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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Comparative View of Religions, by Johannes
+Henricus Scholten, Translated by Francis T. Washburn
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Comparative View of Religions
+
+
+Author: Johannes Henricus Scholten
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 19, 2006  [eBook #20137]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Graeme Mackreth, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(http://www.pgdp.net/) from page images generously made available by the
+Making of America collection of the University of Michigan Libraries
+(http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/moagrp/)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through the Making
+      of America collection of the University of Michigan Libraries. See
+      http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=AJF2939.0001.001
+
+
+
+
+
+A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS.
+
+Translated from the Dutch of
+
+J. H. SCHOLTEN,
+Professor at Leyden,
+
+by Francis T. Washburn.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Reprinted by permission from "The Religious Magazine and Monthly
+Review."
+Boston: Crosby & Damrell, 100 Washington St. 1870.
+
+
+
+
+A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.[1]
+
+
+The conception of religion presupposes, _a_, God as object; _b_, man as
+subject; _c_, the mutual relation existing between them. According to
+the various stages of development which men have reached, religious
+belief manifests itself either in the form of a passive feeling of
+dependence, where the subject, not yet conscious of his independence,
+feels himself wholly overmastered by the deity, or the object of
+worship, as by a power outside of and opposed to himself; or, when the
+feeling of independence has awakened, in a one-sided elevation of the
+human, whereby man in worshiping a deity deifies himself. In the highest
+stage of religious development, the most entire feeling of dependence is
+united in religion with the strongest consciousness of personal
+independence. The first of these forms is exhibited in the fetich and
+nature-worship of the ancient nations; the second in Buddhism, and in
+the deification of the human, which reaches its full height among the
+Greeks. The true religion, prepared in Israel, is the Christian, in
+which man, grown conscious of his oneness with God, is ruled by the
+divine as an inner power of life, and acts spontaneously and freely
+while in the fullest dependence upon God. Since Christ, no more perfect
+religion has appeared. What is true and good in Islamism was borrowed
+from Israel and Christianity.
+
+Although it is probable that every nation passed through different forms
+of religious belief before its religion reached its highest development,
+yet the earlier periods lie in great part beyond the reach of historical
+investigation. The history of religion, therefore, has for its task the
+review of the various forms of religion with which we are historically
+acquainted, in the order of psychological development.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+FETICHISM. THE CHINESE. THE EGYPTIANS.
+
+
+1. FETICHISM.
+
+The lowest stage of religious development is fetichism, as it is found
+among the savage tribes of the polar regions, and in Africa, America,
+and Australia. In this stage, man's needs are as yet very limited and
+exclusively confined to the material world. Still too little developed
+intellectually to worship the divine in nature and her powers, he thinks
+he sees the divinity which he seeks in every unknown object which
+strikes his senses, or which his imagination calls up. In this stage,
+religion has no higher character than that of caprice and of love of
+the mysterious and marvelous, mixed with fear and a slavish adoration of
+the divine. The worship and the priest's office (Shaman, Shamanism)
+consist here chiefly in the use of charms, to exorcise a dreaded power.
+From this savage fetichism the nature-worship found among the Aztecs in
+Mexico, and the worship of the sun in Peru, are distinguished by the
+greater definiteness and order of their religious conceptions and
+usages. In them the gods have names, and an ordained priesthood cares
+for the religious interests of the people. The highest form to which
+fetichism has attained is the worship of Manitou, the great spirit,
+which is found among the ancient tribes of North America.
+
+
+2. THE CHINESE.
+
+When man reaches a higher development, caprice and chance disappear from
+religion. Having outgrown fetichism, man begins, as is the case among
+the Chinese, to distinguish in the world around him an active and a
+passive principle, force and matter (Yang and Yn), heaven and earth
+(Kien and Kouen). We have here nature-worship in its beginnings. In this
+stage, even less than in fetichism, is there a definite idea of God,
+much less a conception of him as personal and spiritual lord. The
+Chinese, from the practical, empirical point of view peculiar to him,
+recognizes the spiritual only in man and chiefly in the state. His
+religion, therefore, is confined exclusively to the faithful keeping of
+the laws of the state (the Celestial Kingdom), in which he sees the
+reflection of heaven, to the recognition of the Emperor as the son and
+representative of heaven, and to the worship of the forefathers,
+especially of the great men and departed emperors, to whose memory the
+Chinese temples, or pagodas, are dedicated. The origin of this religion
+dates, according to the tradition, from Fo-hi (2950 B.C.), the founder
+of the Chinese state. In the fifth century before Christ, Kong-tse, or
+Kong-fu-tse (Confucius), appeared as a reformer of the religion of his
+countrymen, and gathered the ancient records and traditions of his
+people into a sacred literature, which is known by the name of the
+"King" (the books), "Yo-King" (the book of nature), "Chu-King" (the book
+of history), "Chi-King" (the book of songs). The contents of the "King"
+became later with the Chinese sages Meng-tse (360 B.C.) and Tschu-tsche
+(1200 A.D.) an object of philosophical speculation. The doctrine of
+Lao-tse, the younger contemporary of Kong-tse, which lays down as the
+basis of the world, that is of the unreal or non-existent, a supreme
+principle, _Tao_, or _Being_, corresponds with the Brahma doctrine of
+the Indians, among whom he lived for a long time; but this doctrine
+never became popular in China.
+
+
+3. THE EGYPTIANS.
+
+The worship of nature, which is seen in its beginnings among the
+Chinese, exhibits itself among the Egyptians in a more developed form as
+theogony. Here also the reflecting mind rose to the recognition of two
+fundamental principles, the producing and the passive power of nature,
+Kneph and Neith, from which sprang successively the remaining powers of
+nature, time, air, earth, light and darkness, personified by the fantasy
+of the people into as many divinities. The Egyptian mythology also (none
+has as yet been discovered among the Chinese) exhibits a like character.
+Fruitfulness and drought, the results of the Nile's overflowing and
+receding, are imaged in the myth of _Osiris_, _Isis_, and _Typhon_. The
+visible form under which the divine was worshiped in Egypt was the
+sacred animal, the bull _Apis_, dedicated to _Osiris_, the cow,
+dedicated to _Isis_, as symbols of agriculture; the bird _Ibis_, the
+crocodile, the dog _Anubis_, and other animals, whose physical
+characteristics impressed the as yet childish man, who saw in them the
+symbol, either of the beneficent power of nature which moved him to
+thankfulness, or of a destructive power which he dreaded and whose anger
+he sought to avert. The religion of Egypt was not of a purely spiritual
+character. To the man whose eye is not yet open to the manifestation of
+the spiritual around him and in him, the divine is not spirit, but as
+yet only nature. The animal, although in the form of the sphinx
+approaching the human, holds in Egyptian art a place above the human as
+symbol of the divine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ARIAN NATIONS.
+
+
+1. THE EAST ARIANS. THE INDIANS.
+
+In the development of religion among the Indians, the following periods
+may be distinguished:--
+
+   _a._ The original Veda-religion.
+
+   _b._ The priestly religion of the Brahmins.
+
+   _c._ The philosophical speculation.
+
+   _d._ Buddhism.
+
+   _e._ The modified Brahminism after Buddha, in connection with the
+   worship of Vishnu and Siva.
+
+
+_a. The original Veda-religion._
+
+The original religion of Arya originated in Bactria. From thence, before
+the time of Zoroaster, it was brought over, with the great migration of
+the people, to the land of the seven rivers, which they conquered, and
+which stretched from the Indus to the Hesidrus. It consisted, according
+to the oldest literature of the Veda, in a polytheistical worship of the
+divine, either as the beneficent or the baneful power of nature. The
+clear, blue sky, the light of the sun, the rosy dawn, the storm that
+spends itself in fruitful rain, the winds and gales which drive away the
+clouds, the rivers whose fruitful slime overspreads the fields,--these
+moved the inhabitants of India to the worship of the divine as the
+beneficent power of nature which blesses man. On the other hand, he
+changed under the impression of the harmful phenomena of nature, the
+dark and close-packed clouds which hold back the rain and intercept the
+sunshine, the parching heat of summer, which dries up the rivers and
+hinders growth and fruitfulness, and these also he erected into objects
+of awe and religious adoration. From this view of nature sprang the
+Indian mythology. The oldest divinity (Deva) of the Indians is Varuna,
+the all-embracing heaven, who marks out their courses for the heavenly
+luminaries, who rules the day and the night, who is lord of life and
+death, whose protection is invoked, whose anger deprecated. After him,
+the great ruler of nature, there appear, in the Veda hymns, Indra, the
+blue sky, god of light and thunder, the warrior who in battle stands
+beside the combatants; Vayu, the god of the wind, the chief of the
+Maruts, or the winds; Rudra, the god of the hurricane; Vritra, the
+hostile god of the clouds; Ahi, the parching heat of summer. In the
+mythology of the people, Indra, god of light, aided by Vayu and Rudra,
+wages war with Vritra,--who, as god of the clouds, holds back the rain
+and the light,--and appears as opponent of the destructive Ahi. The
+other divinities also which appear in the Vedas are personified powers
+of nature,--the twin brothers Aswins (equites), or the first rays of the
+sun, Ushas the maiden, or the rosy dawn, Surya, Savitri, the god of the
+sun. Great significance is given in the Indian mythology to Agni, the
+god of fire, who burns the sacrifice in honor of the gods, who conveys
+the offerings and prayers of men to gods and their gifts to men, who
+gladdens the domestic hearth, lights up the darkness of night, drives
+away the evil spirits, the Ashuras and Rakshas, and purges of evil the
+souls of men. Religion, still wholly patriarchal in form, and free from
+hierarchical constraint and from the later dogmatic narrowness, bore in
+this earlier stage of its development the character of the still free
+and warlike life of a nomadic people living in the midst of a sublime
+nature, where everything, the clear sky, sunshine, and boisterous storm,
+mountains and rivers, disposed to worship. As yet the Indian knew no
+close priestly caste. Worship consisted in prayers and offerings,
+especially in the Soma-offering, which was offered as food to the gods.
+No fear of future torment after death as yet embittered the enjoyment of
+life and made dying fearful. Yama was the friendly guide of the souls of
+heroes to the heaven of Indra or Varuna, and not yet the inexorable
+prince of hell who tormented the souls of the ungodly in the kingdom of
+the dead. Of later barbarous usages also, such as the widow's
+sacrificing herself on the funeral pile of her departed husband, there
+was as yet no trace; and in the heroic poetry, as yet not disfigured by
+later Brahminical alterations and additions, the heroes Krishna and Rama
+appear as types of courage and self-sacrifice, and not, as later, as
+avatars, or human incarnations, of the deity.
+
+
+_b. Brahminism._
+
+When the nomadic and warlike life of the nations of India in the land of
+the seven rivers, in connection with their removal to the conquered land
+of the Ganges (1300 B.C.), gave place to a more ordered social
+constitution, a priestly class formed itself, which began to represent
+the people before the deity, and from its chief function, _Brahma_, or
+prayer, took the name of _Brahmins_, i.e., the praying. This Brahma,
+before whose power even the gods must yield, was gradually exalted by
+the Brahmins to the highest deity, to whom, under the name of Brahma,
+the old Veda divinities were subordinated. Brahma is no god of the
+people, but a god of the priests; not the lord of nature, but the
+abstract and impersonal _Being_, out of whom nature and her phenomena
+emanate. From Brahma the priest derives his authority; and the system of
+caste, by which the priesthood is raised to the first rank, its origin.
+The worship of Brahma consists in doing penance and in abstinence. Yama,
+once a celestial divinity, now becomes the god of the lower world, where
+he who disobeys Brahma is tormented after death. Immortality consists in
+returning to Brahma; but is the portion only of the perfectly godly
+Brahmin, while the rest of mankind can rise to this perfect state only
+after many painful new births. The Brahmin, in the exclusive possession
+of religious knowledge, reads and expounds the Vedas (knowledge),
+exalted to infallible scripture, and on them constructs his doctrine.
+
+Thus the once vigorous, natural life of the Indians gave place to a
+conception of the world which repressed the soul, and annihilated man's
+personality. The many-sidedness of the earlier theology resolved itself
+into the abstract unity of an impersonal All, and thus the glory of
+nature passed by unmarked, as nought or non-existent, and lost its
+charm. At the same time, the old heroic sagas were displaced by legends
+of saints, and the heroic spirit of the olden epic by an asceticism
+which repressed the human, and before whose power even the gods stood in
+awe. With Brahminism the religion lost its original and natural
+character, and became characterized by a slavish submission to a
+priesthood, which abrogated the truly human.
+
+
+_c. The Speculative Systems._
+
+The doctrine of the Brahmins occasioned the rise of various theological
+and philosophical systems. To these belong, first, the "Vedanta," (end
+of the Veda) or the dogmatic-apologetic exposition of the Veda. This
+contains (1) the establishment of the authority of the Veda as holy
+scripture revealed by Brahma, and also of the relation in which it
+stands to tradition; (2) the proof that everything in the Veda has
+reference to Brahma; (3) the ascetic system, or the discipline. To
+explain contradictory statements in the older and later parts of the
+Veda, Brahminical learning makes use of the subtleties of an
+harmonistical method of interpretation. Second, the "Mimansa" (inquiry),
+devoted to the solution of the problem, How can the material world
+spring from Brahma, or the immaterial? According to this system, there
+is only one Supreme Being, Paramatma, a name by which Brahma himself had
+been already distinguished in Manu's book of law. Outside of this
+highest _Being_, there is nothing real. The world of sense, or nature,
+(Maya, the female side of Brahma), is mere seeming and illusion of the
+senses. The human spirit is a part of Brahma, but perverted, misled by
+this same illusion to the conceit that he is individual. This illusion
+is done away with by a deeper insight, by means of which the dualism
+vanishes from the wise man's view, and the conceit gives place to the
+true knowledge that Brahma alone really exists, that nature, on the
+contrary, is nought, and the human spirit nothing else than Brahma
+himself. Third, the "Sankya" (criticism) originating with Kapila, in
+which, in opposition to the "Mimansa," the individual being and the real
+existence of nature, in opposition to spirit, is laid down as the
+starting-point, and the result reached is the doctrine of two original
+forces, spirit and nature, from whose reciprocal action and reaction
+upon each other the union of soul and body is to be explained. Is this
+union unnatural, then the effort of the wise man should be to free
+himself, through the perception that the soul is not bound to the body,
+from the dominion of matter. In this system, there is no room for an
+infinite being, for, if a material world exist, then must God be limited
+by its existence, and therefore cease to be infinite, that is God. The
+Sankya philosophy here came in conflict with the orthodox doctrine of
+the Brahmins, and prepared the way for Buddhism.
+
+
+_d. Buddhism._
+
+Against Brahminism Buddhism arose as a reaction. Siddharta, son of
+Suddhodana, the King of Kapilavastu, of the family of the Sakya, (about
+450 B.C.) moved by the misery of his fellow-countrymen, determined to
+examine into the causes of it, and, if possible, to find means of
+remedying it. Initiated into the wisdom of the Brahmins, but not
+satisfied with that, after years of solitary retirement and quiet
+meditation, penetrated with the principles of the Sankya, he traversed
+the land as pilgrim (Sakya-muni, Sramana, Gautama) and opened to the
+people of India a new religious epoch. The tendency of the new doctrine
+was to break up the system of caste, and free the people from the
+galling yoke of the Brahminical hierarchy and dogmas. While in
+Brahminism man was deprived of his individuality, and regarded only as
+an effluence from Brahma, and tormented by the fear of hell, and by the
+thought of a ceaseless process of countless new births awaiting him
+after death, whence the necessity of the most painful penances and
+chastisements, Sakya-muni began with man as an individual, and in morals
+put purity, abstinence, patience, brotherly love, and repentance for
+sins committed above sacrifice and bodily mortification, and opened to
+his followers the prospect, after this weary life, no more to be exposed
+to the ever-recurring pains of new birth, but released from all
+suffering to return to Nirvana, or nothingness. While Brahminism drew a
+distinction between man and man, and with hierarchical pride took no
+thought of the Sudra or lower class of the people, and limited wisdom to
+the priestly caste, Sakya-muni preached the equality of all men, came
+forward as a preacher to the people, used the people's language, and
+chose his followers out of all classes, even from among women. Both of
+these opposed systems are one-sided. In Brahminism, God is all, and man,
+as personal being, nothing; in Buddhism, man is recognized as an
+individual, but apart from God, while in both systems, the highest
+endeavor is to be delivered from, according to Brahminism a seeming,
+according to Sakya-muni a really existing individuality, the source of
+all human woe, and to lose one's self either in Brahma or in the
+Nirvana.
+
+Less on account of his doctrine, in which there is found neither a God
+nor a personal immortality, than on account of the universal character
+of his words and of his life, Sakya-muni continued in honor after his
+death, as the benefactor of the people and as the Buddha, the wise,
+pre-eminently; and afterwards was deified, and took his place in the
+ranks of the recognized gods as their superior. Thus there arose in
+Buddhism, by a departure from the doctrine of the master, a new
+polytheism. This was afterwards, through the influence of the
+Brahminical priestly caste, suppressed in India, but spread over other
+parts of Asia, to the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and also to
+China.
+
+
+_e. Later modification of Brahminism in connection with the worship of
+Siva and Vishnu._
+
+While Brahminism saw itself menaced by the steadily increasing influence
+of Buddhism, the former nature-religion, dispossessed by the Brahmins,
+asserted its rights in the worship of Siva in the valleys of the
+Himalaya Mountains, and in that of Vishnu on the banks of the Ganges.
+Siva is the Rudra of the Veda, the boisterous god of storms, the giver
+of rain and growth. Vishnu is the same divinity among other races,
+conceived under the influence of a softer climate in a modified form as
+the blue sky. Both divinities, originally belonging to different parts
+of India, were afterwards taken, first Vishnu, and then also Siva, into
+the theological system of the Brahmins, and formed with Brahma, but not
+until the fourth century after Christ, the trimurti, according to which
+the one supreme being Parabrama is worshiped in the threefold form of
+Brahma the creating, Vishnu the sustaining, and Siva the destroying
+power of nature. To this later period of Brahminism belongs also the
+alteration of the old epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, by which the
+heroes Rama and Krishna are represented as avatars, that is incarnations
+or human impersonations, of Vishnu. In this also there is evidently an
+effort to bring the deity, conceived as the abstract One, into closer
+union with man, an effort which is likewise visible in the later Yoga
+system of the Brahmins, in which, by the admission of Buddhistic
+elements, the visible world is recognized as real, the old rigid
+asceticism mitigated, Vishnu represented as the soul of the world, and
+immortality taught as a return of the individual soul to Brahma.
+
+
+2. THE WEST ARIANS, IRANIANS.
+
+[THE BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS.]
+
+The ancient religion of the Bactrians in the period before Zoroaster was
+patriarchal, and consisted in the worship of fire, as the beneficent
+power of nature, and of Mithras, the god of the sun, combined with that
+of the good spirits (Ahuras), among which were Geus-Urva (the spirit of
+the earth), Cpento-mainyus (the white spirit), Armaiti (the earth, or
+also the spirit of piety), and of the hero-spirits Sraosha, Traetona,
+which as light and darkness are distinguished from Angro (the black
+spirit).
+
+Later, as it seems, the theology and worship of the neighboring nomadic
+Arya penetrated to these nations, and caused a religious conflict which
+ended with the migration of Arya to the south. At this period
+Zarathustra[2] (Zoroaster) came forward under the Bactrian priest and
+King Kava Vistaspa, as defender and reformer of the religion of the
+fathers against the encroachments of a strange doctrine. The Devas
+(Zend, Dews) or the gods of the Indian Veda appear with Zarathustra as
+evil spirits. Not Indra, but the hero Traetona, wages war with Ahi
+(Zend, Azhi), while the kavis, or priests, are attacked by him as
+deceivers and liars. From the belief in good spirits (Ahuras, i.e.,
+the living, and Mazdas, i.e., the wise), the ancient genii of the
+country, Zarathustra developed the belief of one highest God,
+Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd, Greek, [Greek: Osompzês]), a doctrine which he
+received by divine inspiration through the mediation of the spirit
+Srasha. Ahura-Mazda, surrounded by the Amesha-Spenta (Amshaspands), or
+the holy immortals, not until later reduced to seven, is the creator of
+light and life. The hurtful and evil, on the contrary, is non-existence
+(akem), and in the oldest parts of the Avesta, the Gathas, which go back
+to Zarathustra and his first followers, is not yet conceived as a
+personal being. First in the Vendidad, written after Zarathustra, does
+Angro-mainyus (Ahriman), or the evil one, with his Dews, although
+subordinated to Ahura-Mazda, gain a place in the Iranian conception of
+the universe, as the adversary of Ahura-Mazda, and as the cause of evil
+in the natural and spiritual world. From these conceptions there was
+developed in the later Parsism the system of the four periods of the
+world, each of three thousand years, in the book "Bundehesh." In the
+first period, Ahura-Mazda appears as creator of the world and as the
+source of good. The creation, completed by Ahura-Mazda in six days by
+means of the word (Honover), is in the second period destroyed by
+Angro-mainyus, who, appearing upon the earth in the form of a serpent,
+seduces the first human pair, created by Ahura-Mazda. In the third
+period, which begins with the revelation given to Zarathustra,
+Ahura-mazda and Angro-mainyus strive together for man. After this
+follows, in the fourth period, the victory gained by Ahura-Mazda.
+Sosiosh (Saoshyas), the deliverer already foretold in the Vendidad,
+appears. The resurrection of the dead, not taught by Zarathustra or in
+the Vendidad, takes place. The judgment of the world begins; the good
+are received into paradise and the sinners banished to hell. At last,
+all is purified, and Angro-mainyus himself and his Dews submit
+themselves to Ahura-Mazda, whose victory is celebrated in heaven with
+songs of praise.
