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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Comparative View of Religions, by Johannes
+Henricus Scholten, Translated by Francis T. Washburn
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Comparative View of Religions
+
+
+Author: Johannes Henricus Scholten
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 19, 2006  [eBook #20137]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Graeme Mackreth, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(http://www.pgdp.net/) from page images generously made available by the
+Making of America collection of the University of Michigan Libraries
+(http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/moagrp/)
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+Note: Images of the original pages are available through the Making
+      of America collection of the University of Michigan Libraries. See
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+
+
+
+A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS.
+
+Translated from the Dutch of
+
+J. H. SCHOLTEN,
+Professor at Leyden,
+
+by Francis T. Washburn.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Reprinted by permission from "The Religious Magazine and Monthly
+Review."
+Boston: Crosby & Damrell, 100 Washington St. 1870.
+
+
+
+
+A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.[1]
+
+
+The conception of religion presupposes, _a_, God as object; _b_, man as
+subject; _c_, the mutual relation existing between them. According to
+the various stages of development which men have reached, religious
+belief manifests itself either in the form of a passive feeling of
+dependence, where the subject, not yet conscious of his independence,
+feels himself wholly overmastered by the deity, or the object of
+worship, as by a power outside of and opposed to himself; or, when the
+feeling of independence has awakened, in a one-sided elevation of the
+human, whereby man in worshiping a deity deifies himself. In the highest
+stage of religious development, the most entire feeling of dependence is
+united in religion with the strongest consciousness of personal
+independence. The first of these forms is exhibited in the fetich and
+nature-worship of the ancient nations; the second in Buddhism, and in
+the deification of the human, which reaches its full height among the
+Greeks. The true religion, prepared in Israel, is the Christian, in
+which man, grown conscious of his oneness with God, is ruled by the
+divine as an inner power of life, and acts spontaneously and freely
+while in the fullest dependence upon God. Since Christ, no more perfect
+religion has appeared. What is true and good in Islamism was borrowed
+from Israel and Christianity.
+
+Although it is probable that every nation passed through different forms
+of religious belief before its religion reached its highest development,
+yet the earlier periods lie in great part beyond the reach of historical
+investigation. The history of religion, therefore, has for its task the
+review of the various forms of religion with which we are historically
+acquainted, in the order of psychological development.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+FETICHISM. THE CHINESE. THE EGYPTIANS.
+
+
+1. FETICHISM.
+
+The lowest stage of religious development is fetichism, as it is found
+among the savage tribes of the polar regions, and in Africa, America,
+and Australia. In this stage, man's needs are as yet very limited and
+exclusively confined to the material world. Still too little developed
+intellectually to worship the divine in nature and her powers, he thinks
+he sees the divinity which he seeks in every unknown object which
+strikes his senses, or which his imagination calls up. In this stage,
+religion has no higher character than that of caprice and of love of
+the mysterious and marvelous, mixed with fear and a slavish adoration of
+the divine. The worship and the priest's office (Shaman, Shamanism)
+consist here chiefly in the use of charms, to exorcise a dreaded power.
+From this savage fetichism the nature-worship found among the Aztecs in
+Mexico, and the worship of the sun in Peru, are distinguished by the
+greater definiteness and order of their religious conceptions and
+usages. In them the gods have names, and an ordained priesthood cares
+for the religious interests of the people. The highest form to which
+fetichism has attained is the worship of Manitou, the great spirit,
+which is found among the ancient tribes of North America.
+
+
+2. THE CHINESE.
+
+When man reaches a higher development, caprice and chance disappear from
+religion. Having outgrown fetichism, man begins, as is the case among
+the Chinese, to distinguish in the world around him an active and a
+passive principle, force and matter (Yang and Yn), heaven and earth
+(Kien and Kouen). We have here nature-worship in its beginnings. In this
+stage, even less than in fetichism, is there a definite idea of God,
+much less a conception of him as personal and spiritual lord. The
+Chinese, from the practical, empirical point of view peculiar to him,
+recognizes the spiritual only in man and chiefly in the state. His
+religion, therefore, is confined exclusively to the faithful keeping of
+the laws of the state (the Celestial Kingdom), in which he sees the
+reflection of heaven, to the recognition of the Emperor as the son and
+representative of heaven, and to the worship of the forefathers,
+especially of the great men and departed emperors, to whose memory the
+Chinese temples, or pagodas, are dedicated. The origin of this religion
+dates, according to the tradition, from Fo-hi (2950 B.C.), the founder
+of the Chinese state. In the fifth century before Christ, Kong-tse, or
+Kong-fu-tse (Confucius), appeared as a reformer of the religion of his
+countrymen, and gathered the ancient records and traditions of his
+people into a sacred literature, which is known by the name of the
+"King" (the books), "Yo-King" (the book of nature), "Chu-King" (the book
+of history), "Chi-King" (the book of songs). The contents of the "King"
+became later with the Chinese sages Meng-tse (360 B.C.) and Tschu-tsche
+(1200 A.D.) an object of philosophical speculation. The doctrine of
+Lao-tse, the younger contemporary of Kong-tse, which lays down as the
+basis of the world, that is of the unreal or non-existent, a supreme
+principle, _Tao_, or _Being_, corresponds with the Brahma doctrine of
+the Indians, among whom he lived for a long time; but this doctrine
+never became popular in China.
+
+
+3. THE EGYPTIANS.
+
+The worship of nature, which is seen in its beginnings among the
+Chinese, exhibits itself among the Egyptians in a more developed form as
+theogony. Here also the reflecting mind rose to the recognition of two
+fundamental principles, the producing and the passive power of nature,
+Kneph and Neith, from which sprang successively the remaining powers of
+nature, time, air, earth, light and darkness, personified by the fantasy
+of the people into as many divinities. The Egyptian mythology also (none
+has as yet been discovered among the Chinese) exhibits a like character.
+Fruitfulness and drought, the results of the Nile's overflowing and
+receding, are imaged in the myth of _Osiris_, _Isis_, and _Typhon_. The
+visible form under which the divine was worshiped in Egypt was the
+sacred animal, the bull _Apis_, dedicated to _Osiris_, the cow,
+dedicated to _Isis_, as symbols of agriculture; the bird _Ibis_, the
+crocodile, the dog _Anubis_, and other animals, whose physical
+characteristics impressed the as yet childish man, who saw in them the
+symbol, either of the beneficent power of nature which moved him to
+thankfulness, or of a destructive power which he dreaded and whose anger
+he sought to avert. The religion of Egypt was not of a purely spiritual
+character. To the man whose eye is not yet open to the manifestation of
+the spiritual around him and in him, the divine is not spirit, but as
+yet only nature. The animal, although in the form of the sphinx
+approaching the human, holds in Egyptian art a place above the human as
+symbol of the divine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ARIAN NATIONS.
+
+
+1. THE EAST ARIANS. THE INDIANS.
+
+In the development of religion among the Indians, the following periods
+may be distinguished:--
+
+   _a._ The original Veda-religion.
+
+   _b._ The priestly religion of the Brahmins.
+
+   _c._ The philosophical speculation.
+
+   _d._ Buddhism.
+
+   _e._ The modified Brahminism after Buddha, in connection with the
+   worship of Vishnu and Siva.
