +hill above, to hear the bay, of the bounds in the river far +below. + +The jungle was thick and tangled, but it did not take long, to +force my way down the steep mountain side, and I neared the spot +and heard the splashing in the river, as the elk, followed by the +hounds, dashed across just before I came in view. He had broken +his bay; and, presently, I again heard the chorus of voices as he +once more came to a stand a few hundred paces down the river. + +The bamboo was so thick that I could hardly break my way through +it; and I was crashing along toward the spot, when suddenly the +bay ceased, and shortly after some of the hounds came hurrying up +to me regularly scared. Lena, who seldom showed a symptom of +fear, dashed up to me in a state of great excitement, with the +deep scores of a leopard's claws on her hindquarters. Only two +couple of the hounds followed on the elk's track; the rest were +nowhere. + +The elk had doubled back, and I saw old Bluebeard leading upon +the scent up the bank of the river, followed by three other +bounds. + +The surest, although the hardest work, was to get on the track +and follow up through the jungle. This I accordingly did for +about a mile, at which distance I arrived at a small swampy plain +in the centre of the jungle. Here, to my surprise, I saw old +Bluebeard sitting up and looking faint, covered with blood, with +no other dog within view. The truth was soon known upon +examination. No less than five holes were cut in his throat by a +leopard's claws, and by the violent manner in which. the poor dog +strained and choked, I felt sure that the windpipe was injured. +There was no doubt that he had received the stroke at the same +time that Lena was wounded beneath the rocky mountain when the +elk was at bay; and nevertheless, the staunch old dog had +persevered in the chase till the difficulty of breathing brought +him to a standstill. I bathed the wounds, but I knew it was his +last day, poor old fellow! + +I sounded the bugle for a few minutes, and having collected some +of the scattered pack I returned to the tent, leading the wounded +dog, whose breathing rapidly became more difficult. I lost no +time in fomenting and poulticing the part, but the swelling had +commenced to such an extent that there was little hope of +recovery. + +This was a dark day for the pack. Benton returned in the +afternoon from a search for the missing hounds, and, as he +descended the deep hill-side on approaching the tent, I saw tent +he and a native were carrying something slung upon a pole. At +first I thought it was an elk's head, which the missing hounds +might have run to bay, but on his arrival the worst was soon +known. + +It was poor Leopold, one of my best dogs. He was all but dead, +with hopeless wounds in his throat and belly. He had been struck +by a leopard within a few yards of Benton's side, and, with his +usual pluck, the dog turned upon the leopard in spite of his +wounds, when the cowardly brute, seeing the man, turned and fled. + +That night Leopold died. The next morning Bluebeard was so bad +that I returned home with him slung in a litter between two men. +Poor fellow! he never lived to reach his comfortable kennel, but +died in the litter within a mile of home. I had him buried by +the side of old Smut, and there are no truer dogs on the earth +than the two that there lie together. + +A very few weeks after Bluebeard's death, however, I got a taste +of revenge out of one of the race. + +Palliser and I were out shooting, and we found a single bull +elephant asleep in the dry bed of a stream; we were stealing +quietly up to him, when his guardian spirit whispered something +in his ear, and up he jumped. However, we polished him off, and +having reloaded, we passed on. + +The country consisted of low, thorny jungle and small sandy +plains of short turf, and we were just entering one of these open +spots within a quarter of a mile of the dead elephant, when we +observed a splendid leopard crouching at the far end of the +glade. He was about ninety paces from us, lying broadside on, +with his head turned to the opposite direction, evidently looking +out for game. His crest was bristled up with excitement, and he +formed a perfect picture of beauty both in color and attitude. + +Halting our gun-bearers, we stalked him within sixty yards; he +looked quickly round, and his large hazel eyes shone full upon +us, as the two rifles made one report, and his white belly lay +stretched upon the ground. + +They were both clean shots: Palliser had aimed at his head, and +had cut off one ear and laid the skin open at the back of the +neck. My ball had smashed both shoulders, but life was not +fairly extinct. We therefore strangled him with my necktie, as I +did not wish to spoil his hide by any further wound. This