+
+Thus among the Iranian races, out of the old patriarchal worship of fire
+and light, on the occasion of the religious struggle with the Indian
+Arya, and under the influence of Zarathustra, there was developed the
+doctrine of one supreme God,[3] who, surrounded by the good spirits of
+heaven, wages war against evil, whence arose later the moral opposition
+between Ahura-Mazda and Angro-mainyus resulting in the victory of the
+good principle over the bad. The old dualism of force and matter,
+beneficent and destructive powers of nature, light and darkness, becomes
+in Parsism moral. The deity, no longer identified with nature, becomes a
+personal, spiritual being, the creator of mankind; and the end of the
+world's development is conceived as the triumph of the good. Hence the
+high rank which the doctrine of Zarathustra and its further development
+holds in the history of religion.
+
+
+3. THE GREEKS.
+
+As man rises in spiritual development, nature becomes to him a
+revelation ever more and more manifold of the divine. To the Greek
+(Pelasgi, Hellenes) the whole of nature was living, and his imagination
+peopled her everywhere with divine beings, who in wood and field, in
+rivers and on mountains (Oreads, Dryads, Naiads, Sileni, &c.), hovered
+friendly round him. The Greek was indeed distinguished from other
+nations by this richer and more elevated view of nature; but he excelled
+them most of all in this, that the divine object which he worshiped was
+conceived both in form and character after the human. Zeus, Phoebus
+Apollo, Pallas Athene, Aphrodite, Ares, Hephaestus, Hestia, Hermes,
+Artemis, were originally powers of nature personified, as some epithets
+in Homer[4] still indicate; but they became, sometimes under the same
+names, types of power and lordship, science and art, courage and
+sensuous beauty. While Dionysus, Demeter, Hades, and Persephone remained
+earthly, and Helios, Eos, Iris, and Hecate, heavenly divinities, and
+Oceanus, Poseidon, Amphitrite, Proteus, and Nereus ruled the waters,
+Zeus was conceived as the god of the sky and of thunder, who hurled the
+bolts, the great king and lawgiver, the father of men, and Hera,
+originally the air, became the protecting goddess of married life;
+Apollo, the god of light, who shot forth his arrows, not at first
+identified with Helios, became the god of divination and poetry, who led
+the choir of the muses; the goddess of light, Athene, became the
+contentious goddess of wisdom; Aphrodite, born of the foam of the sea,
+once the symbol of the fruitful power of nature, later, encircled by the
+Graces, became the type of womanly beauty and charm, to which the
+strength of man, personified in Ares, corresponds. In like manner in the
+later mythology, Hephaestus, the god of fire, appeared as the god of the
+forge, Hestia, the goddess of fire, as the protector of the household
+hearth, and Hermes, the god of the storm and of rain, as the messenger
+of the gods, the type of cunning and craftiness, while Artemis, the
+goddess of the moon, the fruitful mother of nature, took the character
+of the chaste maiden, the goddess of hunting, who with her nymphs and
+hounds nightly roamed the fields and woods. The monsters, the Sphinx,
+the Minotaur, the Cyclops, the Centaurs, symbols of a yet unhuman or
+half human power of nature, were overcome by the Greek heroes, Perseus,
+Hercules, Jason, Theseus, OEdipus, the types of human strength and
+valor. The religious festivals were enlivened by trials of men's
+strength and skill in games, and the historian and poet offered to the
+gods the products of human genius. In the religion of the Greeks,
+however, the moral element, although not passed over and in the Greek
+epic and tragedy not seldom expressed in grand characters, stood
+nevertheless too little in the foreground, so that the worship of the
+divine, as in the older nature-worship, especially in the feasts in
+honor of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was marked by immoral practices. The
+conception of a future life, which taken in connection with a future
+retribution has a moral tendency, had but little attraction for the
+Greek, who rejoiced in the glory of the earth, and saw in nature and in
+man the kingdom of the divine. The passage from the earlier poetical
+nature-worship to the worship of the divine in human form seems to be
+indicated in the war which Olympian Zeus waged with Cronos and the
+Titans. The origin and development of the various elements and powers of
+nature, Chaos, Eros, Uranus, Gæa, the Giants, Styx, Erebus, Hemera,
+Æther, &c, became, with the poets and philosophers after Homer, matters
+of speculation, of which the theogonies of Hesiod, Orpheus, Pherecydes,
+and others furnish proof.
+
+
+4. THE ROMANS.
+
+In the religion of the Greeks, the æsthetic and moral character of the
+Grecian people was deified, and in the Romans also we see how that which
+men value most exerts an influence upon their worship of the divine. The
+primitive religion of the Romans, borrowed from the Sabines and
+Etruscans, bears everywhere, in distinction to that of the Greeks, the
+marks of the practical and political character of the Roman people. The
+oldest national divinities are, first, Jupiter or Jovis, the god of the
+heavens, Mars or Mavors, the god of the field and of war, Quirinus
+(Janus?) the protector of the Quirites, afterwards, together with Juno
+(Dione) and Minerva, worshiped in the Capitol, (Dii Capitolini);
+second, Vesta, and the gods of the house and family, the Lares and
+Penates; third, the rural divinities, Saturnus, Ops, Liber, Faunus,
+Silvanus, Terminus, Flora, Vertumnus, and Pomona; fourth and last,
+personifications, in part of the powers of nature, Sol, Luna, Tellus,
+Neptunus, Orcus, Proserpina, in part of moral and social qualities and
+states, such as Febris, Salus, Mens, Spes, Pudicitia, Pietas, Fides,
+Concordia, Virtus, Bellona, Victoria, Pax, Libertas, and others.
+Peculiarly Roman also is the conception of the _manes_, or shades of the
+departed, who hover as protecting genii about the living. Afterwards,
+along with the culture of the Greeks, their gods also were taken,
+although rather outwardly than inwardly, into the spirit of the people,
+and the original character of the gods of Latium was modified after the
+new mythology. Notwithstanding this, however, the worship of the Romans
+retained its political and practical character. The priests (sacerdotes)
+Flamines, Salii, Feciales, the Pontifices with the Pontifex Maximus at
+their head, the Augurs, were likewise officers of the state, and did not
+form a hierarchy apart from the state and alongside of it.
+
+
+5. THE CELTS.
+
+Among the Celtic tribes in Brittany, Ireland, and Gaul, and on both
+banks of the Rhine, out of an aboriginal life of nature characterized by
+wildness and license, religion developed itself in the form of the
+worship of two chief divinities, a male divinity, Hu, the begetting, and
+a female, Ceridwen, the bearing, power of nature. The priesthood busied
+itself with speculations about the divine, the origin of the world, and
+the continued existence of man after death, conceived in the form of the
+transmigration of souls. Nor did the people's faith lack the conception
+of good and evil spirits, fairies, dwarfs, elves, which to the still
+childish fancy are objects of fear or superstitious veneration. To the
+service of these divinities the priesthood, the Druids, were
+consecrated, and beside them the bards, or poets, held a more
+independent place.
+
+
+6. THE GERMANS AND SCANDINAVIANS.
+
+More developed intellectually is the nature-religion of the ancient
+Germans (Teutons) and Scandinavians, which betrays thereby the character
+of the Aryan race to which these nations, like the Celts, originally
+belonged. The highest god of the Germans is Wodan, called Odhin among
+the Norsemen, the god of the heavens, and of the sun, who protects the
+earth, and is the source of light and fruitfulness, the spirit of the
+world, and the All-father (Alfadhir). From the union of heaven and
+earth, there springs the god Thunar or Donar among the Germans, Thor
+among the Norsemen, the bold god of thunder who wages war against the
+enemies of gods and men. Besides these there are the sons of Wodan, Fro
+(German), Freyx (Norse), the god of peace, Zio (German), Tyx (Norse),
+the god of war, Aki (German), Oegir (Norse), god of the sea, Vol
+(German), Ullr (Norse), god of hunting, and others, to whom are joined
+female divinities, such as Nerthus (German), Jördh (Norse), the fruitful
+goddess of the earth, Holda (German), Freiya (Norse), the goddess of
+love, Nehalennia, goddess of plenty, Frikka (German), Frigg (Norse), the
+wife of Wodan, mother of all the living, Hellia (German), Hel (Norse),
+the inexorable goddess of the lower world. Opposed to these divinities
+(Asen and Asinnen) stands Loko (German), Loki (Norse), enemy of the
+divine. In addition to these there appear in the Norse and German Sagas,
+besides the heroes, a multitude of spirits, good and hostile, giants,
+elves, Elfen (German), Alfen (Norse), white spirits of light, and black
+dwarfs, house, forest, and water spirits. The worship was most simple,
+and, as was the case with the ancient Semites, the Indians of the Veda,
+and the Greeks, as yet independent of temple service and priestly
+constraint. The holy places of the Germans were woods, and hills, and
+fountains, and in the mysterious rustling of the leaves and in the
+murmuring of the waters the pious spirit caught the breathing of the
+deity.[5] The father of the house is priest, and the recognition by
+these races more than elsewhere of worth in woman is apparent also in
+their religion. In the description of the kingdom of the dead in the
+German-Norse mythology, Walhalla is the abode of the heroes, hell the
+gathering place of the other dead. Notwithstanding these still childish
+conceptions, there was revealed in the moral character and heroic spirit
+of the German forefathers the germ of a higher development, which makes
+the nations of Germany and Northern Europe capable beyond others of a
+constantly higher conception and estimation of the Christian
+religion.[6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE RELIGION OF THE SEMITES.
+
+
+I. THE PHOENICIANS, SYRIANS, BABYLONIANS, CARTHAGINIANS, AND ARABIANS.
+
+In the Semitic races the religious spirit rose above nature-worship in
+the effort to separate God from nature, and to elevate him above nature
+as Lord, Baal (plural Baalim, either from the different places where he
+was worshiped, or the various names under which he was worshiped), Bel,
+El, Adon (Adonis). Thus Bel among the Babylonians, Baal among the
+Ammonites and Moabites, was the god of light, the lord of heaven, the
+creator of mankind, who had his throne above the clouds and was invoked
+on mountains.[7] Also the title Molech and Baal Molech to designate the
+Supreme Being among the ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and the
+nations nearest related to Israel, the Moabites and Ammonites, as well
+as the derived names Milcom (Kamos) [Chemosh, Eng. ver.], among the
+Ammonites, and Melkartht at Tyre and Carthage, indicate, like Baal, an
+original effort to conceive God as the ruler of nature. Agreeing with
+this conception of the Deity, there is manifest, as well in the worship
+of Baal as of Molech and the female Astarte (Melecheth)[8] [Ashtaroth,
+Eng. ver.], worshiped with him, partly in the abstinence from marriage,
+partly in the human sacrifice, especially the sacrifice of the
+first-born, the aim, through abnegation of the life of sense, and
+through the sacrifice, even though unnatural, of what is dearest to man,
+to appease a divinity who as lord and governor rules and subjects to
+himself the power of nature and every propensity of sense.[9]
+
+In spite of the effort to elevate the Deity as Lord and King above
+nature, most of the Semitic nations gradually sank back into the old
+nature-worship, and, uniting with the worship of the highest God, Baal
+and Bel, that of a female divinity under the names of Baaltis, Beltis,
+Aschera, Mylitta, they made religion to consist in the sacrifice of
+chastity to the will of the Deity, as the fruitful, productive power of
+nature, and thus fell into gross immorality.[10]
+
+Religion appears in another form among the Semites in the worship of the
+stars among the Babylonians and ancient Arabians. This astrolatry,
+originally a kind of fetichism, became nature-worship, and gradually
+rose to the worship of the intelligence manifested to our contemplation
+in the movement of the heavenly luminaries. Astrology arose, and
+religion no longer expressed itself in passive acquiescence, but was
+united with the effort to guide the life by the knowledge to be drawn,
+as men imagined, from the motion of the stars.
+
+
+ISRAELITISH RELIGION.
+
+
+_a. Its origin. The patriarchal religion. Mosaism. Prophetism._
+
+While most of the Semitic nations, in opposition to the effort to
+elevate God above nature as lord and governor, returned to the old
+nature-religion with its grossly sensual worship of the divine, and
+others got no farther than to the conception of a deity, who, like a
+consuming fire, stood opposed to nature, and was to be appeased and
+propitiated by human sacrifices, there was developed among the
+Israelitish people, gradually and in constantly higher measure, in
+connection with a higher moral and religious disposition, the worship of
+God as a being who, though distinct from nature, is yet not opposed to
+it, and thus no longer demands human sacrifices, but obedience and moral
+consecration.
+
+The common origin of the religion of the Israelites and that of their
+Semitic relations, though hardly evident even in the oldest monuments of
+the Hebrew literature, appears from the following facts and particulars:
+firstly, the composition of Israelitish names not only with El, but also
+with Baal, such as Jerubbaal (adversary of Baal), (Gideon),[11]
+Esbaal,[12] Meribbaal,[13] names which afterwards, on account of the
+aversion which the ever-increasing distance in religion between the
+Israelitish nation and the nations related to it must, from the nature
+of the case, have inspired against the name of Baal, are changed into
+Jerubboseth,[14] Isboseth,[15] and Mephiboseth[16], as also the
+interchanging of El and Baal,[17] of Baal-jada[18] and Eljada,[19] seem
+to point to an ancient period when the name Baal (Lord) was used, like
+El, Elohim, El Eljon, El Schaddai, Adonai, even among the Israelites,
+to designate the Supreme Being. Secondly, the God of Abraham (Elohim),
+although he desires no human sacrifices, nevertheless praises the
+willingness of the father to offer up his first-born, and sees in that
+the highest proof of devotedness and obedience.[20] Thirdly,
+circumcision, already before Moses[21] the bloody symbol of consecration
+to God,[22] and also the right of Jahveh to the first-born, and the
+necessity of ransoming them from him,[23] imply an earlier conception of
+the deity as a being, who, although on a higher development of the
+religion he is not indeed any longer thought to desire human sacrifice,
+nevertheless has a right to such a sacrifice, and thus demands indemnity
+for remitting it. Fourthly, the later conception, of Jahveh as a
+destroying fire, and the way in which the God of Israel is conceived in
+connection with fire, and as manifesting himself in fire,[24] betray,
+even in the midst of a more advanced religious development, an original
+relationship with the like conceptions of the other Semites. Fifthly,
+even in the orthodox Jahveh-worship, some symbols, as the twelve oxen in
+the porch of the temple,[25] the horns of the altar for
+burnt-offerings,[26] perhaps also the in part oxlike form of the
+cherubim,[27] point to an earlier worship of the deity under the form of
+an ox, the symbol of the highest might, especially among the Semitic
+races.[28]
+
+In confirmation of the supposition thus suggested of a community of
+origin in the religion of the Israelites and in that of the nations
+related to them, there is also to be remarked, firstly, the sympathy
+always felt among the people of Israel for the worship of Baal and
+Molech, in face of the strongest opposition on the part of the
+prophets;[29] secondly, the statement of Amos,[30] that even in the
+wilderness the Israelites worshiped Molech; thirdly, the fact that in
+the time of the Judges, Jephthah offered his daughter to Jahveh,[31] and
+still later the feeling, not driven out even by Mosaism, that the wrath
+of Jahveh must be appeased by human blood,[32] a necessity which David
+recognizes;[33] fourthly, the ancient custom in Israel, as in the
+nations related to them, of worshiping the deity on mountains and
+heights,[34] against which the priestly legislation strove in the
+interest of the pure worship of Jahveh;[35] fifthly, the heterodox
+worship of Jahveh in the kingdom of the ten tribes under the form of a
+calf.[36]
+
+From all this it seems fair to conclude that the religion of the oldest
+forefathers of Israel had its root originally in one and the same soil
+with the religion of the other Semites. Out of an earlier
+nature-religion there developed among the Semites the conception of
+Baal, the lord of nature, and of Molech with his inhuman worship. While,
+however, the other Semites remained in this lower stage, or rather sank
+back more and more into the immorality of the nature-religion,--an
+hypothesis suggested by a comparison of the religious state of the
+nations of Canaan in Abraham's time with their state at the time of the
+conquest of the land by Joshua and afterwards,--in the family of
+Abraham, religious consciousness rose to the recognition of a deity,
+who, although he had a right to human sacrifices, yet did not claim such
+sacrifices, but was satisfied with men's willingness to bring them to
+him. With this higher development of religion, the names of the Supreme
+Being, Baal and Molech, originally common to the whole race, came more
+and more into contempt, and were regarded as the expression of
+abominable idolatry,[37] while even the worship of Jahveh under the form
+of a calf, originally permitted, was later branded by the prophets as
+heresy.
+
+Though it was in the family of Abraham that even in Mesopotamia[38] the
+beginning of this higher development of the Semitic religion showed
+itself, which, after his migration to Canaan became the heritage of his
+family, yet the patriarch of Israel did not stand alone in this respect
+among the Semites. The old Canaanitish chieftains also of the
+patriarchal period, Melchizedek and Abimelech, worship the same God as
+he,[39] while on the other hand in his own family not all traces of
+polytheistic superstition have disappeared,[40] and these traces are
+also visible still later in Israel.[41]
+
+The patriarchal religion, which afterwards with the great majority fell
+into oblivion, was recalled afresh to men's minds by Moses, and the God
+of the fathers was preached by him under the name before unknown of
+Jahveh,[42] to whom, with the exclusion of all other gods, religious
+worship is due.[43] The Jahveh of Moses, like the El Eljon of the
+patriarchs, is the one only object of worship (Deus Unus), yet without
+excluding the possibility of other gods existing.[44] Not until later
+did the more developed conception of Jahveh arise as the one only God
+(Deus unicus),[45] who is throned in heaven, and like the Elohim of the
+patriarchs, encircled by celestial beings (Bene Elohim, Malakim,
+Angels), who execute his commands, yet are not objects of religious
+adoration.
+
+The religious standpoint of Moses is the legal. Jehovah stands related
+to his people as the Holy, as lawgiver and judge; and the true moral
+consecration to God is symbolically expressed in the ritual, especially
+in the sacrifice, while the relation of the people to God is based upon
+the mediation of the priests. Along with this, and out of Mosaism, after
+the time of Samuel, prophetism was developed, in which independent
+religious conviction, outside the limits of the priesthood, and without
+distinction of rank or birth,[46] awoke among the people. Prophetism, in
+the domain of religion, is the development of the religious spirit to
+individual independence and freedom. The prophet, rising above the legal
+standpoint and outward ceremonial, puts the essence of true worship in
+morality,[47] but recognizes also along with the deepest feeling of
+dependence upon God, in the independence[48] and spontaneity of the
+religious and moral life, the irresistible power of the divine spirit,
+by which the Most High, though apart from the world and throned in
+heaven, puts himself into the closest and most intimate communion with
+the true worshiper. Thus the gulf which divided Jahveh, as a God afar
+off, from the world and his worshipers, closed up more and more. With
+the conviction of the pureness and truth[49] of her religion, Israel
+felt the calling to raise it to the religion of the world, and in the
+realization of this she saw the ideal of the future.[50]
+
+
+_b. The Israelitish religion after the Captivity._
+
+The free character which distinguished prophetism in the religion of
+Israel changed, after the return of the people from captivity,
+especially with the party of the Pharisees, to literalness and
+formalism. The prophets gave place to the synagogue, the living
+proclamation of the truth to scriptural erudition, the spirit of
+freedom to slavish subjection to Scripture and tradition. As the ancient
+productions of the Indian literature, originally the expression of the
+popular thought of India, were elevated by the Brahmins into Veda, holy,
+inspired scripture, so also the religious literature of Israel took on
+the character of a closed Canon, so that what was once the expression of
+religious life became now rule of faith. The standpoint of the law which
+prophetism had already overcome was again strongly maintained, the law
+enriched with a number of new ordinances, and the essence of religion
+made to consist partly in dogmatic speculation, partly in a merely
+outward service, devoid of inner life. The Messianic prediction, or the
+expectation that the kingdom, divided in Rehoboam's reign, once more
+united under a prince of the house of David, should be exalted to new
+bloom and lustre,--which in the older prophets was the natural and
+historically explicable form in which the ideal of Israel's future
+presented itself to the seer, but which, under the influence of the
+changed political conditions, had already been replaced in the later
+prophecy by the more general conception of a future triumph of the true
+religion of which Israel was the bringer,--[51]returned, yet not as the
+ideal of the prophetic spirit, but as a dogma, the product of scriptural
+interpretation. The pure monotheism, by which formerly a place in the
+Providence of God had been allotted to everything, even to moral
+evil,[52] became corrupted, under the influence of Parsism, by the
+conception of two kingdoms, of God and of the Devil. The angels,
+originally the messengers of Providence, became under mythological
+names, Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, &c., so many middle beings who filled
+the space between the Deity, existing apart from the world, and the
+world. The lower world (sheol, [Greek: aidês]), formerly the general
+abode of the dead, of bad and good without distinction, was split into
+two parts, paradise and gehenna, and became a place of recompense, and,
+along with this, religion, once an end, became the means of warding off
+a dreaded punishment, or of gaining a future of bliss. The doctrine of
+immortality, as the continuation of man's moral development, which was
+formerly unknown in Israel, appeared, as in the later Parsism, in the
+form of a bodily resurrection of the dead, at first of the righteous
+only, but afterwards in the form of a general resurrection, by mediation
+of the Messiah, at whose appearing, which was expected just before the
+end of the present state of things, the great judgment of the world, of
+living and dead, was to be held, heaven and earth renewed, and the
+kingdom of God founded. Beside the learned party of the Pharisees stood
+the Sadducees, who subordinated religion to politics, rejected the
+Messianic idea and the authority of tradition, and, in denying
+immortality in the form of a bodily resurrection, failed to perceive the
+truth of immortality, for whose recognition the premises and germs
+existed in the religion of Israel, though not as yet developed. The
+third party, that of the Essenes, was marked by quiet piety, and in many
+respects also by excessive asceticism. In the midst of the Pharisaic
+formalism, the unbelief of the Sadducees, and the pietism of the
+Essenes, there was yet in Israel a seed of true worshipers, who, though
+not above the dogmatic prejudices of their time, had heart and mind open
+for the true religion, and who set the true blessing to be looked for
+from the Messiah in the satisfying of their religious and moral needs.