+
+
+_a. The original Veda-religion._
+
+The original religion of Arya originated in Bactria. From thence, before
+the time of Zoroaster, it was brought over, with the great migration of
+the people, to the land of the seven rivers, which they conquered, and
+which stretched from the Indus to the Hesidrus. It consisted, according
+to the oldest literature of the Veda, in a polytheistical worship of the
+divine, either as the beneficent or the baneful power of nature. The
+clear, blue sky, the light of the sun, the rosy dawn, the storm that
+spends itself in fruitful rain, the winds and gales which drive away the
+clouds, the rivers whose fruitful slime overspreads the fields,--these
+moved the inhabitants of India to the worship of the divine as the
+beneficent power of nature which blesses man. On the other hand, he
+changed under the impression of the harmful phenomena of nature, the
+dark and close-packed clouds which hold back the rain and intercept the
+sunshine, the parching heat of summer, which dries up the rivers and
+hinders growth and fruitfulness, and these also he erected into objects
+of awe and religious adoration. From this view of nature sprang the
+Indian mythology. The oldest divinity (Deva) of the Indians is Varuna,
+the all-embracing heaven, who marks out their courses for the heavenly
+luminaries, who rules the day and the night, who is lord of life and
+death, whose protection is invoked, whose anger deprecated. After him,
+the great ruler of nature, there appear, in the Veda hymns, Indra, the
+blue sky, god of light and thunder, the warrior who in battle stands
+beside the combatants; Vayu, the god of the wind, the chief of the
+Maruts, or the winds; Rudra, the god of the hurricane; Vritra, the
+hostile god of the clouds; Ahi, the parching heat of summer. In the
+mythology of the people, Indra, god of light, aided by Vayu and Rudra,
+wages war with Vritra,--who, as god of the clouds, holds back the rain
+and the light,--and appears as opponent of the destructive Ahi. The
+other divinities also which appear in the Vedas are personified powers
+of nature,--the twin brothers Aswins (equites), or the first rays of the
+sun, Ushas the maiden, or the rosy dawn, Surya, Savitri, the god of the
+sun. Great significance is given in the Indian mythology to Agni, the
+god of fire, who burns the sacrifice in honor of the gods, who conveys
+the offerings and prayers of men to gods and their gifts to men, who
+gladdens the domestic hearth, lights up the darkness of night, drives
+away the evil spirits, the Ashuras and Rakshas, and purges of evil the
+souls of men. Religion, still wholly patriarchal in form, and free from
+hierarchical constraint and from the later dogmatic narrowness, bore in
+this earlier stage of its development the character of the still free
+and warlike life of a nomadic people living in the midst of a sublime
+nature, where everything, the clear sky, sunshine, and boisterous storm,
+mountains and rivers, disposed to worship. As yet the Indian knew no
+close priestly caste. Worship consisted in prayers and offerings,
+especially in the Soma-offering, which was offered as food to the gods.
+No fear of future torment after death as yet embittered the enjoyment of
+life and made dying fearful. Yama was the friendly guide of the souls of
+heroes to the heaven of Indra or Varuna, and not yet the inexorable
+prince of hell who tormented the souls of the ungodly in the kingdom of
+the dead. Of later barbarous usages also, such as the widow's
+sacrificing herself on the funeral pile of her departed husband, there
+was as yet no trace; and in the heroic poetry, as yet not disfigured by
+later Brahminical alterations and additions, the heroes Krishna and Rama
+appear as types of courage and self-sacrifice, and not, as later, as
+avatars, or human incarnations, of the deity.
+
+
+_b. Brahminism._
+
+When the nomadic and warlike life of the nations of India in the land of
+the seven rivers, in connection with their removal to the conquered land
+of the Ganges (1300 B.C.), gave place to a more ordered social
+constitution, a priestly class formed itself, which began to represent
+the people before the deity, and from its chief function, _Brahma_, or
+prayer, took the name of _Brahmins_, i.e., the praying. This Brahma,
+before whose power even the gods must yield, was gradually exalted by
+the Brahmins to the highest deity, to whom, under the name of Brahma,
+the old Veda divinities were subordinated. Brahma is no god of the
+people, but a god of the priests; not the lord of nature, but the
+abstract and impersonal _Being_, out of whom nature and her phenomena
+emanate. From Brahma the priest derives his authority; and the system of
+caste, by which the priesthood is raised to the first rank, its origin.
+The worship of Brahma consists in doing penance and in abstinence. Yama,
+once a celestial divinity, now becomes the god of the lower world, where
+he who disobeys Brahma is tormented after death. Immortality consists in
+returning to Brahma; but is the portion only of the perfectly godly
+Brahmin, while the rest of mankind can rise to this perfect state only
+after many painful new births. The Brahmin, in the exclusive possession
+of religious knowledge, reads and expounds the Vedas (knowledge),
+exalted to infallible scripture, and on them constructs his doctrine.
+
+Thus the once vigorous, natural life of the Indians gave place to a
+conception of the world which repressed the soul, and annihilated man's
+personality. The many-sidedness of the earlier theology resolved itself
+into the abstract unity of an impersonal All, and thus the glory of
+nature passed by unmarked, as nought or non-existent, and lost its
+charm. At the same time, the old heroic sagas were displaced by legends
+of saints, and the heroic spirit of the olden epic by an asceticism
+which repressed the human, and before whose power even the gods stood in
+awe. With Brahminism the religion lost its original and natural
+character, and became characterized by a slavish submission to a
+priesthood, which abrogated the truly human.
+
+
+_c. The Speculative Systems._
+
+The doctrine of the Brahmins occasioned the rise of various theological
+and philosophical systems. To these belong, first, the "Vedanta," (end
+of the Veda) or the dogmatic-apologetic exposition of the Veda. This
+contains (1) the establishment of the authority of the Veda as holy
+scripture revealed by Brahma, and also of the relation in which it
+stands to tradition; (2) the proof that everything in the Veda has
+reference to Brahma; (3) the ascetic system, or the discipline. To
+explain contradictory statements in the older and later parts of the
+Veda, Brahminical learning makes use of the subtleties of an
+harmonistical method of interpretation. Second, the "Mimansa" (inquiry),
+devoted to the solution of the problem, How can the material world
+spring from Brahma, or the immaterial? According to this system, there
+is only one Supreme Being, Paramatma, a name by which Brahma himself had
+been already distinguished in Manu's book of law. Outside of this
+highest _Being_, there is nothing real. The world of sense, or nature,
+(Maya, the female side of Brahma), is mere seeming and illusion of the
+senses. The human spirit is a part of Brahma, but perverted, misled by
+this same illusion to the conceit that he is individual. This illusion
+is done away with by a deeper insight, by means of which the dualism
+vanishes from the wise man's view, and the conceit gives place to the
+true knowledge that Brahma alone really exists, that nature, on the
+contrary, is nought, and the human spirit nothing else than Brahma
+himself. Third, the "Sankya" (criticism) originating with Kapila, in
+which, in opposition to the "Mimansa," the individual being and the real
+existence of nature, in opposition to spirit, is laid down as the
+starting-point, and the result reached is the doctrine of two original
+forces, spirit and nature, from whose reciprocal action and reaction
+upon each other the union of soul and body is to be explained. Is this
+union unnatural, then the effort of the wise man should be to free
+himself, through the perception that the soul is not bound to the body,
+from the dominion of matter. In this system, there is no room for an
+infinite being, for, if a material world exist, then must God be limited
+by its existence, and therefore cease to be infinite, that is God. The
+Sankya philosophy here came in conflict with the orthodox doctrine of
+the Brahmins, and prepared the way for Buddhism.
