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diff --git a/20007-h/20007-h.htm b/20007-h/20007-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..125b0e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/20007-h/20007-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5149 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <title> + Lord George Bentinck, by Benjamin Disraeli + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Lord George Bentinck, by Benjamin Disraeli + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Lord George Bentinck + A Political Biography + +Author: Benjamin Disraeli + +Release Date: December 3, 2006 [EBook #20007] +Last Updated: September 7, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LORD GEORGE BENTINCK *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + LORD GEORGE BENTINCK + </h1> + <h2> + A POLITICAL BIOGRAPHY + </h2> + <h2> + By Benjamin Disraeli + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h4> + ‘He left us the legacy of heroes: <br /> the memory of his great name <br /> + and the inspiration of his great example.’ + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary=""> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> <big><b>LORD GEORGE BENTINCK</b></big> + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + TO + </h2> + <h3> + LORD HENRY BENTINCK, + </h3> + <p> + IS INSCRIBED This Political Biography ONE FOR WHOM HE ENTERTAINED A DEEP + AFFECTION, AND WHOSE TALENTS AND VIRTUES HE SHARES. <a name="link2H_4_0002" + id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LORD GEORGE BENTINCK + </h2> + <h3> + A POLITICAL BIOGRAPHY + </h3> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/bentink_page009.jpg" alt="Bentink-page009" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Man</i> +</pre> + <p> + THE political career of Lord George Bentinck was peculiar. He had, to use + his own expression, ‘sate in eight Parliaments without having taken part + in any great debate,’ when remarkable events suddenly impelled him to + advance and occupy not only a considerable but a leading position in our + public affairs. During three years, under circumstances of great + difficulty, he displayed some of the highest qualities of political life: + courage and a lofty spirit; a mastery of details which experience usually + alone confers; a quick apprehension and a clear intelligence; indomitable + firmness; promptness, punctuality, and perseverance which never failed; an + energy seldom surpassed; and a capacity for labour which was perhaps never + equalled. At the very moment when he had overcome many contrarieties and + prejudices; when he had been most successful in the House of Commons, and, + sustained only by his own resources, had considerably modified the + legislation of the government which he opposed on a measure of paramount + importance; when the nation, which had long watched him with interest, + began to congratulate itself on the devotion of such a man to the business + of the country, he was in an instant taken from us. Then it was that, the + memory of the past and the hope of the future blending together, all men + seemed to mourn over this untimely end, and there was that pang in the + public heart which accompanies the unexpected disappearance of a strong + character. + </p> + <p> + What manner of man this was, who thus on a sudden in the middle term of + life relinquished all the ease and pleasure of a patrician existence to + work often eighteen hours daily, not for a vain and brilliant notoriety, + which was foreign alike both to his tastes and his turn of mind, but for + the advancement of principles, the advocacy of which in the chief scene of + his efforts was sure to obtain for him only contention and unkindly + feelings; what were his motives, purposes and opinions; how and why did he + labour; what were the whole scope and tendency of this original, vigorous, + and self-schooled intelligence; these would appear to be subjects not + unworthy of contemplation, and especially not uninteresting to a free and + political community. + </p> + <p> + The difficulty of treating cotemporary characters and events has been ever + acknowledged; but it may be doubted whether the difficulty is diminished + when we would commemorate the men and things that have preceded us. The + cloud of passion in the first instance, or in the other the mist of time, + may render it equally hard and perplexing to discriminate. + </p> + <p> + It should not be forgotten that the most authentic and interesting + histories are those which have been composed by actors in the transactions + which they record. The cotemporary writer who is personally familiar with + his theme has unquestionably a great advantage; but it is assumed that his + pen can scarcely escape the bias of private friendship or political + connection. Yet truth, after all, is the sovereign passion of mankind; nor + is the writer of these pages prepared to relinquish his conviction that it + is possible to combine the accuracy of the present with the impartiality + of the future. + </p> + <p> + Lord George Bentinck had sat for eighteen years in Parliament, and, before + he entered it, had been for three years private secretary to Mr. Canning, + who had married the sister of the Duchess of Portland. Such a post would + seem a happy commencement of a public career; but whether it were the + untimely death of his distinguished relative, or a natural indisposition, + Lord George—though he retained the seat for King’s Lynn, in which he + had succeeded his uncle, the late governor-general of India—directed + his energies to other than parliamentary pursuits. For some time he had + followed his profession, which was that of arms, but of late years he had + become absorbed in the pastime and fortunes of the turf, in which his + whole being seemed engrossed, and which he pursued on a scale that perhaps + has never been equalled. + </p> + <p> + Lord George had withdrawn his support from the government of the Duke of + Wellington, when the friends of Mr. Canning quitted that administration; + and when in time they formed not the least considerable portion of the + cabinet of Lord Grey, he resumed his seat on the ministerial benches. On + that occasion an administrative post was offered him and declined; and on + subsequent occasions similar requests to him to take office were equally + in vain. Lord George, therefore, was an original and hearty supporter of + the Reform Bill, and he continued to uphold the Whigs in all their policy + until the secession of Lord Stanley, between whom and himself there + subsisted warm personal as well as political sympathies. Although he was + not only a friend to religious liberty, as we shall have occasion + afterwards to remark, but always viewed with great sympathy the condition + of the Roman Catholic portion of the Irish population, he shrank from the + taint of the ultra-montane intrigue. Accompanying Lord Stanley, he became + in due time a member of the great Conservative opposition, and, as he + never did anything by halves, became one of the most earnest, as he + certainly was one of the most enlightened, supporters of Sir Robert Peel. + His trust in that minister was indeed absolute, and he has subsequently + stated in conversation that when, towards the end of the session of ‘45, a + member of the Tory party ventured to predict and denounce the impending + defection of the minister, there was no member of the Conservative party + who more violently condemned the unfounded attack, or more readily + impugned the motives of the assailant. + </p> + <p> + He was not a very frequent attendant in the House. He might be counted on + for a party division, and when, towards the termination of the Melbourne + ministry, the forces were very nearly balanced, and the struggle became + very close, he might have been observed, on more than one occasion, + entering the House at a late hour, clad in a white great-coat, which + softened, but did not conceal, the scarlet hunting-coat. + </p> + <p> + Although he took no part in debate, and attended the House rather as a + club than as a senate, he possessed a great and peculiar influence in it. + He was viewed with interest, and often with extraordinary regard, by every + sporting man in the House. With almost all of these he was acquainted; + some of them, on either side, were his intimate companions and + confederates. + </p> + <p> + His eager and energetic disposition; his quick perception, clear judgment, + and prompt decision; the tenacity with which he clung to his opinions; his + frankness and love of truth; his daring and speculative spirit; his lofty + bearing, blended as it was with a simplicity of manner very remarkable; + the ardour of his friendships, even the fierceness of his hates and + prejudices—all combined to form one of those strong characters who, + whatever may be their pursuit, must always direct and lead. + </p> + <p> + Nature had clothed this vehement spirit with a material form which was in + perfect harmony with its noble and commanding character. He was tall and + remarkable for his presence; his countenance almost a model of manly + beauty; the face oval, the complexion clear and mantling; the forehead + lofty and white; the nose aquiline and delicately moulded; the upper lip + short. But it was in the dark-brown eye, which flashed with piercing + scrutiny, that all the character of the man came forth: a brilliant + glance, not soft, but ardent, acute, imperious, incapable of deception or + of being deceived. + </p> + <p> + Although he had not much sustained his literary culture, and of late + years, at any rate, had not given his mind to political study, he had in + the course of his life seen and heard a great deal, and with profit. + Nothing escaped his observation; he forgot nothing and always thought. So + it was that on all the great political questions of the day he had arrived + at conclusions which guided him. He always took large views and had no + prejudices about things, whatever he might indulge in as to persons. He + was always singularly anxious to acquire the truth, and would spare no + pains for that purpose; but when once his mind was made up, it was + impossible to influence him. + </p> + <p> + In politics, he was a Whig of 1688, which became him, modified, however, + by all the experience of the present age. He wished to see our society + founded on a broad basis of civil and religious liberty. He retained much + of the old jealousy of the court, but had none of popular franchises. He + was for the Established Church, but for nothing more, and was very + repugnant to priestly domination. As for the industrial question, he was + sincerely opposed to the Manchester scheme, because he thought that its + full development would impair and might subvert our territorial + constitution, which he held to be the real security of our freedom, and + because he believed that it would greatly injure Ireland, and certainly + dissolve our colonial empire. + </p> + <p> + He had a great respect for merchants, though he looked with some degree of + jealousy on the development of our merely foreign trade. His knowledge of + character qualified him in a great degree to govern men. and if some + drawbacks from this influence might be experienced in his too rigid + tenacity of opinion, and in some quickness of temper, which, however, + always sprang from a too sensitive heart, great compensation might be + found in the fact that there probably never was a human being so entirely + devoid of conceit and so completely exempt from selfishness. Nothing + delighted him more than to assist and advance others. All the fruits of + his laborious investigations were always at the service of his friends + without reserve or self-consideration. He encouraged them by making + occasions for their exertions, and would relinquish his own opportunity + without a moment’s hesitation, if he thought the abandonment might aid a + better man. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Protection Problem</i> +</pre> + <p> + THERE was at this time a metropolitan society for the protection of + agriculture, of which the Duke of Richmond was chairman, and which had + been established to counteract the proceedings of the Manchester + confederation. It was in communication with the local Protection societies + throughout the country; and although the adhesion to its service by the + parliamentary members of the old Conservative party had been more limited + than might have been expected, nevertheless many county members were + enrolled in its ranks, and a few of the most eminent were actively engaged + in its management. In this they were assisted by an equal number of the + most considerable tenant-farmers. In the present state of affairs, the + council of the Protection Society afforded the earliest and readiest means + to collect opinion and methodize action; and it was therefore resolved + among its managers to invite all members of Parliament who sympathized + with their purpose, though they might not be members of their society, to + attend their meeting and aid them at the present crisis with their + counsel. + </p> + <p> + A compliance with this request occasioned the first public appearance of + Lord George Bentinck, as one of the organizers of a political party,—for + he aspired to no more. The question was, whether a third political party + could be created and sustained,—a result at all times and under any + circumstances difficult to achieve, and which had failed even under the + auspices of accomplished and experienced statesmen. In the present + emergency, was there that degree of outraged public feeling in the + country, which would overcome all obstacles and submit to any + inconveniences, in order to ensure its representation in the House of + Commons? It was the opinion of Lord George Bentinck that such was the + case; that if for the moment that feeling was inert and latent, it was an + apathy which arose from the sudden shock of public confidence, and the + despair which under such circumstances takes possession of men; that if it + could be shown to the country, that the great bulk of the Conservative + party were true to their faith, and were not afraid, even against the + fearful odds which they would have to encounter, to proclaim it, the + confidence and the courage of the country would rally, and the party in + the House of Commons would find external sympathy and support. + </p> + <p> + With these views it became of paramount importance that the discussion on + the government measure should be sustained on the part of the + Protectionists with their utmost powers. They must prove to the country, + that they could represent their cause in debate, and to this end all their + energies must be directed. It would be fatal to them if the discussion + were confined to one or two nights, and they overborne by the leading and + habitual speakers. They must bring forward new men; they must encourage + the efforts of those now unrecognized and comparatively unknown; they must + overcome all reserve and false shame, and act as became men called upon to + a critical and leading part, not by their arrogance or ambition, but by + the desertion and treachery of those to whose abilities they had bowed + without impatience and reluctance. There was a probability of several + vacancies immediately taking place in counties where the seats were filled + by converts, but men of too scrupulous an honour to retain the charge + which they had sought and accepted as the professors of opinions contrary + to those which now received their mournful adhesion. The result of these + elections would greatly depend upon the spirit and figure of the party in + the House of Commons, in their first encounter with the enemy. + </p> + <p> + These views, so just and so spirited, advanced with high-bred earnestness + by one rarely met in political turmoils, and enforced with a freshness and + an affable simplicity which were very winning, wonderfully encouraged + those to whom they were addressed. All seemed touched by the flame which + burned in the breast of that man, so lofty in his thoughts but so humble + in his ambition, who counselled ever the highest deeds, and was himself + ever prepared to undertake the humblest duties. + </p> + <p> + The business of this day was notable. Calculations were made of those who + might be fairly counted on to take a part in debate; some discussion even + ensued as to who should venture to reply late at night to the minister; a + committee was appointed to communicate with all members on either side + supposed to be favourable to the principle of Protection to the labour of + the country; a parliamentary staff was organized, not only to secure the + attendance of members, but to guard over the elections; finally, the form + of the amendment to the government measure was discussed and settled, and + it was agreed that, if possible, it should be moved by Mr. Philip Miles, + the member for the city of Bristol, and who had the ear of the House not + merely from the importance of his constituency, and seconded by Sir + William Heathcote, the member for the county of Hampshire, a country + gentleman of great accomplishments, and so highly considered by both sides + that he was very generally spoken of as a probable successor to the chair. + </p> + <p> + All was furnished by this lately forlorn party except a leader, and even + then many eyes were turned and some hopeful murmurs addressed towards Lord + George Bentinck, who in the course of this morning had given such various + proofs of his fitness and such evidence of his resource. But he shook his + head with a sort of suppressed smile, a faint blush, and an air of proud + humility that was natural to him: ‘I think,’ he said, ‘we have had enough + of leaders; it is not in my way; I shall remain the last of the rank and + file.’ + </p> + <p> + So little desirous, originally, was Lord George Bentinck to interfere + actively in that great controversy in which ultimately he took so leading + a part, that before the meeting of Parliament in 1846 he begged a + gentleman whom he greatly esteemed, a member of the legal profession, and + since raised to its highest honours, to call upon him at Harcourt House, + when he said that he had taken great pains to master the case of the + protective system; that he was convinced its abrogation would ultimately + be very injurious to this country; but although, both in point of argument + and materials, he feared no opponent, he felt constitutionally so + incapable of ever making a speech, that he wished to induce some eminent + lawyer to enter the House of Commons, and avail himself of his views and + materials, which he had, with that object, reduced to writing. He begged, + therefore, that his friend, although a free-trader, would assist him, by + suggesting a fitting person for this office. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, the name of a distinguished member of the bar, who had + already published a work of merit, impugning the principles of the new + commercial system, was mentioned, and this learned gentleman was applied + to, and was not indisposed to accept the task. A mere accident prevented + this arrangement being accomplished. Lord George then requested his friend + to make some other selection; but his adviser very sensibly replied, that + although the House of Commons would have listened with respect to a + gentleman who had given evidence of the sincerity of his convictions by + the publication of a work which had no reference to Parliament, they would + not endure the instance of a lawyer brought into the House merely to speak + from his brief; and that the attempt would be utterly fruitless. He + earnestly counselled Lord George himself to make the effort; but Lord + George, with characteristic tenacity, clung for some time to his project, + though his efforts to accomplish it were fortunately not successful. + </p> + <p> + Some of the friends of Lord George Bentinck, remembering his inexperience + in debate, aware of the great length at which he must necessarily treat + the theme, and mindful that he was not physically well-qualified for + controlling popular assemblies, not having a strong voice, or, naturally, + a very fluent manner, were anxious that he should not postpone his speech + until an hour so late; that an audience, jaded by twelve nights’ + discussion, would be ill-attuned to statistical arguments and economical + details. But still clinging to the hope that some accident might yet again + postpone the division, so that the Protectionists might gain the vote of + Mr. Hildyard, who had been returned that day for South Notts, having + defeated a cabinet minister, Lord George remained motionless until long + past midnight. Mr. Cobden having spoken on the part of the confederation, + the closing of the debate was felt to be inevitable. Even then, by + inducing a Protectionist to solicit the Speaker’s eye, Lord George + attempted to avert the division; but no supporter of the government + measure, of any colour, advancing to reply to this volunteer, Bentinck was + obliged to rise. He came out like a lion forced from his lair. And so it + happened, that after all his labours of body and mind, after all his + research and unwearied application and singular vigilance, after having + been at his post for a month, never leaving the House, even for + refreshment, he had to undertake the most difficult enterprise in which a + man can well embark, with a concurrence of every disadvantage which could + ensure failure and defeat. It would seem that the audience, the subject, + and the orator, must be equally exhausted; for the assembly had listened + for twelve nights to the controversy, and he who was about to address them + had, according to his strange habit, taken no sustenance the whole day; it + being his custom to dine after the House was up, which was very often long + after midnight, and this, with the exception of a slender breakfast, + rigidly restricted to dry toast, was his only meal in the four-and-twenty + hours. + </p> + <p> + He had been forced to this regimen, from food exercising a lethargic + influence over him; so that, in addition to some constitutional weakness + in his organ, he usually laboured, when he addressed the House, under the + disadvantage of general exhaustion. And this was, no doubt, a principal + cause of that over-excitement and apparently unnecessary energy in his + manner of speaking, of which he was himself perfectly, and even painfully, + conscious. He was wont to say, that before he could speak he had to make a + voice, and, as it were, to pump it from the very core of his frame. One + who took a great interest in his success once impressed on him the + expediency of trusting entirely to his natural voice and the interest and + gravity of his matter, which, combined with his position as the recognized + leader of a great party, would be adequate to command the attention of his + audience; and he subsequently endeavoured very often to comply with this + suggestion. He endeavoured also very much to control his redundancy of + action and gesture, when that peculiarity was pointed out to him with the + delicacy, but the sincerity, of friendship. He entirely freed himself from + a very awkward feature of his first style of speaking, namely, the + frequent repetition of a sentence, which seemed at first a habit + inveterate with him; but such was his force of will, that when the + necessity of ridding himself of this drawback was properly pointed out to + him, he achieved the desired result. No one bore criticism more gently and + kindly, so long as it was confined to his personal and intellectual + characteristics, for he was a man absolutely without vanity or conceit, + who thought very humbly of himself, in respect of abilities, and deemed no + labour too great to achieve even a slight improvement. But though in these + respects the very child of simplicity, he was a man of almost unexampled + pride, and chafed under criticism, when his convictions or his conduct + were questioned. He was very tenacious of his opinion, almost inexorable; + and it required a courage nearly equal to his own, combined with a serene + temper, successfully to impugn his conclusions. + </p> + <p> + Not, therefore, excited by vanity, but sustained by self-respect, by an + overpowering feeling that he owed it to himself and the opinions he held, + to show to the world that they had not been lightly adopted and should not + be lightly laid aside, Bentinck rose, long past the noon of night, at the + end of this memorable debate, to undertake an office from which the most + successful and most experienced rhetoricians of Parliament would have + shrunk with intuitive discretion. But duty scorns prudence, and criticism + has few terrors for a man with a great purpose. Unshaken by the adverse + hour and circumstances, he proceeded to accomplish the object which he had + long meditated, and for which he was fully prepared. + </p> + <p> + Reminding the House, while he appealed to their indulgence, that, though + he had had the honour of a seat for eight parliaments, he had never once + ventured to trespass on its time on any subject of great debate, he at + once took a clear and comprehensive ground of objection to the government + scheme. He opposed it not only because he objected to the great change + contemplated with respect to the agricultural interest, but, on principle, + to the entire measure, ‘a great commercial revolution, which we are of + opinion that the circumstances of the country do not by any means + require.’ + </p> + <p> + Noticing the observation of the Secretary at War, that the agricultural + interest, in submitting to this great change, might now accept it with + honour, instead of its being eventually extorted by force, he happily + retorted, that vicious as he thought the measure, he should feel it + deprived of half its vice if it could be carried without loss of honour, + damage to reputation, and forfeiture of public character to a vast number + of gentlemen now present. And he proceeded to show among other + testimonies, by an appeal to the distinct language of the speech from the + throne on the dissolution of 1841, that ‘every member who occupied a seat + in this House was returned pledged either to oppose or maintain the + principle of protection to national industry.’ + </p> + <p> + Adverting to the new position, that the experience of the last three years + justified the reversal of the system which the existing administration had + been summoned to office to uphold, he wisely remarked, that ‘the country + will not be satisfied with three years’ experience of any system. Three + years’ experience is not sufficiently extensive to afford a proper + criterion by which we may decide the failure or success of any description + of policy whatsoever.’ + </p> + <p> + Noticing that the minister had more especially founded ‘his present belief + in doctrines contrary to those which he had heretofore uniformly + maintained,’ by the assumption that the price of corn would not be more + reduced than the price of cattle and other commodities affected by the + tariff of 1842, and also by the results of previous experiments in the + instances of silk and wool, Lord George ‘accepted his challenge’ on these + grounds, and proceeded in great detail to investigate these examples. + </p> + <p> + The House listened with great attention for full two hours, during which + he treated these subjects. This attention no doubt was generally accorded + because it was felt due to the occasion, and, under the circumstances, to + the speaker; but those who, however contrary might be the results at which + they had arrived, had themselves deeply entered into these investigations, + recognized very soon that Bentinck was master of his subject. Sir Robert + Peel looked round very often with that expression of appreciation which it + was impossible for his nature to refuse to parliamentary success, even + when the ability displayed was hostile to his projects. The minister, with + reference to the wool trade, had dwelt on the year 1842, when prices were + much depressed, while they had greatly rallied in 1844, when the + importation of foreign wool had risen from forty-five to sixty-five + millions of pounds; and he had drawn a triumphant inference that the + increase of importation and the increase of price were in consequence of + the reduction of the duty. This instance had produced a great effect; but + Lord George showed the House, by a reference to the tables of 1836, that + the importation of foreign wool had then risen to sixty-five millions of + pounds, and that large foreign importation was consistent with high prices + to the domestic grower. Nor was he less successful about the foreign + cattle. He reminded his friends on the Treasury bench how strenuously, + previously to the introduction of the tariff of 1842, they had urged upon + their agricultural friends that no foreign cattle could enter under their + regulations, and that the whole object of the change was to strengthen the + hands of the agricultural interest, as regarded more essential protection, + by removing the odium of a nominal protection: ‘Convinced by my right + honourable friends, in 1842, that their tariff would be as inoperative as + it has proved, I gave my cordial support to the measure.’ + </p> + <p> + Perceiving that the House began to be wearied with the details of the silk + trade, which he had investigated with extraordinary zeal, he postponed + until the specific vote in committee his objections to the reduction of + the timber duties. The fact is, he had so thoroughly mastered all these + topics, that his observations on each of them would have themselves formed + a speech of sufficient length and interest. But he successfully checked + any interruption by what may be fairly styled his dignified diffidence. + </p> + <p> + ‘I trust the House will recollect that I am fighting the battle of a party + whose leaders have deserted them; and though I cannot wield my weapons + with the skill of the right honourable gentleman on the Treasury bench, I + trust the House will remember the emergency which has dragged me out to + intrude upon their indulgence.’ + </p> + <p> + And again, when he announced that he was now about to investigate the + pretext of ‘famine in the land,’ and some impatience was exhibited, he + drew up and said, ‘I think, having sat eighteen years in this house, and + never once having trespassed on its time before in any one single great + debate, I may appeal to the past as a proof that I duly weigh the measure + of my abilities, and that I am painfully conscious of my proper place in + this house.’ + </p> + <p> + It was impossible to resist such appeals from such a person, even at three + o’clock in the morning; and diffident, but determined, he then entered + into what was, perhaps, the most remarkable portion of his speech—an + investigation of what was the real position of the country with respect to + the supply of food in the past autumn and at the present moment. Having + shown from the trade circulars that, far from there being at present ‘a + wheat famine,’ the stocks in the granaries in bond were more than double + in amount to what they were in the year 1845, ‘a year admitted by all to + be a year of extraordinary abundance,’ he proceeded to the Irish part of + the question: ‘I beg leave to say, that though this debate has now + continued for three weeks, I am the first gentleman who has at all entered + into the real state of the case as regards the allegation of a potato + famine in Ireland, upon which, be it remembered, is founded the sole case + of her Majesty’s ministers for a repeal of the corn laws.’ + </p> + <p> + And this was very true. The fact is, though the Protectionist party had + made a most unexpected and gallant defence, no one was really prepared for + the contest except Bentinck. Between the end of November and the meeting + of Parliament, he had thrown all the energies of his passionate mind into + this question. He had sought information on all points and always at the + fountain-head. He had placed himself in immediate communication with the + ablest representatives of every considerable interest attacked, and being + ardent and indefatigable, gifted with a tenacious memory and a very clear + and searching spirit, there was scarcely a detail or an argument connected + with his subject which was not immediately at his command. No speeches in + favour of the protective system have ever been made in the House of + Commons compared with his in depth and range of knowledge; and had there + been any member not connected with the government, who had been able to + vindicate the merits of British agriculture as he did when the final + struggle occurred, the impression which was made by the too-often + unanswered speeches of the Manchester confederation would never have been + effected. But the great Conservative party, exhausted by the labours of + ten years of opposition, thought that after the triumph of ‘41 it might + claim a furlough. The defence of their cause was left entirely to the + ministers of their choice; and ministers, distracted with detail and + wearied with official labour, are not always the most willing or the most + efficient champions of the organic principles of a party. + </p> + <p> + Sir Robert Peel, with respect to the disease in the Irish potato, had + largely referred to the statements of the inspectors of police. Lord + George wanted to know why the reports of the lieutenants of the Irish + counties were not given. Being well-informed upon this head, he asked the + government to produce the report of Lord Duncannon, the lord lieutenant of + Carlow; especially that of his noble father, the earl of Bes-borough, lord + lieutenant of Kilkenny. ‘Is there any man in England or in Ireland whose + opinion, from his business-like habits, his great practical knowledge, and + the warm and affectionate interest which for a long period of years he has + taken in everything which concerns the interests of Ireland, especially of + the Irish peasantry—is there any man whose opinion would have + greater weight? The opinion of Lord Bes-borough on an Irish subject, the + lieutenant of an Irish county, and himself long a cabinet minister? Well, + sir, I am assured that, having taken the utmost pains to investigate this + matter, Lord Besborough has made an elaborate report to the Irish + government. Well, then, I desire to know why Lord Besborough’s report to + the Irish government is suppressed? Is it because that report would not + assist the present policy of her Majesty’s government?’ + </p> + <p> + He alleged the names of many other individuals of high station who had + officially reported on the subject to the government: of Lord Castlereagh, + the lieutenant of Down, a member of the House; of Lord de Vesci, whose son + was sitting for the Queen’s County, over which his father presided in the + name of the queen. A murmur ran round the House, that it would have been + as well if these reports had been produced. + </p> + <p> + The last portion of this argumentative harangue referred to the most + important division of the subject. Bentinck met it boldly, without + evasion; nor was there any portion of his address more interesting, more + satisfactory, and more successful. ‘I now come,’ he said, ‘to the great + challenge, which is ever and anon put forth by the Anti-Corn Law League, + and now by their disciples, her Majesty’s ministers. How are we, they ask, + with our limited extent of territory, to feed a population annually and + rapidly increasing at the rate of three hundred thousand a-year, as + generally stated by the member for Stockport—a rate increased by my + noble friend, the member for the West Riding, to a thousand a day, or + three hundred and sixty-five thousand a year?’ + </p> + <p> + He first proved in a complete manner that, from the year 1821 to the year + 1844, the population of the country had increased at the rate of less than + thirty-two per cent., while the growth of wheat during the same period had + increased no less than sixty-four per cent. He then proceeded to inquire + why, with such an increased produce, we were still, as regards bread corn, + to a certain extent, an importing nation? This he accounted for by the + universally improved condition of the people, and the enlarged command of + food by the working classes. He drew an animated picture, founded entirely + on the representations of writers and public men adverse to the Protective + System, of the superior condition of the people of ‘England, happy + England,’ to that of other countries: how they consumed much more of the + best food, and lived much longer. This was under Protection, which Lord + John Russell had stigmatized, in his letter, ‘the bane of agriculture.’ + ‘In the history of my noble friend’s illustrious family,’ he continued, ‘I + should have thought that he would have found a remarkable refutation of + such a notion.’ And then he drew a lively sketch of the colossal and + patriotic works of the Earls and Dukes of Bedford, ‘whereby they had + drained and reclaimed three hundred thousand acres of land drowned in + water, and brought them into cultivation, and thus converted into fertile + fields a vast morass extending over seven counties in England.’ Could the + system which had inspired such enterprise be justly denounced as baneful? + </p> + <p> + To show the means of the country to sustain even a much-increasing + population, and that those means were in operation, he entered into one of + the most original and interesting calculations that was perhaps ever + offered to the House of Commons. Reminding the House that in the preceding + year (1845) the farmers of England, at a cost of two millions sterling, + had imported two hundred and eighty thousand tons of guano, he proceeded + to estimate what would be the effect on the productive powers of the land + of that novel application. Two hundred thousand tons, or, in other words, + four million hundred-weight, were expended on the land in 1845. Half of + these, he assumed, would be applied to the growth of wheat, and the other + half to the growth of turnips preparatory to the wheat crop of the ensuing + year. According to the experiments tried and recorded in the Royal + Agricultural Journal, it would seem that by the application of two + hundred-weight of guano to an acre of wheat land, the produce would be + increased by one quarter per acre. At this rate, one hundred thousand + tons, or two million hundred-weight of guano would add one million + quarters of wheat to the crop, or bread for one year for one million of + people. But as he was very careful never to over-state a case, Lord George + assumed, that it would require three hundred hundredweight of guano to an + acre to produce an extra quarter of wheat. According to this estimate, one + hundred thousand tons of guano, applied to the land in 1845, must have + added six hundred and sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixty-six + quarters of grain to the wheat crop, or, in other words, bread for six + hundred and sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixty-six additional + mouths. ‘And now for turnips,’ he continued. The Norfolk authorities whom + he quoted have in like manner proved that two hundred-weight of guano will + add ten tons per acre to the turnip crop. But again, for fear of + exaggeration, he supposed that three hundred-weight would be requisite to + create such increased fertility. In this case, two million hundredweight + of guano would add six million six hundred and sixty-six thousand six + hundred and sixty tons to the natural unmanured produce of the crop. Now + it is generally considered that one ton of Swedes would last twenty sheep + three weeks, and that each sheep should gain half a pound of meat per + week, or one pound and a half in three weeks; thus twenty sheep feeding on + one ton of turnips in three weeks should in the aggregate make, as the + graziers say, thirty pounds of mutton. But to be safe in his estimate, he + would assume that one ton of turnips makes only half this quantity. + ‘Multiply, then,’ exclaimed Bentinck with the earnest air of a crusader, + ‘six million six hundred and sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixty by + fifteen, and you have no less than ninety-nine million nine hundred and + ninety-nine thousand and nine hundred pounds of mutton as the fruits of + one hundred thousand tons of guano; which, at ninety-two pounds per man—the + average Englishman’s allowance—affords meat for one million eight + hundred and sixty thousand nine hundred and fifty-five—nearly two + million of her Majesty’s subjects.’ + </p> + <p> + This is a specimen of those original and startling calculations to which + the House was soon to become accustomed from his lips. They were received + at first with astonishment and incredulity; but they were never impugned. + The fact is, he was extremely cautious in his data, and no man was more + accustomed ever to impress upon his friends the extreme expediency of not + over-stating a case. It should also be remarked of Lord George Bentinck, + that in his most complicated calculations he never sought aid from notes. + </p> + <p> + We have necessarily only noticed a few of the traits of this remarkable + performance. Its termination was impressive. + </p> + <p> + ‘We have heard in the course of these discussions a good deal about an + ancient monarchy, a reformed House of Commons, and a proud aristocracy. + Sir, with regard to our ancient monarchy, I have no observation to make; + but, if so humble an individual as myself might be permitted to whisper, a + word in the ear of that illustrious and royal personage who, as he stands + nearest, so is he justly dearest, to her who sits upon the throne, I would + take leave to say, that I cannot but think he listened to ill advice, + when, on the first night of this great discussion, he allowed himself to + be seduced by the first minister of the crown to come down to this House + to usher in, to give <i>éclat</i>, and as it were by reflection from the + queen, to give the semblance of the personal sanction of her Majesty to a + measure which, be it for good or for evil, a great majority at least of + the landed aristocracy of England, of Scotland, and of Ireland, imagine + fraught with deep injury, if not ruin, to them + </p> + <p> + —a measure which, not confined in its operation to this great class, + is calculated to grind down countless smaller interests engaged in the + domestic trades and, interests of the empire, transferring the profits of + all these interests—English, Scotch, Irish, and Colonial + </p> + <p> + —great and small alike, from Englishmen, from Scotchmen, and from + Irishmen, to Americans, to Frenchmen, to Russians, to Poles, to Prussians, + and to Germans. Sir, I come now to the reformed House of Commons; and as + one who was a party to that great measure, I cannot but feel a deep + interest in its success, and more especially in that portion of it which + extended the franchise to the largest and the most respectable body in the + kingdom—I mean the landed tenantry of England; and deeply should I + regret should any large proportion of those members who have been sent to + Parliament to represent them in this House, prove to be the men to bring + lasting dishonour upon themselves, their constituencies, and this House, + by an act of tergiversation so gross as to be altogether unprecedented in + the annals of any reformed or unreformed House of Commons. Sir, lastly, I + come to the “proud aristocracy.” We are a proud aristocracy, but if we are + proud, it is that we are proud in the chastity of our honour. If we + assisted in ‘41 in turning the Whigs out of office, because we did not + consider a fixed duty of eight shillings a quarter on foreign corn a + sufficient protection, it was with honesty of purpose and in + single-mindedness we did so; and as we were not before the fact, we will + not be accomplices after the fact in the fraud by which the Whig ministers + were expelled from power. If we are a proud aristocracy, we are proud of + our honour, inasmuch as we never have been guilty, and never can be + guilty, of double-dealing with the farmers of England—of swindling + our opponents, deceiving our friends, or betraying our constituents.’ + </p> + <p> + The division was called. The West-India interest, notwithstanding the + amendment was moved by the member for Bristol, deserted the + Protectionists. Deaf to the appeals, and the remonstrances, and the + warnings of Lord George, one of their leading members replied, with a + smile of triumphant content, that ‘they had made a satisfactory + arrangement for themselves.’ How satisfactory did the West-Indians find it + four months subsequently? All the shipping interest deserted the land. + They were for everything free, except navigation; there was no danger of + that being interfered with; ‘it rested on quite distinct grounds—national + grounds.’ They were warned, but they smiled in derisive self-complacency. + Lord George Bentinck lived to have the West-India interest and the + shipping interest on their knees to him, to defend their perilled or to + restore their ruined fortunes; and with characteristic generosity and + proud consistency, he undertook the task, and sacrificed his life in the + attempt. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these terrible defalcations, when the numbers were + announced, at nearly four o’clock in the morning, the majority had not + reached those three magical figures supposed necessary, under the + circumstances, to success. In a house of five hundred and eighty-one + members present, the amendment of the Protectionists was defeated only by + ninety-seven; and two hundred and forty-two gentlemen, in spite of + desertion, difficulty, and defeat, still maintained the ‘chastity of their + honour.’ + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Irish Question</i> +</pre> + <p> + IN THE meantime, besides the prolonged and unforeseen resistance of the + Protectionists, there were other and unexpected causes at work which + equally, or perhaps even more powerfully tended to the fulfilment of the + scheme of delay, which Lord George Bentinck had recommended his friends to + adopt and encourage. + </p> + <p> + In the latter months of the year 1845, there broke out in some of the + counties of Ireland one of those series of outrages which have hitherto + periodically occurred in districts of that country. Assassination and + crimes of violence were rife: men on the queen’s highway were shot from + behind hedges, or suddenly torn from their horses and beaten to death with + clubs; houses were visited in the night by bodies of men, masked and armed—their + owners dragged from their beds, and, in the presence of their wives and + children, maimed and mutilated; the administration of unlawful oaths, with + circumstances of terror, indicated the existence of secret confederations, + whose fell intents, profusely and ostentatiously announced by threatening + letters, were frequently and savagely perpetrated. + </p> + <p> + These barbarous distempers had their origin in the tenure of land in + Ireland, and in the modes of its occupation. A combination of causes, + political, social, and economical, had for more than a century unduly + stimulated the population of a country which had no considerable resources + except in the soil. That soil had become divided into minute allotments, + held by a pauper tenantry, at exorbitant rents, of a class of middlemen, + themselves necessitous, and who were mere traders in land. A fierce + competition raged amid the squalid multitude for these strips of earth + which were their sole means of existence. To regulate this fatal rivalry, + and restrain this emulation of despair, the peasantry, enrolled in secret + societies, found refuge in an inexorable code. He who supplanted another + in the occupation of the soil was doomed by an occult tribunal, from which + there was no appeal, to a terrible retribution. His house was visited in + the night by whitefeet and ribbonmen—his doom was communicated to + him, by the post, in letters, signed by Terry Alt, or Molly M’Guire, or he + was suddenly shot, like a dog, by the orders of Captain Rock. Yet even + these violent inflictions rather punished than prevented the conduct + against which they were directed. The Irish peasant had to choose between + starving and assassination. If, in deference to an anonymous mandate, he + relinquished his holding, he and those who depended on him were outcasts + and wanderers; if he retained or accepted it, his life might be the + forfeit, but subsistence was secured; and in poor and lawless countries, + the means of living are more valued than life. Those who have treated of + the agrarian crimes of Ireland have remarked, that the facility with which + these outrages have been committed has only been equalled by the + difficulty of punishing them. A murder, perpetrated at noonday, in the + sight of many persons, cannot be proved in a court of justice. The + spectators are never witnesses; and it has been inferred from this, that + the outrage is national, and that the heart of the populace is with the + criminal. But though a chief landlord, or a stipendiary magistrate, may + occasionally be sacrificed, the great majority of victims are furnished by + the humblest class. Not sympathy, but terror, seals the lip and clouds the + eye of the bystander. And this is proved by the fact that while those who + have suffered have almost always publicly declared that they were unable + to recognize their assailants, and believed them to be strangers, they + have frequently, in confidence, furnished the police with the names of the + guilty. + </p> + <p> + Thus, there