was a +pleasing sacrifice to the "manes" of old Bluebeard. + +E. Palliser had at one time the luck to have a fair turn up with +a leopard with the dogs and hunting-knife. At that time he kept +a pack at Dimboola, about nine miles from my house. Old +Bluebeard belonged to him, and he had a fine dog named "Pirate," +who was the heaviest and best of his seizers. + +He was out hunting with two or three friends, when suddenly a +leopard sprang from the jungle at one of the smaller hounds as +they were passing quietly along a forest path. Halloaing the +pack on upon the instant, every dog gave chase, and a short run +brought him to bay in the usual place of refuge, the boughs of a +tree. + +However, it so happened that there was a good supply of large +sharp stones upon the soil, and with these the whole party kept +up a spirited bombardment, until at length one lucky shot hit him +on the head, and at the same moment he fell or jumped into the +middle of the pack. Here Pirate came to the front in grand style +and collared him, while the whole pack backed him up without an +exception. + +There was a glorious struggle of course, which was terminated by +the long arm of our friend Palliser, who slipped the +hunting-knife into him and became a winner. This is the only +instance that I know of a leopard being run into and killed with +hounds and a knife. + +CHAPTER XIII. Wild Denizens of Forest and Lake - Destroyers of +Reptiles - The Tree Duck - The Mysteries of Night in the Forest - +The Devil-Bird - The Iguanodon in Miniature - Outrigger Canoes - +The Last Glimpse of Ceylon - A Glance at Old Times. + +One of the most interesting objects to a tourist in Ceylon is a +secluded lake or tank in those jungle districts which are seldom +disturbed by the white man. There is something peculiarly +striking in the wonderful number of living creatures which exist +upon the productions of the water. Birds of infinite variety and +countless numbers - fish in myriads - reptiles and crocodiles +-animals that feed upon the luxuriant vegetation of the shores - +insects which sparkle in the sunshine in every gaudy hue; all +these congregate in the neighborhood of these remote solitudes, +and people the lakes with an incalculable host of living beings. + +In such a scene there is scope for much delightful study of the +habits and natures of wild animals, where they can be seen +enjoying their freedom unrestrained by the fear of man. + +Often have I passed a quiet hour on a calm evening when the sun +has sunk low on the horizon, and lie cool breeze has stolen +across the water, refreshing all animal life. Here, concealed +beneath the shade of some large tree I have watched the masses of +living things quite unconscious of such scrutiny. In one spot +the tiny squirrel nibbling the buds on a giant limb of the tree +above me, while on the opposite shore a majestic bull elephant +has commenced his evening bath, showering the water above his +head and trumpeting his loud call to the distant herd. Far away +in the dense jungles the ringing sound is heard, as the answering +females return the salute and slowly approach the place of +rendezvous. One by one their dark forms emerge from the thorny +coverts and loom large upon the green but distant shores, and +they increase their pace when they view the coveted water, and +belly-deep enjoy their evening draught. + +The graceful axis in dense herds quit the screening jungle and +also seek the plain. The short, shrill barks of answering bucks +sound clearly across the surface of the lake, and indistinct +specks begin to appear on the edge of the more distant forests. +Now black patches are clotted about the plain; now larger +objects, some single and some in herds, make toward the water. +The telescope distinguishes the vast herds of hogs busy in +upturning the soil in search of roots, and the ungainly +buffaloes, some in herds and others single bulls, all gathering +at the hour of sunset toward the water. Peacocks spread their +gaudy plumage to the cool evening air as they strut over the +green plain; the giant crane stands statue-like among the +shallows; the pelican floats like a ball of snow upon the dark +water; and ducks and waterfowl of all kinds splash, and dive, and +scream in a confused noise, the volume of which explains their +countless numbers. + +Foremost among the waterfowl for beauty is the water-pheasant. +He is generally seen standing upon the broad leaf of a lotus, +pecking at the ripe seeds and continually uttering his plaintive +cry, like the very distant note of a hound. This bird is most +beautifully formed, and his peculiarity of color is well adapted +to his shape. He is something like a cock pheasant in build and +mode of carriage, but he does not exceed the size of a pigeon. +His color is white, with a