+
+
+_d. Buddhism._
+
+Against Brahminism Buddhism arose as a reaction. Siddharta, son of
+Suddhodana, the King of Kapilavastu, of the family of the Sakya, (about
+450 B.C.) moved by the misery of his fellow-countrymen, determined to
+examine into the causes of it, and, if possible, to find means of
+remedying it. Initiated into the wisdom of the Brahmins, but not
+satisfied with that, after years of solitary retirement and quiet
+meditation, penetrated with the principles of the Sankya, he traversed
+the land as pilgrim (Sakya-muni, Sramana, Gautama) and opened to the
+people of India a new religious epoch. The tendency of the new doctrine
+was to break up the system of caste, and free the people from the
+galling yoke of the Brahminical hierarchy and dogmas. While in
+Brahminism man was deprived of his individuality, and regarded only as
+an effluence from Brahma, and tormented by the fear of hell, and by the
+thought of a ceaseless process of countless new births awaiting him
+after death, whence the necessity of the most painful penances and
+chastisements, Sakya-muni began with man as an individual, and in morals
+put purity, abstinence, patience, brotherly love, and repentance for
+sins committed above sacrifice and bodily mortification, and opened to
+his followers the prospect, after this weary life, no more to be exposed
+to the ever-recurring pains of new birth, but released from all
+suffering to return to Nirvana, or nothingness. While Brahminism drew a
+distinction between man and man, and with hierarchical pride took no
+thought of the Sudra or lower class of the people, and limited wisdom to
+the priestly caste, Sakya-muni preached the equality of all men, came
+forward as a preacher to the people, used the people's language, and
+chose his followers out of all classes, even from among women. Both of
+these opposed systems are one-sided. In Brahminism, God is all, and man,
+as personal being, nothing; in Buddhism, man is recognized as an
+individual, but apart from God, while in both systems, the highest
+endeavor is to be delivered from, according to Brahminism a seeming,
+according to Sakya-muni a really existing individuality, the source of
+all human woe, and to lose one's self either in Brahma or in the
+Nirvana.
+
+Less on account of his doctrine, in which there is found neither a God
+nor a personal immortality, than on account of the universal character
+of his words and of his life, Sakya-muni continued in honor after his
+death, as the benefactor of the people and as the Buddha, the wise,
+pre-eminently; and afterwards was deified, and took his place in the
+ranks of the recognized gods as their superior. Thus there arose in
+Buddhism, by a departure from the doctrine of the master, a new
+polytheism. This was afterwards, through the influence of the
+Brahminical priestly caste, suppressed in India, but spread over other
+parts of Asia, to the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and also to
+China.
+
+
+_e. Later modification of Brahminism in connection with the worship of
+Siva and Vishnu._
+
+While Brahminism saw itself menaced by the steadily increasing influence
+of Buddhism, the former nature-religion, dispossessed by the Brahmins,
+asserted its rights in the worship of Siva in the valleys of the
+Himalaya Mountains, and in that of Vishnu on the banks of the Ganges.
+Siva is the Rudra of the Veda, the boisterous god of storms, the giver
+of rain and growth. Vishnu is the same divinity among other races,
+conceived under the influence of a softer climate in a modified form as
+the blue sky. Both divinities, originally belonging to different parts
+of India, were afterwards taken, first Vishnu, and then also Siva, into
+the theological system of the Brahmins, and formed with Brahma, but not
+until the fourth century after Christ, the trimurti, according to which
+the one supreme being Parabrama is worshiped in the threefold form of
+Brahma the creating, Vishnu the sustaining, and Siva the destroying
+power of nature. To this later period of Brahminism belongs also the
+alteration of the old epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, by which the
+heroes Rama and Krishna are represented as avatars, that is incarnations
+or human impersonations, of Vishnu. In this also there is evidently an
+effort to bring the deity, conceived as the abstract One, into closer
+union with man, an effort which is likewise visible in the later Yoga
+system of the Brahmins, in which, by the admission of Buddhistic
+elements, the visible world is recognized as real, the old rigid
+asceticism mitigated, Vishnu represented as the soul of the world, and
+immortality taught as a return of the individual soul to Brahma.
+
+
+2. THE WEST ARIANS, IRANIANS.
+
+[THE BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS.]
+
+The ancient religion of the Bactrians in the period before Zoroaster was
+patriarchal, and consisted in the worship of fire, as the beneficent
+power of nature, and of Mithras, the god of the sun, combined with that
+of the good spirits (Ahuras), among which were Geus-Urva (the spirit of
+the earth), Cpento-mainyus (the white spirit), Armaiti (the earth, or
+also the spirit of piety), and of the hero-spirits Sraosha, Traetona,
+which as light and darkness are distinguished from Angro (the black
+spirit).
+
+Later, as it seems, the theology and worship of the neighboring nomadic
+Arya penetrated to these nations, and caused a religious conflict which
+ended with the migration of Arya to the south. At this period
+Zarathustra[2] (Zoroaster) came forward under the Bactrian priest and
+King Kava Vistaspa, as defender and reformer of the religion of the
+fathers against the encroachments of a strange doctrine. The Devas
+(Zend, Dews) or the gods of the Indian Veda appear with Zarathustra as
+evil spirits. Not Indra, but the hero Traetona, wages war with Ahi
+(Zend, Azhi), while the kavis, or priests, are attacked by him as
+deceivers and liars. From the belief in good spirits (Ahuras, i.e.,
+the living, and Mazdas, i.e., the wise), the ancient genii of the
+country, Zarathustra developed the belief of one highest God,
+Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd, Greek, [Greek: Osompzes]), a doctrine which he
+received by divine inspiration through the mediation of the spirit
+Srasha. Ahura-Mazda, surrounded by the Amesha-Spenta (Amshaspands), or
+the holy immortals, not until later reduced to seven, is the creator of
+light and life. The hurtful and evil, on the contrary, is non-existence
+(akem), and in the oldest parts of the Avesta, the Gathas, which go back
+to Zarathustra and his first followers, is not yet conceived as a
+personal being. First in the Vendidad, written after Zarathustra, does
+Angro-mainyus (Ahriman), or the evil one, with his Dews, although
+subordinated to Ahura-Mazda, gain a place in the Iranian conception of
+the universe, as the adversary of Ahura-Mazda, and as the cause of evil
+in the natural and spiritual world. From these conceptions there was
+developed in the later Parsism the system of the four periods of the
+world, each of three thousand years, in the book "Bundehesh." In the
+first period, Ahura-Mazda appears as creator of the world and as the
+source of good. The creation, completed by Ahura-Mazda in six days by
+means of the word (Honover), is in the second period destroyed by
+Angro-mainyus, who, appearing upon the earth in the form of a serpent,
+seduces the first human pair, created by Ahura-Mazda. In the third
+period, which begins with the revelation given to Zarathustra,
+Ahura-mazda and Angro-mainyus strive together for man. After this
+follows, in the fourth period, the victory gained by Ahura-Mazda.
+Sosiosh (Saoshyas), the deliverer already foretold in the Vendidad,
+appears. The resurrection of the dead, not taught by Zarathustra or in
+the Vendidad, takes place. The judgment of the world begins; the good
+are received into paradise and the sinners banished to hell. At last,
+all is purified, and Angro-mainyus himself and his Dews submit
+themselves to Ahura-Mazda, whose victory is celebrated in heaven with
+songs of praise.