+
+
+3. THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.
+
+The Israelitish religion, which reached its highest stage of development
+in prophetism, but which among the later Jews after Ezra degenerated,
+with the Pharisees into formalism and worship of the letter, with the
+Essenes into mysticism and asceticism, and which with the Sadducees,
+along with the sacrifice of the prophetic ideal of the future, was
+subordinated to politics, developed in Christianity, but freed from once
+cherished national expectations and outward forms, into a purely
+spiritual knowledge and worship of God. Jesus fathomed the deep meaning
+of the religion of his people, and its original fitness to become,
+through higher development, the religion of the world. Jesus devoted
+himself to the end of forming the human race into one great society (the
+kingdom of heaven), of which religion should be the soul and life, and,
+convinced of his calling, proclaimed himself as the Son of man, who, as
+such, belonged not to Israel alone, but to mankind. Jesus combated both
+the formalism and exclusiveness of the Pharisees, and the unbelief of
+the Sadducees, and with word and deed preached a religion which,
+independent of all outward form, took hold of the human heart, and
+which, developing into an independent principle in man, was to find its
+commission, not in the authority of Scripture or tradition, not even in
+that of his name, but in its own power and truth. In him religion
+appeared as the power of self-sacrificing love, which fears not even
+death, and to which dying is not the losing of life, but the development
+of life. In distinction from other religions, in which either God and
+man are strangers to each other, and opposed to each other, or man's
+personality is, as it were, sunk in God, Christianity is the religion by
+which man, in the full enjoyment of individual development, and with the
+sense of his own strength, lives in the consciousness of the most entire
+dependence upon God. Religion in its highest form, conceived as the
+oneness of man with God, is realized in Christianity.[53]
+
+
+4. ISLAMISM.
+
+The religion of the ancient nomadic tribes of the Arabian peninsula
+originally exhibited a polytheistical character, in the form of the
+worship, in part of sacred stones, in part of the powers of nature,
+especially of the stars, whose position and motion were thought to exert
+an influence, beneficent or baneful, upon the destinies of men. With
+these conceptions was combined a certain leaning toward monotheism,
+which manifested itself especially in the common worship of Allah taala
+(equivalent to El Eljon), which was afterwards quickened and
+strengthened by association with the Jewish tribes, with whom they held
+themselves to be related by descent from Abraham. The Parsee doctrine of
+demons, also, was not unknown in Arabia, after the conquest of the
+Persians in the fifth century. After the third, fourth, and fifth
+centuries, Christianity also, though in a corrupt form, or, definitely,
+in the form of Monophysitism and Nestorianism, which had been condemned
+by the church, became established in Arabia.
+
+Amid such diverse elements, there was need of unity in the domain of
+religion, a need for which Mohammed, after the example of others of his
+family, sought to provide.
+
+He was born at Mecca (571) of an honorable family, belonging to the
+Koreish tribe. Finding no satisfaction for his restless spirit in the
+trade to which after his parents' death he had at first devoted himself,
+he gave himself up, in solitary retirement, to quiet meditation, and
+became more and more convinced of his calling to put an end, by means of
+a better religion, to the confusion existing among his countrymen with
+regard to religion. The religious idea which overmastered him presented
+itself to his powerful Oriental imagination in the form of a vision as a
+revelation of Allah taala, made to him in the fortieth year of his life
+by mediation of the angel Gabriel. His conviction, thus acquired, was
+confirmed by revelations afterwards received; and, shared at first with
+a small circle of trusted friends, gradually spread wider, until at last
+Mohammed came forward in the ancient sanctuary, the Kaaba, at Mecca, as
+prophet of Allah. For this he was pursued by his countrymen, and fled
+from thence to Medina, in the year 622, the beginning of the Moslem era.
+The number of his followers increasing, he had recourse to arms. He
+conquered Mecca in 630, and made the Kaaba, after destroying the idols
+in it, the sanctuary of the new religion.
+
+The doctrine of Mohammed (Islam, submission to God, whence his followers
+take the name of Moslems), is contained in the Koran. The various
+Suras, or divisions, originally the revelations received by the prophet
+at different periods of his life reduced to writing, were, soon after
+his death, united by Abu Bekr into one holy book, under the name of the
+Koran (al Kitab, the book), which, like the Bible among the later Jews
+and Christians, was clothed with divine authority. The central doctrine
+of Mohammed is the belief in one God, Allah, who, as the Creator and
+Lord of all things, in strictest isolation from the world, is throned in
+heaven. All that takes place upon the earth befalls according to the
+eternal decree of God, a conception in which, at least among the
+Orthodox Moslems, the Sunnites, who are distinguished in this respect,
+as in others, from the dissenting Shiites, there is no place left for
+human freedom. This God has from the earliest times revealed himself to
+some privileged men, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus (Isa). To the
+last is due the honor of having been the reformer of degenerate Judaism.
+He is not, as the Christians of Mohammed's time taught, the Son of God
+in a metaphysical sense, much less God himself,--Allah is one, he
+neither begets nor is begotten,--but a prophet of human descent. The
+greatest and last prophet is Mohammed himself, in whom prophetism
+reached its fulfillment. Along with the doctrine regarding God and his
+relation to the world, prayer, hospitality, and benevolence occupy a
+prominent place in the teaching of Mohammed, looked at from its
+practical side, and also the belief in a future life, in the
+Jewish-Parsee form of the resurrection of the dead, the judgment of the
+world, future reward and punishment, paradise and hell. The truth of
+this divine revelation rests upon the very fact of its having been
+revealed, and, according to Mohammed, it no more needs scientific proof
+than confirmation by miracles, to which Islamism did not appeal until
+later.
+
+The opinion which formerly prevailed among Christians that Mohammed was
+an impostor, a false prophet, was bound up with the conception that God,
+to the exclusion of other nations, had revealed himself immediately and
+supernaturally first to Israel, and afterwards through Christ to all
+mankind. Hence it followed that Christianity was not prized as the
+highest religion, existing along with less developed forms of religion,
+but was opposed as the only true religion to all others, which were
+regarded as the fruit of imposture and error, an opinion to which the
+religious and political struggles in which Islam and Christendom have
+been involved also richly contributed. Mohammed was seer and prophet,
+filled with fiery zeal for religion, and, while he stands indeed in this
+respect, both personally and with regard to the contents of his
+preaching and the means by which he sought to gain admission for his
+doctrine, below the seers of Israel, and far below the founder of
+Christianity, yet, on the other hand, his monotheism, abstract as it is,
+must be regarded as a wholesome reaction against the ever-increasing
+polytheistical superstition to which in his time the Christian church of
+the East especially had sunk. Islamism stands, however, below original
+Christianity, the religion of Jesus and the Apostles, in that, by
+separating God, as the abstract one Supreme Being, from the world, it
+leaves no place for the doctrine of God's immanence, or the indwelling
+of the Spirit of God in man. Hence in Islamism the divine revelation
+remains purely mechanical, with no natural point of connection in man,
+and therefore there is no possibility of an enduring prophetism, which
+is the fundamental principle of Christianity. From this separation of
+God and man, the Mohammedan doctrine of predestination, in distinction
+from the Christian, acquires its abstract and fatalistic character,
+whereby man, instead of being regarded as a being in whose free activity
+God's power and life are glorified, is conceived as a passive instrument
+of a higher power. To true moral independence, therefore, the Moslem
+does not attain. His religion is legal and external, and therefore
+intolerant and exclusive; and when Islamism, led by excited passion and
+a heated imagination, disregarded the sanctity of marriage, and held up
+as a reward before the faithful Moslem a paradise characterized by
+sensual enjoyment, it missed at once the deep moral and spiritual
+character of Christianity. To these defects must be ascribed the fact
+that Islamism, adapted to the need of the East, and therefore spread
+over a large part of Asia and Africa, has not, with the exception of the
+empire of Turkey, and for a time also of Spain, penetrated Europe; and,
+overshadowed by a higher development of humanity, has reached its
+highest bloom, while Christianity, brought back to its original purity,
+remains the religion of the civilized world.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Translated from the Dutch of Prof. J.H. Scholten, by F.T.
+Washburn. This constitutes the first part of Prof. Scholten's History of
+Religion and Philosophy. (_Geschiedenis der Godsdienst en
+Wijsbegeerte._) Third edition. Leyden, 1863. Of this work there is a
+translation in French by M. Albert Réville (Paris, 1861); but this
+translation, which was made from an earlier edition, is very defective
+in the first part, Prof. Scholten having added a great deal in his last
+edition. There is also a translation of it in German, by D.E.R.
+Redepenning (Elberfeld, 1868). This German translation has been revised
+and enlarged by Prof. Scholten, and is therefore superior in some
+respects to the original Dutch. The present translation has been revised
+upon it.]
+
+[Footnote 2: According to Buusen 3000 or 2500 B.C., Haug 2000 B.C., Max
+Müller 1200 B.C., Max Duncker 1300 or 1250 B.C., and according to
+Roeth. I. p. 348, who still puts Vistaspa before Darius Hystaspes,
+between 589 and 512 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The doctrine of the _Zervana akarana_ (infinite time) as
+the original One, from which the opposition between Ormuzd and Ahriman
+was held to spring, dates from a later period.]
+
+[Footnote 4: [Greek: Zeus kelainephês, ahidheri nahiôn, nephelêgerheta
+Zeus, Herê bohôpis, glaukhôpis Hathhênê].]
+
+[Footnote 5: Of the Germans Tacitus writes, _Germ._, c. 9, "Eos nec
+cohibere parietibus Deos neque in ullam humanioris speciem assimilare,
+ex magnitudine coelestium arbitrantur. Lucos ac nemora consecrant
+deorumque nominibus appellant secretum illud, quod sola reverentia
+vident."]
+
+[Footnote 6: Among the Roman writers who furnish us with information
+upon the religion of the Germans, Tacitus deserves mention, in his
+"Germania," as well as in his "Annales" _passim_. The chief source with
+regard to the Norse religion is the older Edda, under the title "Edda
+Sæmundar hin Froda."]
+
+[Footnote 7: Numb. xxii. 41; xxiii. 28; 2 Kings, xxiii. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Judges, ii. 13; 1 Sam. vii. 4; xii. 10; 1 Kings, xi. 5, 7,
+33; 2 Kings, xxiii. 13; Jer. vii. 18; xliv. 17, 19.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Levit. xviii. 21; xx. 2; 2 Kings, iii. 26, 27; xvi. 3;
+xxiii. 10; Ps. cvi. 38; Jer. vii. 31; xix. 5; xxxii. 35; Micah, vi. 7;
+Ezek. xv. 4, 6; [?] xvi. 20, Comp. I Kings, xviii: 28.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Numb. xxv. I, _et seq_; Josh. xxii. 17; Baruch, vi. 41,
+43.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Judges, vi. 32. and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 12: 1 Chron. viii. 33; ix. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 13: 1 Chron. viii. 34; ix. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 14: 2 Sam. xi. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 15: 2 Sam. ii. 8, and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 16: 2 Sam. iv. 4, and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Judges, viii. 33; ix. 4. Comp. with ix. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 18: 1 Chron. xiv. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 19: 1 Chron. iii. 8; 2 Sam. v. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Gen. xxii.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Gen. xvii. 23-27.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Ex. iv. 24-26.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Ex. xiii. 2, 12-16; xxii. 28, 29; xxx. 11-16; xxxiv. 19,
+20.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Gen. xv. 17; Ex. iii. 2; xix. 16-18; xxiv. 17; xl. 38;
+Levit. x. 2; Numb. xvi. 35; Deut. iv. 15, 24; v. 24, 25.]
+
+[Footnote 25: 1 Kings, vii. 25, 29.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Ex. xxvii. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Comp. Ezek. i. 10; x. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 28: 1 Kings, xviii. 23.]
+
+[Footnote 29: 1 Kings, xi. 5; 2 Kings, xvi. 3; xxi. 3; xxiii. 4, _et
+seq_; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 3; Ezek. xvi. 20, 21; Jer. xix. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Amos. v. 25, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Judges, xi. 30-40.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Ex. xxxii. 27-29; Numb. xxv. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 33: 2 Sam. xxi. 1-14.]
+
+[Footnote 34: 1 Kings, iii. 2; xi. 7; 2 Kings, xii. 3; xiv. 4; xvii. 11;
+xviii. 4; xxiii. 5, 19; 2 Chron. xxi. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 35: 2 Chron. xxxiv. 3; Ezek. vi. 3; xx. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 36: 1 Kings, xii. 28, 33. Comp. Ex. xxxii. 4, 19.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Levit. xviii. 21; xx. 2; Deut. xii. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Gen. xxiv, xxviii.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Gen. xiv. 18-20; xx. 3, 4.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, _et seq_; xxxv. 2-4; Joshua, xxiv. 2,
+14.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Judges, xviii. 14, _et seq_; 1 Sam. xix. 13; 2 Kings,
+xviii. 4; Ezek. xx. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Ex. iii. 13, _et seq_; vi. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Ex. xx. 2, 3.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Ex. viii. 10; xv. 11; xviii. 11; xx. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Deut vi. 4; iv. 28, 35; xxxii. 39; Isaiah, xliv. 6, 8;
+xlv. 5, 6.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Amos, vii. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Isa. i. 11-18; Jer. vii. 21-23.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Dutch, _zelfstandigheid_, literally, self-existence;
+without an equivalent, as far as I know, in vernacular English.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 49: _Zelfstandigheid_, again, expressing objective existence,
+reality, independent of subjective thought or feeling.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Jer. xxxi. 31, _et seq_; Isa. ii. 2-4; Amos, ix. 12; Isa.
+xxv. 6; lii. 15; lvi. 6, 7; lxvi. 23; Zech. viii. 23; xiv. 9, 16.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Isa. liii.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Job i, ii.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 53: The most original sources of the Christian religion are
+the Synoptic Gospels, in which, however, criticism must distinguish
+between the older and later portions. The fourth Gospel is marked by a
+more profound speculation upon the person and the work of Christ, by
+which the Christian mind freed itself entirely from the Jewish forms in
+which Jesus, as a popular teacher in Israel, had set forth his
+doctrine.]
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS***
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Comparative View of Religions, by Johannes
+Henricus Scholten, Translated by Francis T. Washburn</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: A Comparative View of Religions</p>
+<p>Author: Johannes Henricus Scholten</p>
+<p>Release Date: December 19, 2006  [eBook #20137]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Graeme Mackreth,<br />
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+    (<a href="http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/moagrp/">http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/moagrp/</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
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+      Note:
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+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through the Making
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+      <a href="http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=AJF2939.0001.001">
+	  http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=AJF2939.0001.001</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>A <br />
+
+COMPARATIVE<br />
+
+VIEW OF RELIGIONS.</h1>
+
+<p class='center'><span class="smcap">Translated from the Dutch of J. H. Scholten,</span><br />
+PROFESSOR AT LEYDEN,</p>
+
+<p class='center' style="margin-top: 5em;">BY FRANCIS T. WASHBURN.</p>
+
+<p class='center' style="margin-top: 5em;"><small>Reprinted by permission from "The Religious Magazine and Monthly Review."</small></p>
+
+<p class='center' style="margin-top: 5em;"><small>BOSTON:<br />
+CROSBY &amp; DAMRELL, 100 WASHINGTON ST.<br />
+1870.</small></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>A<br />
+COMPARATIVE<br />
+VIEW OF RELIGIONS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INTRODUCTION.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>The conception of religion presupposes, <i>a</i>, God as object;
+<i>b</i>, man as subject; <i>c</i>, the mutual relation existing between
+them. According to the various stages of development which
+men have reached, religious belief manifests itself either in
+the form of a passive feeling of dependence, where the subject,
+not yet conscious of his independence, feels himself
+wholly overmastered by the deity, or the object of worship,
+as by a power outside of and opposed to himself; or, when
+the feeling of independence has awakened, in a one-sided elevation
+of the human, whereby man in worshiping a deity deifies
+himself. In the highest stage of religious development,
+the most entire feeling of dependence is united in religion
+with the strongest consciousness of personal independence.
+The first of these forms is exhibited in the fetich and nature-worship
+of the ancient nations; the second in Buddhism,
+and in the deification of the human, which reaches its full
+height among the Greeks. The true religion, prepared in
+Israel, is the Christian, in which man, grown conscious of his
+oneness with God, is ruled by the divine as an inner power
+of life, and acts spontaneously and freely while in the fullest
+dependence upon God. Since Christ, no more perfect religion
+has appeared. What is true and good in Islamism was
+borrowed from Israel and Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is probable that every nation passed through
+different forms of religious belief before its religion reached
+its highest development, yet the earlier periods lie in great
+part beyond the reach of historical investigation. The history
+of religion, therefore, has for its task the review of the
+various forms of religion with which we are historically
+acquainted, in the order of psychological development.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<p class='center'>FETICHISM. THE CHINESE. THE EGYPTIANS.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>1. FETICHISM.</p>
+
+<p>The lowest stage of religious development is fetichism, as
+it is found among the savage tribes of the polar regions, and
+in Africa, America, and Australia. In this stage, man's
+needs are as yet very limited and exclusively confined to the
+material world. Still too little developed intellectually to
+worship the divine in nature and her powers, he thinks he
+sees the divinity which he seeks in every unknown object
+which strikes his senses, or which his imagination calls up.
+In this stage, religion has no higher character than that of
+caprice and of love of the mysterious and marvelous, mixed
+with fear and a slavish adoration of the divine. The worship
+and the priest's office (Shaman, Shamanism) consist here
+chiefly in the use of charms, to exorcise a dreaded power.
+From this savage fetichism the nature-worship found among
+the Aztecs in Mexico, and the worship of the sun in Peru,
+are distinguished by the greater definiteness and order of
+their religious conceptions and usages. In them the gods
+have names, and an ordained priesthood cares for the religious
+interests of the people. The highest form to which
+fetichism has attained is the worship of Manitou, the great
+spirit, which is found among the ancient tribes of North
+America.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>2. THE CHINESE.</p>
+
+<p>When man reaches a higher development, caprice and
+chance disappear from religion. Having outgrown fetichism,
+man begins, as is the case among the Chinese, to distinguish
+in the world around him an active and a passive principle,
+force and matter (Yang and Yn), heaven and earth (Kien and
+Kouen). We have here nature-worship in its beginnings.
+In this stage, even less than in fetichism, is there a definite
+idea of God, much less a conception of him as personal and
+spiritual lord. The Chinese, from the practical, empirical
+point of view peculiar to him, recognizes the spiritual only in
+man and chiefly in the state. His religion, therefore, is confined
+exclusively to the faithful keeping of the laws of the
+state (the Celestial Kingdom), in which he sees the reflection
+of heaven, to the recognition of the Emperor as the son and
+representative of heaven, and to the worship of the forefathers,
+especially of the great men and departed emperors,
+to whose memory the Chinese temples, or pagodas, are dedicated.
+The origin of this religion dates, according to the
+tradition, from Fo-hi (2950 B.C.), the founder of the Chinese
+state. In the fifth century before Christ, Kong-tse, or Kong-fu-tse
+(Confucius), appeared as a reformer of the religion of
+his countrymen, and gathered the ancient records and traditions
+of his people into a sacred literature, which is known
+by the name of the "King" (the books), "Yo-King" (the
+book of nature), "Chu-King" (the book of history), "Chi-King"
+(the book of songs). The contents of the "King"
+became later with the Chinese sages Meng-tse (360 B.C.)
+and Tschu-tsche (1200 A.D.) an object of philosophical
+speculation. The doctrine of Lao-tse, the younger contemporary
+of Kong-tse, which lays down as the basis of the
+world, that is of the unreal or non-existent, a supreme principle,
+<i>Tao</i>, or <i>Being</i>, corresponds with the Brahma doctrine of
+the Indians, among whom he lived for a long time; but this
+doctrine never became popular in China.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>3. THE EGYPTIANS.</p>
+
+<p>The worship of nature, which is seen in its beginnings
+among the Chinese, exhibits itself among the Egyptians in a
+more developed form as theogony. Here also the reflecting
+mind rose to the recognition of two fundamental principles,
+the producing and the passive power of nature, Kneph and
+Neith, from which sprang successively the remaining powers
+of nature, time, air, earth, light and darkness, personified by
+the fantasy of the people into as many divinities. The Egyptian
+mythology also (none has as yet been discovered among
+the Chinese) exhibits a like character. Fruitfulness and
+drought, the results of the Nile's overflowing and receding,
+are imaged in the myth of <i>Osiris</i>, <i>Isis</i>, and <i>Typhon</i>. The
+visible form under which the divine was worshiped in Egypt
+was the sacred animal, the bull <i>Apis</i>, dedicated to <i>Osiris</i>, the
+cow, dedicated to <i>Isis</i>, as symbols of agriculture; the bird
+<i>Ibis</i>, the crocodile, the dog <i>Anubis</i>, and other animals, whose
+physical characteristics impressed the as yet childish man,
+who saw in them the symbol, either of the beneficent power
+of nature which moved him to thankfulness, or of a destructive
+power which he dreaded and whose anger he sought to
+avert. The religion of Egypt was not of a purely spiritual
+character. To the man whose eye is not yet open to the
+manifestation of the spiritual around him and in him, the
+divine is not spirit, but as yet only nature. The animal,
+although in the form of the sphinx approaching the human,
+holds in Egyptian art a place above the human as symbol of
+the divine.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<p class='center'>THE ARIAN NATIONS.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>1. THE EAST ARIANS. THE INDIANS.</p>
+
+<p>In the development of religion among the Indians, the following
+periods may be distinguished:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> The original Veda-religion.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The priestly religion of the Brahmins.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The philosophical speculation.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Buddhism.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> The modified Brahminism after Buddha, in connection
+with the worship of Vishnu and Siva.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>a. The original Veda-religion.</i></p>
+
+<p>The original religion of Arya originated in Bactria. From
+thence, before the time of Zoroaster, it was brought over,
+with the great migration of the people, to the land of the
+seven rivers, which they conquered, and which stretched from
+the Indus to the Hesidrus. It consisted, according to the
+oldest literature of the Veda, in a polytheistical worship of
+the divine, either as the beneficent or the baneful power of
+nature. The clear, blue sky, the light of the sun, the rosy
+dawn, the storm that spends itself in fruitful rain, the winds
+and gales which drive away the clouds, the rivers whose fruitful
+slime overspreads the fields,&mdash;these moved the inhabitants
+of India to the worship of the divine as the beneficent
+power of nature which blesses man. On the other hand, he
+changed under the impression of the harmful phenomena of
+nature, the dark and close-packed clouds which hold back the
+rain and intercept the sunshine, the parching heat of summer,
+which dries up the rivers and hinders growth and fruitfulness,
+and these also he erected into objects of awe and religious
+adoration. From this view of nature sprang the Indian mythology.