fine brown tinsel glittering head and +long tail; the wings of the cock bird are likewise ornamented +with similar brown tinsel feathers. These birds are delicious +eating, but I seldom fire at them, as they are generally among +the lotus plants in such deep water that I dare not venture to +get them on account of crocodiles. The lotus seeds, which they +devour greedily, are a very good substitute for filberts, and are +slightly narcotic. + +The endless variety of the crane is very interesting upon these +lonely shores. From the giant crane, who stands nearly six feet +high, down to the smallest species of paddy bird, there is a +numerous gradation. Among these the gaunt adjutant stands +conspicuous as he stalks with measured steps through the high +rushes, now plunging his immense bill into the tangled sedges, +then triumphantly throwing back his head with a large snake +writhing helplessly in his horny beak; open fly the shear-like +hinges of his bill - one or two sharp jerks and down goes one +half of an incredibly large snake; another jerk and a convulsive +struggle of the snake; one more jerk - snap, snap goes the bill +and the snake has disappeared, while the adjutant again stalks +quietly on, as though nothing had happened. Down goes his bill, +presently, with a sudden start, and again his head is thrown +back; but this time it is the work of a moment, as it is only an +iguana, which not being above eighteen inches long, is easy +swallowing. + +A great number of the crane species are destroyers of snakes, +which in a country so infested with vermin as Ceylon renders them +especially valuable. Peacocks likewise wage perpetual war with +all kinds of reptiles, and Nature has wisely arranged that where +these nuisances most abound there is a corresponding provision +for their destruction. + +Snipes, of course, abound in their season around the margin of +the lakes; but the most delicious birds for the table are the +teal and ducks, of which there are four varieties. The largest +duck is nearly the size of a wild goose, and has a red, fatty +protuberance about the beak very similar to a muscovy. The teal +are the fattest and most delicious birds that I have ever tasted. +Cooked in Soyer's magic stove, with a little butter, cayenne +pepper, a squeeze of lime juice, a pinch of salt, and a spoonful +of Lea and Perrins' Worcester sauce (which, by the by, is the +best in the world for a hot climate), and there is no bird like a +Ceylon teal. They are very numerous, and I have seen them in +flocks of some thousands on the salt-water lakes on the eastern +coast, where they are seldom or ever disturbed. Nevertheless, +they are tolerably wary, which, of course, increases the sport of +shooting them. I have often thought what a paradise these lakes +would have made for the veteran Colonel Hawker with his punt gun. +He might have paddled about and blazed away to his heart's +content. + +There is one kind of duck that would undoubtedly have astonished +him, and which would have slightly bothered the punt gun for an +elevation: this is the tree duck, which flies about and perches +in the branches of the lofty trees like any nightingale. This +has an absurd effect, as a duck looks entirely out of place in +such a situation. I have seen a whole cluster of them sitting on +one branch, and when I first observed them I killed three at one +shot to make it a matter of certainty. + +It is a handsome light brown bird, about the size of an English +widgeon, but there is no peculiar formation in the feet to enable +them to cling to a bough; they are bona fide ducks with the +common flat web foot. + +A very beautiful species of bald-pated coot, called by the +natives keetoolle, is also an inhabitant of the lakes. This bird +is of a bright blue color with a brilliant pink horny head. He +is a slow flyer, being as bulky as a common fowl and short in his +proportion of wing. + +It is impossible to convey a correct idea of the number and +variety of birds in these localities, and I will not trouble the +reader by a description which would be very laborious to all +parties; but to those who delight in ornithological studies there +is a wild field which would doubtless supply many new specimens. + +I know nothing more interesting than the acquaintance with all +the wild denizens of mountain and plain, lake and river. There +is always something fresh to learn, something new to admire, in +the boundless works of creation. There is a charm in every sound +in Nature where the voice of man is seldom heard to disturb her +works. Every note gladdens the ear in the stillness of solitude, +when night has overshadowed the earth, and all sleep but the wild +animals of the forest. Then I have often risen from my bed, when +the tortures of mosquitoes have banished all ideas of