+
+Thus among the Iranian races, out of the old patriarchal worship of fire
+and light, on the occasion of the religious struggle with the Indian
+Arya, and under the influence of Zarathustra, there was developed the
+doctrine of one supreme God,[3] who, surrounded by the good spirits of
+heaven, wages war against evil, whence arose later the moral opposition
+between Ahura-Mazda and Angro-mainyus resulting in the victory of the
+good principle over the bad. The old dualism of force and matter,
+beneficent and destructive powers of nature, light and darkness, becomes
+in Parsism moral. The deity, no longer identified with nature, becomes a
+personal, spiritual being, the creator of mankind; and the end of the
+world's development is conceived as the triumph of the good. Hence the
+high rank which the doctrine of Zarathustra and its further development
+holds in the history of religion.
+
+
+3. THE GREEKS.
+
+As man rises in spiritual development, nature becomes to him a
+revelation ever more and more manifold of the divine. To the Greek
+(Pelasgi, Hellenes) the whole of nature was living, and his imagination
+peopled her everywhere with divine beings, who in wood and field, in
+rivers and on mountains (Oreads, Dryads, Naiads, Sileni, &c.), hovered
+friendly round him. The Greek was indeed distinguished from other
+nations by this richer and more elevated view of nature; but he excelled
+them most of all in this, that the divine object which he worshiped was
+conceived both in form and character after the human. Zeus, Phoebus
+Apollo, Pallas Athene, Aphrodite, Ares, Hephaestus, Hestia, Hermes,
+Artemis, were originally powers of nature personified, as some epithets
+in Homer[4] still indicate; but they became, sometimes under the same
+names, types of power and lordship, science and art, courage and
+sensuous beauty. While Dionysus, Demeter, Hades, and Persephone remained
+earthly, and Helios, Eos, Iris, and Hecate, heavenly divinities, and
+Oceanus, Poseidon, Amphitrite, Proteus, and Nereus ruled the waters,
+Zeus was conceived as the god of the sky and of thunder, who hurled the
+bolts, the great king and lawgiver, the father of men, and Hera,
+originally the air, became the protecting goddess of married life;
+Apollo, the god of light, who shot forth his arrows, not at first
+identified with Helios, became the god of divination and poetry, who led
+the choir of the muses; the goddess of light, Athene, became the
+contentious goddess of wisdom; Aphrodite, born of the foam of the sea,
+once the symbol of the fruitful power of nature, later, encircled by the
+Graces, became the type of womanly beauty and charm, to which the
+strength of man, personified in Ares, corresponds. In like manner in the
+later mythology, Hephaestus, the god of fire, appeared as the god of the
+forge, Hestia, the goddess of fire, as the protector of the household
+hearth, and Hermes, the god of the storm and of rain, as the messenger
+of the gods, the type of cunning and craftiness, while Artemis, the
+goddess of the moon, the fruitful mother of nature, took the character
+of the chaste maiden, the goddess of hunting, who with her nymphs and
+hounds nightly roamed the fields and woods. The monsters, the Sphinx,
+the Minotaur, the Cyclops, the Centaurs, symbols of a yet unhuman or
+half human power of nature, were overcome by the Greek heroes, Perseus,
+Hercules, Jason, Theseus, OEdipus, the types of human strength and
+valor. The religious festivals were enlivened by trials of men's
+strength and skill in games, and the historian and poet offered to the
+gods the products of human genius. In the religion of the Greeks,
+however, the moral element, although not passed over and in the Greek
+epic and tragedy not seldom expressed in grand characters, stood
+nevertheless too little in the foreground, so that the worship of the
+divine, as in the older nature-worship, especially in the feasts in
+honor of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was marked by immoral practices. The
+conception of a future life, which taken in connection with a future
+retribution has a moral tendency, had but little attraction for the
+Greek, who rejoiced in the glory of the earth, and saw in nature and in
+man the kingdom of the divine. The passage from the earlier poetical
+nature-worship to the worship of the divine in human form seems to be
+indicated in the war which Olympian Zeus waged with Cronos and the
+Titans. The origin and development of the various elements and powers of
+nature, Chaos, Eros, Uranus, Gaea, the Giants, Styx, Erebus, Hemera,
+AEther, &c, became, with the poets and philosophers after Homer, matters
+of speculation, of which the theogonies of Hesiod, Orpheus, Pherecydes,
+and others furnish proof.
+
+
+4. THE ROMANS.
+
+In the religion of the Greeks, the aesthetic and moral character of the
+Grecian people was deified, and in the Romans also we see how that which
+men value most exerts an influence upon their worship of the divine. The
+primitive religion of the Romans, borrowed from the Sabines and
+Etruscans, bears everywhere, in distinction to that of the Greeks, the
+marks of the practical and political character of the Roman people. The
+oldest national divinities are, first, Jupiter or Jovis, the god of the
+heavens, Mars or Mavors, the god of the field and of war, Quirinus
+(Janus?) the protector of the Quirites, afterwards, together with Juno
+(Dione) and Minerva, worshiped in the Capitol, (Dii Capitolini);
+second, Vesta, and the gods of the house and family, the Lares and
+Penates; third, the rural divinities, Saturnus, Ops, Liber, Faunus,
+Silvanus, Terminus, Flora, Vertumnus, and Pomona; fourth and last,
+personifications, in part of the powers of nature, Sol, Luna, Tellus,
+Neptunus, Orcus, Proserpina, in part of moral and social qualities and
+states, such as Febris, Salus, Mens, Spes, Pudicitia, Pietas, Fides,
+Concordia, Virtus, Bellona, Victoria, Pax, Libertas, and others.
+Peculiarly Roman also is the conception of the _manes_, or shades of the
+departed, who hover as protecting genii about the living. Afterwards,
+along with the culture of the Greeks, their gods also were taken,
+although rather outwardly than inwardly, into the spirit of the people,
+and the original character of the gods of Latium was modified after the
+new mythology. Notwithstanding this, however, the worship of the Romans
+retained its political and practical character. The priests (sacerdotes)
+Flamines, Salii, Feciales, the Pontifices with the Pontifex Maximus at
+their head, the Augurs, were likewise officers of the state, and did not
+form a hierarchy apart from the state and alongside of it.
+
+
+5. THE CELTS.
+
+Among the Celtic tribes in Brittany, Ireland, and Gaul, and on both
+banks of the Rhine, out of an aboriginal life of nature characterized by
+wildness and license, religion developed itself in the form of the
+worship of two chief divinities, a male divinity, Hu, the begetting, and
+a female, Ceridwen, the bearing, power of nature. The priesthood busied
+itself with speculations about the divine, the origin of the world, and
+the continued existence of man after death, conceived in the form of the
+transmigration of souls. Nor did the people's faith lack the conception
+of good and evil spirits, fairies, dwarfs, elves, which to the still
+childish fancy are objects of fear or superstitious veneration. To the
+service of these divinities the priesthood, the Druids, were
+consecrated, and beside them the bards, or poets, held a more
+independent place.
+
+
+6. THE GERMANS AND SCANDINAVIANS.