+The oldest divinity (Deva) of the Indians is Varuna,
+the all-embracing heaven, who marks out their courses for the
+heavenly luminaries, who rules the day and the night, who is
+lord of life and death, whose protection is invoked, whose
+anger deprecated. After him, the great ruler of nature, there
+appear, in the Veda hymns, Indra, the blue sky, god of light
+and thunder, the warrior who in battle stands beside the combatants;
+Vayu, the god of the wind, the chief of the Maruts,
+or the winds; Rudra, the god of the hurricane; Vritra, the
+hostile god of the clouds; Ahi, the parching heat of summer.
+In the mythology of the people, Indra, god of light, aided by
+Vayu and Rudra, wages war with Vritra,&mdash;who, as god of
+the clouds, holds back the rain and the light,&mdash;and appears
+as opponent of the destructive Ahi. The other divinities also
+which appear in the Vedas are personified powers of nature,&mdash;the
+twin brothers Aswins (equites), or the first rays of the sun,
+Ushas the maiden, or the rosy dawn, Surya, Savitri, the god of
+the sun. Great significance is given in the Indian mythology
+to Agni, the god of fire, who burns the sacrifice in honor of
+the gods, who conveys the offerings and prayers of men to
+gods and their gifts to men, who gladdens the domestic
+hearth, lights up the darkness of night, drives away the evil
+spirits, the Ashuras and Rakshas, and purges of evil the souls
+of men. Religion, still wholly patriarchal in form, and free
+from hierarchical constraint and from the later dogmatic narrowness,
+bore in this earlier stage of its development the
+character of the still free and warlike life of a nomadic people
+living in the midst of a sublime nature, where everything, the
+clear sky, sunshine, and boisterous storm, mountains and rivers,
+disposed to worship. As yet the Indian knew no close
+priestly caste. Worship consisted in prayers and offerings,
+especially in the Soma-offering, which was offered as food to
+the gods. No fear of future torment after death as yet embittered
+the enjoyment of life and made dying fearful. Yama
+was the friendly guide of the souls of heroes to the heaven of
+Indra or Varuna, and not yet the inexorable prince of hell
+who tormented the souls of the ungodly in the kingdom of the
+dead. Of later barbarous usages also, such as the widow's
+sacrificing herself on the funeral pile of her departed husband,
+there was as yet no trace; and in the heroic poetry, as yet
+not disfigured by later Brahminical alterations and additions,
+the heroes Krishna and Rama appear as types of courage and
+self-sacrifice, and not, as later, as avatars, or human incarnations,
+of the deity.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>b. Brahminism.</i></p>
+
+<p>When the nomadic and warlike life of the nations of India in
+the land of the seven rivers, in connection with their removal
+to the conquered land of the Ganges (1300 B.C.), gave place
+to a more ordered social constitution, a priestly class formed
+itself, which began to represent the people before the deity,
+and from its chief function, <i>Brahma</i>, or prayer, took the name
+of <i>Brahmins</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the praying. This Brahma, before whose
+power even the gods must yield, was gradually exalted by the
+Brahmins to the highest deity, to whom, under the name of
+Brahma, the old Veda divinities were subordinated. Brahma
+is no god of the people, but a god of the priests; not the
+lord of nature, but the abstract and impersonal <i>Being</i>, out of
+whom nature and her phenomena emanate. From Brahma
+the priest derives his authority; and the system of caste, by
+which the priesthood is raised to the first rank, its origin.
+The worship of Brahma consists in doing penance and in
+abstinence. Yama, once a celestial divinity, now becomes
+the god of the lower world, where he who disobeys Brahma
+is tormented after death. Immortality consists in returning
+to Brahma; but is the portion only of the perfectly godly
+Brahmin, while the rest of mankind can rise to this perfect
+state only after many painful new births. The Brahmin, in
+the exclusive possession of religious knowledge, reads and
+expounds the Vedas (knowledge), exalted to infallible scripture,
+and on them constructs his doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the once vigorous, natural life of the Indians gave
+place to a conception of the world which repressed the soul,
+and annihilated man's personality. The many-sidedness of
+the earlier theology resolved itself into the abstract unity of
+an impersonal All, and thus the glory of nature passed by
+unmarked, as nought or non-existent, and lost its charm.
+At the same time, the old heroic sagas were displaced by
+legends of saints, and the heroic spirit of the olden epic by
+an asceticism which repressed the human, and before whose
+power even the gods stood in awe. With Brahminism the
+religion lost its original and natural character, and became
+characterized by a slavish submission to a priesthood, which
+abrogated the truly human.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>c. The Speculative Systems.</i></p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of the Brahmins occasioned the rise of various
+theological and philosophical systems. To these belong,
+first, the "Vedanta," (end of the Veda) or the dogmatic-apologetic
+exposition of the Veda. This contains (1) the establishment
+of the authority of the Veda as holy scripture revealed
+by Brahma, and also of the relation in which it stands
+to tradition; (2) the proof that everything in the Veda has
+reference to Brahma; (3) the ascetic system, or the discipline.
+To explain contradictory statements in the older and
+later parts of the Veda, Brahminical learning makes use of
+the subtleties of an harmonistical method of interpretation.
+Second, the "Mimansa" (inquiry), devoted to the solution
+of the problem, How can the material world spring from Brahma,
+or the immaterial? According to this system, there is
+only one Supreme Being, Paramatma, a name by which
+Brahma himself had been already distinguished in Manu's
+book of law. Outside of this highest <i>Being</i>, there is nothing
+real. The world of sense, or nature, (Maya, the female side
+of Brahma), is mere seeming and illusion of the senses. The
+human spirit is a part of Brahma, but perverted, misled by
+this same illusion to the conceit that he is individual. This
+illusion is done away with by a deeper insight, by means of
+which the dualism vanishes from the wise man's view, and
+the conceit gives place to the true knowledge that Brahma
+alone really exists, that nature, on the contrary, is nought,
+and the human spirit nothing else than Brahma himself.
+Third, the "Sankya" (criticism) originating with Kapila, in
+which, in opposition to the "Mimansa," the individual being
+and the real existence of nature, in opposition to spirit, is
+laid down as the starting-point, and the result reached is the
+doctrine of two original forces, spirit and nature, from whose
+reciprocal action and reaction upon each other the union of
+soul and body is to be explained. Is this union unnatural,
+then the effort of the wise man should be to free himself,
+through the perception that the soul is not bound to the body,
+from the dominion of matter. In this system, there is no
+room for an infinite being, for, if a material world exist, then
+must God be limited by its existence, and therefore cease to
+be infinite, that is God. The Sankya philosophy here came
+in conflict with the orthodox doctrine of the Brahmins, and
+prepared the way for Buddhism.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>d. Buddhism.</i></p>
+
+<p>Against Brahminism Buddhism arose as a reaction. Siddharta,
+son of Suddhodana, the King of Kapilavastu, of the
+family of the Sakya, (about 450 B.C.) moved by the misery
+of his fellow-countrymen, determined to examine into
+the causes of it, and, if possible, to find means of remedying
+it. Initiated into the wisdom of the Brahmins, but
+not satisfied with that, after years of solitary retirement
+and quiet meditation, penetrated with the principles of the
+Sankya, he traversed the land as pilgrim (Sakya-muni, Sramana,
+Gautama) and opened to the people of India a new
+religious epoch. The tendency of the new doctrine was
+to break up the system of caste, and free the people from
+the galling yoke of the Brahminical hierarchy and dogmas.
+While in Brahminism man was deprived of his individuality,
+and regarded only as an effluence from Brahma, and tormented
+by the fear of hell, and by the thought of a ceaseless
+process of countless new births awaiting him after death,
+whence the necessity of the most painful penances and chastisements,
+Sakya-muni began with man as an individual, and
+in morals put purity, abstinence, patience, brotherly love, and
+repentance for sins committed above sacrifice and bodily mortification,
+and opened to his followers the prospect, after this
+weary life, no more to be exposed to the ever-recurring pains
+of new birth, but released from all suffering to return to Nirvana,
+or nothingness. While Brahminism drew a distinction
+between man and man, and with hierarchical pride took no
+thought of the Sudra or lower class of the people, and limited
+wisdom to the priestly caste, Sakya-muni preached the equality
+of all men, came forward as a preacher to the people, used
+the people's language, and chose his followers out of all
+classes, even from among women. Both of these opposed
+systems are one-sided. In Brahminism, God is all, and man,
+as personal being, nothing; in Buddhism, man is recognized
+as an individual, but apart from God, while in both systems,
+the highest endeavor is to be delivered from, according to
+Brahminism a seeming, according to Sakya-muni a really
+existing individuality, the source of all human woe, and to
+lose one's self either in Brahma or in the Nirvana.</p>
+
+<p>Less on account of his doctrine, in which there is found
+neither a God nor a personal immortality, than on account of
+the universal character of his words and of his life, Sakya-muni
+continued in honor after his death, as the benefactor of
+the people and as the Buddha, the wise, pre-eminently; and
+afterwards was deified, and took his place in the ranks of the
+recognized gods as their superior. Thus there arose in Buddhism,
+by a departure from the doctrine of the master, a new
+polytheism. This was afterwards, through the influence of
+the Brahminical priestly caste, suppressed in India, but spread
+over other parts of Asia, to the islands of the Indian Archipelago,
+and also to China.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>e. Later modification of Brahminism in connection with the
+worship of Siva and Vishnu.</i></p>
+
+<p>While Brahminism saw itself menaced by the steadily increasing
+influence of Buddhism, the former nature-religion,
+dispossessed by the Brahmins, asserted its rights in the worship
+of Siva in the valleys of the Himalaya Mountains, and
+in that of Vishnu on the banks of the Ganges. Siva is the
+Rudra of the Veda, the boisterous god of storms, the giver
+of rain and growth. Vishnu is the same divinity among
+other races, conceived under the influence of a softer climate
+in a modified form as the blue sky. Both divinities, originally
+belonging to different parts of India, were afterwards taken,
+first Vishnu, and then also Siva, into the theological system
+of the Brahmins, and formed with Brahma, but not until the
+fourth century after Christ, the trimurti, according to which
+the one supreme being Parabrama is worshiped in the threefold
+form of Brahma the creating, Vishnu the sustaining, and
+Siva the destroying power of nature. To this later period of
+Brahminism belongs also the alteration of the old epics, the
+Ramayana and Mahabharata, by which the heroes Rama and
+Krishna are represented as avatars, that is incarnations
+or human impersonations, of Vishnu. In this also there
+is evidently an effort to bring the deity, conceived as the
+abstract One, into closer union with man, an effort which
+is likewise visible in the later Yoga system of the Brahmins,
+in which, by the admission of Buddhistic elements, the visible
+world is recognized as real, the old rigid asceticism
+mitigated, Vishnu represented as the soul of the world, and
+immortality taught as a return of the individual soul to
+Brahma.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>2. THE WEST ARIANS, IRANIANS.</p>
+
+<p class='center'>[THE BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS.]</p>
+
+<p>The ancient religion of the Bactrians in the period before
+Zoroaster was patriarchal, and consisted in the worship of
+fire, as the beneficent power of nature, and of Mithras, the
+god of the sun, combined with that of the good spirits (Ahuras),
+among which were Geus-Urva (the spirit of the earth),
+Cpento-mainyus (the white spirit), Armaiti (the earth, or
+also the spirit of piety), and of the hero-spirits Sraosha, Traetona,
+which as light and darkness are distinguished from Angro
+(the black spirit).</p>
+
+<p>Later, as it seems, the theology and worship of the neighboring
+nomadic Arya penetrated to these nations, and caused
+a religious conflict which ended with the migration of Arya
+to the south. At this period Zarathustra<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> (Zoroaster) came
+forward under the Bactrian priest and King Kava Vistaspa, as
+defender and reformer of the religion of the fathers against
+the encroachments of a strange doctrine. The Devas (Zend,
+Dews) or the gods of the Indian Veda appear with Zarathustra
+as evil spirits. Not Indra, but the hero Traetona, wages war
+with Ahi (Zend, Azhi), while the kavis, or priests, are attacked
+by him as deceivers and liars. From the belief in good spirits
+(Ahuras, <i>i.e.</i>, the living, and Mazdas, <i>i.e.</i>, the wise), the
+ancient genii of the country, Zarathustra developed the belief
+of one highest God, Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd, Greek,
+[Greek: Osompz&ecirc;s]), a doctrine which he received by divine inspiration
+through the mediation of the spirit Srasha. Ahura-Mazda,
+surrounded by the Amesha-Spenta (Amshaspands), or the
+holy immortals, not until later reduced to seven, is the creator
+of light and life. The hurtful and evil, on the contrary, is
+non-existence (akem), and in the oldest parts of the Avesta,
+the Gathas, which go back to Zarathustra and his first followers,
+is not yet conceived as a personal being. First in the
+Vendidad, written after Zarathustra, does Angro-mainyus
+(Ahriman), or the evil one, with his Dews, although subordinated
+to Ahura-Mazda, gain a place in the Iranian conception
+of the universe, as the adversary of Ahura-Mazda, and as the
+cause of evil in the natural and spiritual world. From these
+conceptions there was developed in the later Parsism the system
+of the four periods of the world, each of three thousand
+years, in the book "Bundehesh." In the first period, Ahura-Mazda
+appears as creator of the world and as the source of
+good. The creation, completed by Ahura-Mazda in six days
+by means of the word (Honover), is in the second period destroyed
+by Angro-mainyus, who, appearing upon the earth
+in the form of a serpent, seduces the first human pair, created
+by Ahura-Mazda. In the third period, which begins with
+the revelation given to Zarathustra, Ahura-mazda and Angro-mainyus
+strive together for man. After this follows, in
+the fourth period, the victory gained by Ahura-Mazda. Sosiosh
+(Saoshyas), the deliverer already foretold in the Vendidad,
+appears. The resurrection of the dead, not taught by
+Zarathustra or in the Vendidad, takes place. The judgment
+of the world begins; the good are received into paradise and
+the sinners banished to hell. At last, all is purified, and
+Angro-mainyus himself and his Dews submit themselves to
+Ahura-Mazda, whose victory is celebrated in heaven with
+songs of praise.</p>
+
+<p>Thus among the Iranian races, out of the old patriarchal
+worship of fire and light, on the occasion of the religious
+struggle with the Indian Arya, and under the influence of
+Zarathustra, there was developed the doctrine of one supreme
+God,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> who, surrounded by the good spirits of heaven, wages
+war against evil, whence arose later the moral opposition
+between Ahura-Mazda and Angro-mainyus resulting in the
+victory of the good principle over the bad. The old dualism
+of force and matter, beneficent and destructive powers of
+nature, light and darkness, becomes in Parsism moral. The
+deity, no longer identified with nature, becomes a personal,
+spiritual being, the creator of mankind; and the end of the
+world's development is conceived as the triumph of the good.
+Hence the high rank which the doctrine of Zarathustra and
+its further development holds in the history of religion.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>3. THE GREEKS.</p>
+
+<p>As man rises in spiritual development, nature becomes to
+him a revelation ever more and more manifold of the divine.
+To the Greek (Pelasgi, Hellenes) the whole of nature was
+living, and his imagination peopled her everywhere with divine
+beings, who in wood and field, in rivers and on mountains
+(Oreads, Dryads, Naiads, Sileni, &amp;c.), hovered friendly
+round him. The Greek was indeed distinguished from other
+nations by this richer and more elevated view of nature; but
+he excelled them most of all in this, that the divine object
+which he worshiped was conceived both in form and character
+after the human. Zeus, Phoebus Apollo, Pallas Athene,
+Aphrodite, Ares, Hephaestus, Hestia, Hermes, Artemis, were
+originally powers of nature personified, as some epithets in
+Homer<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> still indicate; but they became, sometimes under
+the same names, types of power and lordship, science and
+art, courage and sensuous beauty. While Dionysus, Demeter,
+Hades, and Persephone remained earthly, and Helios,
+Eos, Iris, and Hecate, heavenly divinities, and Oceanus, Poseidon,
+Amphitrite, Proteus, and Nereus ruled the waters, Zeus
+was conceived as the god of the sky and of thunder, who
+hurled the bolts, the great king and lawgiver, the father of
+men, and Hera, originally the air, became the protecting goddess
+of married life; Apollo, the god of light, who shot forth
+his arrows, not at first identified with Helios, became the god
+of divination and poetry, who led the choir of the muses; the
+goddess of light, Athene, became the contentious goddess of wisdom;
+Aphrodite, born of the foam of the sea, once the symbol
+of the fruitful power of nature, later, encircled by the Graces,
+became the type of womanly beauty and charm, to which the
+strength of man, personified in Ares, corresponds. In like
+manner in the later mythology, Hephaestus, the god of fire,
+appeared as the god of the forge, Hestia, the goddess of fire,
+as the protector of the household hearth, and Hermes, the
+god of the storm and of rain, as the messenger of the gods,
+the type of cunning and craftiness, while Artemis, the goddess
+of the moon, the fruitful mother of nature, took the
+character of the chaste maiden, the goddess of hunting, who
+with her nymphs and hounds nightly roamed the fields and
+woods. The monsters, the Sphinx, the Minotaur, the Cyclops,
+the Centaurs, symbols of a yet unhuman or half human
+power of nature, were overcome by the Greek heroes, Perseus,
+Hercules, Jason, Theseus, &OElig;dipus, the types of human
+strength and valor. The religious festivals were enlivened
+by trials of men's strength and skill in games, and the historian
+and poet offered to the gods the products of human
+genius. In the religion of the Greeks, however, the moral
+element, although not passed over and in the Greek epic and
+tragedy not seldom expressed in grand characters, stood nevertheless
+too little in the foreground, so that the worship of
+the divine, as in the older nature-worship, especially in the
+feasts in honor of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was marked by
+immoral practices. The conception of a future life, which
+taken in connection with a future retribution has a moral tendency,
+had but little attraction for the Greek, who rejoiced in
+the glory of the earth, and saw in nature and in man the
+kingdom of the divine. The passage from the earlier poetical
+nature-worship to the worship of the divine in human
+form seems to be indicated in the war which Olympian Zeus
+waged with Cronos and the Titans. The origin and development
+of the various elements and powers of nature, Chaos,
+Eros, Uranus, G&aelig;a, the Giants, Styx, Erebus, Hemera, &AElig;ther,
+&amp;c., became, with the poets and philosophers after Homer,
+matters of speculation, of which the theogonies of Hesiod,
+Orpheus, Pherecydes, and others furnish proof.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>4. THE ROMANS.</p>
+
+<p>In the religion of the Greeks, the &aelig;sthetic and moral character
+of the Grecian people was deified, and in the Romans
+also we see how that which men value most exerts an influence
+upon their worship of the divine. The primitive religion
+of the Romans, borrowed from the Sabines and Etruscans,
+bears everywhere, in distinction to that of the Greeks, the
+marks of the practical and political character of the Roman
+people. The oldest national divinities are, first, Jupiter or
+Jovis, the god of the heavens, Mars or Mavors, the god of the
+field and of war, Quirinus (Janus?) the protector of the Quirites,
+afterwards, together with Juno (Dione) and Minerva,
+worshiped in the Capitol, (Dii Capitolini); second, Vesta,
+and the gods of the house and family, the Lares and Penates;
+third, the rural divinities, Saturnus, Ops, Liber, Faunus,
+Silvanus, Terminus, Flora, Vertumnus, and Pomona; fourth
+and last, personifications, in part of the powers of nature,
+Sol, Luna, Tellus, Neptunus, Orcus, Proserpina, in part of
+moral and social qualities and states, such as Febris, Salus,
+Mens, Spes, Pudicitia, Pietas, Fides, Concordia, Virtus, Bellona,
+Victoria, Pax, Libertas, and others. Peculiarly Roman
+also is the conception of the <i>manes</i>, or shades of the departed,
+who hover as protecting genii about the living. Afterwards,
+along with the culture of the Greeks, their gods
+also were taken, although rather outwardly than inwardly,
+into the spirit of the people, and the original character of the
+gods of Latium was modified after the new mythology. Notwithstanding
+this, however, the worship of the Romans retained
+its political and practical character. The priests (sacerdotes)
+Flamines, Salii, Feciales, the Pontifices with the
+Pontifex Maximus at their head, the Augurs, were likewise
+officers of the state, and did not form a hierarchy apart from
+the state and alongside of it.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>5. THE CELTS.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Celtic tribes in Brittany, Ireland, and Gaul,
+and on both banks of the Rhine, out of an aboriginal life of
+nature characterized by wildness and license, religion developed
+itself in the form of the worship of two chief divinities,
+a male divinity, Hu, the begetting, and a female, Ceridwen,
+the bearing, power of nature. The priesthood busied itself
+with speculations about the divine, the origin of the world,
+and the continued existence of man after death, conceived in
+the form of the transmigration of souls. Nor did the people's
+faith lack the conception of good and evil spirits, fairies,
+dwarfs, elves, which to the still childish fancy are objects of
+fear or superstitious veneration. To the service of these divinities
+the priesthood, the Druids, were consecrated, and beside
+them the bards, or poets, held a more independent place.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>6. THE GERMANS AND SCANDINAVIANS.</p>
+
+<p>More developed intellectually is the nature-religion of the
+ancient Germans (Teutons) and Scandinavians, which betrays
+thereby the character of the Aryan race to which these nations,
+like the Celts, originally belonged. The highest god
+of the Germans is Wodan, called Odhin among the Norsemen,
+the god of the heavens, and of the sun, who protects
+the earth, and is the source of light and fruitfulness, the spirit
+of the world, and the All-father (Alfadhir). From the union
+of heaven and earth, there springs the god Thunar or Donar
+among the Germans, Thor among the Norsemen, the bold
+god of thunder who wages war against the enemies of gods
+and men. Besides these there are the sons of Wodan, Fro
+(German), Freyx (Norse), the god of peace, Zio (German), Tyx
+(Norse), the god of war, Aki (German), Oegir (Norse), god of the
+sea, Vol (German), Ullr (Norse), god of hunting, and others, to
+whom are joined female divinities, such as Nerthus (German),
+J&ouml;rdh (Norse), the fruitful goddess of the earth, Holda (German),
+Freiya (Norse), the goddess of love, Nehalennia, goddess
+of plenty, Frikka (German), Frigg (Norse), the wife
+of Wodan, mother of all the living, Hellia (German), Hel
+(Norse), the inexorable goddess of the lower world. Opposed
+to these divinities (Asen and Asinnen) stands Loko (German),
+Loki (Norse), enemy of the divine. In addition to
+these there appear in the Norse and German Sagas, besides
+the heroes, a multitude of spirits, good and hostile, giants,
+elves, Elfen (German), Alfen (Norse), white spirits of light, and
+black dwarfs, house, forest, and water spirits. The worship
+was most simple, and, as was the case with the ancient Semites,
+the Indians of the Veda, and the Greeks, as yet independent
+of temple service and priestly constraint. The holy
+places of the Germans were woods, and hills, and fountains,
+and in the mysterious rustling of the leaves and in the murmuring
+of the waters the pious spirit caught the breathing of
+the deity.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> The father of the house is priest, and the recognition
+by these races more than elsewhere of worth in woman
+is apparent also in their religion. In the description of
+the kingdom of the dead in the German-Norse mythology,
+Walhalla is the abode of the heroes, hell the gathering place
+of the other dead. Notwithstanding these still childish conceptions,
+there was revealed in the moral character and heroic
+spirit of the German forefathers the germ of a higher development,
+which makes the nations of Germany and Northern
+class='center'Europe capable beyond others of a constantly higher conception
+and estimation of the Christian religion.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<p class='center'>THE RELIGION OF THE SEMITES.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>I. THE PH&OElig;NICIANS, SYRIANS, BABYLONIANS, CARTHAGINIANS,
+AND ARABIANS.</p>
+
+<p>In the Semitic races the religious spirit rose above nature-worship
+in the effort to separate God from nature, and to
+elevate him above nature as Lord, Baal (plural Baalim,
+either from the different places where he was worshiped, or
+the various names under which he was worshiped), Bel, El,
+Adon (Adonis). Thus Bel among the Babylonians, Baal
+among the Ammonites and Moabites, was the god of light,
+the lord of heaven, the creator of mankind, who had his
+throne above the clouds and was invoked on mountains.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+Also the title Molech and Baal Molech to designate the
+Supreme Being among the ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians,
+and the nations nearest related to Israel, the
+Moabites and Ammonites, as well as the derived names Milcom
+(Kamos) [Chemosh, Eng. ver.], among the Ammonites,
+and Melkartht at Tyre and Carthage, indicate, like Baal, an
+original effort to conceive God as the ruler of nature. Agreeing
+with this conception of the Deity, there is manifest, as
+well in the worship of Baal as of Molech and the female Astarte
+(Melecheth)<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> [Ashtaroth, Eng. ver.], worshiped with
+him, partly in the abstinence from marriage, partly in the
+human sacrifice, especially the sacrifice of the first-born, the
+aim, through abnegation of the life of sense, and through the
+sacrifice, even though unnatural, of what is dearest to man,
+to appease a divinity who as lord and governor rules and subjects
+to himself the power of nature and every propensity of
+sense.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>In spite of the effort to elevate the Deity as Lord and
+King above nature, most of the Semitic nations gradually
+sank back into the old nature-worship, and, uniting with the
+worship of the highest God, Baal and Bel, that of a female
+divinity under the names of Baaltis, Beltis, Aschera, Mylitta,
+they made religion to consist in the sacrifice of chastity to
+the will of the Deity, as the fruitful, productive power of nature,
+and thus fell into gross immorality.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>Religion appears in another form among the Semites in the
+worship of the stars among the Babylonians and ancient Arabians.