rest, and +have silently wandered from the tent to listen in the solemn +quiet of night. + +I have seen the tired coolies stretched round the smouldering +fires sound asleep after their day's march, wrapped in their +white clothes, like so many corpses laid upon the ground. The +flickering logs on the great pile of embers crackling and sinking +as they consume; now falling suddenly and throwing up a shower of +sparks, then resting again in a dull red heat, casting a silvery +moonlike glare upon the foliage of the spreading trees above. A +little farther on, and the horses standing sleepily at their +tethers, their heads drooping in a doze. Beyond them, and all is +darkness and wilderness. No human dwelling or being beyond the +little encampment I have quitted; the dark lake reflecting the +stars like a mirror, and the thin crescent moon giving a pale and +indistinct glare which just makes night visible. + +It is a lovely hour then to wander forth and wait for wild +sounds. All is still except the tiny hum of the mosquitoes. +Then the low chuckling note of the night hawk sounds soft and +melancholy in the distance; and again all is still, save the +heavy and impatient stamp of a horse as the mosquitoes irritate +him by their bites. Quiet again for a few seconds, when +presently the loud alarm of the plover rings over the plain - +"Did he do it?" - the bird's harsh cry speaks these words as +plainly as a human being. This alarm is a certain warning that +some beast is stalking abroad which has disturbed it from its +roost, but presciently it is again hushed. + +The loud hoarse bark of an elk now unexpectedly startles the ear; +presently it is replied to by another, and once more the plover +shrieks "Did he do it?" and a peacock waking on his roost gives +one loud scream and sleeps again. + +The heavy and regular splashing of water now marks the measured +tread of a single elephant as he roars out into the cooled lake, +and you can hear the more gentle falling of water as he spouts a +shower over his body. Hark at the deep guttural sigh of pleasure +that travels over the lake like a moan of the wind! -what giant +lungs to heave such a breath; but hark again! There was a fine +trumpet! as clear as any bugle note blown by a hundred breaths it +rung through the still air. How beautiful! There, the note is +answered; not by so fine a tone, but by discordant screams and +roars from the opposite side, and the louder splashing tells that +the herd is closing up to the old bull. Like distant thunder a +deep roar growls across the lake as the old monarch mutters to +himself in angry impatience. + +Then the long, tremulous hoot of the owl disturbs the night, +mingled with the harsh cries of flights of waterfowl, which +doubtless the elephants have disturbed while bathing. + +Once more all sounds sink to rest for a few minutes, until the +low, grating roar of a leopard nearer home warns the horses of +their danger and wakes up the sleeping horsekeeper, who piles +fresh wood upon the fires, and the bright blaze shoots up among +the trees and throws a dull, ruddy glow across the surface of the +water. And morning comes at length, ushered in, before night has +yet departed, by the strong, shrill cry of the great fish-eagle, +as he sits on the topmost bough of some forest tree and at +measured periods repeats his quivering and unearthly yell like an +evil spirit calling. But hark at that dull, low note of +indescribable pain and suffering! long and heavy it swells and +dies away. It is the devil-bird; and whoever sees that bird must +surely die soon after, according to Cingalese superstition. + +A more cheering sound charms the ear as the gray tint of morning +makes the stars grow pale; clear, rich, notes, now prolonged and +full, now plaintive and low, set the example to other singing +birds, as the bulbul, first to awake, proclaims the morning. +Wild, jungle-like songs the birds indulge in; not like our steady +thrushes of Old England, but charming in their quaintness. The +jungle partridge now wakes up, and with his loud cry subdues all +other sounds, until the numerous peacocks, perched on the high +trees around the lake, commence their discordant yells, which +master everything. + +The name for the devil-bird is "gualama," and so impressed are +the natives with the belief that a sight of it is equivalent to a +call to the nether world that they frequently die from sheer +fright and nervousness. A case of this happened to a servant of +a friend of mine. He chanced to see the creature sitting on a +bough, and he was from that moment so satisfied of his inevitable +fate that he refused all food, and fretted and died, as, of +course, any one else must do, if starved, whether he saw the +devil-bird or not. + +Although I have heard the curious, mournful cry of this