+
+More developed intellectually is the nature-religion of the ancient
+Germans (Teutons) and Scandinavians, which betrays thereby the character
+of the Aryan race to which these nations, like the Celts, originally
+belonged. The highest god of the Germans is Wodan, called Odhin among
+the Norsemen, the god of the heavens, and of the sun, who protects the
+earth, and is the source of light and fruitfulness, the spirit of the
+world, and the All-father (Alfadhir). From the union of heaven and
+earth, there springs the god Thunar or Donar among the Germans, Thor
+among the Norsemen, the bold god of thunder who wages war against the
+enemies of gods and men. Besides these there are the sons of Wodan, Fro
+(German), Freyx (Norse), the god of peace, Zio (German), Tyx (Norse),
+the god of war, Aki (German), Oegir (Norse), god of the sea, Vol
+(German), Ullr (Norse), god of hunting, and others, to whom are joined
+female divinities, such as Nerthus (German), Joerdh (Norse), the fruitful
+goddess of the earth, Holda (German), Freiya (Norse), the goddess of
+love, Nehalennia, goddess of plenty, Frikka (German), Frigg (Norse), the
+wife of Wodan, mother of all the living, Hellia (German), Hel (Norse),
+the inexorable goddess of the lower world. Opposed to these divinities
+(Asen and Asinnen) stands Loko (German), Loki (Norse), enemy of the
+divine. In addition to these there appear in the Norse and German Sagas,
+besides the heroes, a multitude of spirits, good and hostile, giants,
+elves, Elfen (German), Alfen (Norse), white spirits of light, and black
+dwarfs, house, forest, and water spirits. The worship was most simple,
+and, as was the case with the ancient Semites, the Indians of the Veda,
+and the Greeks, as yet independent of temple service and priestly
+constraint. The holy places of the Germans were woods, and hills, and
+fountains, and in the mysterious rustling of the leaves and in the
+murmuring of the waters the pious spirit caught the breathing of the
+deity.[5] The father of the house is priest, and the recognition by
+these races more than elsewhere of worth in woman is apparent also in
+their religion. In the description of the kingdom of the dead in the
+German-Norse mythology, Walhalla is the abode of the heroes, hell the
+gathering place of the other dead. Notwithstanding these still childish
+conceptions, there was revealed in the moral character and heroic spirit
+of the German forefathers the germ of a higher development, which makes
+the nations of Germany and Northern Europe capable beyond others of a
+constantly higher conception and estimation of the Christian
+religion.[6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE RELIGION OF THE SEMITES.
+
+
+I. THE PHOENICIANS, SYRIANS, BABYLONIANS, CARTHAGINIANS, AND ARABIANS.
+
+In the Semitic races the religious spirit rose above nature-worship in
+the effort to separate God from nature, and to elevate him above nature
+as Lord, Baal (plural Baalim, either from the different places where he
+was worshiped, or the various names under which he was worshiped), Bel,
+El, Adon (Adonis). Thus Bel among the Babylonians, Baal among the
+Ammonites and Moabites, was the god of light, the lord of heaven, the
+creator of mankind, who had his throne above the clouds and was invoked
+on mountains.[7] Also the title Molech and Baal Molech to designate the
+Supreme Being among the ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and the
+nations nearest related to Israel, the Moabites and Ammonites, as well
+as the derived names Milcom (Kamos) [Chemosh, Eng. ver.], among the
+Ammonites, and Melkartht at Tyre and Carthage, indicate, like Baal, an
+original effort to conceive God as the ruler of nature. Agreeing with
+this conception of the Deity, there is manifest, as well in the worship
+of Baal as of Molech and the female Astarte (Melecheth)[8] [Ashtaroth,
+Eng. ver.], worshiped with him, partly in the abstinence from marriage,
+partly in the human sacrifice, especially the sacrifice of the
+first-born, the aim, through abnegation of the life of sense, and
+through the sacrifice, even though unnatural, of what is dearest to man,
+to appease a divinity who as lord and governor rules and subjects to
+himself the power of nature and every propensity of sense.[9]
+
+In spite of the effort to elevate the Deity as Lord and King above
+nature, most of the Semitic nations gradually sank back into the old
+nature-worship, and, uniting with the worship of the highest God, Baal
+and Bel, that of a female divinity under the names of Baaltis, Beltis,
+Aschera, Mylitta, they made religion to consist in the sacrifice of
+chastity to the will of the Deity, as the fruitful, productive power of
+nature, and thus fell into gross immorality.[10]
+
+Religion appears in another form among the Semites in the worship of the
+stars among the Babylonians and ancient Arabians. This astrolatry,
+originally a kind of fetichism, became nature-worship, and gradually
+rose to the worship of the intelligence manifested to our contemplation
+in the movement of the heavenly luminaries. Astrology arose, and
+religion no longer expressed itself in passive acquiescence, but was
+united with the effort to guide the life by the knowledge to be drawn,
+as men imagined, from the motion of the stars.
+
+
+ISRAELITISH RELIGION.
+
+
+_a. Its origin. The patriarchal religion. Mosaism. Prophetism._
+
+While most of the Semitic nations, in opposition to the effort to
+elevate God above nature as lord and governor, returned to the old
+nature-religion with its grossly sensual worship of the divine, and
+others got no farther than to the conception of a deity, who, like a
+consuming fire, stood opposed to nature, and was to be appeased and
+propitiated by human sacrifices, there was developed among the
+Israelitish people, gradually and in constantly higher measure, in
+connection with a higher moral and religious disposition, the worship of
+God as a being who, though distinct from nature, is yet not opposed to
+it, and thus no longer demands human sacrifices, but obedience and moral
+consecration.