+This astrolatry, originally a kind of fetichism, became
+nature-worship, and gradually rose to the worship of the intelligence
+manifested to our contemplation in the movement
+of the heavenly luminaries. Astrology arose, and religion
+no longer expressed itself in passive acquiescence, but was
+united with the effort to guide the life by the knowledge to be
+drawn, as men imagined, from the motion of the stars.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>ISRAELITISH RELIGION.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>a. Its origin. The patriarchal religion. Mosaism.
+Prophetism.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>While most of the Semitic nations, in opposition to the
+effort to elevate God above nature as lord and governor, returned
+to the old nature-religion with its grossly sensual worship
+of the divine, and others got no farther than to the conception
+of a deity, who, like a consuming fire, stood opposed
+to nature, and was to be appeased and propitiated by human
+sacrifices, there was developed among the Israelitish people,
+gradually and in constantly higher measure, in connection
+with a higher moral and religious disposition, the worship of
+God as a being who, though distinct from nature, is yet not
+opposed to it, and thus no longer demands human sacrifices,
+but obedience and moral consecration.</p>
+
+<p>The common origin of the religion of the Israelites and
+that of their Semitic relations, though hardly evident even in
+the oldest monuments of the Hebrew literature, appears from
+the following facts and particulars: firstly, the composition of
+Israelitish names not only with El, but also with Baal, such
+as Jerubbaal (adversary of Baal), (Gideon),<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Esbaal,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Meribbaal,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+names which afterwards, on account of the aversion
+which the ever-increasing distance in religion between the
+Israelitish nation and the nations related to it must, from the
+nature of the case, have inspired against the name of Baal,
+are changed into Jerubboseth,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Isboseth,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> and Mephiboseth<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>,
+as also the interchanging of El and Baal,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> of Baal-jada<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
+and Eljada,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> seem to point to an ancient period
+when the name Baal (Lord) was used, like El, Elohim, El
+Eljon, El Schaddai, Adonai, even among the Israelites, to
+designate the Supreme Being. Secondly, the God of Abraham
+(Elohim), although he desires no human sacrifices, nevertheless
+praises the willingness of the father to offer up his
+first-born, and sees in that the highest proof of devotedness
+and obedience.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Thirdly, circumcision, already before Moses<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+the bloody symbol of consecration to God,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> and also
+the right of Jahveh to the first-born, and the necessity of
+ransoming them from him,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> imply an earlier conception
+of the deity as a being, who, although on a higher development
+of the religion he is not indeed any longer thought
+to desire human sacrifice, nevertheless has a right to such
+a sacrifice, and thus demands indemnity for remitting it.
+Fourthly, the later conception, of Jahveh as a destroying
+fire, and the way in which the God of Israel is conceived
+in connection with fire, and as manifesting himself in fire,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
+betray, even in the midst of a more advanced religious development,
+an original relationship with the like conceptions of
+the other Semites. Fifthly, even in the orthodox Jahveh-worship,
+some symbols, as the twelve oxen in the porch of
+the temple,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> the horns of the altar for burnt-offerings,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> perhaps
+also the in part oxlike form of the cherubim,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> point to
+an earlier worship of the deity under the form of an ox, the
+symbol of the highest might, especially among the Semitic
+races.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>In confirmation of the supposition thus suggested of a
+community of origin in the religion of the Israelites and in
+that of the nations related to them, there is also to be remarked,
+firstly, the sympathy always felt among the people
+of Israel for the worship of Baal and Molech, in face of the
+strongest opposition on the part of the prophets;<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> secondly,
+the statement of Amos,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> that even in the wilderness the Israelites
+worshiped Molech; thirdly, the fact that in the time
+of the Judges, Jephthah offered his daughter to Jahveh,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> and
+still later the feeling, not driven out even by Mosaism, that
+the wrath of Jahveh must be appeased by human blood,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> a
+necessity which David recognizes;<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> fourthly, the ancient
+custom in Israel, as in the nations related to them, of worshiping
+the deity on mountains and heights,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> against which
+the priestly legislation strove in the interest of the pure worship
+of Jahveh;<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> fifthly, the heterodox worship of Jahveh in
+the kingdom of the ten tribes under the form of a calf.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>From all this it seems fair to conclude that the religion of
+the oldest forefathers of Israel had its root originally in one and
+the same soil with the religion of the other Semites. Out of
+an earlier nature-religion there developed among the Semites
+the conception of Baal, the lord of nature, and of Molech with
+his inhuman worship. While, however, the other Semites
+remained in this lower stage, or rather sank back more and
+more into the immorality of the nature-religion,&mdash;an hypothesis
+suggested by a comparison of the religious state of the
+nations of Canaan in Abraham's time with their state at the
+time of the conquest of the land by Joshua and afterwards,&mdash;in
+the family of Abraham, religious consciousness rose to the
+recognition of a deity, who, although he had a right to human
+sacrifices, yet did not claim such sacrifices, but was satisfied
+with men's willingness to bring them to him. With this
+higher development of religion, the names of the Supreme
+Being, Baal and Molech, originally common to the whole race,
+came more and more into contempt, and were regarded as the
+expression of abominable idolatry,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> while even the worship
+of Jahveh under the form of a calf, originally permitted, was
+later branded by the prophets as heresy.</p>
+
+<p>Though it was in the family of Abraham that even in Mesopotamia<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+the beginning of this higher development of the
+Semitic religion showed itself, which, after his migration to
+Canaan became the heritage of his family, yet the patriarch
+of Israel did not stand alone in this respect among the Semites.
+The old Canaanitish chieftains also of the patriarchal
+period, Melchizedek and Abimelech, worship the same God
+as he,<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> while on the other hand in his own family not all
+traces of polytheistic superstition have disappeared,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> and
+these traces are also visible still later in Israel.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>The patriarchal religion, which afterwards with the great
+majority fell into oblivion, was recalled afresh to men's minds
+by Moses, and the God of the fathers was preached by him
+under the name before unknown of Jahveh,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> to whom, with
+the exclusion of all other gods, religious worship is due.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>
+The Jahveh of Moses, like the El Eljon of the patriarchs, is
+the one only object of worship (Deus Unus), yet without excluding
+the possibility of other gods existing.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Not until
+later did the more developed conception of Jahveh arise as
+the one only God (Deus unicus),<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> who is throned in heaven,
+and like the Elohim of the patriarchs, encircled by celestial
+beings (Bene Elohim, Malakim, Angels), who execute his
+commands, yet are not objects of religious adoration.</p>
+
+<p>The religious standpoint of Moses is the legal. Jehovah
+stands related to his people as the Holy, as lawgiver and
+judge; and the true moral consecration to God is symbolically
+expressed in the ritual, especially in the sacrifice, while
+the relation of the people to God is based upon the mediation
+of the priests. Along with this, and out of Mosaism, after
+the time of Samuel, prophetism was developed, in which independent
+religious conviction, outside the limits of the
+priesthood, and without distinction of rank or birth,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> awoke
+among the people. Prophetism, in the domain of religion, is
+the development of the religious spirit to individual independence
+and freedom. The prophet, rising above the legal
+standpoint and outward ceremonial, puts the essence of true
+worship in morality,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> but recognizes also along with the
+deepest feeling of dependence upon God, in the independence<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>
+and spontaneity of the religious and moral life, the
+irresistible power of the divine spirit, by which the Most
+High, though apart from the world and throned in heaven,
+puts himself into the closest and most intimate communion
+with the true worshiper. Thus the gulf which divided Jahveh,
+as a God afar off, from the world and his worshipers,
+closed up more and more. With the conviction of the pureness
+and truth<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> of her religion, Israel felt the calling to raise
+it to the religion of the world, and in the realization of this
+she saw the ideal of the future.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>b. The Israelitish religion after the Captivity.</i></p>
+
+<p>The free character which distinguished prophetism in the
+religion of Israel changed, after the return of the people
+from captivity, especially with the party of the Pharisees, to
+literalness and formalism. The prophets gave place to the
+synagogue, the living proclamation of the truth to scriptural
+erudition, the spirit of freedom to slavish subjection to Scripture
+and tradition. As the ancient productions of the Indian
+literature, originally the expression of the popular thought of
+India, were elevated by the Brahmins into Veda, holy, inspired
+scripture, so also the religious literature of Israel took
+on the character of a closed Canon, so that what was once
+the expression of religious life became now rule of faith.
+The standpoint of the law which prophetism had already overcome
+was again strongly maintained, the law enriched with a
+number of new ordinances, and the essence of religion made
+to consist partly in dogmatic speculation, partly in a merely
+outward service, devoid of inner life. The Messianic prediction,
+or the expectation that the kingdom, divided in Rehoboam's
+reign, once more united under a prince of the house
+of David, should be exalted to new bloom and lustre,&mdash;which
+in the older prophets was the natural and historically
+explicable form in which the ideal of Israel's future presented
+itself to the seer, but which, under the influence of
+the changed political conditions, had already been replaced in
+the later prophecy by the more general conception of a future
+triumph of the true religion of which Israel was the bringer,&mdash;<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>returned,
+yet not as the ideal of the prophetic spirit, but as a
+dogma, the product of scriptural interpretation. The pure
+monotheism, by which formerly a place in the Providence of
+God had been allotted to everything, even to moral evil,<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> became
+corrupted, under the influence of Parsism, by the conception
+of two kingdoms, of God and of the Devil. The
+angels, originally the messengers of Providence, became under
+mythological names, Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, &amp;c., so many
+middle beings who filled the space between the Deity, existing
+apart from the world, and the world. The lower world
+(sheol, [Greek: aid&ecirc;s]), formerly the general abode of the dead, of bad
+and good without distinction, was split into two parts, paradise
+and gehenna, and became a place of recompense, and, along
+with this, religion, once an end, became the means of warding
+off a dreaded punishment, or of gaining a future of bliss.
+The doctrine of immortality, as the continuation of man's
+moral development, which was formerly unknown in Israel,
+appeared, as in the later Parsism, in the form of a bodily resurrection
+of the dead, at first of the righteous only, but afterwards
+in the form of a general resurrection, by mediation
+of the Messiah, at whose appearing, which was expected just
+before the end of the present state of things, the great judgment
+of the world, of living and dead, was to be held, heaven
+and earth renewed, and the kingdom of God founded. Beside
+the learned party of the Pharisees stood the Sadducees, who
+subordinated religion to politics, rejected the Messianic idea
+and the authority of tradition, and, in denying immortality in
+the form of a bodily resurrection, failed to perceive the truth
+of immortality, for whose recognition the premises and germs
+existed in the religion of Israel, though not as yet developed.
+The third party, that of the Essenes, was marked by quiet
+piety, and in many respects also by excessive asceticism. In
+the midst of the Pharisaic formalism, the unbelief of the
+Sadducees, and the pietism of the Essenes, there was yet in
+Israel a seed of true worshipers, who, though not above the
+dogmatic prejudices of their time, had heart and mind open
+for the true religion, and who set the true blessing to be
+looked for from the Messiah in the satisfying of their religious
+and moral needs.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>3. THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.</p>
+
+<p>The Israelitish religion, which reached its highest stage of
+development in prophetism, but which among the later Jews
+after Ezra degenerated, with the Pharisees into formalism and
+worship of the letter, with the Essenes into mysticism and
+asceticism, and which with the Sadducees, along with the
+sacrifice of the prophetic ideal of the future, was subordinated
+to politics, developed in Christianity, but freed from
+once cherished national expectations and outward forms, into
+a purely spiritual knowledge and worship of God. Jesus
+fathomed the deep meaning of the religion of his people, and
+its original fitness to become, through higher development,
+the religion of the world. Jesus devoted himself to the end
+of forming the human race into one great society (the kingdom
+of heaven), of which religion should be the soul and life,
+and, convinced of his calling, proclaimed himself as the Son
+of man, who, as such, belonged not to Israel alone, but to
+mankind. Jesus combated both the formalism and exclusiveness
+of the Pharisees, and the unbelief of the Sadducees, and
+with word and deed preached a religion which, independent
+of all outward form, took hold of the human heart, and which,
+developing into an independent principle in man, was to find
+its commission, not in the authority of Scripture or tradition,
+not even in that of his name, but in its own power
+and truth. In him religion appeared as the power of self-sacrificing
+love, which fears not even death, and to which dying
+is not the losing of life, but the development of life. In
+distinction from other religions, in which either God and man
+are strangers to each other, and opposed to each other, or
+man's personality is, as it were, sunk in God, Christianity is
+the religion by which man, in the full enjoyment of individual
+development, and with the sense of his own strength, lives in
+the consciousness of the most entire dependence upon God.
+Religion in its highest form, conceived as the oneness of man
+with God, is realized in Christianity.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>4. ISLAMISM.</p>
+
+<p>The religion of the ancient nomadic tribes of the Arabian
+peninsula originally exhibited a polytheistical character, in the
+form of the worship, in part of sacred stones, in part of the
+powers of nature, especially of the stars, whose position and
+motion were thought to exert an influence, beneficent or
+baneful, upon the destinies of men. With these conceptions
+was combined a certain leaning toward monotheism, which
+manifested itself especially in the common worship of Allah
+taala (equivalent to El Eljon), which was afterwards quickened
+and strengthened by association with the Jewish tribes,
+with whom they held themselves to be related by descent
+from Abraham. The Parsee doctrine of demons, also, was
+not unknown in Arabia, after the conquest of the Persians in
+the fifth century. After the third, fourth, and fifth centuries,
+Christianity also, though in a corrupt form, or, definitely, in
+the form of Monophysitism and Nestorianism, which had
+been condemned by the church, became established in Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>Amid such diverse elements, there was need of unity in
+the domain of religion, a need for which Mohammed, after
+the example of others of his family, sought to provide.</p>
+
+<p>He was born at Mecca (571) of an honorable family, belonging
+to the Koreish tribe. Finding no satisfaction for his
+restless spirit in the trade to which after his parents' death
+he had at first devoted himself, he gave himself up, in solitary
+retirement, to quiet meditation, and became more and more
+convinced of his calling to put an end, by means of a better
+religion, to the confusion existing among his countrymen with
+regard to religion. The religious idea which overmastered
+him presented itself to his powerful Oriental imagination in
+the form of a vision as a revelation of Allah taala, made to
+him in the fortieth year of his life by mediation of the angel
+Gabriel. His conviction, thus acquired, was confirmed by
+revelations afterwards received; and, shared at first with a
+small circle of trusted friends, gradually spread wider, until
+at last Mohammed came forward in the ancient sanctuary,
+the Kaaba, at Mecca, as prophet of Allah. For this he was
+pursued by his countrymen, and fled from thence to Medina,
+in the year 622, the beginning of the Moslem era. The
+number of his followers increasing, he had recourse to arms.
+He conquered Mecca in 630, and made the Kaaba, after destroying
+the idols in it, the sanctuary of the new religion.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of Mohammed (Islam, submission to God,
+whence his followers take the name of Moslems), is contained
+in the Koran. The various Suras, or divisions, originally the
+revelations received by the prophet at different periods of his
+life reduced to writing, were, soon after his death, united by
+Abu Bekr into one holy book, under the name of the Koran
+(al Kitab, the book), which, like the Bible among the later
+Jews and Christians, was clothed with divine authority. The
+central doctrine of Mohammed is the belief in one God, Allah,
+who, as the Creator and Lord of all things, in strictest
+isolation from the world, is throned in heaven. All that takes
+place upon the earth befalls according to the eternal decree
+of God, a conception in which, at least among the Orthodox
+Moslems, the Sunnites, who are distinguished in this respect,
+as in others, from the dissenting Shiites, there is no place
+left for human freedom. This God has from the earliest
+times revealed himself to some privileged men, Adam, Noah,
+Abraham, Moses, Jesus (Isa). To the last is due the honor
+of having been the reformer of degenerate Judaism. He is
+not, as the Christians of Mohammed's time taught, the Son
+of God in a metaphysical sense, much less God himself,&mdash;Allah
+is one, he neither begets nor is begotten,&mdash;but a
+prophet of human descent. The greatest and last prophet is
+Mohammed himself, in whom prophetism reached its fulfillment.
+Along with the doctrine regarding God and his relation
+to the world, prayer, hospitality, and benevolence occupy
+a prominent place in the teaching of Mohammed,
+looked at from its practical side, and also the belief in a
+future life, in the Jewish-Parsee form of the resurrection of
+the dead, the judgment of the world, future reward and punishment,
+paradise and hell. The truth of this divine revelation
+rests upon the very fact of its having been revealed, and,
+according to Mohammed, it no more needs scientific proof
+than confirmation by miracles, to which Islamism did not appeal
+until later.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion which formerly prevailed among Christians
+that Mohammed was an impostor, a false prophet, was bound
+up with the conception that God, to the exclusion of other
+nations, had revealed himself immediately and supernaturally
+first to Israel, and afterwards through Christ to all mankind.
+Hence it followed that Christianity was not prized as the
+highest religion, existing along with less developed forms of
+religion, but was opposed as the only true religion to all others,
+which were regarded as the fruit of imposture and error,
+an opinion to which the religious and political struggles in
+which Islam and Christendom have been involved also richly
+contributed. Mohammed was seer and prophet, filled with
+fiery zeal for religion, and, while he stands indeed in this
+respect, both personally and with regard to the contents of
+his preaching and the means by which he sought to gain admission
+for his doctrine, below the seers of Israel, and far
+below the founder of Christianity, yet, on the other hand, his
+monotheism, abstract as it is, must be regarded as a wholesome
+reaction against the ever-increasing polytheistical superstition
+to which in his time the Christian church of the
+East especially had sunk. Islamism stands, however, below
+original Christianity, the religion of Jesus and the Apostles,
+in that, by separating God, as the abstract one Supreme Being,
+from the world, it leaves no place for the doctrine of God's
+immanence, or the indwelling of the Spirit of God in man.