creature +nearly every night, I have never seen one; this is easily +accounted for, as, being a night-bird, it remains concealed in +the jungle during the day. In so densely wooded a country as +Ceylon it is not to be wondered at that owls, and all other birds +of similar habit are so rarely met with. Even woodcocks are +rarely noticed; so seldom, indeed, that I have never seen more +than two during my residence in the island. + +>From the same cause many interesting animals pass unobserved, +although they are very numerous. The porcupine, although as +common as the hedge-hog in England, is very seldom seen. +Likewise the manis, or great scaled ant-eater, who retires to his +hole before break of day, is never met with by daylight. +Indeed, I have had some trouble in persuading many persons in +Ceylon that such an animal exists in the country. + +In the same manner the larger kinds of serpents conceal +themselves by day and wander forth at night, like all other +reptiles except the smaller species of lizard, of which we have +in Ceylon an immense variety, from the crocodile himself down to +the little house-lizard. + +Of this tribe the "cabra goya" and the "iguana" grow to a large +size; the former I have killed as long as eight or nine feet, but +the latter seldom exceeds four. I have often intended to eat +one, as the natives consider them a great delicacy, but I have +never been quite hungry enough to make the trial whenever one was +at hand. The "cabra goya" is a horrid brute, and is not +considered eatable even by the Cingalese. + +One curious species of lizard exists in Ceylon; it is little +brown species with a peculiarly rough skin and a serrated spine. +A long horn projects from the snout, and it is a fac-simile in +miniature of the antediluvian monster, the "iguanodon," who was +about a hundred feet long and twelve feet thick - an awkward +creature to meet in a narrow road. However, the crocodiles of +modern times are awkward enough for the present day, and +sometimes grow to the immense length of twenty two feet. + +It has frequently surprised me that they do not upset the small +canoes in which the natives paddle about the lakes and rivers. +These are formed in the simplest manner, of very rude materials, +by hollowing out a small log of wood and attaching an outrigger. +Some of these are so small that the gunwale is close to the +water's edge when containing only one person. + +Even the large sea-canoes are constructed on a similar principle; +but they are really very wonderful boats for both speed and +safety. + +A simple log of about thirty feet in length is hollowed out. +This is tapered off at either end, so as to form a kind of prow. +The cylindrical shape of the log is preserved as much as possible +in the process of hollowing, so that no more than a section of +one fourth of the circle is pared away upon the upper side. + +Upon the edges of this aperture the top sides of the canoe are +formed by simple planks, which are merely sewn upon the main body +of the log parallel to each other, and slightly inclining +outward, so as to admit the legs of persons sitting on the canoe. + +A vessel of this kind would of course capsize immediately, as the +top weight of the upper works would overturn the flute-like body +upon which they rested. This is prevented by an outrigger, which +is formed of elastic rods of tough wood, which, being firmly +bound together, project at right angles from the upper works. At +the extremity of these two rods, there is a tapering log of light +wood, which very much resembles the bottom log of the canoe in +miniature. This, floating on the water, balances the canoe in an +upright position; it cannot be upset until some force is exerted +upon the mast of the canoe which is either sufficient to lift the +outrigger out of the water, or on the other hand to sink it +altogether; either accident being prevented by the great leverage +required. Thus, when a heavy breeze sends the little vessel +flying like a swallow over the waves, and the outrigger to +windward shows symptoms of lifting, a man rims out upon the +connecting rod, and, squatting upon the outrigger, adds his +weight to the leverage. Two long bamboos, spreading like a +letter V from the bottom of the canoe, form the masts, and +support a single square sail, which is immensely large in +proportion to the size and weight of the vessel. + +The motion of these canoes under a stiff breeze is most +delightful; there is a total absence of rolling, which is +prevented by the outrigger, and the steadiness of their course +under a press of sail is very remarkable. I have been in these +boats in a considerable surf, which they fly through like a fish; +and if the beach is sandy and the inclination favorable, their +own impetus will carry them high and dry. + +Sewing