+
+The common origin of the religion of the Israelites and that of their
+Semitic relations, though hardly evident even in the oldest monuments of
+the Hebrew literature, appears from the following facts and particulars:
+firstly, the composition of Israelitish names not only with El, but also
+with Baal, such as Jerubbaal (adversary of Baal), (Gideon),[11]
+Esbaal,[12] Meribbaal,[13] names which afterwards, on account of the
+aversion which the ever-increasing distance in religion between the
+Israelitish nation and the nations related to it must, from the nature
+of the case, have inspired against the name of Baal, are changed into
+Jerubboseth,[14] Isboseth,[15] and Mephiboseth[16], as also the
+interchanging of El and Baal,[17] of Baal-jada[18] and Eljada,[19] seem
+to point to an ancient period when the name Baal (Lord) was used, like
+El, Elohim, El Eljon, El Schaddai, Adonai, even among the Israelites,
+to designate the Supreme Being. Secondly, the God of Abraham (Elohim),
+although he desires no human sacrifices, nevertheless praises the
+willingness of the father to offer up his first-born, and sees in that
+the highest proof of devotedness and obedience.[20] Thirdly,
+circumcision, already before Moses[21] the bloody symbol of consecration
+to God,[22] and also the right of Jahveh to the first-born, and the
+necessity of ransoming them from him,[23] imply an earlier conception of
+the deity as a being, who, although on a higher development of the
+religion he is not indeed any longer thought to desire human sacrifice,
+nevertheless has a right to such a sacrifice, and thus demands indemnity
+for remitting it. Fourthly, the later conception, of Jahveh as a
+destroying fire, and the way in which the God of Israel is conceived in
+connection with fire, and as manifesting himself in fire,[24] betray,
+even in the midst of a more advanced religious development, an original
+relationship with the like conceptions of the other Semites. Fifthly,
+even in the orthodox Jahveh-worship, some symbols, as the twelve oxen in
+the porch of the temple,[25] the horns of the altar for
+burnt-offerings,[26] perhaps also the in part oxlike form of the
+cherubim,[27] point to an earlier worship of the deity under the form of
+an ox, the symbol of the highest might, especially among the Semitic
+races.[28]
+
+In confirmation of the supposition thus suggested of a community of
+origin in the religion of the Israelites and in that of the nations
+related to them, there is also to be remarked, firstly, the sympathy
+always felt among the people of Israel for the worship of Baal and
+Molech, in face of the strongest opposition on the part of the
+prophets;[29] secondly, the statement of Amos,[30] that even in the
+wilderness the Israelites worshiped Molech; thirdly, the fact that in
+the time of the Judges, Jephthah offered his daughter to Jahveh,[31] and
+still later the feeling, not driven out even by Mosaism, that the wrath
+of Jahveh must be appeased by human blood,[32] a necessity which David
+recognizes;[33] fourthly, the ancient custom in Israel, as in the
+nations related to them, of worshiping the deity on mountains and
+heights,[34] against which the priestly legislation strove in the
+interest of the pure worship of Jahveh;[35] fifthly, the heterodox
+worship of Jahveh in the kingdom of the ten tribes under the form of a
+calf.[36]
+
+From all this it seems fair to conclude that the religion of the oldest
+forefathers of Israel had its root originally in one and the same soil
+with the religion of the other Semites. Out of an earlier
+nature-religion there developed among the Semites the conception of
+Baal, the lord of nature, and of Molech with his inhuman worship. While,
+however, the other Semites remained in this lower stage, or rather sank
+back more and more into the immorality of the nature-religion,--an
+hypothesis suggested by a comparison of the religious state of the
+nations of Canaan in Abraham's time with their state at the time of the
+conquest of the land by Joshua and afterwards,--in the family of
+Abraham, religious consciousness rose to the recognition of a deity,
+who, although he had a right to human sacrifices, yet did not claim such
+sacrifices, but was satisfied with men's willingness to bring them to
+him. With this higher development of religion, the names of the Supreme
+Being, Baal and Molech, originally common to the whole race, came more
+and more into contempt, and were regarded as the expression of
+abominable idolatry,[37] while even the worship of Jahveh under the form
+of a calf, originally permitted, was later branded by the prophets as
+heresy.
+
+Though it was in the family of Abraham that even in Mesopotamia[38] the
+beginning of this higher development of the Semitic religion showed
+itself, which, after his migration to Canaan became the heritage of his
+family, yet the patriarch of Israel did not stand alone in this respect
+among the Semites. The old Canaanitish chieftains also of the
+patriarchal period, Melchizedek and Abimelech, worship the same God as
+he,[39] while on the other hand in his own family not all traces of
+polytheistic superstition have disappeared,[40] and these traces are
+also visible still later in Israel.[41]
+
+The patriarchal religion, which afterwards with the great majority fell
+into oblivion, was recalled afresh to men's minds by Moses, and the God
+of the fathers was preached by him under the name before unknown of
+Jahveh,[42] to whom, with the exclusion of all other gods, religious
+worship is due.[43] The Jahveh of Moses, like the El Eljon of the
+patriarchs, is the one only object of worship (Deus Unus), yet without
+excluding the possibility of other gods existing.[44] Not until later
+did the more developed conception of Jahveh arise as the one only God
+(Deus unicus),[45] who is throned in heaven, and like the Elohim of the
+patriarchs, encircled by celestial beings (Bene Elohim, Malakim,
+Angels), who execute his commands, yet are not objects of religious
+adoration.
+
+The religious standpoint of Moses is the legal. Jehovah stands related
+to his people as the Holy, as lawgiver and judge; and the true moral
+consecration to God is symbolically expressed in the ritual, especially
+in the sacrifice, while the relation of the people to God is based upon
+the mediation of the priests. Along with this, and out of Mosaism, after
+the time of Samuel, prophetism was developed, in which independent
+religious conviction, outside the limits of the priesthood, and without
+distinction of rank or birth,[46] awoke among the people. Prophetism, in
+the domain of religion, is the development of the religious spirit to
+individual independence and freedom. The prophet, rising above the legal
+standpoint and outward ceremonial, puts the essence of true worship in
+morality,[47] but recognizes also along with the deepest feeling of
+dependence upon God, in the independence[48] and spontaneity of the
+religious and moral life, the irresistible power of the divine spirit,
+by which the Most High, though apart from the world and throned in
+heaven, puts himself into the closest and most intimate communion with
+the true worshiper. Thus the gulf which divided Jahveh, as a God afar
+off, from the world and his worshipers, closed up more and more. With
+the conviction of the pureness and truth[49] of her religion, Israel
+felt the calling to raise it to the religion of the world, and in the
+realization of this she saw the ideal of the future.[50]
+
+
+_b. The Israelitish religion after the Captivity._
+
+The free character which distinguished prophetism in the religion of
+Israel changed, after the return of the people from captivity,
+especially with the party of the Pharisees, to literalness and
+formalism. The prophets gave place to the synagogue, the living
+proclamation of the truth to scriptural erudition, the spirit of
+freedom to slavish subjection to Scripture and tradition. As the ancient
+productions of the Indian literature, originally the expression of the
+popular thought of India, were elevated by the Brahmins into Veda, holy,
+inspired scripture, so also the religious literature of Israel took on
+the character of a closed Canon, so that what was once the expression of
+religious life became now rule of faith. The standpoint of the law which
+prophetism had already overcome was again strongly maintained, the law
+enriched with a number of new ordinances, and the essence of religion
+made to consist partly in dogmatic speculation, partly in a merely
+outward service, devoid of inner life. The Messianic prediction, or the
+expectation that the kingdom, divided in Rehoboam's reign, once more
+united under a prince of the house of David, should be exalted to new
+bloom and lustre,--which in the older prophets was the natural and
+historically explicable form in which the ideal of Israel's future
+presented itself to the seer, but which, under the influence of the
+changed political conditions, had already been replaced in the later
+prophecy by the more general conception of a future triumph of the true
+religion of which Israel was the bringer,--[51]returned, yet not as the
+ideal of the prophetic spirit, but as a dogma, the product of scriptural
+interpretation. The pure monotheism, by which formerly a place in the
+Providence of God had been allotted to everything, even to moral
+evil,[52] became corrupted, under the influence of Parsism, by the
+conception of two kingdoms, of God and of the Devil. The angels,
+originally the messengers of Providence, became under mythological
+names, Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, &c., so many middle beings who filled
+the space between the Deity, existing apart from the world, and the
+world. The lower world (sheol, [Greek: aides]), formerly the general
+abode of the dead, of bad and good without distinction, was split into
+two parts, paradise and gehenna, and became a place of recompense, and,
+along with this, religion, once an end, became the means of warding off
+a dreaded punishment, or of gaining a future of bliss. The doctrine of
+immortality, as the continuation of man's moral development, which was
+formerly unknown in Israel, appeared, as in the later Parsism, in the
+form of a bodily resurrection of the dead, at first of the righteous
+only, but afterwards in the form of a general resurrection, by mediation
+of the Messiah, at whose appearing, which was expected just before the
+end of the present state of things, the great judgment of the world, of
+living and dead, was to be held, heaven and earth renewed, and the
+kingdom of God founded. Beside the learned party of the Pharisees stood
+the Sadducees, who subordinated religion to politics, rejected the
+Messianic idea and the authority of tradition, and, in denying
+immortality in the form of a bodily resurrection, failed to perceive the
+truth of immortality, for whose recognition the premises and germs
+existed in the religion of Israel, though not as yet developed. The
+third party, that of the Essenes, was marked by quiet piety, and in many
+respects also by excessive asceticism. In the midst of the Pharisaic
+formalism, the unbelief of the Sadducees, and the pietism of the
+Essenes, there was yet in Israel a seed of true worshipers, who, though
+not above the dogmatic prejudices of their time, had heart and mind open
+for the true religion, and who set the true blessing to be looked for
+from the Messiah in the satisfying of their religious and moral needs.