+Hence in Islamism the divine revelation remains purely mechanical,
+with no natural point of connection in man, and
+therefore there is no possibility of an enduring prophetism,
+which is the fundamental principle of Christianity. From
+this separation of God and man, the Mohammedan doctrine of
+predestination, in distinction from the Christian, acquires its
+abstract and fatalistic character, whereby man, instead of being
+regarded as a being in whose free activity God's power
+and life are glorified, is conceived as a passive instrument of
+a higher power. To true moral independence, therefore, the
+Moslem does not attain. His religion is legal and external,
+and therefore intolerant and exclusive; and when Islamism,
+led by excited passion and a heated imagination, disregarded
+the sanctity of marriage, and held up as a reward before the
+faithful Moslem a paradise characterized by sensual enjoyment,
+it missed at once the deep moral and spiritual character
+of Christianity. To these defects must be ascribed the fact
+that Islamism, adapted to the need of the East, and therefore
+spread over a large part of Asia and Africa, has not, with the
+exception of the empire of Turkey, and for a time also of
+Spain, penetrated Europe; and, overshadowed by a higher
+development of humanity, has reached its highest bloom,
+while Christianity, brought back to its original purity, remains
+the religion of the civilized world.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Translated from the Dutch of Prof. J. H. Scholten, by F.T. Washburn.
+This constitutes the first part of Prof. Scholten's History of Religion
+and Philosophy. (<i>Geschiedenis der Godsdienst en Wijsbegeerte.</i>)
+Third edition. Leyden, 1863. Of this work there is a translation in
+French by M. Albert R&eacute;ville (Paris, 1861); but this translation, which
+was made from an earlier edition, is very defective in the first part,
+Prof. Scholten having added a great deal in his last edition. There is
+also a translation of it in German, by D.E.R. Redepenning (Elberfeld,
+1868). This German translation has been revised and enlarged by Prof.
+Scholten, and is therefore superior in some respects to the original
+Dutch. The present translation has been revised upon it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> According to Buusen 3000 or 2500 B.C., Haug 2000 B.C., Max
+M&uuml;ller 1200 B.C., Max Duncker 1300 or 1250 B.C., and according to
+R&oelig;th. I. p. 348, who still puts Vistaspa before Darius Hystaspes, between
+589 and 512 B.C.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The doctrine of the <i>Zervana akarana</i> (infinite time) as the original
+One, from which the opposition between Ormuzd and Ahriman was held
+to spring, dates from a later period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+&#918;&#949;&#965;&#962; &#954;&#949;&#955;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#949;&#966;&#951;&#962;, &#945;&#953;&#948;&#949;&#961;&#953; &#957;&#945;&#953;&#969;&#957;, &#957;&#949;&#966;&#955;&#951;&#947;&#949;&#961;&#949;&#964;&#945; &#918;&#949;&#965;&#962;, &#919;&#961;&#951; &#946;&#965;&#969;&#960;&#953;&#962;, &#947;&#955;&#945;&#965;&#954;&#969;&#960;&#953;&#962; &#913;&#948;&#951;&#965;&#951;.
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Of the Germans Tacitus writes, <i>Germ.</i>, c. 9, "Eos nec cohibere
+parietibus Deos neque in ullam humanioris speciem assimilare, ex magnitudine
+c&oelig;lestium arbitrantur. Lucos ac nemora consecrant deorumque
+nominibus appellant secretum illud, quod sola reverentia vident."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Among the Roman writers who furnish us with information upon the
+religion of the Germans, Tacitus deserves mention, in his "Germania,"
+as well as in his "Annales" <i>passim</i>. The chief source with regard to
+the Norse religion is the older Edda, under the title "Edda S&aelig;mundar
+hin Froda."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Numb. xxii. 41; xxiii. 28; 2 Kings, xxiii. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Judges, ii. 13; 1 Sam. vii. 4; xii. 10; 1 Kings, xi. 5, 7, 33; 2
+Kings, xxiii. 13; Jer. vii. 18; xliv. 17, 19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Levit. xviii. 21; xx. 2; 2 Kings, iii. 26, 27; xvi. 3; xxiii. 10; Ps.
+cvi. 38; Jer. vii. 31; xix. 5; xxxii. 35; Micah, vi. 7; Ezek. xv. 4, 6; [?]
+xvi. 20, Comp. I Kings, xviii: 28.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Numb. xxv. 1, <i>et seq</i>; Josh. xxii. 17; Baruch, vi. 41, 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Judges, vi. 32. and elsewhere.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> 1 Chron. viii. 33; ix. 39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> 1 Chron. viii. 34; ix. 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> 2 Sam. xi. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> 2 Sam. ii. 8, and elsewhere.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> 2 Sam. iv. 4, and elsewhere.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Judges, viii. 33; ix. 4. Comp. with ix. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> 1 Chron. xiv. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> 1 Chron. iii. 8; 2 Sam. v. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Gen. xxii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Gen. xvii. 23-27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Ex. iv. 24-26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Ex. xiii. 2, 12-16; xxii. 28, 29; xxx. 11-16; xxxiv. 19, 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Gen. xv. 17; Ex. iii. 2; xix. 16-18; xxiv. 17; xl. 38; Levit. x.
+2; Numb. xvi. 35; Deut. iv. 15, 24; v. 24, 25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> 1 Kings, vii. 25, 29.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Ex. xxvii. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Comp. Ezek. i. 10; x. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> 1 Kings, xviii. 23.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> 1 Kings, xi. 5; 2 Kings, xvi. 3; xxi. 3; xxiii. 4, <i>et seq</i>; 2 Chron. xxxiii.
+3; Ezek. xvi. 20, 21; Jer. xix. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Amos. v. 25, 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Judges, xi. 30-40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Ex. xxxii. 27-29; Numb. xxv. 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> 2 Sam. xxi. 1-14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> 1 Kings, iii. 2; xi. 7; 2 Kings, xii. 3; xiv. 4; xvii. 11; xviii. 4; xxiii.
+5, 19; 2 Chron. xxi. 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> 2 Chron. xxxiv. 3; Ezek. vi. 3; xx. 28.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> 1 Kings, xii. 28, 33. Comp. Ex. xxxii. 4, 19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Levit. xviii. 21; xx. 2; Deut. xii. 31.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Gen. xxiv, xxviii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Gen. xiv. 18-20; xx. 3, 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, <i>et seq</i>; xxxv. 2-4; Joshua, xxiv. 2, 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Judges, xviii. 14, <i>et seq</i>; 1 Sam. xix. 13; 2 Kings, xviii. 4; Ezek. xx. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Ex. iii. 13, <i>et seq</i>; vi. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Ex. xx. 2, 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Ex. viii. 10; xv. 11; xviii. 11; xx. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Deut vi. 4; iv. 28, 35; xxxii. 39; Isaiah, xliv. 6, 8; xlv. 5, 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Amos, vii. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Isa. i. 11-18; Jer. vii. 21-23.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Dutch, <i>zelfstandigheid</i>, literally, self-existence; without an equivalent,
+as far as I know, in vernacular English.&mdash;Tr.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> <i>Zelfstandigheid</i>, again, expressing objective existence, reality, independent
+of subjective thought or feeling.&mdash;Tr.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Jer. xxxi. 31, <i>et seq</i>; Isa. ii. 2-4; Amos, ix. 12; Isa. xxv. 6; lii. 15;
+lvi. 6, 7; lxvi. 23; Zech. viii. 23; xiv. 9, 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Isa. liii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Job i, ii.&mdash;Tr.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The most original sources of the Christian religion are the Synoptic
+Gospels, in which, however, criticism must distinguish between the older
+and later portions. The fourth Gospel is marked by a more profound
+speculation upon the person and the work of Christ, by which the Christian
+mind freed itself entirely from the Jewish forms in which Jesus, as a
+popular teacher in Israel, had set forth his doctrine.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Comparative View of Religions, by Johannes
+Henricus Scholten, Translated by Francis T. Washburn
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Comparative View of Religions
+
+
+Author: Johannes Henricus Scholten
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 19, 2006  [eBook #20137]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
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+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS***
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+E-text prepared by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Graeme Mackreth, and the
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+(http://www.pgdp.net/) from page images generously made available by the
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+Note: Images of the original pages are available through the Making
+      of America collection of the University of Michigan Libraries. See
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+
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+
+
+
+A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS.
+
+Translated from the Dutch of
+
+J. H. SCHOLTEN,
+Professor at Leyden,
+
+by Francis T. Washburn.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Reprinted by permission from "The Religious Magazine and Monthly
+Review."
+Boston: Crosby & Damrell, 100 Washington St. 1870.
+
+
+
+
+A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF RELIGIONS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.[1]
+
+
+The conception of religion presupposes, _a_, God as object; _b_, man as
+subject; _c_, the mutual relation existing between them. According to
+the various stages of development which men have reached, religious
+belief manifests itself either in the form of a passive feeling of
+dependence, where the subject, not yet conscious of his independence,
+feels himself wholly overmastered by the deity, or the object of
+worship, as by a power outside of and opposed to himself; or, when the
+feeling of independence has awakened, in a one-sided elevation of the
+human, whereby man in worshiping a deity deifies himself. In the highest
+stage of religious development, the most entire feeling of dependence is
+united in religion with the strongest consciousness of personal
+independence. The first of these forms is exhibited in the fetich and
+nature-worship of the ancient nations; the second in Buddhism, and in
+the deification of the human, which reaches its full height among the
+Greeks. The true religion, prepared in Israel, is the Christian, in
+which man, grown conscious of his oneness with God, is ruled by the
+divine as an inner power of life, and acts spontaneously and freely
+while in the fullest dependence upon God. Since Christ, no more perfect
+religion has appeared. What is true and good in Islamism was borrowed
+from Israel and Christianity.
+
+Although it is probable that every nation passed through different forms
+of religious belief before its religion reached its highest development,
+yet the earlier periods lie in great part beyond the reach of historical
+investigation. The history of religion, therefore, has for its task the
+review of the various forms of religion with which we are historically
+acquainted, in the order of psychological development.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+FETICHISM. THE CHINESE. THE EGYPTIANS.
+
+
+1. FETICHISM.
+
+The lowest stage of religious development is fetichism, as it is found
+among the savage tribes of the polar regions, and in Africa, America,
+and Australia. In this stage, man's needs are as yet very limited and
+exclusively confined to the material world. Still too little developed
+intellectually to worship the divine in nature and her powers, he thinks
+he sees the divinity which he seeks in every unknown object which
+strikes his senses, or which his imagination calls up. In this stage,
+religion has no higher character than that of caprice and of love of
+the mysterious and marvelous, mixed with fear and a slavish adoration of
+the divine. The worship and the priest's office (Shaman, Shamanism)
+consist here chiefly in the use of charms, to exorcise a dreaded power.
+From this savage fetichism the nature-worship found among the Aztecs in
+Mexico, and the worship of the sun in Peru, are distinguished by the
+greater definiteness and order of their religious conceptions and
+usages. In them the gods have names, and an ordained priesthood cares
+for the religious interests of the people. The highest form to which
+fetichism has attained is the worship of Manitou, the great spirit,
+which is found among the ancient tribes of North America.
+
+
+2. THE CHINESE.
+
+When man reaches a higher development, caprice and chance disappear from
+religion. Having outgrown fetichism, man begins, as is the case among
+the Chinese, to distinguish in the world around him an active and a
+passive principle, force and matter (Yang and Yn), heaven and earth
+(Kien and Kouen). We have here nature-worship in its beginnings. In this
+stage, even less than in fetichism, is there a definite idea of God,
+much less a conception of him as personal and spiritual lord. The
+Chinese, from the practical, empirical point of view peculiar to him,
+recognizes the spiritual only in man and chiefly in the state. His
+religion, therefore, is confined exclusively to the faithful keeping of
+the laws of the state (the Celestial Kingdom), in which he sees the
+reflection of heaven, to the recognition of the Emperor as the son and
+representative of heaven, and to the worship of the forefathers,
+especially of the great men and departed emperors, to whose memory the
+Chinese temples, or pagodas, are dedicated. The origin of this religion
+dates, according to the tradition, from Fo-hi (2950 B.C.), the founder
+of the Chinese state. In the fifth century before Christ, Kong-tse, or
+Kong-fu-tse (Confucius), appeared as a reformer of the religion of his
+countrymen, and gathered the ancient records and traditions of his
+people into a sacred literature, which is known by the name of the
+"King" (the books), "Yo-King" (the book of nature), "Chu-King" (the book
+of history), "Chi-King" (the book of songs). The contents of the "King"
+became later with the Chinese sages Meng-tse (360 B.C.) and Tschu-tsche
+(1200 A.D.) an object of philosophical speculation. The doctrine of
+Lao-tse, the younger contemporary of Kong-tse, which lays down as the
+basis of the world, that is of the unreal or non-existent, a supreme
+principle, _Tao_, or _Being_, corresponds with the Brahma doctrine of
+the Indians, among whom he lived for a long time; but this doctrine
+never became popular in China.
+
+
+3. THE EGYPTIANS.
+
+The worship of nature, which is seen in its beginnings among the
+Chinese, exhibits itself among the Egyptians in a more developed form as
+theogony. Here also the reflecting mind rose to the recognition of two
+fundamental principles, the producing and the passive power of nature,
+Kneph and Neith, from which sprang successively the remaining powers of
+nature, time, air, earth, light and darkness, personified by the fantasy
+of the people into as many divinities. The Egyptian mythology also (none
+has as yet been discovered among the Chinese) exhibits a like character.
+Fruitfulness and drought, the results of the Nile's overflowing and
+receding, are imaged in the myth of _Osiris_, _Isis_, and _Typhon_. The
+visible form under which the divine was worshiped in Egypt was the
+sacred animal, the bull _Apis_, dedicated to _Osiris_, the cow,
+dedicated to _Isis_, as symbols of agriculture; the bird _Ibis_, the
+crocodile, the dog _Anubis_, and other animals, whose physical
+characteristics impressed the as yet childish man, who saw in them the
+symbol, either of the beneficent power of nature which moved him to
+thankfulness, or of a destructive power which he dreaded and whose anger
+he sought to avert. The religion of Egypt was not of a purely spiritual
+character. To the man whose eye is not yet open to the manifestation of
+the spiritual around him and in him, the divine is not spirit, but as
+yet only nature. The animal, although in the form of the sphinx
+approaching the human, holds in Egyptian art a place above the human as
+symbol of the divine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ARIAN NATIONS.
+
+
+1. THE EAST ARIANS. THE INDIANS.
+
+In the development of religion among the Indians, the following periods
+may be distinguished:--
+
+   _a._ The original Veda-religion.
+
+   _b._ The priestly religion of the Brahmins.
+
+   _c._ The philosophical speculation.
+
+   _d._ Buddhism.
+
+   _e._ The modified Brahminism after Buddha, in connection with the
+   worship of Vishnu and Siva.
+
+
+_a. The original Veda-religion._
+
+The original religion of Arya originated in Bactria. From thence, before
+the time of Zoroaster, it was brought over, with the great migration of
+the people, to the land of the seven rivers, which they conquered, and
+which stretched from the Indus to the Hesidrus. It consisted, according
+to the oldest literature of the Veda, in a polytheistical worship of the
+divine, either as the beneficent or the baneful power of nature. The
+clear, blue sky, the light of the sun, the rosy dawn, the storm that
+spends itself in fruitful rain, the winds and gales which drive away the
+clouds, the rivers whose fruitful slime overspreads the fields,--these
+moved the inhabitants of India to the worship of the divine as the
+beneficent power of nature which blesses man. On the other hand, he
+changed under the impression of the harmful phenomena of nature, the
+dark and close-packed clouds which hold back the rain and intercept the
+sunshine, the parching heat of summer, which dries up the rivers and
+hinders growth and fruitfulness, and these also he erected into objects
+of awe and religious adoration. From this view of nature sprang the
+Indian mythology. The oldest divinity (Deva) of the Indians is Varuna,
+the all-embracing heaven, who marks out their courses for the heavenly
+luminaries, who rules the day and the night, who is lord of life and
+death, whose protection is invoked, whose anger deprecated. After him,
+the great ruler of nature, there appear, in the Veda hymns, Indra, the
+blue sky, god of light and thunder, the warrior who in battle stands
+beside the combatants; Vayu, the god of the wind, the chief of the
+Maruts, or the winds; Rudra, the god of the hurricane; Vritra, the
+hostile god of the clouds; Ahi, the parching heat of summer. In the
+mythology of the people, Indra, god of light, aided by Vayu and Rudra,
+wages war with Vritra,--who, as god of the clouds, holds back the rain
+and the light,--and appears as opponent of the destructive Ahi. The
+other divinities also which appear in the Vedas are personified powers
+of nature,--the twin brothers Aswins (equites), or the first rays of the
+sun, Ushas the maiden, or the rosy dawn, Surya, Savitri, the god of the
+sun. Great significance is given in the Indian mythology to Agni, the
+god of fire, who burns the sacrifice in honor of the gods, who conveys
+the offerings and prayers of men to gods and their gifts to men, who
+gladdens the domestic hearth, lights up the darkness of night, drives
+away the evil spirits, the Ashuras and Rakshas, and purges of evil the
+souls of men. Religion, still wholly patriarchal in form, and free from
+hierarchical constraint and from the later dogmatic narrowness, bore in
+this earlier stage of its development the character of the still free
+and warlike life of a nomadic people living in the midst of a sublime
+nature, where everything, the clear sky, sunshine, and boisterous storm,
+mountains and rivers, disposed to worship. As yet the Indian knew no
+close priestly caste. Worship consisted in prayers and offerings,
+especially in the Soma-offering, which was offered as food to the gods.
+No fear of future torment after death as yet embittered the enjoyment of
+life and made dying fearful. Yama was the friendly guide of the souls of
+heroes to the heaven of Indra or Varuna, and not yet the inexorable
+prince of hell who tormented the souls of the ungodly in the kingdom of
+the dead. Of later barbarous usages also, such as the widow's
+sacrificing herself on the funeral pile of her departed husband, there
+was as yet no trace; and in the heroic poetry, as yet not disfigured by
+later Brahminical alterations and additions, the heroes Krishna and Rama
+appear as types of courage and self-sacrifice, and not, as later, as
+avatars, or human incarnations, of the deity.
+
+
+_b. Brahminism._
+
+When the nomadic and warlike life of the nations of India in the land of
+the seven rivers, in connection with their removal to the conquered land
+of the Ganges (1300 B.C.), gave place to a more ordered social
+constitution, a priestly class formed itself, which began to represent
+the people before the deity, and from its chief function, _Brahma_, or
+prayer, took the name of _Brahmins_, i.e., the praying. This Brahma,
+before whose power even the gods must yield, was gradually exalted by
+the Brahmins to the highest deity, to whom, under the name of Brahma,
+the old Veda divinities were subordinated. Brahma is no god of the
+people, but a god of the priests; not the lord of nature, but the
+abstract and impersonal _Being_, out of whom nature and her phenomena
+emanate. From Brahma the priest derives his authority; and the system of
+caste, by which the priesthood is raised to the first rank, its origin.
+The worship of Brahma consists in doing penance and in abstinence. Yama,
+once a celestial divinity, now becomes the god of the lower world, where
+he who disobeys Brahma is tormented after death. Immortality consists in
+returning to Brahma; but is the portion only of the perfectly godly
+Brahmin, while the rest of mankind can rise to this perfect state only
+after many painful new births. The Brahmin, in the exclusive possession
+of religious knowledge, reads and expounds the Vedas (knowledge),
+exalted to infallible scripture, and on them constructs his doctrine.
+
+Thus the once vigorous, natural life of the Indians gave place to a
+conception of the world which repressed the soul, and annihilated man's
+personality. The many-sidedness of the earlier theology resolved itself
+into the abstract unity of an impersonal All, and thus the glory of
+nature passed by unmarked, as nought or non-existent, and lost its
+charm. At the same time, the old heroic sagas were displaced by legends
+of saints, and the heroic spirit of the olden epic by an asceticism
+which repressed the human, and before whose power even the gods stood in
+awe. With Brahminism the religion lost its original and natural
+character, and became characterized by a slavish submission to a
+priesthood, which abrogated the truly human.
+
+
+_c. The Speculative Systems._
+
+The doctrine of the Brahmins occasioned the rise of various theological
+and philosophical systems. To these belong, first, the "Vedanta," (end
+of the Veda) or the dogmatic-apologetic exposition of the Veda. This
+contains (1) the establishment of the authority of the Veda as holy
+scripture revealed by Brahma, and also of the relation in which it
+stands to tradition; (2) the proof that everything in the Veda has
+reference to Brahma; (3) the ascetic system, or the discipline. To
+explain contradictory statements in the older and later parts of the
+Veda, Brahminical learning makes use of the subtleties of an
+harmonistical method of interpretation. Second, the "Mimansa" (inquiry),
+devoted to the solution of the problem, How can the material world
+spring from Brahma, or the immaterial? According to this system, there
+is only one Supreme Being, Paramatma, a name by which Brahma himself had
+been already distinguished in Manu's book of law. Outside of this
+highest _Being_, there is nothing real. The world of sense, or nature,
+(Maya, the female side of Brahma), is mere seeming and illusion of the
+senses. The human spirit is a part of Brahma, but perverted, misled by
+this same illusion to the conceit that he is individual. This illusion
+is done away with by a deeper insight, by means of which the dualism
+vanishes from the wise man's view, and the conceit gives place to the
+true knowledge that Brahma alone really exists, that nature, on the
+contrary, is nought, and the human spirit nothing else than Brahma
+himself. Third, the "Sankya" (criticism) originating with Kapila, in
+which, in opposition to the "Mimansa," the individual being and the real
+existence of nature, in opposition to spirit, is laid down as the
+starting-point, and the result reached is the doctrine of two original
+forces, spirit and nature, from whose reciprocal action and reaction
+upon each other the union of soul and body is to be explained. Is this
+union unnatural, then the effort of the wise man should be to free
+himself, through the perception that the soul is not bound to the body,
+from the dominion of matter. In this system, there is no room for an
+infinite being, for, if a material world exist, then must God be limited
+by its existence, and therefore cease to be infinite, that is God. The
+Sankya philosophy here came in conflict with the orthodox doctrine of
+the Brahmins, and prepared the way for Buddhism.