the portions of a boat together appears ill adapted to +purposes of strength; but all the Cingalese vessels are +constructed upon this principle: the two edges of the planks +being brought together, a strip of the areca palm stern is laid +over the joints, and holes being drilled upon each plank, the +sewing is drawn tightly over the lath of palm, which being +thickly smeared with a kind of pitch, keeps the seams perfectly +water-tight. The native dhonies, which are vessels of a hundred +and fifty tons, are all fastened in this simple and apparently +fragile manner; nevertheless they are excellent sea-boats, and +ride in safety through many a gale of wind. The first moving +object which met my view on arrival within sight of Ceylon was an +outrigger canoe, which shot past our vessels as if we had been at +anchor. + +The last object that my eyes rested on, as the cocoa-nut trees of +Ceylon faded from sight, was again the native canoe which took +the last farewell lines to those who were left behind. Upon this +I gazed till it became a gray speck upon the horizon and the +green shores of the Eastern paradise faded from my eyes for ever. + +How little did I imagine, when these pages were commenced in +Ceylon, that their conclusion would be written in England! + +An unfortunate shooting trip to one of the most unhealthy parts +of the country killed my old horse "Jack," one coolie, and very +nearly extinguished me rendering it imperative that I should seek +a change of climate in England. And what a dream-like change it +is! - past events appear unreal, and the last few years seem to +have escaped from the connecting chain of former life. Scarcely +can I believe in the bygone days of glorious freedom, when I +wandered through that beautiful country, unfettered by the laws +or customs of conventional life. + +The white cliffs of Old England rose hazily on the horizon, and +greeted many anxious eyes as the vessel rushed proudly on with +her decks thronged with a living freight, all happy as children +in the thoughts of home. The sun shone brightly and gave a warm +welcome on our arrival; and as the steamer moored alongside the +quay, an hour sufficed to scatter the host of passengers who had +so closely dwelt together, as completely as the audience of a +theatre when the curtain falls. That act of life is past - +"exeunt omnes," and a new scene commences. We are in England. + +A sudden change necessarily induces a comparison, and I imagine +there are few who have dwelt much among the Tropics who do not +acquire a distaste for the English climate, and look back with +lingering hopes to the verdant shores they have left so far +behind. The recollection of absent years, which seem to have +been the summer of life, makes the chill of the present feel +doubly cold, and our thoughts still cling to the past, while we +strive against the belief that we never can recall those days +again. + +How, as my thoughts wander back to former scenes every mountain +and valley reappears in the magic glass of memory! Every rock and +dell, every old twisted stem, every dark ravine and wooded cliff, +the distant outlines of the well-known hills, the jungle-paths +known to my eye alone, and the far, still spots where I have +often sat in solitude and pondered over the events of life, and +conjured up the faces of those so far away, doubtful if we should +ever meet again. Thus even now I picture to myself the past; and +so vivid is the scene that I can almost hear the fancied roar of +the old waterfalls, and see the shadowy tints which the evening +sun throws upon the tree-tops. My old home rises before me like +a dissolving view, and I can see the very spot where it was my +delight to live, where a warm welcome awaited every friend. And +lastly, the faces of those friends seem clear before me, and +bring back the associations of old times. Those who have shared +in common many of these scenes I trust to meet again, and look +back upon the events of former days as landscapes on the road of +life that we have viewed together. + +For me Ceylon has always had a charm, and I shall ever retain a +vivid interest in the colony. + +I trust that a new and more prosperous era has now commenced, and +that Ceylon, having shaken off the incubus of mismanagement, may, +under the rule of a vigorous and enterprising governor, arrive at +that prosperity to which she is entitled by her capabilities. + +The governor recently appointed (Sir H. Ward,) has a task before +him which his well-known energy will doubtless enable him to +perform. + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon +by Samuel White Baker + diff --git a/old/8year10.zip b/old/8year10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..552c012 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/8year10.zip |