+
+
+3. THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.
+
+The Israelitish religion, which reached its highest stage of development
+in prophetism, but which among the later Jews after Ezra degenerated,
+with the Pharisees into formalism and worship of the letter, with the
+Essenes into mysticism and asceticism, and which with the Sadducees,
+along with the sacrifice of the prophetic ideal of the future, was
+subordinated to politics, developed in Christianity, but freed from once
+cherished national expectations and outward forms, into a purely
+spiritual knowledge and worship of God. Jesus fathomed the deep meaning
+of the religion of his people, and its original fitness to become,
+through higher development, the religion of the world. Jesus devoted
+himself to the end of forming the human race into one great society (the
+kingdom of heaven), of which religion should be the soul and life, and,
+convinced of his calling, proclaimed himself as the Son of man, who, as
+such, belonged not to Israel alone, but to mankind. Jesus combated both
+the formalism and exclusiveness of the Pharisees, and the unbelief of
+the Sadducees, and with word and deed preached a religion which,
+independent of all outward form, took hold of the human heart, and
+which, developing into an independent principle in man, was to find its
+commission, not in the authority of Scripture or tradition, not even in
+that of his name, but in its own power and truth. In him religion
+appeared as the power of self-sacrificing love, which fears not even
+death, and to which dying is not the losing of life, but the development
+of life. In distinction from other religions, in which either God and
+man are strangers to each other, and opposed to each other, or man's
+personality is, as it were, sunk in God, Christianity is the religion by
+which man, in the full enjoyment of individual development, and with the
+sense of his own strength, lives in the consciousness of the most entire
+dependence upon God. Religion in its highest form, conceived as the
+oneness of man with God, is realized in Christianity.[53]
+
+
+4. ISLAMISM.
+
+The religion of the ancient nomadic tribes of the Arabian peninsula
+originally exhibited a polytheistical character, in the form of the
+worship, in part of sacred stones, in part of the powers of nature,
+especially of the stars, whose position and motion were thought to exert
+an influence, beneficent or baneful, upon the destinies of men. With
+these conceptions was combined a certain leaning toward monotheism,
+which manifested itself especially in the common worship of Allah taala
+(equivalent to El Eljon), which was afterwards quickened and
+strengthened by association with the Jewish tribes, with whom they held
+themselves to be related by descent from Abraham. The Parsee doctrine of
+demons, also, was not unknown in Arabia, after the conquest of the
+Persians in the fifth century. After the third, fourth, and fifth
+centuries, Christianity also, though in a corrupt form, or, definitely,
+in the form of Monophysitism and Nestorianism, which had been condemned
+by the church, became established in Arabia.
+
+Amid such diverse elements, there was need of unity in the domain of
+religion, a need for which Mohammed, after the example of others of his
+family, sought to provide.
+
+He was born at Mecca (571) of an honorable family, belonging to the
+Koreish tribe. Finding no satisfaction for his restless spirit in the
+trade to which after his parents' death he had at first devoted himself,
+he gave himself up, in solitary retirement, to quiet meditation, and
+became more and more convinced of his calling to put an end, by means of
+a better religion, to the confusion existing among his countrymen with
+regard to religion. The religious idea which overmastered him presented
+itself to his powerful Oriental imagination in the form of a vision as a
+revelation of Allah taala, made to him in the fortieth year of his life
+by mediation of the angel Gabriel. His conviction, thus acquired, was
+confirmed by revelations afterwards received; and, shared at first with
+a small circle of trusted friends, gradually spread wider, until at last
+Mohammed came forward in the ancient sanctuary, the Kaaba, at Mecca, as
+prophet of Allah. For this he was pursued by his countrymen, and fled
+from thence to Medina, in the year 622, the beginning of the Moslem era.
+The number of his followers increasing, he had recourse to arms. He
+conquered Mecca in 630, and made the Kaaba, after destroying the idols
+in it, the sanctuary of the new religion.
+
+The doctrine of Mohammed (Islam, submission to God, whence his followers
+take the name of Moslems), is contained in the Koran. The various
+Suras, or divisions, originally the revelations received by the prophet
+at different periods of his life reduced to writing, were, soon after
+his death, united by Abu Bekr into one holy book, under the name of the
+Koran (al Kitab, the book), which, like the Bible among the later Jews
+and Christians, was clothed with divine authority. The central doctrine
+of Mohammed is the belief in one God, Allah, who, as the Creator and
+Lord of all things, in strictest isolation from the world, is throned in
+heaven. All that takes place upon the earth befalls according to the
+eternal decree of God, a conception in which, at least among the
+Orthodox Moslems, the Sunnites, who are distinguished in this respect,
+as in others, from the dissenting Shiites, there is no place left for
+human freedom. This God has from the earliest times revealed himself to
+some privileged men, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus (Isa). To the
+last is due the honor of having been the reformer of degenerate Judaism.
+He is not, as the Christians of Mohammed's time taught, the Son of God
+in a metaphysical sense, much less God himself,--Allah is one, he
+neither begets nor is begotten,--but a prophet of human descent. The
+greatest and last prophet is Mohammed himself, in whom prophetism
+reached its fulfillment. Along with the doctrine regarding God and his
+relation to the world, prayer, hospitality, and benevolence occupy a
+prominent place in the teaching of Mohammed, looked at from its
+practical side, and also the belief in a future life, in the
+Jewish-Parsee form of the resurrection of the dead, the judgment of the
+world, future reward and punishment, paradise and hell. The truth of
+this divine revelation rests upon the very fact of its having been
+revealed, and, according to Mohammed, it no more needs scientific proof
+than confirmation by miracles, to which Islamism did not appeal until
+later.
+
+The opinion which formerly prevailed among Christians that Mohammed was
+an impostor, a false prophet, was bound up with the conception that God,
+to the exclusion of other nations, had revealed himself immediately and
+supernaturally first to Israel, and afterwards through Christ to all
+mankind. Hence it followed that Christianity was not prized as the
+highest religion, existing along with less developed forms of religion,
+but was opposed as the only true religion to all others, which were
+regarded as the fruit of imposture and error, an opinion to which the
+religious and political struggles in which Islam and Christendom have
+been involved also richly contributed. Mohammed was seer and prophet,
+filled with fiery zeal for religion, and, while he stands indeed in this
+respect, both personally and with regard to the contents of his
+preaching and the means by which he sought to gain admission for his
+doctrine, below the seers of Israel, and far below the founder of
+Christianity, yet, on the other hand, his monotheism, abstract as it is,
+must be regarded as a wholesome reaction against the ever-increasing
+polytheistical superstition to which in his time the Christian church of
+the East especially had sunk. Islamism stands, however, below original
+Christianity, the religion of Jesus and the Apostles, in that, by
+separating God, as the abstract one Supreme Being, from the world, it
+leaves no place for the doctrine of God's immanence, or the indwelling
+of the Spirit of God in man. Hence in Islamism the divine revelation
+remains purely mechanical, with no natural point of connection in man,
+and therefore there is no possibility of an enduring prophetism, which
+is the fundamental principle of Christianity. From this separation of
+God and man, the Mohammedan doctrine of predestination, in distinction
+from the Christian, acquires its abstract and fatalistic character,
+whereby man, instead of being regarded as a being in whose free activity
+God's power and life are glorified, is conceived as a passive instrument
+of a higher power. To true moral independence, therefore, the Moslem
+does not attain. His religion is legal and external, and therefore
+intolerant and exclusive; and when Islamism, led by excited passion and
+a heated imagination, disregarded the sanctity of marriage, and held up
+as a reward before the faithful Moslem a paradise characterized by
+sensual enjoyment, it missed at once the deep moral and spiritual
+character of Christianity. To these defects must be ascribed the fact
+that Islamism, adapted to the need of the East, and therefore spread
+over a large part of Asia and Africa, has not, with the exception of the
+empire of Turkey, and for a time also of Spain, penetrated Europe; and,
+overshadowed by a higher development of humanity, has reached its
+highest bloom, while Christianity, brought back to its original purity,
+remains the religion of the civilized world.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Translated from the Dutch of Prof. J.H. Scholten, by F.T.