+
+
+_d. Buddhism._
+
+Against Brahminism Buddhism arose as a reaction. Siddharta, son of
+Suddhodana, the King of Kapilavastu, of the family of the Sakya, (about
+450 B.C.) moved by the misery of his fellow-countrymen, determined to
+examine into the causes of it, and, if possible, to find means of
+remedying it. Initiated into the wisdom of the Brahmins, but not
+satisfied with that, after years of solitary retirement and quiet
+meditation, penetrated with the principles of the Sankya, he traversed
+the land as pilgrim (Sakya-muni, Sramana, Gautama) and opened to the
+people of India a new religious epoch. The tendency of the new doctrine
+was to break up the system of caste, and free the people from the
+galling yoke of the Brahminical hierarchy and dogmas. While in
+Brahminism man was deprived of his individuality, and regarded only as
+an effluence from Brahma, and tormented by the fear of hell, and by the
+thought of a ceaseless process of countless new births awaiting him
+after death, whence the necessity of the most painful penances and
+chastisements, Sakya-muni began with man as an individual, and in morals
+put purity, abstinence, patience, brotherly love, and repentance for
+sins committed above sacrifice and bodily mortification, and opened to
+his followers the prospect, after this weary life, no more to be exposed
+to the ever-recurring pains of new birth, but released from all
+suffering to return to Nirvana, or nothingness. While Brahminism drew a
+distinction between man and man, and with hierarchical pride took no
+thought of the Sudra or lower class of the people, and limited wisdom to
+the priestly caste, Sakya-muni preached the equality of all men, came
+forward as a preacher to the people, used the people's language, and
+chose his followers out of all classes, even from among women. Both of
+these opposed systems are one-sided. In Brahminism, God is all, and man,
+as personal being, nothing; in Buddhism, man is recognized as an
+individual, but apart from God, while in both systems, the highest
+endeavor is to be delivered from, according to Brahminism a seeming,
+according to Sakya-muni a really existing individuality, the source of
+all human woe, and to lose one's self either in Brahma or in the
+Nirvana.
+
+Less on account of his doctrine, in which there is found neither a God
+nor a personal immortality, than on account of the universal character
+of his words and of his life, Sakya-muni continued in honor after his
+death, as the benefactor of the people and as the Buddha, the wise,
+pre-eminently; and afterwards was deified, and took his place in the
+ranks of the recognized gods as their superior. Thus there arose in
+Buddhism, by a departure from the doctrine of the master, a new
+polytheism. This was afterwards, through the influence of the
+Brahminical priestly caste, suppressed in India, but spread over other
+parts of Asia, to the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and also to
+China.
+
+
+_e. Later modification of Brahminism in connection with the worship of
+Siva and Vishnu._
+
+While Brahminism saw itself menaced by the steadily increasing influence
+of Buddhism, the former nature-religion, dispossessed by the Brahmins,
+asserted its rights in the worship of Siva in the valleys of the
+Himalaya Mountains, and in that of Vishnu on the banks of the Ganges.
+Siva is the Rudra of the Veda, the boisterous god of storms, the giver
+of rain and growth. Vishnu is the same divinity among other races,
+conceived under the influence of a softer climate in a modified form as
+the blue sky. Both divinities, originally belonging to different parts
+of India, were afterwards taken, first Vishnu, and then also Siva, into
+the theological system of the Brahmins, and formed with Brahma, but not
+until the fourth century after Christ, the trimurti, according to which
+the one supreme being Parabrama is worshiped in the threefold form of
+Brahma the creating, Vishnu the sustaining, and Siva the destroying
+power of nature. To this later period of Brahminism belongs also the
+alteration of the old epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, by which the
+heroes Rama and Krishna are represented as avatars, that is incarnations
+or human impersonations, of Vishnu. In this also there is evidently an
+effort to bring the deity, conceived as the abstract One, into closer
+union with man, an effort which is likewise visible in the later Yoga
+system of the Brahmins, in which, by the admission of Buddhistic
+elements, the visible world is recognized as real, the old rigid
+asceticism mitigated, Vishnu represented as the soul of the world, and
+immortality taught as a return of the individual soul to Brahma.
+
+
+2. THE WEST ARIANS, IRANIANS.
+
+[THE BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS.]
+
+The ancient religion of the Bactrians in the period before Zoroaster was
+patriarchal, and consisted in the worship of fire, as the beneficent
+power of nature, and of Mithras, the god of the sun, combined with that
+of the good spirits (Ahuras), among which were Geus-Urva (the spirit of
+the earth), Cpento-mainyus (the white spirit), Armaiti (the earth, or
+also the spirit of piety), and of the hero-spirits Sraosha, Traetona,
+which as light and darkness are distinguished from Angro (the black
+spirit).
+
+Later, as it seems, the theology and worship of the neighboring nomadic
+Arya penetrated to these nations, and caused a religious conflict which
+ended with the migration of Arya to the south. At this period
+Zarathustra[2] (Zoroaster) came forward under the Bactrian priest and
+King Kava Vistaspa, as defender and reformer of the religion of the
+fathers against the encroachments of a strange doctrine. The Devas
+(Zend, Dews) or the gods of the Indian Veda appear with Zarathustra as
+evil spirits. Not Indra, but the hero Traetona, wages war with Ahi
+(Zend, Azhi), while the kavis, or priests, are attacked by him as
+deceivers and liars. From the belief in good spirits (Ahuras, i.e.,
+the living, and Mazdas, i.e., the wise), the ancient genii of the
+country, Zarathustra developed the belief of one highest God,
+Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd, Greek, [Greek: Osompzes]), a doctrine which he
+received by divine inspiration through the mediation of the spirit
+Srasha. Ahura-Mazda, surrounded by the Amesha-Spenta (Amshaspands), or
+the holy immortals, not until later reduced to seven, is the creator of
+light and life. The hurtful and evil, on the contrary, is non-existence
+(akem), and in the oldest parts of the Avesta, the Gathas, which go back
+to Zarathustra and his first followers, is not yet conceived as a
+personal being. First in the Vendidad, written after Zarathustra, does
+Angro-mainyus (Ahriman), or the evil one, with his Dews, although
+subordinated to Ahura-Mazda, gain a place in the Iranian conception of
+the universe, as the adversary of Ahura-Mazda, and as the cause of evil
+in the natural and spiritual world. From these conceptions there was
+developed in the later Parsism the system of the four periods of the
+world, each of three thousand years, in the book "Bundehesh." In the
+first period, Ahura-Mazda appears as creator of the world and as the
+source of good. The creation, completed by Ahura-Mazda in six days by
+means of the word (Honover), is in the second period destroyed by
+Angro-mainyus, who, appearing upon the earth in the form of a serpent,
+seduces the first human pair, created by Ahura-Mazda. In the third
+period, which begins with the revelation given to Zarathustra,
+Ahura-mazda and Angro-mainyus strive together for man. After this
+follows, in the fourth period, the victory gained by Ahura-Mazda.
+Sosiosh (Saoshyas), the deliverer already foretold in the Vendidad,
+appears. The resurrection of the dead, not taught by Zarathustra or in
+the Vendidad, takes place. The judgment of the world begins; the good
+are received into paradise and the sinners banished to hell. At last,
+all is purified, and Angro-mainyus himself and his Dews submit
+themselves to Ahura-Mazda, whose victory is celebrated in heaven with
+songs of praise.
+
+Thus among the Iranian races, out of the old patriarchal worship of fire
+and light, on the occasion of the religious struggle with the Indian
+Arya, and under the influence of Zarathustra, there was developed the
+doctrine of one supreme God,[3] who, surrounded by the good spirits of
+heaven, wages war against evil, whence arose later the moral opposition
+between Ahura-Mazda and Angro-mainyus resulting in the victory of the
+good principle over the bad. The old dualism of force and matter,
+beneficent and destructive powers of nature, light and darkness, becomes
+in Parsism moral. The deity, no longer identified with nature, becomes a
+personal, spiritual being, the creator of mankind; and the end of the
+world's development is conceived as the triumph of the good. Hence the
+high rank which the doctrine of Zarathustra and its further development
+holds in the history of religion.
+
+
+3. THE GREEKS.
+
+As man rises in spiritual development, nature becomes to him a
+revelation ever more and more manifold of the divine. To the Greek
+(Pelasgi, Hellenes) the whole of nature was living, and his imagination
+peopled her everywhere with divine beings, who in wood and field, in
+rivers and on mountains (Oreads, Dryads, Naiads, Sileni, &c.), hovered
+friendly round him. The Greek was indeed distinguished from other
+nations by this richer and more elevated view of nature; but he excelled
+them most of all in this, that the divine object which he worshiped was
+conceived both in form and character after the human. Zeus, Phoebus
+Apollo, Pallas Athene, Aphrodite, Ares, Hephaestus, Hestia, Hermes,
+Artemis, were originally powers of nature personified, as some epithets
+in Homer[4] still indicate; but they became, sometimes under the same
+names, types of power and lordship, science and art, courage and
+sensuous beauty. While Dionysus, Demeter, Hades, and Persephone remained
+earthly, and Helios, Eos, Iris, and Hecate, heavenly divinities, and
+Oceanus, Poseidon, Amphitrite, Proteus, and Nereus ruled the waters,
+Zeus was conceived as the god of the sky and of thunder, who hurled the
+bolts, the great king and lawgiver, the father of men, and Hera,
+originally the air, became the protecting goddess of married life;
+Apollo, the god of light, who shot forth his arrows, not at first
+identified with Helios, became the god of divination and poetry, who led
+the choir of the muses; the goddess of light, Athene, became the
+contentious goddess of wisdom; Aphrodite, born of the foam of the sea,
+once the symbol of the fruitful power of nature, later, encircled by the
+Graces, became the type of womanly beauty and charm, to which the
+strength of man, personified in Ares, corresponds. In like manner in the
+later mythology, Hephaestus, the god of fire, appeared as the god of the
+forge, Hestia, the goddess of fire, as the protector of the household
+hearth, and Hermes, the god of the storm and of rain, as the messenger
+of the gods, the type of cunning and craftiness, while Artemis, the
+goddess of the moon, the fruitful mother of nature, took the character
+of the chaste maiden, the goddess of hunting, who with her nymphs and
+hounds nightly roamed the fields and woods. The monsters, the Sphinx,
+the Minotaur, the Cyclops, the Centaurs, symbols of a yet unhuman or
+half human power of nature, were overcome by the Greek heroes, Perseus,
+Hercules, Jason, Theseus, OEdipus, the types of human strength and
+valor. The religious festivals were enlivened by trials of men's
+strength and skill in games, and the historian and poet offered to the
+gods the products of human genius. In the religion of the Greeks,
+however, the moral element, although not passed over and in the Greek
+epic and tragedy not seldom expressed in grand characters, stood
+nevertheless too little in the foreground, so that the worship of the
+divine, as in the older nature-worship, especially in the feasts in
+honor of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was marked by immoral practices. The
+conception of a future life, which taken in connection with a future
+retribution has a moral tendency, had but little attraction for the
+Greek, who rejoiced in the glory of the earth, and saw in nature and in
+man the kingdom of the divine. The passage from the earlier poetical
+nature-worship to the worship of the divine in human form seems to be
+indicated in the war which Olympian Zeus waged with Cronos and the
+Titans. The origin and development of the various elements and powers of
+nature, Chaos, Eros, Uranus, Gaea, the Giants, Styx, Erebus, Hemera,
+AEther, &c, became, with the poets and philosophers after Homer, matters
+of speculation, of which the theogonies of Hesiod, Orpheus, Pherecydes,
+and others furnish proof.
+
+
+4. THE ROMANS.
+
+In the religion of the Greeks, the aesthetic and moral character of the
+Grecian people was deified, and in the Romans also we see how that which
+men value most exerts an influence upon their worship of the divine. The
+primitive religion of the Romans, borrowed from the Sabines and
+Etruscans, bears everywhere, in distinction to that of the Greeks, the
+marks of the practical and political character of the Roman people. The
+oldest national divinities are, first, Jupiter or Jovis, the god of the
+heavens, Mars or Mavors, the god of the field and of war, Quirinus
+(Janus?) the protector of the Quirites, afterwards, together with Juno
+(Dione) and Minerva, worshiped in the Capitol, (Dii Capitolini);
+second, Vesta, and the gods of the house and family, the Lares and
+Penates; third, the rural divinities, Saturnus, Ops, Liber, Faunus,
+Silvanus, Terminus, Flora, Vertumnus, and Pomona; fourth and last,
+personifications, in part of the powers of nature, Sol, Luna, Tellus,
+Neptunus, Orcus, Proserpina, in part of moral and social qualities and
+states, such as Febris, Salus, Mens, Spes, Pudicitia, Pietas, Fides,
+Concordia, Virtus, Bellona, Victoria, Pax, Libertas, and others.
+Peculiarly Roman also is the conception of the _manes_, or shades of the
+departed, who hover as protecting genii about the living. Afterwards,
+along with the culture of the Greeks, their gods also were taken,
+although rather outwardly than inwardly, into the spirit of the people,
+and the original character of the gods of Latium was modified after the
+new mythology. Notwithstanding this, however, the worship of the Romans
+retained its political and practical character. The priests (sacerdotes)
+Flamines, Salii, Feciales, the Pontifices with the Pontifex Maximus at
+their head, the Augurs, were likewise officers of the state, and did not
+form a hierarchy apart from the state and alongside of it.
+
+
+5. THE CELTS.
+
+Among the Celtic tribes in Brittany, Ireland, and Gaul, and on both
+banks of the Rhine, out of an aboriginal life of nature characterized by
+wildness and license, religion developed itself in the form of the
+worship of two chief divinities, a male divinity, Hu, the begetting, and
+a female, Ceridwen, the bearing, power of nature. The priesthood busied
+itself with speculations about the divine, the origin of the world, and
+the continued existence of man after death, conceived in the form of the
+transmigration of souls. Nor did the people's faith lack the conception
+of good and evil spirits, fairies, dwarfs, elves, which to the still
+childish fancy are objects of fear or superstitious veneration. To the
+service of these divinities the priesthood, the Druids, were
+consecrated, and beside them the bards, or poets, held a more
+independent place.
+
+
+6. THE GERMANS AND SCANDINAVIANS.
+
+More developed intellectually is the nature-religion of the ancient
+Germans (Teutons) and Scandinavians, which betrays thereby the character
+of the Aryan race to which these nations, like the Celts, originally
+belonged. The highest god of the Germans is Wodan, called Odhin among
+the Norsemen, the god of the heavens, and of the sun, who protects the
+earth, and is the source of light and fruitfulness, the spirit of the
+world, and the All-father (Alfadhir). From the union of heaven and
+earth, there springs the god Thunar or Donar among the Germans, Thor
+among the Norsemen, the bold god of thunder who wages war against the
+enemies of gods and men. Besides these there are the sons of Wodan, Fro
+(German), Freyx (Norse), the god of peace, Zio (German), Tyx (Norse),
+the god of war, Aki (German), Oegir (Norse), god of the sea, Vol
+(German), Ullr (Norse), god of hunting, and others, to whom are joined
+female divinities, such as Nerthus (German), Joerdh (Norse), the fruitful
+goddess of the earth, Holda (German), Freiya (Norse), the goddess of
+love, Nehalennia, goddess of plenty, Frikka (German), Frigg (Norse), the
+wife of Wodan, mother of all the living, Hellia (German), Hel (Norse),
+the inexorable goddess of the lower world. Opposed to these divinities
+(Asen and Asinnen) stands Loko (German), Loki (Norse), enemy of the
+divine. In addition to these there appear in the Norse and German Sagas,
+besides the heroes, a multitude of spirits, good and hostile, giants,
+elves, Elfen (German), Alfen (Norse), white spirits of light, and black
+dwarfs, house, forest, and water spirits. The worship was most simple,
+and, as was the case with the ancient Semites, the Indians of the Veda,
+and the Greeks, as yet independent of temple service and priestly
+constraint. The holy places of the Germans were woods, and hills, and
+fountains, and in the mysterious rustling of the leaves and in the
+murmuring of the waters the pious spirit caught the breathing of the
+deity.[5] The father of the house is priest, and the recognition by
+these races more than elsewhere of worth in woman is apparent also in
+their religion. In the description of the kingdom of the dead in the
+German-Norse mythology, Walhalla is the abode of the heroes, hell the
+gathering place of the other dead. Notwithstanding these still childish
+conceptions, there was revealed in the moral character and heroic spirit
+of the German forefathers the germ of a higher development, which makes
+the nations of Germany and Northern Europe capable beyond others of a
+constantly higher conception and estimation of the Christian
+religion.[6]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE RELIGION OF THE SEMITES.
+
+
+I. THE PHOENICIANS, SYRIANS, BABYLONIANS, CARTHAGINIANS, AND ARABIANS.
+
+In the Semitic races the religious spirit rose above nature-worship in
+the effort to separate God from nature, and to elevate him above nature
+as Lord, Baal (plural Baalim, either from the different places where he
+was worshiped, or the various names under which he was worshiped), Bel,
+El, Adon (Adonis). Thus Bel among the Babylonians, Baal among the
+Ammonites and Moabites, was the god of light, the lord of heaven, the
+creator of mankind, who had his throne above the clouds and was invoked
+on mountains.[7] Also the title Molech and Baal Molech to designate the
+Supreme Being among the ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and the
+nations nearest related to Israel, the Moabites and Ammonites, as well
+as the derived names Milcom (Kamos) [Chemosh, Eng. ver.], among the
+Ammonites, and Melkartht at Tyre and Carthage, indicate, like Baal, an
+original effort to conceive God as the ruler of nature. Agreeing with
+this conception of the Deity, there is manifest, as well in the worship
+of Baal as of Molech and the female Astarte (Melecheth)[8] [Ashtaroth,
+Eng. ver.], worshiped with him, partly in the abstinence from marriage,
+partly in the human sacrifice, especially the sacrifice of the
+first-born, the aim, through abnegation of the life of sense, and
+through the sacrifice, even though unnatural, of what is dearest to man,
+to appease a divinity who as lord and governor rules and subjects to
+himself the power of nature and every propensity of sense.[9]
+
+In spite of the effort to elevate the Deity as Lord and King above
+nature, most of the Semitic nations gradually sank back into the old
+nature-worship, and, uniting with the worship of the highest God, Baal
+and Bel, that of a female divinity under the names of Baaltis, Beltis,
+Aschera, Mylitta, they made religion to consist in the sacrifice of
+chastity to the will of the Deity, as the fruitful, productive power of
+nature, and thus fell into gross immorality.[10]
+
+Religion appears in another form among the Semites in the worship of the
+stars among the Babylonians and ancient Arabians. This astrolatry,
+originally a kind of fetichism, became nature-worship, and gradually
+rose to the worship of the intelligence manifested to our contemplation
+in the movement of the heavenly luminaries. Astrology arose, and
+religion no longer expressed itself in passive acquiescence, but was
+united with the effort to guide the life by the knowledge to be drawn,
+as men imagined, from the motion of the stars.
+
+
+ISRAELITISH RELIGION.
+
+
+_a. Its origin. The patriarchal religion. Mosaism. Prophetism._
+
+While most of the Semitic nations, in opposition to the effort to
+elevate God above nature as lord and governor, returned to the old
+nature-religion with its grossly sensual worship of the divine, and
+others got no farther than to the conception of a deity, who, like a
+consuming fire, stood opposed to nature, and was to be appeased and
+propitiated by human sacrifices, there was developed among the
+Israelitish people, gradually and in constantly higher measure, in
+connection with a higher moral and religious disposition, the worship of
+God as a being who, though distinct from nature, is yet not opposed to
+it, and thus no longer demands human sacrifices, but obedience and moral
+consecration.
+
+The common origin of the religion of the Israelites and that of their
+Semitic relations, though hardly evident even in the oldest monuments of
+the Hebrew literature, appears from the following facts and particulars:
+firstly, the composition of Israelitish names not only with El, but also
+with Baal, such as Jerubbaal (adversary of Baal), (Gideon),[11]
+Esbaal,[12] Meribbaal,[13] names which afterwards, on account of the
+aversion which the ever-increasing distance in religion between the
+Israelitish nation and the nations related to it must, from the nature
+of the case, have inspired against the name of Baal, are changed into
+Jerubboseth,[14] Isboseth,[15] and Mephiboseth[16], as also the
+interchanging of El and Baal,[17] of Baal-jada[18] and Eljada,[19] seem
+to point to an ancient period when the name Baal (Lord) was used, like
+El, Elohim, El Eljon, El Schaddai, Adonai, even among the Israelites,
+to designate the Supreme Being. Secondly, the God of Abraham (Elohim),
+although he desires no human sacrifices, nevertheless praises the
+willingness of the father to offer up his first-born, and sees in that
+the highest proof of devotedness and obedience.[20] Thirdly,
+circumcision, already before Moses[21] the bloody symbol of consecration
+to God,[22] and also the right of Jahveh to the first-born, and the
+necessity of ransoming them from him,[23] imply an earlier conception of
+the deity as a being, who, although on a higher development of the
+religion he is not indeed any longer thought to desire human sacrifice,
+nevertheless has a right to such a sacrifice, and thus demands indemnity
+for remitting it. Fourthly, the later conception, of Jahveh as a
+destroying fire, and the way in which the God of Israel is conceived in
+connection with fire, and as manifesting himself in fire,[24] betray,
+even in the midst of a more advanced religious development, an original
+relationship with the like conceptions of the other Semites. Fifthly,
+even in the orthodox Jahveh-worship, some symbols, as the twelve oxen in
+the porch of the temple,[25] the horns of the altar for
+burnt-offerings,[26] perhaps also the in part oxlike form of the
+cherubim,[27] point to an earlier worship of the deity under the form of
+an ox, the symbol of the highest might, especially among the Semitic
+races.[28]
+
+In confirmation of the supposition thus suggested of a community of
+origin in the religion of the Israelites and in that of the nations
+related to them, there is also to be remarked, firstly, the sympathy
+always felt among the people of Israel for the worship of Baal and
+Molech, in face of the strongest opposition on the part of the
+prophets;[29] secondly, the statement of Amos,[30] that even in the
+wilderness the Israelites worshiped Molech; thirdly, the fact that in
+the time of the Judges, Jephthah offered his daughter to Jahveh,[31] and
+still later the feeling, not driven out even by Mosaism, that the wrath
+of Jahveh must be appeased by human blood,[32] a necessity which David
+recognizes;[33] fourthly, the ancient custom in Israel, as in the
+nations related to them, of worshiping the deity on mountains and
+heights,[34] against which the priestly legislation strove in the
+interest of the pure worship of Jahveh;[35] fifthly, the heterodox
+worship of Jahveh in the kingdom of the ten tribes under the form of a
+calf.[36]
+
+From all this it seems fair to conclude that the religion of the oldest
+forefathers of Israel had its root originally in one and the same soil
+with the religion of the other Semites. Out of an earlier
+nature-religion there developed among the Semites the conception of
+Baal, the lord of nature, and of Molech with his inhuman worship. While,
+however, the other Semites remained in this lower stage, or rather sank
+back more and more into the immorality of the nature-religion,--an
+hypothesis suggested by a comparison of the religious state of the
+nations of Canaan in Abraham's time with their state at the time of the
+conquest of the land by Joshua and afterwards,--in the family of
+Abraham, religious consciousness rose to the recognition of a deity,
+who, although he had a right to human sacrifices, yet did not claim such
+sacrifices, but was satisfied with men's willingness to bring them to
+him. With this higher development of religion, the names of the Supreme
+Being, Baal and Molech, originally common to the whole race, came more
+and more into contempt, and were regarded as the expression of
+abominable idolatry,[37] while even the worship of Jahveh under the form
+of a calf, originally permitted, was later branded by the prophets as
+heresy.
+
+Though it was in the family of Abraham that even in Mesopotamia[38] the
+beginning of this higher development of the Semitic religion showed
+itself, which, after his migration to Canaan became the heritage of his
+family, yet the patriarch of Israel did not stand alone in this respect
+among the Semites. The old Canaanitish chieftains also of the
+patriarchal period, Melchizedek and Abimelech, worship the same God as
+he,[39] while on the other hand in his own family not all traces of
+polytheistic superstition have disappeared,[40] and these traces are
+also visible still later in Israel.[41]
+
+The patriarchal religion, which afterwards with the great majority fell
+into oblivion, was recalled afresh to men's minds by Moses, and the God
+of the fathers was preached by him under the name before unknown of
+Jahveh,[42] to whom, with the exclusion of all other gods, religious
+worship is due.[43] The Jahveh of Moses, like the El Eljon of the
+patriarchs, is the one only object of worship (Deus Unus), yet without
+excluding the possibility of other gods existing.[44] Not until later
+did the more developed conception of Jahveh arise as the one only God
+(Deus unicus),[45] who is throned in heaven, and like the Elohim of the
+patriarchs, encircled by celestial beings (Bene Elohim, Malakim,
+Angels), who execute his commands, yet are not objects of religious
+adoration.
+
+The religious standpoint of Moses is the legal. Jehovah stands related
+to his people as the Holy, as lawgiver and judge; and the true moral
+consecration to God is symbolically expressed in the ritual, especially
+in the sacrifice, while the relation of the people to God is based upon
+the mediation of the priests. Along with this, and out of Mosaism, after
+the time of Samuel, prophetism was developed, in which independent
+religious conviction, outside the limits of the priesthood, and without
+distinction of rank or birth,[46] awoke among the people. Prophetism, in
+the domain of religion, is the development of the religious spirit to
+individual independence and freedom. The prophet, rising above the legal
+standpoint and outward ceremonial, puts the essence of true worship in
+morality,[47] but recognizes also along with the deepest feeling of
+dependence upon God, in the independence[48] and spontaneity of the
+religious and moral life, the irresistible power of the divine spirit,
+by which the Most High, though apart from the world and throned in
+heaven, puts himself into the closest and most intimate communion with
+the true worshiper. Thus the gulf which divided Jahveh, as a God afar
+off, from the world and his worshipers, closed up more and more. With
+the conviction of the pureness and truth[49] of her religion, Israel
+felt the calling to raise it to the religion of the world, and in the
+realization of this she saw the ideal of the future.[50]
+
+
+_b. The Israelitish religion after the Captivity._
+
+The free character which distinguished prophetism in the religion of
+Israel changed, after the return of the people from captivity,
+especially with the party of the Pharisees, to literalness and
+formalism. The prophets gave place to the synagogue, the living
+proclamation of the truth to scriptural erudition, the spirit of
+freedom to slavish subjection to Scripture and tradition. As the ancient
+productions of the Indian literature, originally the expression of the
+popular thought of India, were elevated by the Brahmins into Veda, holy,
+inspired scripture, so also the religious literature of Israel took on
+the character of a closed Canon, so that what was once the expression of
+religious life became now rule of faith. The standpoint of the law which
+prophetism had already overcome was again strongly maintained, the law
+enriched with a number of new ordinances, and the essence of religion
+made to consist partly in dogmatic speculation, partly in a merely
+outward service, devoid of inner life. The Messianic prediction, or the
+expectation that the kingdom, divided in Rehoboam's reign, once more
+united under a prince of the house of David, should be exalted to new
+bloom and lustre,--which in the older prophets was the natural and
+historically explicable form in which the ideal of Israel's future
+presented itself to the seer, but which, under the influence of the
+changed political conditions, had already been replaced in the later
+prophecy by the more general conception of a future triumph of the true
+religion of which Israel was the bringer,--[51]returned, yet not as the
+ideal of the prophetic spirit, but as a dogma, the product of scriptural
+interpretation. The pure monotheism, by which formerly a place in the
+Providence of God had been allotted to everything, even to moral
+evil,[52] became corrupted, under the influence of Parsism, by the
+conception of two kingdoms, of God and of the Devil. The angels,
+originally the messengers of Providence, became under mythological
+names, Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, &c., so many middle beings who filled
+the space between the Deity, existing apart from the world, and the
+world. The lower world (sheol, [Greek: aides]), formerly the general
+abode of the dead, of bad and good without distinction, was split into
+two parts, paradise and gehenna, and became a place of recompense, and,
+along with this, religion, once an end, became the means of warding off
+a dreaded punishment, or of gaining a future of bliss. The doctrine of
+immortality, as the continuation of man's moral development, which was
+formerly unknown in Israel, appeared, as in the later Parsism, in the
+form of a bodily resurrection of the dead, at first of the righteous
+only, but afterwards in the form of a general resurrection, by mediation
+of the Messiah, at whose appearing, which was expected just before the
+end of the present state of things, the great judgment of the world, of
+living and dead, was to be held, heaven and earth renewed, and the
+kingdom of God founded. Beside the learned party of the Pharisees stood
+the Sadducees, who subordinated religion to politics, rejected the
+Messianic idea and the authority of tradition, and, in denying
+immortality in the form of a bodily resurrection, failed to perceive the
+truth of immortality, for whose recognition the premises and germs
+existed in the religion of Israel, though not as yet developed. The
+third party, that of the Essenes, was marked by quiet piety, and in many
+respects also by excessive asceticism. In the midst of the Pharisaic
+formalism, the unbelief of the Sadducees, and the pietism of the
+Essenes, there was yet in Israel a seed of true worshipers, who, though
+not above the dogmatic prejudices of their time, had heart and mind open
+for the true religion, and who set the true blessing to be looked for
+from the Messiah in the satisfying of their religious and moral needs.
+
+
+3. THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.
+
+The Israelitish religion, which reached its highest stage of development
+in prophetism, but which among the later Jews after Ezra degenerated,
+with the Pharisees into formalism and worship of the letter, with the
+Essenes into mysticism and asceticism, and which with the Sadducees,
+along with the sacrifice of the prophetic ideal of the future, was
+subordinated to politics, developed in Christianity, but freed from once
+cherished national expectations and outward forms, into a purely
+spiritual knowledge and worship of God. Jesus fathomed the deep meaning
+of the religion of his people, and its original fitness to become,
+through higher development, the religion of the world. Jesus devoted
+himself to the end of forming the human race into one great society (the
+kingdom of heaven), of which religion should be the soul and life, and,
+convinced of his calling, proclaimed himself as the Son of man, who, as
+such, belonged not to Israel alone, but to mankind. Jesus combated both
+the formalism and exclusiveness of the Pharisees, and the unbelief of
+the Sadducees, and with word and deed preached a religion which,
+independent of all outward form, took hold of the human heart, and
+which, developing into an independent principle in man, was to find its
+commission, not in the authority of Scripture or tradition, not even in
+that of his name, but in its own power and truth. In him religion
+appeared as the power of self-sacrificing love, which fears not even
+death, and to which dying is not the losing of life, but the development
+of life. In distinction from other religions, in which either God and
+man are strangers to each other, and opposed to each other, or man's
+personality is, as it were, sunk in God, Christianity is the religion by
+which man, in the full enjoyment of individual development, and with the
+sense of his own strength, lives in the consciousness of the most entire
+dependence upon God. Religion in its highest form, conceived as the
+oneness of man with God, is realized in Christianity.[53]
+
+
+4. ISLAMISM.
+
+The religion of the ancient nomadic tribes of the Arabian peninsula
+originally exhibited a polytheistical character, in the form of the
+worship, in part of sacred stones, in part of the powers of nature,
+especially of the stars, whose position and motion were thought to exert
+an influence, beneficent or baneful, upon the destinies of men. With
+these conceptions was combined a certain leaning toward monotheism,
+which manifested itself especially in the common worship of Allah taala
+(equivalent to El Eljon), which was afterwards quickened and
+strengthened by association with the Jewish tribes, with whom they held
+themselves to be related by descent from Abraham. The Parsee doctrine of
+demons, also, was not unknown in Arabia, after the conquest of the
+Persians in the fifth century. After the third, fourth, and fifth
+centuries, Christianity also, though in a corrupt form, or, definitely,
+in the form of Monophysitism and Nestorianism, which had been condemned
+by the church, became established in Arabia.
+
+Amid such diverse elements, there was need of unity in the domain of
+religion, a need for which Mohammed, after the example of others of his
+family, sought to provide.
+
+He was born at Mecca (571) of an honorable family, belonging to the
+Koreish tribe. Finding no satisfaction for his restless spirit in the
+trade to which after his parents' death he had at first devoted himself,
+he gave himself up, in solitary retirement, to quiet meditation, and
+became more and more convinced of his calling to put an end, by means of
+a better religion, to the confusion existing among his countrymen with
+regard to religion. The religious idea which overmastered him presented
+itself to his powerful Oriental imagination in the form of a vision as a
+revelation of Allah taala, made to him in the fortieth year of his life
+by mediation of the angel Gabriel. His conviction, thus acquired, was
+confirmed by revelations afterwards received; and, shared at first with
+a small circle of trusted friends, gradually spread wider, until at last
+Mohammed came forward in the ancient sanctuary, the Kaaba, at Mecca, as
+prophet of Allah. For this he was pursued by his countrymen, and fled
+from thence to Medina, in the year 622, the beginning of the Moslem era.
+The number of his followers increasing, he had recourse to arms. He
+conquered Mecca in 630, and made the Kaaba, after destroying the idols
+in it, the sanctuary of the new religion.
+
+The doctrine of Mohammed (Islam, submission to God, whence his followers
+take the name of Moslems), is contained in the Koran. The various
+Suras, or divisions, originally the revelations received by the prophet
+at different periods of his life reduced to writing, were, soon after
+his death, united by Abu Bekr into one holy book, under the name of the
+Koran (al Kitab, the book), which, like the Bible among the later Jews
+and Christians, was clothed with divine authority. The central doctrine
+of Mohammed is the belief in one God, Allah, who, as the Creator and
+Lord of all things, in strictest isolation from the world, is throned in
+heaven. All that takes place upon the earth befalls according to the
+eternal decree of God, a conception in which, at least among the
+Orthodox Moslems, the Sunnites, who are distinguished in this respect,
+as in others, from the dissenting Shiites, there is no place left for
+human freedom. This God has from the earliest times revealed himself to
+some privileged men, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus (Isa). To the
+last is due the honor of having been the reformer of degenerate Judaism.
+He is not, as the Christians of Mohammed's time taught, the Son of God
+in a metaphysical sense, much less God himself,--Allah is one, he
+neither begets nor is begotten,--but a prophet of human descent. The
+greatest and last prophet is Mohammed himself, in whom prophetism
+reached its fulfillment. Along with the doctrine regarding God and his
+relation to the world, prayer, hospitality, and benevolence occupy a
+prominent place in the teaching of Mohammed, looked at from its
+practical side, and also the belief in a future life, in the
+Jewish-Parsee form of the resurrection of the dead, the judgment of the
+world, future reward and punishment, paradise and hell. The truth of
+this divine revelation rests upon the very fact of its having been
+revealed, and, according to Mohammed, it no more needs scientific proof
+than confirmation by miracles, to which Islamism did not appeal until
+later.
+
+The opinion which formerly prevailed among Christians that Mohammed was
+an impostor, a false prophet, was bound up with the conception that God,
+to the exclusion of other nations, had revealed himself immediately and
+supernaturally first to Israel, and afterwards through Christ to all
+mankind. Hence it followed that Christianity was not prized as the
+highest religion, existing along with less developed forms of religion,
+but was opposed as the only true religion to all others, which were
+regarded as the fruit of imposture and error, an opinion to which the
+religious and political struggles in which Islam and Christendom have
+been involved also richly contributed. Mohammed was seer and prophet,
+filled with fiery zeal for religion, and, while he stands indeed in this
+respect, both personally and with regard to the contents of his
+preaching and the means by which he sought to gain admission for his
+doctrine, below the seers of Israel, and far below the founder of
+Christianity, yet, on the other hand, his monotheism, abstract as it is,
+must be regarded as a wholesome reaction against the ever-increasing
+polytheistical superstition to which in his time the Christian church of
+the East especially had sunk. Islamism stands, however, below original
+Christianity, the religion of Jesus and the Apostles, in that, by
+separating God, as the abstract one Supreme Being, from the world, it
+leaves no place for the doctrine of God's immanence, or the indwelling
+of the Spirit of God in man. Hence in Islamism the divine revelation
+remains purely mechanical, with no natural point of connection in man,
+and therefore there is no possibility of an enduring prophetism, which
+is the fundamental principle of Christianity. From this separation of
+God and man, the Mohammedan doctrine of predestination, in distinction
+from the Christian, acquires its abstract and fatalistic character,
+whereby man, instead of being regarded as a being in whose free activity
+God's power and life are glorified, is conceived as a passive instrument
+of a higher power. To true moral independence, therefore, the Moslem
+does not attain. His religion is legal and external, and therefore
+intolerant and exclusive; and when Islamism, led by excited passion and
+a heated imagination, disregarded the sanctity of marriage, and held up
+as a reward before the faithful Moslem a paradise characterized by
+sensual enjoyment, it missed at once the deep moral and spiritual
+character of Christianity. To these defects must be ascribed the fact
+that Islamism, adapted to the need of the East, and therefore spread
+over a large part of Asia and Africa, has not, with the exception of the
+empire of Turkey, and for a time also of Spain, penetrated Europe; and,
+overshadowed by a higher development of humanity, has reached its
+highest bloom, while Christianity, brought back to its original purity,
+remains the religion of the civilized world.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Translated from the Dutch of Prof. J.H. Scholten, by F.T.
+Washburn. This constitutes the first part of Prof. Scholten's History of
+Religion and Philosophy. (_Geschiedenis der Godsdienst en
+Wijsbegeerte._) Third edition. Leyden, 1863. Of this work there is a
+translation in French by M. Albert Reville (Paris, 1861); but this
+translation, which was made from an earlier edition, is very defective
+in the first part, Prof. Scholten having added a great deal in his last
+edition. There is also a translation of it in German, by D.E.R.
+Redepenning (Elberfeld, 1868). This German translation has been revised
+and enlarged by Prof. Scholten, and is therefore superior in some
+respects to the original Dutch. The present translation has been revised
+upon it.]
+
+[Footnote 2: According to Buusen 3000 or 2500 B.C., Haug 2000 B.C., Max
+Mueller 1200 B.C., Max Duncker 1300 or 1250 B.C., and according to
+Roeth. I. p. 348, who still puts Vistaspa before Darius Hystaspes,
+between 589 and 512 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The doctrine of the _Zervana akarana_ (infinite time) as
+the original One, from which the opposition between Ormuzd and Ahriman
+was held to spring, dates from a later period.]
+
+[Footnote 4: [Greek: Zeus kelainephes, ahidheri nahion, nephelegerheta
+Zeus, Here bohopis, glaukhopis Hathhene].]
+
+[Footnote 5: Of the Germans Tacitus writes, _Germ._, c. 9, "Eos nec
+cohibere parietibus Deos neque in ullam humanioris speciem assimilare,
+ex magnitudine coelestium arbitrantur. Lucos ac nemora consecrant
+deorumque nominibus appellant secretum illud, quod sola reverentia
+vident."]
+
+[Footnote 6: Among the Roman writers who furnish us with information
+upon the religion of the Germans, Tacitus deserves mention, in his
+"Germania," as well as in his "Annales" _passim_. The chief source with
+regard to the Norse religion is the older Edda, under the title "Edda
+Saemundar hin Froda."]
+
+[Footnote 7: Numb. xxii. 41; xxiii. 28; 2 Kings, xxiii. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Judges, ii. 13; 1 Sam. vii. 4; xii. 10; 1 Kings, xi. 5, 7,
+33; 2 Kings, xxiii. 13; Jer. vii. 18; xliv. 17, 19.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Levit. xviii. 21; xx. 2; 2 Kings, iii. 26, 27; xvi. 3;
+xxiii. 10; Ps. cvi. 38; Jer. vii. 31; xix. 5; xxxii. 35; Micah, vi. 7;
+Ezek. xv. 4, 6; [?] xvi. 20, Comp. I Kings, xviii: 28.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Numb. xxv. I, _et seq_; Josh. xxii. 17; Baruch, vi. 41,
+43.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Judges, vi. 32. and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 12: 1 Chron. viii. 33; ix. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 13: 1 Chron. viii. 34; ix. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 14: 2 Sam. xi. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 15: 2 Sam. ii. 8, and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 16: 2 Sam. iv. 4, and elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Judges, viii. 33; ix. 4. Comp. with ix. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 18: 1 Chron. xiv. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 19: 1 Chron. iii. 8; 2 Sam. v. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Gen. xxii.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Gen. xvii. 23-27.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Ex. iv. 24-26.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Ex. xiii. 2, 12-16; xxii. 28, 29; xxx. 11-16; xxxiv. 19,
+20.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Gen. xv. 17; Ex. iii. 2; xix. 16-18; xxiv. 17; xl. 38;
+Levit. x. 2; Numb. xvi. 35; Deut. iv. 15, 24; v. 24, 25.]
+
+[Footnote 25: 1 Kings, vii. 25, 29.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Ex. xxvii. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Comp. Ezek. i. 10; x. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 28: 1 Kings, xviii. 23.]
+
+[Footnote 29: 1 Kings, xi. 5; 2 Kings, xvi. 3; xxi. 3; xxiii. 4, _et
+seq_; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 3; Ezek. xvi. 20, 21; Jer. xix. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Amos. v. 25, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Judges, xi. 30-40.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Ex. xxxii. 27-29; Numb. xxv. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 33: 2 Sam. xxi. 1-14.]
+
+[Footnote 34: 1 Kings, iii. 2; xi. 7; 2 Kings, xii. 3; xiv. 4; xvii. 11;
+xviii. 4; xxiii. 5, 19; 2 Chron. xxi. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 35: 2 Chron. xxxiv. 3; Ezek. vi. 3; xx. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 36: 1 Kings, xii. 28, 33. Comp. Ex. xxxii. 4, 19.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Levit. xviii. 21; xx. 2; Deut. xii. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Gen. xxiv, xxviii.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Gen. xiv. 18-20; xx. 3, 4.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, _et seq_; xxxv. 2-4; Joshua, xxiv. 2,
+14.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Judges, xviii. 14, _et seq_; 1 Sam. xix. 13; 2 Kings,
+xviii. 4; Ezek. xx. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Ex. iii. 13, _et seq_; vi. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Ex. xx. 2, 3.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Ex. viii. 10; xv. 11; xviii. 11; xx. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Deut vi. 4; iv. 28, 35; xxxii. 39; Isaiah, xliv. 6, 8;
+xlv. 5, 6.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Amos, vii. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Isa. i. 11-18; Jer. vii. 21-23.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Dutch, _zelfstandigheid_, literally, self-existence;
+without an equivalent, as far as I know, in vernacular English.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 49: _Zelfstandigheid_, again, expressing objective existence,
+reality, independent of subjective thought or feeling.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Jer. xxxi. 31, _et seq_; Isa. ii. 2-4; Amos, ix. 12; Isa.
+xxv. 6; lii. 15; lvi. 6, 7; lxvi. 23; Zech. viii. 23; xiv. 9, 16.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Isa. liii.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Job i, ii.--Tr.]
+
+[Footnote 53: The most original sources of the Christian religion are
+the Synoptic Gospels, in which, however, criticism must distinguish
+between the older and later portions. The fourth Gospel is marked by a
+more profound speculation upon the person and the work of Christ, by
+which the Christian mind freed itself entirely from the Jewish forms in
+which Jesus, as a popular teacher in Israel, had set forth his
+doctrine.]
+
+
+
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