+Washburn. This constitutes the first part of Prof. Scholten's History of
+Religion and Philosophy. (_Geschiedenis der Godsdienst en
+Wijsbegeerte._) Third edition. Leyden, 1863. Of this work there is a
+translation in French by M. Albert Reville (Paris, 1861); but this
+translation, which was made from an earlier edition, is very defective
+in the first part, Prof. Scholten having added a great deal in his last
+edition. There is also a translation of it in German, by D.E.R.
+Redepenning (Elberfeld, 1868). This German translation has been revised
+and enlarged by Prof. Scholten, and is therefore superior in some
+respects to the original Dutch. The present translation has been revised
+upon it.]
+
+[Footnote 2: According to Buusen 3000 or 2500 B.C., Haug 2000 B.C., Max
+Mueller 1200 B.C., Max Duncker 1300 or 1250 B.C., and according to
+Roeth. I. p. 348, who still puts Vistaspa before Darius Hystaspes,
+between 589 and 512 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The doctrine of the _Zervana akarana_ (infinite time) as
+the original One, from which the opposition between Ormuzd and Ahriman
+was held to spring, dates from a later period.]
+
+[Footnote 4: [Greek: Zeus kelainephes, ahidheri nahion, nephelegerheta
+Zeus, Here bohopis, glaukhopis Hathhene].]
+
+[Footnote 5: Of the Germans Tacitus writes, _Germ._, c. 9, "Eos nec
+cohibere parietibus Deos neque in ullam humanioris speciem assimilare,
+ex magnitudine coelestium arbitrantur. Lucos ac nemora consecrant
+deorumque nominibus appellant secretum illud, quod sola reverentia
+vident."]
+
+[Footnote 6: Among the Roman writers who furnish us with information
+upon the religion of the Germans, Tacitus deserves mention, in his
+"Germania," as well as in his "Annales" _passim_. The chief source with
+regard to the Norse religion is the older Edda, under the title "Edda
+Saemundar hin Froda."]
+
+[Footnote 7: Numb. xxii. 41; xxiii. 28; 2 Kings, xxiii. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Judges, ii. 13; 1 Sam. vii. 4; xii. 10; 1 Kings, xi. 5, 7,
+33; 2 Kings, xxiii. 13; Jer. vii. 18; xliv. 17, 19.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Levit. xviii. 21; xx. 2; 2 Kings, iii. 26, 27; xvi. 3;
+xxiii. 10; Ps. cvi. 38; Jer. vii. 31; xix. 5; xxxii. 35; Micah, vi. 7;
+Ezek. xv. 4, 6; [?] xvi. 20, Comp. I Kings, xviii: 28.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Numb. xxv. I, _et seq_; Josh. xxii. 17; Baruch, vi. 41,
+43.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Judges, vi. 32. and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 12: 1 Chron. viii. 33; ix. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 13: 1 Chron. viii. 34; ix. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 14: 2 Sam. xi. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 15: 2 Sam. ii. 8, and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 16: 2 Sam. iv. 4, and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Judges, viii. 33; ix. 4. Comp. with ix. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 18: 1 Chron. xiv. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 19: 1 Chron. iii. 8; 2 Sam. v. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Gen. xxii.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Gen. xvii. 23-27.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Ex. iv. 24-26.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Ex. xiii. 2, 12-16; xxii. 28, 29; xxx. 11-16; xxxiv. 19,
+20.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Gen. xv. 17; Ex. iii. 2; xix. 16-18; xxiv. 17; xl. 38;
+Levit. x. 2; Numb. xvi. 35; Deut. iv. 15, 24; v. 24, 25.]
+
+[Footnote 25: 1 Kings, vii. 25, 29.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Ex. xxvii. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Comp. Ezek. i. 10; x. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 28: 1 Kings, xviii. 23.]
+
+[Footnote 29: 1 Kings, xi. 5; 2 Kings, xvi. 3; xxi. 3; xxiii. 4, _et
+seq_; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 3; Ezek. xvi. 20, 21; Jer. xix. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Amos. v. 25, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Judges, xi. 30-40.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Ex. xxxii. 27-29; Numb. xxv. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 33: 2 Sam. xxi. 1-14.]
+
+[Footnote 34: 1 Kings, iii. 2; xi. 7; 2 Kings, xii. 3; xiv. 4; xvii. 11;
+xviii. 4; xxiii. 5, 19; 2 Chron. xxi. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 35: 2 Chron. xxxiv. 3; Ezek. vi. 3; xx. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 36: 1 Kings, xii. 28, 33. Comp. Ex. xxxii. 4, 19.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Levit. xviii. 21; xx. 2; Deut. xii. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Gen. xxiv, xxviii.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Gen. xiv. 18-20; xx. 3, 4.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, _et seq_; xxxv. 2-4; Joshua, xxiv. 2,
+14.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Judges, xviii. 14, _et seq_; 1 Sam. xix. 13; 2 Kings,
+xviii. 4; Ezek. xx. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Ex. iii. 13, _et seq_; vi. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Ex. xx. 2, 3.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Ex. viii. 10; xv. 11; xviii. 11; xx. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Deut vi. 4; iv. 28, 35; xxxii. 39; Isaiah, xliv. 6, 8;
+xlv. 5, 6.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Amos, vii. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Isa. i. 11-18; Jer. vii. 21-23.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Dutch, _zelfstandigheid_, literally, self-existence;
+without an equivalent, as far as I know, in vernacular English.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 49: _Zelfstandigheid_, again, expressing objective existence,
+reality, independent of subjective thought or feeling.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Jer. xxxi. 31, _et seq_; Isa. ii. 2-4; Amos, ix. 12; Isa.
+xxv. 6; lii. 15; lvi. 6, 7; lxvi. 23; Zech. viii. 23; xiv. 9, 16.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Isa. liii.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Job i, ii.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 53: The most original sources of the Christian religion are
+the Synoptic Gospels, in which, however, criticism must distinguish
+between the older and later portions. The fourth Gospel is marked by a
+more profound speculation upon the person and the work of Christ, by
+which the Christian mind freed itself entirely from the Jewish forms in
+which Jesus, as a popular teacher in Israel, had set forth his
+doctrine.]
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS***
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