is this remarkable characteristic of the agrarian anarchy of + Ireland which marks it out from all similar conditions of other countries: + it is a war of the poor against the poor. + </p> + <p> + Before the rapid increase of population had forced governments to study + political economy and to investigate the means of subsisting a people, + statesmen had contented themselves by attributing to political causes + these predial disturbances, and by recommending for them political + remedies. The course of time, which had aggravated the condition of the + Irish peasantry, had increased the numbers, the wealth, and the general + importance of those of the middle classes of Ireland who professed the + Roman Catholic faith. Shut out from the political privileges of the + constitution, these formed a party of discontent that was a valuable ally + to the modern Whigs, too long excluded from that periodical share of power + which is the life-blood of a parliamentary government and the safeguard of + a constitutional monarchy. The misgovernment of Ireland became therefore a + stock topic of the earlier Opposition of the present century; and + advocating the cause of their clients, who wished to become mayors, and + magistrates, and members of the legislature, they argued that in the + concession of those powers and dignities, and perhaps in the discreet + confiscation of the property of the Church, the only cures could be found + for threatening notices, robbery of arms, administering of unlawful oaths, + burglary, murder, and arson. + </p> + <p> + Yet if these acts of violence were attributable to defective political + institutions, why, as was usually the case, were they partial in their + occurrence? Why were they limited to particular districts? If political + grievances were the cause, the injustice would be as sharp in tranquil + Wexford as in turbulent Tipperary. Yet out of the thirty-two counties of + Ireland, the outrages prevailed usually in less than a third. These + outrages were never insurrectionary: they were not directed against + existing authorities; they were stimulated by no public cause or clamour; + it was the private individual who was attacked, and for a private reason. + This was their characteristic. + </p> + <p> + But as time elapsed, two considerable events occurred: the Roman Catholic + restrictions were repealed, and the Whigs became ministers. + Notwithstanding these great changes, the condition of the Irish peasantry + remained the same; the tenure of land was unchanged, the modes of its + occupation were unaltered, its possession was equally necessary and + equally perilous. The same circumstances produced the same consequences. + Notwithstanding even that the Irish Church had been remodelled, and its + revenues not only commuted but curtailed; notwithstanding that Roman + Catholics had not only become members of Parliament but even Parliament + had been reformed; Irish outrage became more flagrant and more extensive + than at any previous epoch—and the Whigs were ministers. + </p> + <p> + Placed in this responsible position, forced to repress the evil, the + causes of which they had so often explained, and which with their + cooperation had apparently been so effectually removed, the Whig + government were obliged to have recourse to the very means which they had + so frequently denounced when recommended by their rivals, and that, too, + on a scale of unusual magnitude and severity. They proposed for the + adoption of Parliament one of those measures which would suspend the + constitution of Ireland, and which are generally known by the name of + Coercion Acts. + </p> + <p> + The main and customary provisions of these Coercion Acts were of severe + restraint, and scarcely less violent than the conduct they were + constructed to repress. They invested the lord lieutenant with power to + proclaim a district as disturbed, and then to place its inhabitants + without the pale of the established law; persons out of their dwellings + between sunset and sunrise were liable to transportation; and to secure + the due execution of the law, prisoners were tried before military + tribunals, and not by their peers, whose verdicts, from sympathy or + terror, were usually found to baffle justice. + </p> + <p> + These Coercion Acts were effectual; they invariably obtained their end, + and the proclaimed districts became tranquil. But they were an affair of + police, not of government; essentially temporary, their effect was almost + as transient as their sway, and as they were never accompanied with any + deep and sincere attempt to cope with the social circumstances which + produced disorder, the recurrence of the chronic anarchy was merely an + affair of time. Whether it were that they did not sufficiently apprehend + the causes, or that they shrank from a solution which must bring them in + contact with the millions of a surplus population, there seems always to + have been an understanding between the public men of both parties, that + the Irish difficulty should be deemed a purely political, or at the utmost + a religious one. And even so late as 1846, no less a personage than the + present chief secretary, put forward by his party to oppose an Irish + Coercion Bill which themselves had loudly called for, declared that he + could not sanction its penal enactments unless they were accompanied by + the remedial measures that were necessary, to wit, an Irish Franchise + Bill, and a Bill for the amendment of municipal corporations! + </p> + <p> + When Sir Robert Peel, in 1841, after a memorable opposition of ten years, + acceded to office, sustained by all the sympathies of the country, his + Irish policy, not sufficiently noticed amid the vast and urgent questions + with which he had immediately to deal, was, however, to the political + observer significant and interesting. As a mere matter of party tactics, + it was not for him too much to impute Irish disturbances to political and + religious causes, even if the accumulated experience of the last ten years + were not developing a conviction in his mind, that the methods hitherto + adopted to ensure the tranquillity of that country were superficial and + fallacious. His cabinet immediately recognized a distinction between + political and predial sources of disorder. The first, they resolved into a + mere system of agitation, no longer justifiable by the circumstances, and + this they determined to put down. The second, they sought in the + conditions under which land was occupied, and these they determined to + investigate. Hence, on the one hand, the O’Connell prosecution: on the + other, the Devon commission. + </p> + <p> + This was the bold and prudent policy of a minister who felt he had the + confidence of the country and was sustained by great parliamentary + majorities; and when the summoner of monster meetings was convicted, and + the efficient though impartial manner in which the labours of the land + commission were simultaneously conducted came to be bruited about, there + seemed at last some prospect of the system of political quackery of which + Ireland had been so long the victim being at last subverted. But there is + nothing in which the power of circumstances is more evident than in + politics. They baffle the forethought of statesmen, and control even the + apparently inflexible laws of national development and decay. + </p> + <p> + Had the government of 1841 succeeded in its justifiable expectation of + terminating the trade of political agitation in Ireland, armed with all + the authority and all the information with which the labours of the land + commission would have furnished them, they would in all probability have + successfully grappled with the real causes of Irish misery and misrule. + They might have thoroughly reformed the modes by which land is holden and + occupied; have anticipated the spontaneous emigration that now rages by an + administrative enterprise scarcely more costly than the barren loan of + ‘47, and which would have wafted native energies to imperial shores; have + limited under these circumstances the evil of the potato famine, even if + the improved culture of the interval might not have altogether prevented + that visitation; while the laws which regulated the competition between + home and foreign industry in agricultural produce might have been modified + with so much prudence, or, if necessary, ultimately repealed with so much + precaution, that those rapid and startling vicissitudes that have so + shattered the social fabric of Ireland might altogether have been avoided. + </p> + <p> + But it was decreed that it should be otherwise. Having achieved the + incredible conviction of O’Connell, by an Irish jury, the great culprit + baffled the vengeance of the law by a quirk which a lawyer only could have + devised. As regards his Irish policy, Sir Robert Peel never recovered this + blow, the severity of which was proportionably increased by its occurrence + at a moment of unprecedented success. Resolute not to recur to his ancient + Orangeism, yet desperate after his discomfiture of rallying a moderate + party around his ministry, his practical mind, more clear-sighted than + foreseeing, was alarmed at the absence of all influences for the + government of Ireland. The tranquillity which might result from a reformed + tenure of the soil, must, if attainable, be a distant blessing, and at + present he saw only the obstacles to its fulfilment—prejudiced + landlords, and the claims and necessities of pauper millions. He shrank + from a theory which might be an illusion. He required a policy for the + next post and the next division. There was in his view only one course to + take, to outbid his predecessors as successfully in Irish politics as he + was doing in taxes and tariffs. He resolved to appropriate the liberal + party of Ireland, and merge it into the great Conservative confederation + which was destined to destroy so many things. He acted with promptitude + and energy, for Sir Robert Peel never hesitated when he had made up his + mind. His real character was very different from his public reputation. + Far from being timid and wary, he was audacious and even headstrong. It + was his cold and constrained demeanour that misled the public. There never + was a man who did such rash things in so circumspect a manner. He had been + fortunate in early disembarrassing himself of the Orange counsellors who + had conducted his Irish questions when in opposition; vacant judgeships + had opportunely satisfied the recognized and respectable claims of Mr. + Serjeant Jackson and Mr. Lefroy; and so Sir Robert Peel, without a qualm, + suddenly began to govern Ireland by sending it ‘messages of peace.’ + </p> + <p> + They took various forms; sometimes a Charitable Bequests Act virtually + placed the Roman Catholic hierarchy in friendly equality with the prelates + of the Established Church; sometimes a ‘godless college’ called forth a + moan from alarmed and irritated Oxford; the endowment of Maynooth struck + wider and deeper, and the middle-classes of England, roused from their + religious lethargy, called in vain to the rescue of a Protestantism + betrayed. But the minister was unshaken. Successful and self-sufficient, + impressed with a conviction that his government in duration would rival + that of a Walpole or a Pitt, and exceed both in lustre, he treated every + remonstrance with imperious disdain. He had even accustomed his mind to + contemplate an ecclesiastical adjustment of Ireland which would have + allied in that country the Papacy with the State, and have terminated the + constitutional supremacy of the Anglican Church, when suddenly, in the + very heat of all this arrogant fortune, the mighty fabric of delusion + shivered and fell to the ground. + </p> + <p> + An abused and indignant soil repudiated the ungrateful race that had + exhausted and degraded its once exuberant bosom. The land refused to hold + those who would not hold the land on terms of justice and of science. All + the economical palliatives and political pretences of long years seemed + only to aggravate the suffering and confusion. The poor-rate was levied + upon a community of paupers, and the ‘godless colleges’ were denounced by + Rome as well as Oxford. + </p> + <p> + After a wild dream of famine and fever, imperial loans, rates in aid, + jobbing public works, confiscated estates, constituencies + self-disfranchised, and St. Peter’s bearding St. James’s in a spirit + becoming Christendom rather than Europe, time topped the climax of Irish + misgovernment; and by the publication of the census of 1851, proved that + the millions with whose evils no statesmen would sincerely deal, but whose + condition had been the pretext for so much empiricism, had disappeared, + and nature, more powerful than politicians, had settled the ‘great + difficulty.’ + </p> + <p> + Ere the publication of that document, the mortal career of Sir Robert Peel + had closed, and indeed several of the circumstances to which we have just + alluded did not occur in his administration; but the contrast between his + policy and its results was nevertheless scarcely less striking. It was in + ‘45 that he transmitted his most important ‘message of peace’ to Ireland, + to be followed by an autumnal visit of her Majesty to that kingdom, + painted in complacent and prophetic colours by her prime minister. The + visit was not made. In the course of that autumn, ten counties of Ireland + were in a state of anarchy; and, mainly in that period, there were 136 + homicides committed, 138 houses burned, 483 houses attacked, and 138 fired + into; there were 544 cases of aggravated assault, and 551 of robbery of + arms; there were 89 cases of bands appearing in arms; there were more than + 200 cases of administering unlawful oaths; and there were 1,944 cases of + sending threatening letters. By the end of the year, the general crime of + Ireland had doubled in amount and enormity compared with the preceding + year. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Cure for Irish Ills</i> +</pre> + <p> + LORD GEORGE BENTINCK had large but defined views as to the policy which + should be pursued with respect to Ireland. He was a firm supporter of the + constitutional preponderance allotted to the land in our scheme of + government, not from any jealousy or depreciation of the other great + sources of public wealth, for his sympathy with the trading classes was + genuine, but because he believed that constitutional preponderance, while + not inconsistent with great commercial prosperity, to be the best security + for public liberty and the surest foundation of enduring power. But as + reality was the characteristic of his vigorous and sagacious nature, he + felt that a merely formal preponderance, one not sustained and authorized + by an equivalent material superiority, was a position not calculated to + endure in the present age, and one especially difficult to maintain with + our rapidly increasing population. For this reason he was always very + anxious to identify the policy of Great Britain with that of Ireland, the + latter being a country essentially agricultural; and he always shrank from + any proposition which admitted a difference in the interests of the two + kingdoms. + </p> + <p> + Liberal politicians, who some years ago were very loud for justice to + Ireland, and would maintain at all hazards the identity of the interests + of the two countries, have of late frequently found it convenient to omit + that kingdom from their statistical bulletins of national prosperity. Lord + George Bentinck, on the contrary, would impress on his friends, that if + they wished to maintain the territorial constitution of their country, + they must allow no sectarian considerations to narrow the basis of + sympathy on which it should rest; and in the acres and millions of + Ireland, in its soil and its people, equally neglected, he would have + sought the natural auxiliaries of our institutions. To secure for our + Irish fellow-subjects a regular market for their produce; to develop the + resources of their country by public works on a great scale; and to obtain + a decent provision for the Roman Catholic priesthood from the land and not + from the consolidated fund, were three measures which he looked upon as in + the highest degree conservative. + </p> + <p> + When the project of the cabinet of 1846 had transpired, Lord George at + once declared, and was in the habit of reiterating his opinion, that ‘it + would ruin the 500,000 small farmers of Ireland,’ and he watched with + great interest and anxiety the conduct of their representatives in the + House of Commons. It was with great difficulty that he could bring himself + to believe, that political liberalism would induce the members for the + south and west of Ireland to support a policy in his opinion so fatal to + their countrymen as the unconditional repeal of the corn laws; and, + indeed, before they took that step, which almost all of them have since + publicly regretted and attempted to compensate for by their subsequent + votes in the House of Commons, the prospect of their conduct frequently + and considerably varied. + </p> + <p> + The Earl of St. Germans, the chief secretary of the Lord Lieutenant, + introduced the Coercion Bill to the House of Lords on the 24th of + February, and, considering the exigency, and the important reference to it + in the speech from the throne, this step on the part of the government was + certainly not precipitate. It was observed that the strongest supporters + of the measure in the House of Lords on this occasion were the leaders of + the Whig party. Lord Lansdowne, ‘so far from complaining of the Government + for bringing forward the measure at so early a period of the session, was + ready to admit, that after the declaration of her Majesty, a declaration + unhappily warranted by facts known to many of their lordships, every day + was lost in which an effectual remedy was not at least attempted to put an + end to a state of society so horrible.’ Lord Clanricarde ‘gave his ready + assent to the bill;’ and even Lord Grey, ‘though he regretted the + necessity for this measure, was of opinion that the chief secretary had + established a sufficient case for arming the executive government with + some additional powers.’ When, therefore, at the end of the month of + March, Lord George Bentinck was invited to attend a meeting of his + friends, held at the house of Mr. Bankes, to consider the course which + should be adopted by the Protectionist party with respect to the Coercion + Bill, it was assumed, as a matter of course, that the coalition of the + government and the Whigs must secure the passing of the measure, even if + the Protectionists were disposed, for the chance of embarrassing the + ministry, to resist it; and of course there was no great tendency in that + direction. Men are apt to believe that crime and coercion are inevitably + associated. There was abundance of precedent for the course, which seemed + also a natural one. + </p> + <p> + In less than a century there had been seventeen coercive acts for Ireland, + a circumstance which might make some ponder whether such legislation were + as efficacious as it was violent. However, assassination rife, Captain + Rock and Molly M’Guire out at night, Whigs and Tories all agreed, it was + easy to catch at a glance the foregone conclusion of the meeting. One + advantage of having a recognized organ of a political party is, that its + members do not decide too precipitately. They listen before they + determine, and if they have a doubt, they will grant the benefit of it to + him whose general ability they have acknowledged, and to whom they + willingly give credit for having viewed the question at issue in a more + laborious and painful manner than themselves. Without a leader, they + commit themselves to opinions carelessly and hastily adopted. This is + fatal to a party in debate; but it often entails very serious consequences + when the mistakes have been committed in a less public and responsible + scene than the House of Commons. + </p> + <p> + In the present case, there was only one individual who took any + considerable lead in the management of the party who ventured to suggest + the expediency of pausing before they pledged themselves to support an + unconstitutional measure, proposed by a government against which they were + arrayed under circumstances of urgent and unusual opposition. The support + of an unconstitutional measure may be expedient, but it cannot be denied + that it is the most indubitable evidence of confidence. This suggestion, + though received with kindness, elicited little sympathy, and Lord George + Bentinck, who had not yet spoken, and who always refrained at these + meetings from taking that directing part which he never wished to assume, + marking the general feeling of those present, and wishing to guide it to a + practical result advantageous to their policy, observed that the support + of the Coercion Bill by the Protectionists, ought to be made conditional + on the government proving the sincerity of their policy by immediately + proceeding with their measure; that if life were in such danger in Ireland + as was officially stated, and as he was bound to believe, no Corn or + Customs’ Bill could compete in urgency with the necessity of pressing + forward a bill, the object of which was to arrest wholesale assassination. + He was, therefore, for giving the government a hearty support, provided + they proved they were in earnest in their determination to put down murder + and outrage in Ireland, by giving a priority in the conduct of public + business to the measure in question. + </p> + <p> + This view of the situation, which was certainly adroit, for it combined + the vindication of order with an indefinite delay of the measures for the + repeal of the protective system, seemed to please every one; there was a + murmur of approbation, and when one of the most considerable of the + country gentlemen expressed the prevalent feeling, and added that all that + was now to be desired was that Lord George Bentinck would kindly consent + to be the organ of the party on the occasion, and state their view to the + House, the cheering was very hearty. It came from the hearts of more than + two hundred gentlemen, scarcely one of whom had a personal object in this + almost hopeless struggle beyond the maintenance of a system which he + deemed advantageous to his country; but they wished to show their generous + admiration of the man who, in the dark hour of difficulty and desertion, + had proved his courage and resource, had saved them from public contempt, + and taught them to have confidence in themselves. And after all, there are + few rewards in life which equal such sympathy from such men. The favour of + courts and the applause of senates may have their moments of excitement + and delight, but the incident of deepest and most enduring gratification + in public life is to possess the cordial confidence of a high-spirited + party, for it touches the heart as well as the intellect, and combines all + the softer feelings of private life with the ennobling consciousness of + public duty. + </p> + <p> + Lord George Bentinck, deeply moved, consented to become the organ of the + Protectionists in this matter; but he repeated in a marked manner his + previous declaration, that his duty must be limited to the occasion: he + would serve with them, but he could not pretend to be the leader of a + party. In that capacity, however, the government chose to recognize him, + and there occurred in consequence, very shortly after this meeting, a + scene in the House of Commons, which occasioned at the time a great deal + of surprise and scandal. The Secretary of the Treasury, in pursuance of + one of his principal duties, which is to facilitate by mutual + understanding the conduct of public business in the House of Commons, + applied to Lord George Bentinck, confessedly at the request of Sir Robert + Peel, to ‘enter into some arrangement’ as to the conduct of public + business before Easter. The arrangement suggested was, that if the + Protectionists supported the Coercion Bill, which it was the wish of Sir + Robert Peel should be read a first time before Easter, the third reading + of the Bill for the Repeal of the Corn Laws should be postponed until + after Easter. The interview by appointment took place in the Vote Office, + where the Secretary of the Treasury ‘called Lord George aside’ and made + this proposition. Lord George stated in reply, ‘what he believed to be the + views of the party with whom he served,’ and they were those we have + already intimated. The ‘arrangement’ was concluded, and it was at the same + time agreed that certain questions, of which notice had been given by Lord + John Russell, relative to the progress of these very measures, should be + allowed by the Protectionists to pass <i>sub silentio</i>. This ‘pledge,’ + made by the noble lord for himself and his friends, was ‘scrupulously + observed.’ Nevertheless, after all this, a letter arrived from the + Secretary of the Treasury, addressed to the noble lord, stating that the + secretary ‘had not been authorized in saying as much as he had said,’ and + requesting that the conversation which had taken place might be considered + private. Upon this, Lord George Bentinck drew up a statement, ‘setting + forth all that had passed,’ and forwarded it to the secretary as his + reply. Subsequently, he met that gentleman, who admitted that ‘every word + in that statement, as respected the conversation which had passed, was + perfectly correct.’ + </p> + <p> + This being the state of the case, on the second night of the debate on Mr. + Eliot Yorke’s amendment, which we have noticed, and after the adjournment + had been moved and carried, the government proceeded with some motions of + form, which indicated their intention to secure, if possible, the third + reading of the Corn Bill before Easter. Upon this, Lord George Bentinck, + after a hurried and apparently agitated conversation with the Secretary of + the Treasury and others connected with the government, rose to move the + adjournment of the House. He then gave as his reason the circumstances + which we have briefly conveyed. A scene of considerable confusion + occurred; the Secretary of the Treasury admitted the correctness of the + statement; the First Lord of the Treasury rejected the alleged authority + of the secretary. Mr. Tuffnell, on the part of the Whigs, intimated that + public business could not be carried on if the recognized organs were + repudiated by their chief. The feeling of all parties coincided with Mr. + Tuffnell; finally, an Irish repealer rose and announced that the + government were bartering their Corn Bill to secure coercion to Ireland. + Lord George Bentinck said the Coercion Bill was ‘a second Curfew Act,’ + that nothing but necessity could justify it, and if it were necessary it + must be immediate. Sir Robert remained irritated and obstinate. He would + not give up a stage either of the Corn Bill or the Coercion Bill; he + wanted to advance both before Easter. The mere division of the House + between Free-traders and Protectionists had already ceased; there were + breakers ahead, and it was not difficult from this night to perceive that + the course of the government would not be so summary as they had once + expected. + </p> + <p> + This strange interlude occurred after midnight on the 26th of March. On + Friday, the 27th, the House divided on the amendment of Mr. Eliot Yorke, + and the Corn Bill was read for the second time. On the reassembling of the + House on Monday, the 30th, an extraordinary scene took place. + </p> + <p> + It appears that the cabinet, after painful deliberation, had arrived at + the conclusion that, notwithstanding the importance of sending up the Corn + Bill to the House of Lords before Easter, it was absolutely necessary to + proceed at once with the Coercion Bill; and it was resolved that the + Secretary of State should on this evening lay before the House the facts + and reasons which ‘induce the Government to believe in the necessity of + the measure.’ Mr. O’Connell and his followers had already announced their + intention of opposing the first reading of the bill, an allowable but very + unusual course. It is competent to the House of Commons to refuse a first + reading to any bill sent down to it; but the journals afford few examples + of the exercise of such a privilege. A member of the House of Lords may + lay on the table, as a matter of pure right, any bill which he thinks + proper to introduce, and it is read a first time as a matter of course; + the orders of the House of Commons are different, and a member must obtain + permission before he introduces a bill. This permission is occasionally + refused; but when a bill comes from the House of Lords, the almost + invariable custom is to read it for the first time without discussion. + There are, however, as we have observed, instances to the contrary, and + the Irish Coercion Bill of ‘33 was one of them. So pregnant a precedent + could not be forgotten on the present occasion. The government therefore + were prepared for an opposition to the first reading of their bill; but + trusting to the strength of their case and the assumed support of the Whig + party, they believed that this opposition would not be stubborn, more + especially as there were numerous stages of the measure on which the views + of its opponents might be subsequently expressed, and as they themselves + were prepared to engage that they would not proceed further than this + first reading until the Corn Bill had passed the House of Commons. The + consternation, therefore, of the government could scarcely be concealed, + when they found on Monday night that they had to encounter a + well-organized party opposition, headed by Sir William Somerville, and + sanctioned and supported in debate by Lord John Russell and Sir George + Grey. + </p> + <p> + It would seem indeed a difficult and somewhat graceless office for the + Whigs to oppose the first reading of a government bill, concerning, too, + the highest duties of administration, which had received such unqualified + approval from all the leading members of their party in the House of + Lords, who had competed in declarations of its necessity and + acknowledgments of its moderation, while they only regretted the too tardy + progress of a measure so indispensable to the safety of the country and + the security of her Majesty’s subjects. A curious circumstance, however, + saved them from this dilemma, which yet in the strange history of faction + they had nevertheless in due time to encounter. + </p> + <p> + As the Coercion Bill coming from the Lords appeared on the paper of the + day in the form of a notice of motion, the Secretary of State, this being + a day on which orders have precedence, had to move that such orders of the + day should be postponed, so that he might proceed with the motion on the + state of Ireland, of which notice had been given. The strict rule of the + House is, that on Mondays and Fridays, orders of the day should have + precedence of notices of motion, so that it was impossible for the + Secretary of State to make his motion, that a certain bill (the Protection + of Life—Ireland—Bill) should be read a first time without + permission of the House, a permission always granted as a matter of course + on such nights to the government, since the business which can be brought + forward, whether in the shape of orders or motions, is purely government + business, and thus the interests and privilege of no independent member of + Parliament can be affected by a relaxation of the rules which the + convenience of a ministry and the conduct of public business occasionally + require. However, on this night, no sooner had the Secretary of State + made, in a few formal words, this formal request, than up sprang Sir + William Somerville to move an amendment, that the orders of the day should + not be postponed, which he supported in a spirited address, mainly on the + ground of the great inconvenience that must be suffered from the + postponement of the Corn Bill. The motion of the Secretary of State would + produce a long, exciting, and exasperating debate. Time would be lost—for + what? To advance one stage of a measure which it was avowedly not the + intention of the government to press at the present moment. Sir William + concluded with a very earnest appeal to Lord George Bentinck and his + friends, who might at no very distant period have the government of + Ireland entrusted to them, not, for the sake of a momentary postponement + of the Corn Bill, to place themselves, by voting for this measure of + coercion, in collision with the Irish nation.’ He called upon Lord George + Bentinck to weigh the position in which he was placed. + </p> + <p> + This amendment was seconded by Mr. Smith O’Brien, the member for the + county of Limerick, who warned the government that they ‘were entering on + a contest which would continue for months.’ He taunted the minister with + governing the country without a party. What chance was there of + reconciliation with his estranged friends? After the treatment of that + ‘disavowed plenipotentiary,’ the Secretary of the Treasury, who would be + again found willing to undertake the mission of patching up a truce? He + was not present when the terms of the treaty were exposed: but he + understood, that if the government introduced this Coercion Bill before + Easter, then that Lord George Bentinck would deem it wise, proper, and + expedient; but if after Easter, then the complexion and character of the + bill were, in the noble lord’s judgment, utterly transformed, and it was + declared to be quite untenable and unconstitutional. Was that the kind of + support on which the government calculated for passing this measure? + </p> + <p> + The Secretary of State made a dexterous, conciliatory, almost humble + address, in reply to the taunts of Mr. Smith O’Brien. He said that he was + well aware of the fact of which he had been just reminded, that, in the + present state of parties, the declared adherents of the government were a + small minority; he even, while excusing the delay in the progress of the + Irish measure, reminded the House of the curious fact, that since the + meeting of Parliament, two successive Irish secretaries had lost their + seats in the House of Commons in consequence of supporting the + administration of which they were members. + </p> + <p> + The case of the government was really so good and clear, that for a moment + it seemed the opposition could hardly persist in their unusual proceeding: + but this was a night of misfortunes. + </p> + <p> + There had been for some time a smouldering feud between the secretary and + the Recorder of Dublin. The learned gentleman had seized the occasion + which the present state of parties afforded, and in the course of the + recent debate on the second reading of the Corn Bill, had declared that + the asserted famine in Ireland was, on the part of the government, ‘a + great exaggeration.’ The secretary had addressed himself particularly to + this observation in his speech on the 27th, the night of the division, and + had noticed it in a tone of acerbity. He had even intimated that it might + have been used by one who was a disappointed solicitor for high office, + and whom the government had declined to assist in an unwarrantable + arrangement of the duties and salary of the judicial post he at present + occupied. The learned Recorder, justly indignant at this depreciating + innuendo, resolved to make an opportunity on the following Monday for his + vindication and retort. He rose, therefore, immediately after the skilful + and winning appeal of the secretary, and pronounced an invective against + the right honourable gentleman which was neither ill-conceived nor + ill-delivered. It revived the passions that for a moment seemed inclined + to lull, and the Protectionists, who on this occasion were going to + support the government, forgot the common point of union, while the + secretary was described as ‘the evil genius of the cabinet.’ + </p> + <p> + After this, it was impossible to arrest the course of debate. Mr. + O’Connell, who appeared to be in a state of great debility, made one of + those acute points for which he was distinguished. He said the government + complained of the threat held out by those who opposed the bill, that they + would avail themselves of the forms of the House to give it every + opposition in their power. But what did the government do themselves? Why, + they were trying to trample upon one of the sessional orders and to + abrogate the forms of the House in order to coerce the Irish people. Lord + George Bentinck said, that ‘the chief minister had told them, that this + was a bill to put down murder and assassination; in that case, if this + bill were delayed, the blood of every man murdered in Ireland was on the + head of her Majesty’s ministers.’ Sir George Grey followed, and avoiding + any discussion of the state of Ireland, in which Lord George had entered, + supported the amendment of Sir William Somerville, on the broad ground + that the bill for the repeal of the corn laws ought not to be for a moment + delayed. ‘The debates on that measure had continued several weeks; and all + who had any lengthened parliamentary experience must be convinced, that if + the further progress of the Corn Bill was postponed until after Easter, + they would have much longer and protracted debates in its future stages, + than if the bill were pushed <i>de die in diem</i>. As he had understood, + the government had intended that this bill should have gone up to the + House of Lords before Easter, when it would have been printed, and the + second reading could have taken place at an early day after the holidays; + but if it were put off until after Easter, he would defy any man to show + any reasonable expectation of its getting to a second reading in the other + House before June, or July, or even August.’ This was encouraging, and the + plot seemed to thicken. The Secretary at War was put up by the government + to neutralize the effect of the speech of Sir George Grey, and he said, ‘I + speak not only as a cabinet minister, but also as a considerable Irish + proprietor.’ He said, ‘that anything so horrible as the state of + demoralization and crime in which many parts of Ireland were plunged, + anything so perfect as the suspension of the law in those parts of the + country, anything, in short, so complete as the abrogation of liberty that + obtained there, was, perhaps never known.’ He thought that, ‘no man and no + minister could, under these circumstances, decline to admit that every and + any measure ought to be postponed until a division had been taken, at + least upon the principle of a measure which had for its object the + suppression of these horrors.’ After such a declaration it was clear the + government were in a false position when by the same organ it had to + state, ‘that in asking to read this bill to-night, they only intended to + postpone the Corn Bill for one night.’ + </p> + <p> + Lord John Russell following, admitted, that ‘in voting for the motion of + Sir William Somerville it was not to be supposed, that if the Secretary of + State made out a case, he would not support the government bill;’ yet how + the secretary was ever to find an opportunity of making out his case, if + the amendment of Sir William Somerville was carried, was not very + apparent. Sir Robert Peel, who was disquieted by the whole proceedings + connected with the Coercion Bill, irritated by the episode of ‘the + disavowed plenipotentiary,’ from which he did not for some time recover, + and really alarmed at the indefinite prospect of delay in passing his + all-important measures which now began to open, could not conceal his + vexation in the remarks which he offered, and speaking of the amendment as + one ‘of a frivolous character,’ indignant cries of ‘No, no,’ from his + usual admirers, obliged him to withdraw the expression. His feelings were + not soothed when, later in the evening, even Mr. Cobden rose to deplore + the conduct of that minister whom he otherwise so much admired. ‘He + certainly regarded it as a great calamity. Something had actuated the + government which he could not understand. He had a perfect belief in the + sincerity of the prime minister, but in all human probability the Corn + Bill would not now enter the House of Lords before the beginning or middle + of May; and when it would come out again, heaven only knew!’ + </p> + <p> + The House now divided, and being supported by all the Protectionists + present, the government had a majority of thirty-nine, so the standing + order was for that night rescinded; and, although the hour was late for + such a statement, the secretary proceeded with the official exposition. + Notwithstanding the depressing circumstances of the previous debate, the + speech of Sir James Graham was distinguished by all that lucid arrangement + of details and that comprehensive management of his subject which + distinguished him. The statement made a great impression upon the House + and the country; but, unfortunately for the government, the more necessary + they made the measure appear, the more unjustifiable was their conduct in + not immediately and vehemently pursuing it. They had, indeed, in the + speech from the throne at the commencement of this memorable session, + taken up a false position for their campaign; and we shall see, as we + pursue this narrative of these interesting events, that the fall of Sir + Robert Peel was perhaps occasioned not so much by his repeal of the corn + laws as by the mistake in tactics which this adroit and experienced + parliamentary commander so strangely committed. + </p> + <p> + On this night of the 30th the government made no advance; immediately + after the secretary had finished, the followers of Mr. O’Connell moved the + adjournment of the House, and persisted in this line notwithstanding the + almost querulous appeal of the first minister. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Passing of O’Connell.</i> +</pre> + <p> + LORD GEORGE wrote the next morning (Tuesday, March 31st) to a friend, who + had not been able to attend the debate: ‘I look upon last night as the + most awkward night the government have had yet; I believe they would have + given their ears to have been beaten. We have now fairly set them and the + tail at loggerheads, and I cannot see how they are to get another stage of + either the tariff or Corn Bill before next Tuesday at any rate. I doubt if + they will do anything before Easter.’ + </p> + <p> + It was understood that the House would adjourn for the Easter recess on + the 8th instant. There were therefore only two nights remaining for + government business before the holidays. On the first of these (Friday, + April the 3rd), Mr. O’Connell had announced that he should state his views + at length on the condition of Ireland, and the causes of these agrarian + outrages. Accordingly, when the order of the day for resuming the + adjourned debate was read, he rose at once to propose an amendment to the + motion. He sat in an unusual place—in that generally occupied by the + leader of the opposition—and spoke from the red box, convenient to + him from the number of documents to which he had to refer. His appearance + was of great debility, and the tones of his voice were very still. His + words, indeed, only reached those who were immediately around him and the + ministers sitting on the other side of the green table, who listened with + that interest and respectful attention which became the occasion. + </p> + <p> + It was a strange and touching spectacle to those who remembered the form + of colossal energy and the clear and thrilling tones that had once + startled, disturbed, and controlled senates. Mr. O’Connell was on his legs + for nearly two hours, assisted occasionally in the management of his + documents by some devoted aide-de-camp. To the House generally it was a + performance in dumb show, a feeble old man muttering before a table; but + respect for the great parliamentary personage kept all as orderly as if + the fortunes of a party hung upon his rhetoric; and though not an accent + reached the gallery, means were taken that next morning the country should + not lose the last and not the least interesting of the speeches of one who + had so long occupied and agitated the mind of nations. + </p> + <p> + This remarkable address was an abnegation of the whole policy of Mr. + O’Connell’s career. It proved, by a mass of authentic evidence ranging + over a long term of years, that Irish outrage was the consequence of + physical misery, and that the social evils of that country could not be + successfully encountered by political remedies. To complete the picture, + it concluded with a panegyric of Ulster and a patriotic quotation from + Lord Clare. + </p> + <p> + Lord John Russell, who, as an experienced parliamentary leader, had + already made more than one effort to extricate the Whigs from the + consequences of the hearty support given to the government measures in the + other House by Lords Lansdowne and Clanricarde, and even by Lord Grey, + ventured to-night even to say that if he should agree that the House would + do well to assent to the first reading of this bill, he thought he was + bound to state also that in the future stages of it, he should have + ‘objections to offer, going to the foundations of some of its principal + provisions.’ + </p> + <p> + His speech was curious, as perhaps the last considerable manifesto of Whig + delusion respecting Ireland. Coercion Bills might be occasionally + necessary; no doubt of it; Lord Grey had once a Coercion Bill, and Lord + John Russell had voted for it; but then remedial measures ought to be + introduced with coercive ones: the evil should be repressed, but also + cured. Thus, Lord Althorp, when the government introduced their great + Coercion Bill, introduced also a measure which, besides making a great + reform in the Protestant Church of Ireland, exempted the whole Catholic + community of Ireland from the payment of church cess, which had previously + been felt as a very great grievance. On another day Lord Althorp declared + his intention of pressing through Parliament a Jury Bill, which had been + brought into the House the previous session, but which was allowed to drop + in the House of Lords. + </p> + <p> + Again, there was another declaration which Lord Althorp had made, which, + somehow or other, seemed to have been forgotten; it was a declaration with + respect to the municipal corporations of Ireland. Lord Althorp said it was + exceedingly desirable that the institutions of the two countries should be + assimilated as much as possible; and that, as a general rule, the + corporate bodies of Ireland should be the same as England. Mr. O’Connell + had said on that occasion that there was no greater grievance in Ireland + than the existence of corporations in their then shape. Lord John + contrasted this language of Lord Althorp, ‘simple, plain, emphatic, and + decided,’ with the language of the government of Sir Robert Peel; and held + up to admiration the Whig policy of 1833, certainly coercive, but with + remedial measures—a measure for the abolition of church cess, + introduced ten days before the Coercion Bill, and a promise of municipal + reform made simultaneously with the proclamation of martial law. This was + real statesmanship and touching the root of the evil. Whereas ‘Sir Robert + Peel had only consented to passing the Municipal Bill in a crippled state, + and only now (in 1846) promised, that the corporations of Ireland should + be placed on the same footing as the corporations of England.’ Who could + be surprised that such a policy-should end in famine and pestilence? + </p> + <p> + The followers of Mr. O’Connell again succeeded in adjourning the debate + until Monday the 6th. On that day Sir Robert Peel made ‘an earnest appeal’ + to extricate himself from the almost perilous position in which he found + his administration suddenly involved. In case the division on the first + reading of the Irish Bill should not take place that night, he endeavoured + to prevail on those members who had notices on the paper for the following + night (Tuesday the 7th), the last night before the holidays, to relinquish + their right and to permit the Irish debate to proceed and conclude. ‘He + had no wish to interfere with the due discussion of the measure; but he + believed that the Irish members, if they permitted the House to proceed + with the Corn Bill, by concluding the discussion on the Irish Bill, would + be rendering an essential service to their country.’ + </p> + <p> + But this earnest appeal only influenced still more the fiery resolves of + Mr. Smith O’Brien and his friends. They threw the responsibility for delay + of the Corn Bill on the government. The inconvenience which the country + suffered was occasioned by the minister, not by the Irish members. He + ought, on Friday last, to have adjourned the discussion on the Coercion + Bill until after Easter. He and other members who were on the paper for + to-morrow would willingly relinquish their right of priority in favour of + the Corn Bill, or of any measure of a remedial kind, but not in favour of + a Coercion Bill. He did not wish to have any concealment with the minister + as to the course which the Irish members would pursue. It was their + bounden duty to take care that <i>pari passu</i> with the discussion of + the Coercion Bill there should be discussions as to the misgovernment of + Ireland; and that, in the absence of any remedial measures of the + government, they should have an opportunity of suggesting such as they + thought advisable for removing those evils which they utterly denied that + the measure now before the House would remove. + </p> + <p> + In vain Sir Robert, in his blandest tones and with that remarkable command + of a temper not naturally serene which distinguished him, acknowledged to + a certain degree the propriety of the course intimated by Mr. Smith + O’Brien; but suggested at the same time that it was compatible with + allowing the Irish bill to be now read for a first time, since on its + subsequent stages Mr. O’Brien and his friends would have the full + opportunity which they desired, of laying before the House the whole + condition of the country. All was useless. No less a personage than Mr. + John O’Connell treated the appeal with contempt, and lectured the first + minister on the ‘great mistake’ which he had made. Little traits like + these revealed the true parliamentary position of the once omnipotent + leader of the great Conservative party. With the legions of the + Protectionists watching their prey in grim silence, while the liberal + sections were united in hostile manouvres against the government, it was + recognised at once that the great minister had a staff without an army; + not a reconnoitring could take place without the whole cabinet being under + orders, and scarcely a sharpshooter sallied from the opposite ranks + without the prime minister returning his fire in person. + </p> + <p> + Sir Robert Peel mournfully observed that he ‘did not wish to provoke a + recriminatory discussion,’ and he resigned himself to his fate. + Immediately the third night of the adjourned debate on the Irish bill + commenced, and was sustained principally by the Irish members until a late + hour. It had not been the intention of Lord George Bentinck to have spoken + on this occasion, though he had never been absent for a moment from his + seat, and watched all that occurred with that keen relish which was usual + with him when he thought things were going right; but having been + personally and not very courteously appealed to by the late Mr. Dillon + Browne, and deeming also the occasion, just before the holidays, a not + unhappy one, he rose and concluded the debate. His speech was not long, it + was not prepared, and it was very animated. + </p> + <p> + Recapitulating himself the main features of the disturbed district, he + said: ‘It is because of these things, sir, that I am prepared to support + at least the first reading of a bill, which I freely admit to be most + unconstitutional in itself.’ + </p> + <p> + Noticing a speech made in the course of the evening by Lord Morpeth, who + had himself once been chief secretary of the Lord Lieutenant, Lord George + thought it discreet to remind the House of the unequivocal support given + to this bill by the Whig leaders in another place: ‘Sir, I think when we + see all the great leaders of the Whig party supporting the measure + elsewhere, we cannot be justly impugned for doing as they do.’ Lord + Morpeth had referred to ‘remedial measures which he thinks should be + introduced for Ireland: to measures for the extension of the municipal, + and also of the parliamentary, franchise of that country; and he expressed + his desire to see those franchises put on the same footing as the + franchises of England.’ ‘For the life of me,’ exclaimed Lord George, ‘I + confess, I cannot see in what way the extension of political franchises of + any description in Ireland would afford a remedy for the evils which this + measure aims to suppress. I think, sir, it is impossible not to perceive + that there is a connection between agrarian outrage and the poverty of the + people.’ + </p> + <p> + After noticing the inadequate poor-law which then existed in Ireland, he + added: ‘There is also another point immediately connected with this + subject to which I must refer. I allude, sir, to the system of + absenteeism. I cannot disguise from myself the conviction, that many of + the evils of Ireland arise from the system of receiving rents by absentee + landlords who spend them in other countries. I am well aware that, in + holding this doctrine, I am not subscribing to the creed of political + economists. I am well aware that Messrs. Senior and M’Culloch hold that it + makes no difference whether the Irish landlord spends his rents in Dublin, + on his Irish estates, in London, in Bath, or elsewhere. I profess, sir, I + cannot understand that theory. I believe that the first ingredient in the + happiness of a people is, that the gentry should reside on their native + soil, and spend their rents among those from whom they receive them. I + cannot help expressing a wish that some arrangement may be made connected + with the levying of the poor-rate in Ireland, by which absentee landlords + may be made to contribute in something like a fair proportion to the wants + of the poor in the district in which they ought to reside. There is an + arrangement in the hop-growing districts in England in respect to tithe, + which might, I think, afford a very useful suggestion. There are two + tithes: the one, the ordinary tithe; the other, extraordinary; which is + levied only so long as the land is cultivated in hops. I think if there + were two poor-rates introduced into Ireland, the one applying to all + occupiers of land, and the other to all those who did not spend a certain + portion of the year on some portion of their estates in Ireland, it would + prove useful. I think, that by thus appealing to their interests, it might + induce absentee landlords to reside much more in Ireland, than is now + unfortunately the case. + </p> + <p> + ‘But, sir, I think there are other remedial measures. Some days ago, the + Secretary of State told the member for Stroud (Mr. Poulett Scrope), when + he suggested some such measure, that he was treading on dangerous ground, + and that the doctrines he was advocating might be written in letters of + blood in Ireland; but, notwithstanding all this, I still say that I think + measures might be introduced for improving the relations between landlord + and tenant in Ireland. I do not think that some guarantee might and ought + to be given to the tenantry of Ireland for the improvements they make upon + their farms. + </p> + <p> + ‘Sir, the Secretary of State, in introducing this measure, maintained a + doctrine which, I think, much more likely to be written in letters of + blood, for he bound up the question of the corn laws with the present one. + He said, that unless he could, have prevailed on his colleagues to accede + to his free-trade measures as regards corn, he would not have introduced + this bill. Why, sir, far from giving food to the people of Ireland, in my + opinion the measures of her Majesty’s ministers will take away from the + people of Ireland their food, by destroying the profits of their only + manufacture—the manufacture of corn—and injuring their + agriculture; depriving them of employment; in fact, by taking away from + them the very means of procuring subsistence. Sir, I cannot see how the + repeal of those laws affecting corn can be In any way connected with the + suppression of outrage and the protection of life. What is this but to + say, that unless we have a free trade in corn, we must be prepared to + concede a free trade in agrarian outrage—a free trade in maiming and + houghing cattle—a free trade in incendiarism—a free trade in + the burning and sacking of houses—a free trade in midnight murder, + and in noon-day assassination? What is this but telling the people of + Ireland, that assassination, murder, incendiarism, are of such light + consideration in the eyes of the Secretary of State, that their sanction + or suppression by the minister of the crown hinges upon the condition of + the corn market and the difference in the price of potatoes? + </p> + <p> + ‘Sir, what has the potato disease to do with the outrages in Ireland? Some + think a great deal. I have taken the trouble of looking into the matter. I + have examined into the state of crime in at least five counties—Tipperary, + Roscommon, Limerick, Leitrim, and Clare—and I find, that during the + three months prior to the first appearance of the potato disease, and when + in fact food was as cheap in Ireland as at almost any former period—when + plenty abounded in all quarters of the empire, that the amount of crime + exceeded that in the three months immediately following. Now, those who + doubt this statement will have an opportunity of ascertaining the + correctness of my figures, for I will not deal in general assertions. Well + then, sir, I find in the three months, May, June, and July last, that the + number of crimes committed in the five counties I have mentioned amounted + to no less than 1,180, while in the three months immediately after the + potato disease, or famine as it is called, the amount of crime committed + in the same three months was not 1,180, but 870. I should like to know, + therefore, what this agrarian outrage has to do with the potato famine; + and where is the justification for a minister coming down to this House, + and declaring that unless we pass a free-trade measure, we are not to obey + her Majesty’s commands by passing a measure for the protection of life in + Ireland. Why, sir, I think when this language reaches the people of + Ireland—coming, too, as it does from the Treasury, above all, from + the Secretary of State for the Home Department—there is indeed + danger to be apprehended that such a doctrine may be written in letters of + blood in that country. Why, sir, if we are to hear such language as this + from that minister of the crown charged with the peace of the country, we + may just as well have Captain Rock established as lord lieutenant in the + castle of Dublin, a Whitefoot for chief secretary, and Molly M’Guire + installed at Whitehall with the seals of the home department.’ + </p> + <p> + And afterwards he remarked, ‘I have been taunted that when I may be + entrusted with the government of Ireland, I should perhaps then learn that + Tyrone was an Orange county. Sir, in answer to that taunt, I must take + leave to ask what expression of mine, either in this house or out of it, + justifies any such remark? When or where can it be said that I have ever + permitted myself to know any distinction between an Orangeman and a + Catholic; when, in the whole course of my parliamentary career, have I + ever given a vote or uttered a sentiment hostile or unfriendly to the + Roman Catholics, either of England or Ireland?’ This speech, though + delivered generally in favour of the Irish bill, attracted very much the + attention, and, as it appeared afterwards, the approbation of those Irish + members, who, although sitting on the Liberal benches, did not acknowledge + the infallible authority of Mr. O’Connell, and was the origin of a + political connection between them and Lord George Bentinck, which, on more + than one subsequent occasion, promised to bring important results. + </p> + <p> + Two successive motions were now made for the adjournment of the debate, + and Sir Robert Peel at length said, that he ‘saw it was useless to + persist.’ He agreed to the adjournment until the next day, with the + understanding that if it did come on, he would name the time to which it + should be postponed after the holidays. + </p> + <p> + Upon this, Sir William Somerville made one more appeal to the minister to + postpone the further discussion of the Irish bill altogether until the + Corn Bill had passed the Commons. He intimated that unless the government + at once adopted this resolution, they would find themselves after Easter + in the same perplexity which now paralyzed them. They would not be + permitted to bring on this measure except upon government nights, and the + discussion might then last weeks. + </p> + <p> + The minister, exceedingly embarrassed, would not, however, relent. On the + following day, when he moved the adjournment of the House for the + holidays, he reduced the vacation three days, in order to obtain Friday, a + government night, which otherwise would have been absorbed in the + holidays, and he announced the determination of the government again to + proceed on that night with the Irish bill in preference to the Corn Bill. + The Irish members glanced defiance, and the Protectionists could scarcely + conceal their satisfaction. The reputation of Sir Robert Peel for + parliamentary management seemed to be vanishing; never was a government in + a more tottering state; and the Whigs especially began to renew their + laments that the Edinburgh letter and its consequences had prevented the + settlement of the corn question from devolving to the natural arbitrator + in the great controversy, their somewhat rash but still unrivalled leader, + Lord John Russell. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>A Third Party</i> +</pre> + <p> + THE members of the Protectionist opposition returned to their constituents + with the sanguine feelings which success naturally inspires. Their efforts + had surprised, not displeased, the country; the elections were in their + favour; the government business halted; the delay in the calculated + arrival of the famine had taken the edge off the necessity which it was + supposed would have already carried the Corn Bill through the Commons; + while the twin measure which the throes of Ireland had engendered had + developed elements of opposition which even the calmest observer thought + might possibly end in overthrow. Above all, that seemed to have happened + which the most experienced in parliamentary life had always deemed to be + impracticable; namely, the formation of a third party in the House of + Commons. + </p> + <p> + How completely this latter and difficult result was owing to the abilities + and energies of one man, and how anomalous was the position which he chose + to occupy in not taking the formal lead of a party which was entirely + guided by his example, were convictions and considerations that at this + juncture much occupied men’s minds. And it was resolved among the most + considerable of the country gentlemen to make some earnest and + well-combined effort, during the recess, to induce Lord George Bentinck to + waive the unwillingness he had so often expressed of becoming their avowed + and responsible leader. + </p> + <p> + When Lord George Bentinck first threw himself into the breach, he was + influenced only by a feeling of indignation at the manner in which he + thought the Conservative party had been trifled with by the government and + Lord Stanley, his personal friend and political leader, deserted by a + majority of the cabinet. As affairs developed, and it became evident that + the bulk of the Conservative party throughout the country had rallied + round his standard, Lord George could not conceal from himself the + consequences of such an event, or believe that it was possible that the + party in the House of Commons, although Lord Stanley might eventually think + fit to guide it by his counsels, and become, if necessary, personally + responsible for its policy, could be long held together unless it were + conducted by a leader present in the same assembly, and competent under + all circumstances to represent its opinions in debate. Lord George, + although a very proud man, had no vanity or self-conceit. He took a very + humble view of his own powers, and he had at the same time a very exalted + one of those necessary to a leader of the House of Commons. His + illustrious connection, Mr. Canning, was his standard. He had been the + private secretary of that minister in his youth, and the dazzling + qualities of that eminent personage had influenced the most susceptible + time of life of one who was very tenacious of his impressions. What Lord + George Bentinck appreciated most in a parliamentary speaker was + brilliancy: quickness of perception, promptness of repartee, clear and + concise argument, a fresh and felicitous quotation, wit and picture, and, + if necessary, a passionate appeal that should never pass the line of + high-bred sentiment. Believing himself not to be distinguished by these + rhetorical qualities, he would listen with no complacency to those who + would urge in private that the present period of parliamentary life was + different from the days of Mr. Canning, and that accumulated facts and + well-digested reasoning on their bearing, a command of all the materials + of commercial controversy, and a mastery of the laws that regulate the + production and distribution of public wealth, combined with habits of + great diligence and application, would ensure the attention of a popular + assembly, especially when united to a high character and great social + position. This might be urged; but he would only shake his head, with a + ray of humour twinkling in his piercing eyes, and say, in a half-drawling + tone, ‘If Mr. Canning were alive, he could do all this better than any of + them, and be not a whit less brilliant.’ + </p> + <p> + There was also another reason why Lord George Bentinck was unwilling to + assume the post of leader of the Conservative party, and this very much + influenced him. Sprung from a great Whig house, and inheriting all the + principles and prejudices of that renowned political connection which had + expelled the Stuarts, he had accepted, in an unqualified sense, the dogma + of religious liberty. This principle was first introduced into active + politics in order to preserve the possessions of that portion of the + aristocracy which had established itself on the plunder of the Church. It + was to form the basis of a party which should prevent reaction and + restitution of church lands. Whether the principle be a true one, and + whether its unqualified application by any party in the state be possible, + are questions yet unsettled. It is not probable, for example, that the + worship of Juggernaut, which Lord Dalhousie permits in Orissa, would be + permitted even by Lord John Russell at Westminster. Even a papist + procession is forbidden, and wisely. The application of the principle, + however, in Lord George Bentinck’s mind, was among other things associated + with the public recognition of the Roman Catholic hierarchy by the state, + and a provision for its maintenance in Ireland in accordance with the plan + of Mr. Pitt. What had happened, with respect to the vote on the endowment + of Maynooth in 1845, had convinced him that his opinions on this subject + presented an insuperable barrier to his ever becoming the leader of a + party which had contributed three-fourths of the memorable minority on + that occasion. It was in vain that it was impressed upon him by those most + renowned for their Protestant principles, and who were at the same time + most anxious to see Lord George Bentinck in his right position, that the + question of Maynooth was settled, and there was now no prospect of future + measures of a similar character. This was not the opinion of Lord George + Bentinck. He nursed in his secret soul a great scheme for the regeneration + and settlement of Ireland, which he thought ought to be one of the + mainstays of a Conservative party; and it was his opinion that the + condition of the Roman Catholic priesthood must be considered. + </p> + <p> + It was in vain, in order to assist in removing these scruples, that it was + represented to him by others that endowment of a priesthood by the state + was a notion somewhat old-fashioned, and opposed to the spirit of the age + which associated true religious freedom with the full development of the + voluntary principle. He listened to these suggestions with distrust, and + even with a little contempt. Mr. Canning had been in favour of the + endowment of the Irish priesthood—that was sufficient for that + particular; and as for the voluntary principle, he looked upon it as + priestcraft in disguise; his idea of religious liberty being that all + religions should be controlled by the state. + </p> + <p> + Besides these two prominent objections to accepting the offered post, + namely, his unaffected distrust in his parliamentary abilities and his + assumed want of concordance with his followers on a great principle of + modern politics, we must also remember that his compliance with the + request involved no ordinary sacrifice of much which renders life + delightful. He was to relinquish pursuits of noble excitement to which he + was passionately attached, and to withdraw in a great degree from a circle + of high-spirited friends, many of them of different political connection + from himself, by whom he was adored. With all his unrivalled powers of + application when under the influence of a great impulse, he was + constitutionally indolent and even lethargic. There was nothing, + therefore, in his position or his temperature to prick him on in ‘46; it + was nothing but his strong will acting upon his indignation which + sustained him. It is not, therefore, marvellous that he exhibited great + reluctance to commit irretrievably his future life. At a subsequent + period, indignation had become ambition, and circumstances of various + kinds had made him resolve to succeed or die. + </p> + <p> + On the adjournment, Lord George had gone down to Newmarket, which he + greatly enjoyed after his exhausting campaign. Here some letters on the + subject of the leadership passed, but nothing was definitely arranged till + some time after the re-assembling of Parliament. For convenience we + mention here the result. The wish of the party was repeatedly and + personally urged by the popular and much-esteemed member for Dorsetshire, + and at last Lord George consented to their wishes, on these conditions: + that he should relinquish his post the moment the right man was + discovered, who, according to his theory, would ultimately turn up; and + secondly, that his responsible post was not to restrict or embarrass him + on any questions in which a religious principle was involved. + </p> + <p> + Before, however, this negotiation was concluded, and while yet at + Newmarket, he wrote to a friend, the day before the House met (April + 16th). + </p> + <p> + ‘I think there is no doubt, but that the Irish will take care of Friday + (to-morrow) night. I have not much hope of their keeping up the debate + beyond Friday. + </p> + <p> + ‘It is quite clear from O’Connell’s language at Dublin that we have no + hope from the Irish tail. + </p> + <p> + ‘I still think myself, that delay affords a great chance of something + turning up in our favour; already the rejection of any reciprocity by M. + Guizot has provided us with a grand weapon, which, I trust, you drive well + home into * * * *‘s vitals; a very short delay would probably bring over + similar intelligence from the United States and their Congress. I trust we + shall have an important deputation over from Canada, representing that the + inevitable results of these free-trade measures in corn and timber will be + to alienate the feelings of our Canadian colonists, and to induce them to + follow their sordid interests, which will now, undoubtedly, be best + consulted and most promoted by annexation to the United States. + </p> + <p> + ‘Lord———‘s intended tergiversation has been, I believe, + some time known; he admits that all farmers without capital, in short, all + little men, must be sacrificed. What a barbarous and odious policy, that + goes upon the principle that none but capitalists are henceforth to be + allowed to live, as farmers at least. We must turn the tables upon Lord———and + all such heartless doctrinaires! + </p> + <p> + ‘I fear the majority in the Lords will be greater than was expected; I am + told that we must endeavour to put ministers in a minority two or three + times before the bill gets to its second reading in the Lords, no matter + upon what question. I hear there are many peers whose votes depend + entirely upon their notions, whether or not Peel can, by hook or by crook, + carry on.’ + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Railroads for Ireland</i> +</pre> + <p> + IF WE take a general view of the career of Lord George Bentinck during the + last year—from the time indeed when he was trying to find a lawyer + to convey his convictions to the House of Commons until the moment when + her Majesty prorogued her Parliament, the results will be found to be very + remarkable. So much was never done so unexpectedly by any public man in + the same space of time. He had rallied a great party which seemed + hopelessly routed; he had established a parliamentary discipline, in their + ranks which old political connections, led by experienced statesmen, have + seldom surpassed; he had brought forward from those ranks, entirely + through his discrimination and by his personal encouragement, considerable + talents in debate; he had himself proved a master in detail and in + argument of all the great questions arising out of the reconstruction of + our commercial system; he had made a vindication of the results of the + Protective principle as applied to agriculture, which certainly, so far as + the materials are concerned, is the most efficient plea that ever was + urged in the House of Commons in favour of the abrogated law; he had + exhibited similar instances of investigation in considerable statements + with respect to the silk trade and other branches of our industry; he had + asserted the claims of the productive classes in Ireland, and in our + timber and sugar producing colonies, with the effect which results from a + thorough acquaintance with a subject; he had promulgated distinct + principles with regard to our financial as well as to our commercial + system; he had maintained the expediency cf relieving the consumer by the + repeal of excise in preference to customs’ duties, and of establishing + fiscal reciprocity as a condition of mercantile exchange. On subjects of a + more occasional but analogous nature he had shown promptitude and + knowledge, as in the instances of the urgent condition of Mexico and of + our carrying trade with the Spanish colonies, both of which he brought + forward in the last hours of the session, but the importance of which + motions was recognized by all parties. Finally, he had attracted the + notice, and in many instances obtained the confidence, of large bodies of + men in the country, who recognized in him a great capacity of labour + combined with firmness of character and honesty of purpose. + </p> + <p> + At the close of the session (August 28), Cord George visited Norfolk, + where he received an entertainment from his constituents at King’s Lynn, + proud of their member, and to whom he vindicated the course which he had + taken, and offered his views generally as to the relations which should + subsist between the legislation of the country and its industry. From + Norfolk he repaired to Belvoir Castle, on a visit to the Duke of Rutland, + and was present at a banquet given by the agriculturists of Leicestershire + to his friend and supporter the Marquis of Granby. After this he returned + to Welbeck, where he seems to have enjoyed a little repose. Thus he writes + to a friend from that place on the 22nd September: + </p> + <p> + ‘Thanks for your advice, which I am following, having got Lord + Malmesbury’s Diary; but I am relapsing into my natural dawdling, lazy, and + somnolent habits, and can with difficulty get through the leaders even of + the “Times.” + </p> + <p> + * * * * ‘The vehemence of the farmers is personal against Peel; it is + quite clear that the rising price of wheat has cured their alarm. The + railway expenditure must keep up prices and prosperity, both of which + would have been far greater without free trade; but in face of high + prices, railway prosperity, and potato famine, depend upon it we shall + have an uphill game to fight. + </p> + <p> + ‘O’Connell talks of Parliament meeting in November, to mend the Irish + Labour-rate Act. Do you believe this?’ + </p> + <p> + The Labour-rate Act, passed at the end of the session (‘46), was one by + which the Lord Lieutenant was enabled to require special barony sessions + to meet in order to make presentments for public works for the employment + of the people, the whole of the money requisite for their construction to + be supplied by the imperial treasury, though to be afterwards repaid. The + machinery of this act did not work satisfactorily, but the government + ultimately made the necessary alterations on their own responsibility, and + obtained an indemnity from Parliament when it met in ‘47. The early + session, therefore, talked of by Mr. O’Connell, became unnecessary. As the + only object of this Labour-rate Act was to employ the people, and as it + was supposed there were no public works of a reproductive nature which + could be undertaken on a sufficient scale to ensure that employment, the + Irish people were occupied, towards the end of the autumn of ‘46, mainly + in making roads, which, as afterwards described by the first minister, + ‘were not wanted.’ In the month of September more than thirty thousand + persons were thus employed; but when the harvest was over, and it was + ascertained that its terrible deficiency had converted pauperism into + famine, the numbers on the public works became greatly increased, so that + at the end of November the amount of persons engaged was four hundred + thousand, receiving wages at the rate of nearly five millions sterling per + annum. These immense amounts went on increasing every week, and when + Parliament met in February, 1847, five hundred thousand persons were + employed on these public works, which could bring no possible public + advantage, at an expense to the country of between £700,000 and £800,000 + per month. No Board of Works could efficiently superintend such a + multitude, or prevent flagrant imposition, though the dimensions of that + department appeared almost proportionably to have expanded. What with + commissioners, chief clerks, check clerks, and pay clerks, the + establishment of the Board of Works in Ireland, at the end of ‘46, + consisted of more than eleven thousand persons. + </p> + <p> + Always intent upon Ireland, this condition of affairs early and earnestly + attracted the attention of Lord George Bentinck. So vast an expenditure in + unproductive labour dismayed him. He would not easily assent to the + conclusion that profitable enterprise under the circumstances was + impossible. Such a conclusion seemed to him unnatural, and that an + occasion where we commenced with despair justified a bold and venturesome + course. The field is legitimately open to speculation where all agree that + all is hopeless. The construction of harbours, the development of + fisheries, the redemption of waste lands, were resources which had been + often canvassed, and whatever their recommendations, with the exception of + the last, they were necessarily very limited; and the last, though it + might afford prompt, could hardly secure profitable, employment. Prompt + and profitable employment was the object which Lord George wished to + accomplish. Where millions were to be expended by the state, something + more advantageous to the community should accrue than the temporary + subsistence of the multitude. + </p> + <p> + Lord George had always been a great supporter of railway enterprise in + England, on the ground that, irrespective of all the peculiar advantages + of those undertakings, the money was spent in the country; and that if our + surplus capital were not directed to such channels, it would go, as it had + gone before, to foreign mines and foreign loans, from which in a great + degree no return would arrive. When millions were avowedly to be laid out + in useless and unprofitable undertakings, it became a question whether it + were not wiser even somewhat to anticipate the time when the necessities + of Ireland would require railways on a considerable scale; and whether by + embarking in such enterprises, we might not only find prompt and + profitable employment for the people, but by giving a new character to the + country and increasing its social relations and the combinations of its + industry, might not greatly advance the period when such modes of + communication would be absolutely requisite. + </p> + <p> + Full of these views, Lord George, in the course of the autumn, consulted + in confidence some gentlemen very competent to assist him in such an + inquiry, and especially Mr. Robert Stephenson, Mr. Hudson, and Mr. Laing. + With their advice and at their suggestion, two engineers of great ability, + Mr. Bidder and Mr. Smith, were despatched to Ireland, personally to + investigate the whole question of railroads in that country. + </p> + <p> + Meditating over the condition of Ireland, a subject very frequently in his + thoughts, and of the means to combat its vast and inveterate pauperism, + Lord George was frequently in the habit of reverting to the years ‘41-42 + in England, when there were fifteen hundred thousand persons on the parish + rates; eighty-three thousand able-bodied men, actually confined within the + walls of the workhouse, and more than four hundred thousand able-bodied + men receiving out-door relief. What changed all this and restored England + in a very brief space to a condition of affluence hardly before known in + her annals? Not certainly the alterations in the tariff which were made by + Sir Robert Peel at the commencement of his government, prudent and + salutary as they were. No one would pretend that the abolition of the + slight duty (five-sixteenths of a penny) on the raw material of the cotton + manufacturer, or the free introduction of some twenty-seven thousand head + of foreign cattle, or even the admission of foreign timber at reduced + duties, could have effected this. Unquestionably it was the railway + enterprise which then began to prevail that was the cause of this national + renovation. Suddenly, and for several years, an additional sum of thirteen + millions of pounds sterling a year was spent in the wages of our native + industry; two hundred thousand able-bodied labourers received each upon an + average twenty-two shillings a week, stimulating the revenue both in + excise and customs by their enormous consumption of malt and spirits, + tobacco and tea. This was the main cause of the contrast between the + England of ‘41 and the England of ‘45. + </p> + <p> + Was there any reason why a proportionate application of the same remedy to + Ireland should not proportionately produce a similar result? Was there + anything wild or unauthorized in the suggestion? On the contrary: ten + years before (1836), the subject had engaged the attention of her + Majesty’s government, and a royal commission had been issued to inquire + into the expediency of establishing railway communication in Ireland. The + commissioners, men of great eminence, recommended that a system of + railways should be established in Ireland, and by the pecuniary assistance + of government. They rested their recommendation mainly on the abundant + evidence existing of the vast benefits which easy communication had + accomplished in Ireland, and of the complete success which had attended + every Parliamentary grant for improving roads in that country. + </p> + <p> + The weakness of the government, arising from the balanced state of + parties, rendered it impossible at that time for them to prosecute the + measures recommended by the royal commissioners, though they made an + ineffectual attempt in that direction. Could it be suspected that the + recommendation of the commissioners had been biassed by any political + consideration? Was it a Whig commission attempting to fulfil a Whig + object? Another commission, more memorable, at the head of which was the + Earl of Devon, was appointed by a Tory government some years afterwards, + virtually to consider the condition of the people of Ireland, and the best + means for their amelioration. The report of the Devon commission confirmed + all the recommendations of the railway commissioners of ‘36, and pointed + to these new methods of communication, by the assistance of loans from the + government, as the best means of providing employment for the people. + </p> + <p> + When Mr. Smith of Deanston was examined by a Parliamentary committee, and + asked what measure of all others would be the one most calculated to + improve the agriculture and condition of Ireland, he did not reply, as + some might have anticipated, that the most efficient measure would be to + drain the bogs; but his answer was, ‘advance the construction of railways, + and then agricultural improvement will speedily follow.’ + </p> + <p> + To illustrate the value of railways to an agricultural population, Mr. + Smith, of Deanston, said, ‘that the improvement of the land for one mile + only on each side of the railway so constructed would be so great, that it + would pay the cost of the whole construction.’ He added, that there were + few districts’ in Ireland, in which railway communication could be + introduced, where the value of the country through which the railway + passed would not be raised to an extent equal to the whole cost of the + railway. + </p> + <p> + Arguing on an area of six hundred and forty acres for every square mile, + after deducting the land occupied by fences, roads, and buildings, Mr. + Smith, of Deanston, entered into a calculation of the gain deliverable + from the mere carriage of the produce of the land, and the back carriage + of manure, coals, tiles, bricks, and other materials, and estimated the + saving through those means on every square mile to more than £300, or + something above £600 on 1,280 acres abutting each mile of railway, this + being the difference of the cost of carriage under the old mode of + conveyance as compared with the new. Following up this calculation, he + showed that fifteen hundred miles of railway would improve the land + through which it passed to the extent of nearly two million acres at the + rate of a mile on each side; and, taken at twenty-five years’ purchase, + would equal twenty-four millions sterling in the permanent improvement of + the land. + </p> + <p> + The ground, therefore, was sound on which Lord George cautiously, and + after due reflection, ventured to place his foot. + </p> + <p> + And now, after the reports of these two royal commissions, what was the + state of railway enterprise in Ireland in the autumn of ‘46, when a vast + multitude could only subsist by being employed by the government, and when + the government had avowedly no reproductive or even useful work whereon to + place them; but allotted them to operations which were described by + Colonel Douglas, the inspector of the government himself, ‘as works which + would answer no other purpose than that of obstructing the public + conveyances?’ + </p> + <p> + In ‘46, acts of Parliament were in existence authorizing the construction + of more than fifteen hundred miles of railway in Ireland, and some of + these acts had passed so long as eleven years previously, yet at the end + of ‘46 only one hundred and twenty-three miles of railway had been + completed, and only one hundred and sixty-four were in the course of + completion, though arrested in their progress from want of funds. Almost + in the same period, two thousand six hundred miles of railway had been + completed in England, and acts of Parliament had passed for constructing + five thousand four hundred miles in addition: in the whole, eight thousand + miles. + </p> + <p> + What then was the reason of this debility in Ireland in prosecuting these + undertakings? Were they really not required; were the elements of success + wanting? The first element of success in railway enterprise, according to + the highest authorities, is population; property is only the second + consideration. Now, Ireland in ‘46 was more densely inhabited than + England. A want of population could not therefore be the cause. But a + population so impoverished as the Irish could not perhaps avail themselves + of the means of locomotion; and yet it appeared from research that the + rate of passengers on the two Irish railways that were open greatly + exceeded in number that of the passengers upon English and Scotch + railways. The average number of passengers on English and Scotch railways + was not twelve thousand per mile per annum, while on the Ulster railway + the number was nearly twenty-two thousand, and on the Dublin and Drogheda + line the number exceeded eighteen thousand. + </p> + <p> + The cause of the weakness in Ireland to prosecute these undertakings was + the total want of domestic capital for the purpose, and the unwillingness + of English capitalists to embark their funds in a country whose social and + political condition they viewed with distrust, however promising and even + profitable the investment might otherwise appear. This was remarkably + illustrated by the instance of the Great Southern and Western Railway of + Ireland, one of the undertakings of which the completion was arrested by + want of funds, yet partially open. Compared with a well-known railway in + Great Britain, the Irish railway had cost in its construction £15,000 per + mile, and the British upwards of £26,000 per mile; the weekly traffic on + the two railways, allowing for some difference in their extent, was about + the same on both, in amount varying from £1,000 to £1,300 per week; yet + the unfinished British railway was at £40 premium in the market, and the + incomplete Irish railway at £2 discount. It was clear, therefore, that the + commercial principle, omnipotent in England, was not competent to cope + with the peculiar circumstances of Ireland. + </p> + <p> + Brooding over the suggestions afforded by the details which we have + slightly indicated, Lord George Bentinck, taking into consideration not + merely the advantage that would accrue to the country from the + establishment of a system of railroads, but also remembering the peculiar + circumstances of the times, the absolute necessity of employing the + people, and the inevitable advance of public money for that purpose, + framed a scheme with reference to all these considerations, and which he + believed would meet all the conditions of the case. He spared no thought, + or time, or labour, for his purpose. He availed himself of the advice of + the most experienced, and prosecuted his researches ardently and + thoroughly. When he had matured his scheme, he had it thrown into the form + of a parliamentary bill by the ablest hands, and then submitted the whole + to the judgment and criticism of those who shared his confidence and + counsels. Towards the end of November he was at Knowsley, from whence he + communicated with the writer of these pages. ‘I am here hatching secret + plans for the next session; and now, if you have not quite abjured + politics, as you threatened for the next three months to do, devoting + yourself to poetry and romance, I think I ought to have a quiet day with + you, in order that we may hold council together and talk over all our + policy. I shall be at Harcourt House on the 30th. I shall stay there till + the 3rd of December, for a meeting on that day of the Norfolk Estuary + Company, of which I am chairman. Would that evening suit you—or + Friday—or Wednesday? I am not well acquainted with the geography of + Buckinghamshire, but presume you are accessible either by rail or road in + less than twelve hours. + </p> + <p> + ‘The activity in the dockyard must be in preparation to interfere in + Portugal, to keep King Leopold upon the Portuguese throne: it cannot be + for Mexico, for our friend the “Times” formally abandoned Mexico in his + leader some days ago. + </p> + <p> + ‘* * * * has been entertaining Lord * * * * in Ireland, and writes: “How + Peel must chuckle at the Whig difficulties.” I dare say he does, but in + Ireland it seems to me Lord Besborough is putting the fate Irish + government to shame, whilst the rupture of the <i>entente cordiale</i>, + the conquest of California and New Mexico, and the complications in the + river Plata,—are complete inheritances from Lord Aberdeen. + </p> + <p> + ‘Eaton has come to life again: else there was a prospect of George Manners + quietly succeeding him in Cambridgeshire. I fear we shall do no good in + Lincolnshire, notwithstanding the industry of our dear friend the “Morning + Post,” in getting hold of Lord Ebrington’s and Lord Rich’s letters to Lord + Yarborough. I suppose there is no mistake in Lord Dalhousie (“the large + trout”) going out to Bombay with the reversion of Bengal. + </p> + <p> + ‘The duchy of Lancaster is to be put in commission, Lord * * * * to be one + of the commissioners, <i>but unpaid</i>. He has begun, I presume, to + overcome the false delicacy which prevented his acceptance of office under + the Whigs in July. S * * * * thought G * * * * was to be another of the + Board, but that turns out a mistake, but Lord H * * * * is to be. + </p> + <p> + ‘The manufacturers are working short time, and reducing wages in all + directions, John Bright and Sons at Rochdale among the rest. The + Zollverein increasing their import duties on cotton and linen yarn, and + putting export duties of 25 per cent. (some of the states at least) on + grain.’ + </p> + <p> + We must not omit to record, that in the autumn of this year, at Goodwood + races, the sporting world was astounded by hearing that Lord George + Bentinck had parted with his racing stud at an almost nominal price. Lord + George was present, as was his custom, at this meeting, held in the + demesne of one who was among his dearest friends. Lord George was not only + present but apparently absorbed in the sport, and his horses were very + successful. The world has hardly done justice to the great sacrifice which + he made on this occasion to a high sense of duty. He not only parted with + the finest racing stud in England, but he parted with it at a moment when + its prospects were never so brilliant; and he knew this well. We may have + hereafter to notice on this head an interesting passage in his life. + </p> + <p> + He could scarcely have quitted the turf that day without a pang. He had + become the lord paramount of that strange world, so difficult to sway, and + which requires for its government both a stern resolve and a courtly + breeding. He had them both; and though the blackleg might quail before the + awful scrutiny of his piercing eye, there never was a man so scrupulously + polite to his inferiors as Lord George Bentinck. The turf, too, was not + merely the scene of the triumphs of his stud and his betting-book. He had + purified its practice and had elevated its character, and he was prouder + of this achievement than of any other connected with his sporting life. + Notwithstanding his mighty stakes and the keenness with which he backed + his opinion, no one perhaps ever cared less for money. His habits were + severely simple, and he was the most generous of men. He valued the + acquisition of money on the turf, because there it was the test of + success. He counted his thousands after a great race as a victorious + general counts his cannon and his prisoners. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Versatility of Lord George Bentinck</i> +</pre> + <p> + THOSE who throw their eye over the debates of the session of ‘47, cannot + fail to be struck by the variety of important questions in the discussion + of which Lord George Bentinck took a leading or prominent part. And it + must be borne in mind that he never offered his opinion on any subject + which he had not diligently investigated and attempted to comprehend in + all its bearings. His opponents might object to his principles or + challenge his conclusions, but no one could deny that his conclusions were + drawn from extensive information and that his principles were clear and + distinct. He spared no pains to acquire by reading, correspondence, and + personal research, the most authentic intelligence on every subject in + debate. He never chattered. He never uttered a sentence in the House of + Commons which did not convey a conviction or a fact. He was too profuse + indeed with his facts: he had not the art of condensation. But those who + have occasion to refer to his speeches and calmly to examine them, will be + struck by the amplitude and the freshness of his knowledge, the clearness + of his views, the coherence in all his efforts, and often—a point + for which he never had sufficient credit—by his graphic idiom. + </p> + <p> + The best speech on the affairs of Cracow, for example, the most vigorous + and the best informed, touching all the points with a thorough + acquaintance, was that of Lord George Bentinck. The discussion on Cracow, + which lasted several nights and followed very shortly after the defeat of + his Irish bill, appeared to relate to a class of subjects which would not + have engaged his attention; but on the contrary, he had given days and + nights to this theme, had critically examined all the documents, and + conferred with those qualified to supply him with any supplementary + information requisite. He spoke several times this session on questions + connected with our foreign affairs, and always impressed the House with a + conviction that he was addressing it after a due study of his subject: as + for example, his speech against our interference in Portugal, and the + statement in which he brought forward the claims of the holders of Spanish + bonds on the government of Spain before the House of Commons. In the + instance of Portugal, a motion of censure on the conduct of ministers had + been introduced by Mr. Hume, and the government were only saved from a + minority by the friendly interposition of Mr. Duncombe, who proposed an + amendment to the motion of Mr. Hume which broke the line of the liberal + force. Lord George Bentinck in this case followed Mr. Macaulay, whose + speech, as was his wont, had been rich in historical illustration. ‘The + right honourable and learned member for Edinburgh,’ Lord George replied, + ‘had entered into a very interesting history of various interferences + which had taken place in the affairs of Portugal; but in making that + statement he forgot to mention one circumstance which had occurred in that + history, and it was this + </p> + <p> + —that when Philip II. of Spain sought to conquer Portugal, the + method he had recourse to for that purpose was one which he thought her + Majesty’s ministers had successfully practised on the present occasion + </p> + <p> + —he persuaded the leaders in Portugal to mix sand with the powder of + their troops. And so, on this occasion, her Majesty’s ministers had + prevailed on the member for Finsbury, and those other members who were so + ready to profess a love of liberty, to mix sand with their powder.’ + </p> + <p> + In a previous chapter we have treated at some length of the means proposed + or adopted by the Parliament for the sustenance and relief of the people + of Ireland. The new poor law for that country also much engaged the + attention of both Houses this session. Lord George Bentinck took a very + active part in these transactions, and moved the most important of all the + amendments to the government measure, namely, an attempt to assimilate the + poor law of Ireland as much as possible to that of England, and make the + entire rates be paid by the occupying tenant. His object, he said, was to + ‘prevent lavish expenditure and encourage profitable employment to the + people.’ This amendment was only lost by a majority of four. + </p> + <p> + On the 26th of March, on the government bringing forward their bill on the + rum duties, Lord George Bentinck brought before the House the case of the + British and Irish distillers, not with any preference or partiality + towards English, Scotch, or Irish distillers over the colonial producer. + ‘I am no advocate of any monopoly whatever. I desire only equal and exact + justice between both parties; and the only way in which that end can, in + my opinion, be properly attained, is in a select committee upstairs, + consisting of impartial members of this house.’ + </p> + <p> + He often used to say that no subject ever gave him more trouble thoroughly + to master than the spirit duties; and he noticed the character of the + theme at the beginning of his speech. He said he required, not only the + most especial indulgence, but even the toleration of the House, ‘for of + all the dry and dull subjects which could possibly be introduced, the + question which it is now my misfortune to bring under the consideration of + the House is the driest and the dullest. If this question had been one + merely of pounds, shillings, and pence, it would have been dull and + complicated enough; but this is a question in which are concerned not + pounds and shillings, but pence, and halfpence, and farthings.’ + </p> + <p> + The Whitsuntide holidays occurred at the end of May. It had originally + been the intention of Lord George Bentinck, at the request of leading + merchants and manufacturers of all parties and opinions, to have brought + forward the question of the Bank Act after these holidays, and to move a + resolution that some discretionary power should be established as to the + issue of notes. He thus alludes to this point in a letter to Mr. Wright, + of the 24th of May:— + </p> + <p> + ‘I return you No. 1019, of the “Bankers’ Circular,” with many thanks. + </p> + <p> + ‘This delightful and timely change in the weather will do wonders for the + country, and by producing an abundant and seasonable harvest, will save + the country, and <i>may save the Bank Charter Act</i>; but it is pretty + well settled that I am to give notice immediately after the holidays, of a + resolution very much in the spirit of the memorial contained in the paper + I am returning to you. + </p> + <p> + ‘Things are better in the City and at Liverpool, and with this weather + will continue to improve; but it seems to me any reverse in the weather, + such as would occasion a late and deficient harvest, could not fail to + bring the commerce of the country to a dead lock. + </p> + <p> + ‘The opinion is gaining ground, that in the present state not only of + Ireland, but of many districts in England, the government will not venture + upon a general election till after the harvest, and not then, unless the + harvest should prove favourable. + </p> + <p> + ‘I am glad to read your opinion in opposition to Lord Ashburton’s, that + railways keep the gold in the country, and do not send it out. Glyn gave + strong evidence last year to this effect before the railway committee.’ + </p> + <p> + Neither of the prospects in this letter was realised. The commercial and + manufacturing interest, after the Whitsun recess, thought it advisable for + reasons of great weight that Lord George Bentinck should postpone for a + month or six weeks his intended motion on the Bank Charter, and the + ministers resolved to dissolve Parliament before the harvest: thus it + happened that the merchants and manufacturers lost their chance of relief + from the yoke, and experienced the reign of terror in the autumn, the + terrible events of which ultimately occasioned the assembling of the new + Parliament in November. + </p> + <p> + Anticipating the immediate dissolution of Parliament, Sir Robert Peel had + issued an address to the electors of Tamworth, justifying his commercial + policy. In the opinion of Lord George Bentinck it set forth a statement as + to the effect and operation of those financial measures which had taken + place in the course of the last six years, which, if left altogether + unrefuted, might have a dangerous tendency at the coming elections. The + general effect of that statement was, that by the reduction of duties to a + large extent, it was possible to relieve the people of this country of + burdens amounting to more than seven millions and a half sterling with + little or no loss whatever to the revenue. But the truth was, Sir Robert + Peel in his reductions had dealt only with little more than ten millions + sterling of the revenue of the country, and had left the remaining + thirty-seven millions untouched. Now on that portion of the revenue with + which alone he had dealt, there was a deficiency, through his changes, to + the amount of five millions sterling, which loss was compensated by the + increase on those very articles which Sir Robert had left untouched. It + was the opinion of Lord George Bentinck that the conclusion which Sir + Robert Peel had drawn from the comparatively barren results of the + increased duties on imports carried by the Whigs in 1840, viz., that + indirect taxation had reached its limit, and which was indeed the basis of + his new system, was a fallacy, and that the anticipated increase of import + duties had not accrued in 1840 in consequence of our having had three + successive bad harvests, ‘and a bad cotton crop to boot,’ all of which had + checked the consuming power of the community. Sir Robert Peel had been + favoured by three successive good harvests and nearly £100,000,000 + invested in six years in domestic enterprise. ‘The interposition of + Providence,’ said Lord George, ‘is never a part of our debates.’ + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, Lord George took occasion to review the + commercial policy of Sir Robert Peel, on the 20th July, in the House of + Commons, only three days before the prorogation, and in one of his most + successful speeches. He was much assisted by the fact that the exports of + all our staple manufactures had then greatly diminished, and of course he + urged this point triumphantly. ‘If we had been indemnified for the dead + loss of £650,000 on cotton wool by any great impulse given to our + manufacturers, it would be a consolation which unfortunately we could not + enjoy.’ He traced all the consumption to railway enterprise, and showed + that it alone had compensated for the fruitless loss of revenue which we + had incurred in vainly stimulating the exports of our manufactures, which + had actually diminished. He was so impressed with the importance that, ‘on + the eve of a dissolution, such a statement as that of Sir Robert Peel + should not go forth to the country uncontroverted, as in that case the + necessary result would be that the people would come to the opinion that + they might abolish taxes altogether and yet maintain the revenue,’ that he + sat up all night writing an address to his constituents, the electors of + King’s Lynn, which took up nearly two columns of the newspapers, in which + he presented his refutation to the public of the commercial manifesto of + Tamworth, illustrated by the necessary tables and documents. + </p> + <p> + There is a sentence in this speech which, as a distinct expression of + policy, should perhaps be quoted: + </p> + <p> + ‘Sir, I am one of those who seek for the repeal of the malt tax and the + hop duties. I am one of those who think that the excise duties ought to be + taken off. But, sir, I do not pretend that you can repeal the malt tax or + the hop duties, or remove the soap tax without commutation for other + taxes. I will not delude the people by pretending that I could take off + more than seven millions and a half of taxes without replacing them by + others, and not leave the nation bankrupt. But I think these reforms of + Sir Robert Peel have been in a mistaken direction; I think that revenue + duties on all foreign imports ought to be maintained, and that a revenue + equal to those excise duties which I have mentioned can be levied upon the + produce of foreign countries and foreign industry, without imposing any + greater tax than one which shall fall far short of Mr. Walker’s “perfect + revenue standard of 20 per cent.” I say that by imposing a tax far less + than 20 per cent. upon all articles of foreign import, a revenue might be + derived far less burdensome to this country than that of excise, a revenue + of which the burden would be largely shared in by foreign countries, and + in many cases paid altogether by foreign countries.’ + </p> + <p> + Lord George at this time watched with great interest a novel feature in + our commercial transactions. He wrote on the 29th May (1847), to Mr. Burn, + the editor of the ‘Commercial Glance,’ and an individual of whose + intelligence, accuracy, and zeal he had a high and just opinion, ‘Can you + inform me how the raw cotton purchased for exportation stands in the first + three weeks of the present month of May, as compared with the + corresponding periods of ‘46—5—4—3? + </p> + <p> + ‘I observe from a cotton circular sent to me the other day, that seven + thousand five hundred bags of cotton had been purchased for exportation + between the 1st and 21st of May. If with reduced stocks of raw cotton we + are commencing a career of increased exportation, it appears to me to + involve very serious consequences for our cotton manufactures as growing + out of the existing monetary difficulties of the manufacturers. + </p> + <p> + ‘If you could answer me these queries within the next three or four days, + I should feel greatly obliged to you.’ + </p> + <p> + Again, on the 22d of July, on the point of going down to his constituents, + he was still pursuing his inquiries in the same quarter.’ I want + particularly to compare,’ he says to Mr. Burn, ‘the export of the last ten + weeks of raw cotton with the corresponding ten weeks of ‘46 and ‘45, and + at the same time to compare the importations and deliveries into the hands + of the manufacturers during these same periods. + </p> + <p> + ‘Pray address me, Lynn, Norfolk, where I go on Saturday, and shall remain + till after my election on Thursday.’ + </p> + <p> + He writes again from Lynn, with great thanks for the information which had + been accordingly forwarded to him there. ‘Might I ask you to give me an + account of the cotton wool imported weekly into Liverpool, and also the + quantity sold to dealers, exporters, and speculators, in the three + corresponding weeks of ‘45-46. + </p> + <p> + ‘This information by return of post would greatly oblige me.’ + </p> + <p> + On the 23d of July, 1847, the last day of the second Parliament of Queen + Victoria, Lord George went down to the House of Commons early, and took + the opportunity of making a statement respecting the condition of our + sugar-producing colonies, which were now experiencing the consequences of + the unjustifiable legislation of the preceding year. He said there were + appearances in the political horizon which betokened that he should not be + able to obtain a select committee in the present session, and therefore, + if he had the honour of a seat in the next Parliament, he begged to + announce that he would take the earliest occasion to move for a committee + to inquire into the present power of our colonies to compete with those + countries which have still the advantage of the enforced labour of slaves. + The returns just laid upon the table of the House could leave no doubt, he + thought, on any man’s mind on that point. Since the emancipation, the + produce of sugar by the colonies, from ‘31 to ‘46, had been reduced one + half, and of rum and coffee had been reduced to one fourth. When the act + of last year which admitted slave-grown sugar was introduced, the + allegation of the English colonies, that they could not compete with the + labour of slaves, was denied. The proof of that allegation was, that they + were already overwhelmed. + </p> + <p> + When one recalls all to which this speech led, the most memorable effort + of that ardent, energetic life to which it was perhaps fatal, one can + scarcely observe the origin of such vast exertions without emotion. + </p> + <p> + The Under Secretary of State replied to Lord George, making a cry of cheap + sugar for the hustings which were before everybody’s eyes, but making also + this remarkable declaration, that ‘the Island of Mauritius was in a state + of the greatest prosperity.’ While Lord George was speaking, the cannon + were heard that announced the departure of her majesty from the palace. + </p> + <p> + Then followed a motion of Mr. Bankes about the sale of bread, which led to + some discussion. Mr. Bankes threatened a division. Lord Palmerston, who on + this occasion was leading the House, said it would be acting like a set of + schoolboys, if when Black Rod appeared they should be in the lobby instead + of attending the Speaker to the other House. But as the members seemed + very much inclined to act like schoolboys, the Secretary of State had to + speak against time on the subject of baking. He analyzed the petition, + which he said he would not read through, but the last paragraph was of + great importance. + </p> + <p> + At these words, Black Rod knocked at the door, and duly making his + appearance, summoned the House to attend the Queen in the House of Lords, + and Mr. Speaker, followed by a crowd of members, duly obeyed the summons. + </p> + <p> + In about a quarter of an hour, Mr. Speaker returned without the mace, and + standing at the table read her Majesty’s speech to the members around, + after which they retired, the Parliament being prorogued. In the course of + the afternoon, the Parliament was dissolved by proclamation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Great Panic</i> +</pre> + <p> + THE general election of 1847 did not materially alter the position of + parties in the House of Commons. The high prices of agricultural produce + which then prevailed naturally rendered the agricultural interest + apathetic, and although the rural constituencies, from a feeling of + esteem, again returned those members who had been faithful to the + protective principle, the farmers did not exert themselves to increase the + number of their supporters. The necessity of doing so was earnestly + impressed upon them by Lord George Bentinck, who warned them then that the + pinching hour was inevitable; but the caution was disregarded, and many of + those individuals who are now the loudest in their imprecations on the + memory of Sir Robert Peel, and who are the least content with the + temperate course which is now recommended to them by those who have the + extremely difficult office of upholding their interests in the House of + Commons, entirely kept aloof, or would smile when they were asked for + their support with sarcastic self-complacency, saying, ‘Well, Sir, do you + think after all that free trade has done us so much harm?’ Perhaps they + think now, that if they had taken the advice of Lord George Bentinck and + exerted themselves to return a majority to the House of Commons, it would + have profited them more than useless execrations and barren discontent. + But it is observable, that no individuals now grumble so much as the + farmers who voted for free trader in 1847, unless indeed it be the + shipowners, every one of whom for years, both in and out of Parliament, + supported the repeal of the corn laws. + </p> + <p> + The Protectionists maintained their numbers, though they did not increase + them, in the new Parliament. Lord George Bentinck however gained an + invaluable coadjutor by the re-appearance of Mr. Herries in public life, a + gentleman whose official as well as parliamentary experience, fine + judgment, and fertile resource, have been of inestimable service to the + Protectionist party. The political connection which gained most were the + Whigs; they were much more numerous and compact, but it was in a great + measure at the expense of the general liberal element, and partly at the + cost of the following of Sir Robert Peel. The triumphant Conservative + majority of 1841 had disappeared; but the government, with all shades of + supporters, had not an absolute majority. + </p> + <p> + Had the general election been postponed until the autumn, the results + might have been very different. That storm—which had been long + gathering in the commercial atmosphere—then burst like a typhoon. + The annals of our trade afford no parallel for the widespread disaster and + the terrible calamities. In the month of September, fifteen of the most + considerable houses in the city of London stopped payment for between five + and six millions sterling. The governor of the Bank of England was himself + a partner in one of these firms; a gentleman who had lately filled that + office, was another victim; two other Bank directors were included in the + list. The failures were not limited to the metropolis, but were + accompanied by others of great extent in the provinces. At Manchester, + Liverpool, and Glasgow large firms were obliged to suspend payments. This + shock of credit arrested all the usual accommodation, and the pressure in + the money-market, so terrible in the spring, was revived. The excitement + and the alarm in the city of London were so great that when the Chancellor + of the Exchequer hurried up to town on the 1st of October, he found that + the interest of money was at the rate of 60 per cent. per annum. The Bank + Charter produced the same injurious effect as it had done in April; it + aggravated the evil by forcing men to hoard. In vain the commercial world + deplored the refusal of the government to comply with the suggestion made + by Lord George Bentinck and Mr. Thomas Baring in the spring; in vain they + entreated them at least now to adopt it, and to authorize the Bank of + England to enlarge the amount of their discounts and advances on approved + security, without reference to the stringent clause of the charter. The + government, acting, it is believed, with the encouragement and sanction of + Sir Robert Peel, were obstinate, and three weeks then occurred during + which the commercial credit of this country was threatened with total + destruction. Nine more considerable mercantile houses stopped payment in + the metropolis, the disasters in the provinces were still more extensive. + The Royal Bank of Liverpool failed; among several principal establishments + in that town, one alone stopped payment for upwards of a million sterling. + The havoc at Manchester was also great. The Newcastle bank and the North + and South Wales bank stopped. Consols fell to 79 1/4, and exchequer bills + were at last at 35 per cent, discount. The ordinary rate of discount at + the Bank of England was between 8 and 9 per cent., but out of doors + accommodation was not to be obtained. In such a state of affairs, the + small houses of course gave way. From their rising in the morning until + their hour of retirement at night, the First Lord of the Treasury and the + Chancellor of the Exchequer were employed in seeing persons of all + descriptions, who entreated them to interfere and preserve the community + from universal bankruptcy. ‘Perish the world, sooner than violate a + principle,’ was the philosophical exclamation of her Majesty’s ministers, + sustained by the sympathy and the sanction of Sir Robert Peel. At last, + the governor and the deputy-governor of the Bank of England waited on + Downing Street, and said it could go on no more. The Scotch banks had + applied to them for assistance. The whole demand for discount was thrown + upon the Bank of England. Two bill-brokers had stopped; two others were + paralyzed. The Bank of England could discount no longer. Thanks to the + Bank Charter, they were safe and their treasury full of bullion, but it + appeared that everybody else must fall, for in four-and-twenty hours the + machinery of credit would be entirely stopped. The position was frightful, + and the government gave way. They did that on the 25th of October, after + houses had fallen to the amount of fifteen millions sterling, which they + had been counselled to do by Lord George Bentinck on the 25th of April. It + turned out exactly as Mr. Thomas Baring had foretold. It was not want of + capital or deficiency of circulation which had occasioned these awful + consequences. It was sheer panic, occasioned by an unwisely stringent law. + No sooner had the government freed the Bank of England from that + stringency, than the panic ceased. The very morning the letter of license + from the government to the Bank of England appeared, thousands and tens of + thousands of pounds sterling were taken from the hoards, some from boxes + deposited with bankers, although the depositors would not leave the notes + in their bankers’ hands. Large parcels of notes were returned to the Bank + of England cut into halves, as they had been sent down into the country, + and so small was the real demand for an additional quantity of currency, + that the whole amount taken from the Bank, when the unlimited power of + issue was given, was under £400,000, and the Bank consequently never + availed itself of the privilege which the government had accorded it. The + restoration of confidence produced an ample currency, and that confidence + had solely been withdrawn from the apprehension of the stringent clauses + of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. + </p> + <p> + These extraordinary events had not occurred unnoticed by Lord George + Bentinck. The two subjects that mostly engaged his attention after the + general election were the action of the Bank Charter and the state of our + sugar colonies. Perhaps it would be best to give some extracts from his + correspondence at this period. He was a good letter-writer, easy and + clear. His characteristic love of details also rendered this style of + communication interesting. It is not possible to give more than extracts, + and it is necessary to omit all those circumstances which generally in + letter-reading are most acceptable. His comments on men and things were + naturally free and full, and he always endeavoured, for the amusement of + his correspondents, to communicate the social gossip of the hour. But + although all this must necessarily be omitted, his letters may afford some + illustrations of his earnestness and energy, the constancy of his aim, and + the untiring vigilance with which he pursued his object—especially + those which are addressed to gentlemen engaged in commercial pursuits who + cooperated with him in his investigations. + </p> + <p> + TO A FRIEND. + </p> + <p> + Harcourt House, August 30, 1847. + </p> + <p> + An answer is come out to my address to my constituents at King’s Lynn, and + to my speech in answer to Peel’s manifesto. Pray read it. At first I + thought I could swear to its being * * * *, I now think I can swear to its + being * * * *; the servility to Peel, and the official red-tape style + would equally do for either; but the no-popery page, I think, fixes it on + * * * *. + </p> + <p> + I think it wretchedly weak, and have written some notes on the margin, + showing up the principal points. The nine months’ famine of 1846-47, as + contrasted with Peel’s famine, shows a difference of between £6,000,000 + and £7,000,000; that is to say, on the balance in the nine months 1845-46, + Ireland exported about three millions’ worth of breadstuffs, and not a + soul died of famine. In the nine months 1846-47, she imported three + millions’ sterling worth of bread-stuffs, which insufficed to prevent one + million—or say half a million—of the people from dying of + starvation. + </p> + <p> + At present I have seen no notice of the pamphlet in any of the newspapers: + if it is either * * * *‘s, or * * * *‘s, or * * * *‘s we shall see it + reviewed in ‘Times,’ ‘Chronicle,’ and ‘Spectator.’ + </p> + <p> + The Bank of England has raised the interest on * * * *‘s mortgage + one-third per cent., making an additional annual charge of £1,500 a year + to him. I am very sorry for him, but I know nothing so likely to rouse the + landed aristocracy from their apathy, and to weaken their idolatry of Peel + so much as this warning note of the joint operation of his free trade and + restrictive currency laws. + </p> + <p> + TO A FRIEND. + </p> + <p> + Harcourt House, September 2, 1847. + </p> + <p> + I think it is * * * *. The trickster, I observe, has carefully reduced the + pounds of cotton to cwts., in the hopes of concealing a great fraud to + which he has condescended; taking, in the Whig year of 1841, the home + consumption of cotton, whilst in Peel’s year he gives entire importation + as the home consumption, representing both as home consumption. + </p> + <p> + In Peel’s year, 1846, officially we have only the gross importation; but + in the Whig year, 1841, the entire importation and the home consumption + are given separately: the importation exceeding the home consumption by + fifty million pounds. Burn’s ‘Glance,’ however, gives the importation and + home consumption for both years; unfortunately, however, not in lbs. or + cwts., but in bags. * * * *‘s fraud, however, is not the less apparent. + </p> + <p> + He selects a Whig year when the home consumption was 220,-000 bags under + the importation, and a year for Peel when the importation exceeded the + home consumption by 280,000 bags, and claps down the figures as alike + describing the home consumption. + </p> + <p> + None of the Peel papers have taken up the subject: if they should, the + ‘Morning Post’ will answer the pamphlet; but I should like to have mine + back again, in order that I may furnish them with the notes. + </p> + <p> + * * * * was with me this morning, and called my attention to the + circumstance that the author starts with ‘We,’ but drops into the singular + number; * * * * fancies it is Peel himself, but the page on endowment + fixes it on * * * *. + </p> + <p> + Lord L * * * * means, I presume, that Peel’s savage hatred is applied to + the Protectionist portion of his old party, not of course to the + janissaries and renegade portion. + </p> + <p> + The following letter was in reply to one of a friend who had sent him + information, several days before they occurred, of the great failures that + were about to happen in the city of London. The list was unfortunately + quite accurate, with the exception indeed of the particular house + respecting which Lord George quotes the opinion of Baron Rothschild. + </p> + <p> + TO A FRIEND. + </p> + <p> + Welbeck, September 17, 1847. + </p> + <p> + A thousand thanks for your letter, the intelligence in which created a + great sensation at Doncaster. + </p> + <p> + As yet none of the houses appear to have failed except S * * * *. Baron + Rothschild was at Doncaster. I talked with him on the subject; he seemed + not to doubt the probable failure of any of the houses you named, except * + * * *. He declared very emphatically ‘that * * * * house was as sound as + any house in London.’ + </p> + <p> + Lord Fitzwilliam declares ‘it is no free trade without free trade in + money.’ + </p> + <p> + Lord Clanricarde is here—laughs at the idea of Parliament meeting in + October; but talks much of the difficulties of Ireland—says he does + not see how the rates are to be paid. + </p> + <p> + Messrs. Drummond are calling in their mortgages. I expect to hear that + this practice will be general; money dear, corn cheap, incumbrances + enhanced, and rents depressed. What will become of the apathetic country + gentlemen? I judge from * * * * ‘s language, that Lord John Russell will + stand or fall by the Bank Charter Act-but that he feels very apprehensive + of being unable to maintain it. + </p> + <p> + I agree with Bonham, in thinking that the Protectionist party is smashed + for the present Parliament; but I must say I think Protectionist + principles and policy are likely to come into repute again far sooner than + was expected; and though Peel’s party be a compact body, and formidable in + the House of Commons, I cannot think that there appears that in the + working of his measures to make it likely that he should be soon again + carried into power on the shoulders of the people. I think his political + reputation must ebb further before it can rise again, if it should ever + rise again. * * * * thought him ‘broken and in low spirits,’ when he met + him at Longshaw; but Lord * * * *, who was there at the same time, came + away more Peelite than ever, and told them at Bretby that Sir Robert said, + ‘That he was quite surprised at the number of letters he got every day + from members returned to Parliament, saying they meant to vote with him.’ + </p> + <p> + You may rely upon it the Peelites are very sanguine that they will be in + power again almost directly. We must keep them out. + </p> + <p> + TO MR. BURN, EDITOR OF THE ‘COMMERCIAL GLANCE.’ + </p> + <p> + Welbeck, September 38, 1847. To the many courtesies you have already + bestowed upon me, I will sincerely thank you to add that of informing me + what have been the estimated cotton crops in the United States in each of + the last four years. I would also thank you to inform me the comparative + importation, home consumption, re-exportation, and stocks on hand of + cotton of the first seven months of the current and three preceding years. + </p> + <p> + TO MR. BURN. + </p> + <p> + Welbeck, October 4, 1847. + </p> + <p> + Your statistics have reached me in the very nick of time, and are + invaluable. I care nothing about ‘outsides,’ it is ‘insides’ I look to; + give me a good ‘heart,’ and I don’t care how rough the ‘bark’ is. + </p> + <p> + Anything so good I fear to spoil by suggesting the most trivial addition, + else I should say it would be an interesting feature to classify the + exports of cotton goods, etc., etc., under three heads:— + </p> + <p> + 1st. To the British colonies and British possessions abroad. + </p> + <p> + 2nd. To the northern states of Europe, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, + etc., etc., the United States of America, and other countries having high + tariffs. + </p> + <p> + 3rd. To China, Turkey, Africa, and the Southern States of America, and + countries with low tariffs. + </p> + <p> + I fear these failures of East and West India houses must entail great + distress upon Manchester, and the manufacturing interests generally. You + have given an account of the bankruptcies in the cotton trade during a + long series of years till last year inclusive; are you able to say how the + first nine months of the current year stands in comparison with its + predecessors? + </p> + <p> + I so highly prize your new work, that I must ask for a dozen copies to + distribute among my friends. + </p> + <p> + P. S. I have already parted with the copy you sent me; may I, therefore, + beg another without waiting for any other binding? + </p> + <p> + TO A FRIEND. + </p> + <p> + Welbeck, October 5, 1847. + </p> + <p> + I shall go up to town on Friday evening, in my way to Newmarket, and shall + be at Harcourt House all Saturday and Sunday, and shall be delighted to + see you, and have a thorough good talk with you. Free trade seems working + mischief faster than the most fearful of us predicted, and Manchester + houses, as I am told, ‘failing in rows,’ ashamed to do penance in public, + are secretly weeping in sackcloth and ashes, and heartily praying that + Peel and Cobden had been hanged before they were allowed to ruin the + country. + </p> + <p> + Money at Manchester is quoted one and a quarter per cent, for ten days: + £45 12s. 6d. per cent. per annum! + </p> + <p> + TO A FRIEND. + </p> + <p> + Harcourt House, October 22, 1847. I have this moment got a note from + Stuart, telling me that ‘the Chancellor has this afternoon sent out his + notice of the business to be taken in his own court during Michaelmas + term, that is, from the 2nd of November till the 26th, and below it there + is this notice—<i>except those days on which the Lord Chancellor may + sit in the House of Lords</i>!!!’ + </p> + <p> + Surely this must portend a November session. + </p> + <p> + TO A FRIEND. + </p> + <p> + Harcourt House, October 23, 1847. The fat banker’s gossip is all stuff. + Peel goes to Windsor today, I believe on an invitation of some standing. * + * * * who had been dining at Palmerston’s last night, tells me that he + does not think that ministers mean calling Parliament together, and is + confident they mean to maintain the Bank Charter Act. There have been some + first-rate articles and letters in the ‘Morning Chronicle’ lately on this + subject. + </p> + <p> + TO A FRIEND. + </p> + <p> + Harcourt House, November 6, 1847. + </p> + <p> + I will stay over Tuesday, that I may have the pleasure of a thorough talk + with you. + </p> + <p> + I am told things are gradually getting better. I expect, however, a fresh + reverse about six weeks or two months hence, when the returned lists of + the stoppages in the East and West Indies, consequent upon the late + failures here, come home. The Western Bank of Scotland is whispered about. + If that were to fail, it might bring the canny Scots to their senses; but + they are a headstrong race. + </p> + <p> + A committee on commercial distress having been appointed, the principal + reason for the summoning of the new Parliament in the autumn had been + satisfied, and an adjournment until a month after Christmas was in + prospect. Before, however, this took place, a new and interesting question + arose, which led to considerable discussion, and which ultimately + influenced in no immaterial manner the parliamentary position of Lord + George Bentinck. + </p> + <p> + The city of London at the general election had sent to the House of + Commons, as a colleague of the first minister, a member who found a + difficulty in taking one of the oaths appointed by the House to be sworn + preliminarily to any member exercising his right of voting. The difficulty + arose from this member being not only of the Jewish race, but + unfortunately believing only in the first part of the Jewish religion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Jews</i> +</pre> + <p> + THE relations that subsist between the Bedoueen race that, under the name + of Jews, is found in every country of Europe, and the Teutonic, + Sclavonian, and Celtic races which have appropriated that division of the + globe, will form hereafter one of the most remarkable chapters in a + philosophical history of man. The Saxon, the Sclav, and the Celt have + adopted most of the laws and many of the customs of these Arabian tribes, + all their literature and all their religion. They are therefore indebted + to them for much that regulates, much that charms, and much that solaces + existence. The toiling multitude rest every seventh day by virtue of a + Jewish law; they are perpetually reading, ‘for their example,’ the records + of Jewish history, and singing the odes and elegies of Jewish poets; and + they daily acknowledge on their knees, with reverent gratitude, that the + only medium of communication between the Creator and themselves is the + Jewish race. Yet they treat that race as the vilest of generations; and + instead of logically looking upon them as the human family that has + contributed most to human happiness, they extend to them every term of + obloquy and every form of persecution. + </p> + <p> + Let us endeavour to penetrate this social anomaly that has harassed and + perplexed centuries. + </p> + <p> + It is alleged that the dispersion of the Jewish race is a penalty incurred + for the commission of a great crime: namely, the crucifixion of our + blessed Lord in the form of a Jewish prince, by the Romans, at Jerusalem, + and at the instigation of some Jews, in the reign of Tiberius Augustus + Caesar. Upon this, it may be observed, that the allegation is neither + historically true nor dogmatically sound. + </p> + <p> + I. <i>Not historically true</i>. It is not historically true, because at + the time of the advent of our Lord, the Jewish race was as much dispersed + throughout the world as at this present time, and had been so for many + centuries. Europe, with the exception of those shores which are bathed by + the midland sea, was then a primeval forest, but in every city of the + great Eastern monarchies and in every province of the Roman empire, the + Jews had been long settled. We have not precise authority for saying that + at the advent there were more Jews established in Egypt than in Palestine, + but it may unquestionably be asserted that at that period there were more + Jews living, and that too in great prosperity and honour, at Alexandria + than at Jerusalem. It is evident from various Roman authors, that the + Jewish race formed no inconsiderable portion of the multitude that filled + Rome itself, and that the Mosaic religion, undisturbed by the state, even + made proselytes. But it is unnecessary to enter into any curious + researches on this head, though the authorities are neither scant nor + uninteresting. We are furnished with evidence the most complete and + unanswerable of the pre-dispersion by the sacred writings themselves. Not + two months after the crucifixion, when the Third Person of the Holy + Trinity first descended on Jerusalem, it being the time of the great + festivals, when the Jews, according to the custom of the Arabian tribes + pursued to this day in the pilgrimage to Mecca, repaired from all quarters + to the central sacred place, the holy writings inform us that there were + gathered together in Jerusalem ‘Jews, devout men, out of every nation + under heaven.’ And that this expression, so general but so precise, should + not be mistaken, we are shortly afterwards, though incidentally, informed, + that there were Parthians, Medes, and Persians at Jerusalem, professing + the Mosaic faith; Jews from Mesopotamia and Syria, from the countries of + the lesser and the greater Asia; Egyptian, Libyan, Greek, and Arabian + Jews; and, especially, Jews from Rome itself, some of which latter are + particularly mentioned as Roman proselytes. Nor is it indeed historically + true that the small section of the Jewish race which dwelt in Palestine + rejected Christ. The reverse is the truth. Had it not been for the Jews of + Palestine, the good tidings of our Lord would have been unknown for ever + to the northern and western races. The first preachers of the gospel were + Jews, and none else; the historians of the gospel were Jews, and none + else. No one has ever been permitted to write under the inspiration of the + Holy Spirit, except a Jew. For nearly a century no one believed in the + good tidings except Jews. They nursed the sacred flame of which they were + the consecrated and hereditary depositaries. And when the time was ripe to + diffuse the truth among the ethnics, it was not a senator of Rome or a + philosopher of Athens who was personally appointed by our Lord for that + office, but a Jew of Tarsus, who founded the seven churches of Asia. And + that greater church, great even amid its terrible corruptions, that has + avenged the victory of Titus by subjugating the capital of the Caesars, + and has changed every one of the Olympian temples into altars of the God + of Sinai and of Calvary, was founded by another Jew, a Jew of Galilee. + </p> + <p> + From all which it appears that the dispersion of the Jewish race, + preceding as it did for countless ages the advent of our Lord, could not + be for conduct which occurred subsequently to the advent, and that they + are also guiltless of that subsequent conduct which has been imputed to + them as a crime, since for Him and His blessed name, they preached, and + wrote, and shed their blood ‘as witnesses.’ + </p> + <p> + But, is it possible that that which is not historically true can be + dogmatically sound? Such a conclusion would impugn the foundations of all + faith. The followers of Jesus, of whatever race, need not however be + alarmed. The belief that the present condition of the Jewish race is a + penal infliction for the part which some Jews took at the crucifixion is + not dogmatically sound. + </p> + <p> + 2. <i>Not dogmatically sound</i>. There is no passage in the sacred + writings that in the slightest degree warrants the penal assumption. The + imprecation of the mob at the crucifixion is sometimes strangely quoted as + a divine decree. It is not a principle of jurisprudence, human or + inspired, to permit the criminal to ordain his own punishment. Why, too, + should they transfer any portion of the infliction to their posterity? + What evidence have we that the wild suggestion was sanctioned by + Omnipotence? On the contrary, amid the expiating agony, a Divine Voice at + the same time solicited and secured forgiveness. And if unforgiven, could + the cry of a rabble at such a scene bind a nation? + </p> + <p> + But, dogmatically considered, the subject of the crucifixion must be + viewed in a deeper spirit. We must pause with awe to remember what was the + principal office to be fulfilled by the advent. When the ineffable mystery + of the Incarnation was consummated, a Divine Person moved on the face of + the earth in the shape of a child of Israel, not to teach but to expiate. + True it is that no word could fall from such lips, whether in the form of + profound parable, or witty retort, or preceptive lore, but to guide and + enlighten; but they who, in those somewhat lax effusions which in these + days are honoured with the holy name of theology, speak of the morality of + the Gospel as a thing apart and of novel revelation, would do well to + remember that in promulgating such doctrines they are treading on very + perilous ground. There cannot be two moralities; and to hold that the + Second Person of the Holy Trinity could teach a different morality from + that which had been already revealed by the First Person of the Holy + Trinity, is a dogma so full of terror that it may perhaps be looked upon + as the ineffable sin against the Holy Spirit. When the lawyer tempted our + Lord, and inquired how he was to inherit eternal life, the great Master of + Galilee referred him to the writings of Moses. There he would find + recorded ‘the whole duty of man;’ to love God with all his heart, and + soul, and strength, and mind, and his neighbour as himself. These two + principles are embalmed in the writings of Moses, and are the essence of + Christian morals.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * ‘Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself: I am the Lord.’ + —Leviticus xix. 18. +</pre> + <p> + It was for something deeper than this, higher and holier than even Moses + could fulfil, that angels announced the Coming. It was to accomplish an + event pre-ordained by the Creator of the world for countless ages. Born + from the chosen house of the chosen people, yet blending in his + inexplicable nature the Divine essence with the human elements, a + sacrificial Mediator was to appear, appointed before all time, to purify + with his atoning blood the myriads that had preceded and the myriads that + will follow him. The doctrine embraces all space and time—nay, chaos + and eternity; Divine persons are the agents, and the redemption of the + whole family of man the result. If the Jews had not prevailed upon the + Romans to crucify our Lord, what would have become of the Atonement? But + the human mind cannot contemplate the idea that the most important deed of + time could depend upon human will. The immolators were preordained like + the victim, and the holy race supplied both. Could that be a crime which + secured for all mankind eternal joy—which vanquished Satan, and + opened the gates of Paradise? Such a tenet would sully and impugn the + doctrine that is the corner-stone of our faith and hope. Men must not + presume to sit in judgment on such an act. They must bow their heads in + awe and astonishment and trembling gratitude. + </p> + <p> + But, though the opinion that the dispersion of the Jewish race must be + deemed a penalty incurred for their connection with the crucifixion has + neither historical nor doctrinal sanction, it is possible that its + degrading influence upon its victims may have been as efficacious as if + their present condition were indeed a judicial infliction. Persecution, in + a word, although unjust, may have reduced the modern Jews to a state + almost justifying malignant vengeance. They may have become so odious and + so hostile to mankind, as to merit for their present conduct, no matter + how occasioned, the obloquy and ill-treatment of the communities in which + they dwell and with which they are scarcely permitted to mingle. + </p> + <p> + Let us examine this branch of the subject, which, though of more limited + interest, is not without instruction. + </p> + <p> + In all the great cities of Europe, and in some of the great cities of + Asia, among the infamous classes therein existing, there will always be + found Jews. They are not the only people who are usurers, gladiators, and + followers of mean and scandalous occupations, nor are they anywhere a + majority of such, but considering their general numbers, they contribute + perhaps more than their proportion to the aggregate of the vile. In this + they obey the law which regulates the destiny of all persecuted races: the + infamous is the business of the dishonoured; and as infamous pursuits are + generally illegal pursuits, the persecuted race which has most ability + will be most successful in combating the law. The Jews have never been so + degraded as the Greeks were throughout the Levant before the emancipation, + and the degradation of the Greeks was produced by a period of persecution + which, both in amount and suffering, cannot compare with that which has + been endured by the children of Israel. This peculiarity, however, attends + the Jews under the most unfavourable circumstances; the other degraded + races wear out and disappear; the Jew remains, as determined, as expert, + as persevering, as full of resource and resolution as ever. Viewed in this + light, the degradation of the Jewish race is alone a striking evidence of + its excellence, for none but one of the great races could have survived + the trials which it has endured. + </p> + <p> + But, though a material organization of the highest class may account for + so strange a consequence, the persecuted Hebrew is supported by other + means. He is sustained by a sublime religion. Obdurate, malignant, odious, + and revolting as the lowest Jew appears to us, he is rarely demoralized. + Beneath his own roof his heart opens to the influence of his beautiful + Arabian traditions. All his ceremonies, his customs, and his festivals are + still to celebrate the bounty of nature and the favour of Jehovah. The + patriarchal feeling lingers about his hearth. A man, however fallen, who + loves his home is not wholly lost. The trumpet of Sinai still sounds in + the Hebrew ear, and a Jew is never seen upon the scaffold, unless it be at + an <i>auto da fè</i>. + </p> + <p> + But, having made this full admission of the partial degradation of the + Jewish race, we are not prepared to agree that this limited degeneracy is + any justification of the prejudices and persecution which originated in + barbarous or mediæval superstitions. On the contrary, viewing the + influence of the Jewish race upon the modern communities, without any + reference to the past history or the future promises of Israel; dismissing + from our minds and memories, if indeed that be possible, all that the + Hebrews have done in the olden time for man and all which it may be their + destiny yet to fulfil, we hold that instead of being an object of + aversion, they should receive all that honour and favour from the northern + and western races, which, in civilized and refined nations, should be the + lot of those who charm the public taste and elevate the public feeling. We + hesitate not to say that there is no race at this present, and following + in this only the example of a long period, that so much delights, and + fascinates, and elevates, and ennobles Europe, as the Jewish. + </p> + <p> + We dwell not on the fact, that the most admirable artists of the drama + have been and still are of the Hebrew race: or, that the most entrancing + singers, graceful dancers, and exquisite musicians, are sons and daughters + of Israel: though this were much. But these brilliant accessories are + forgotten in the sublimer claim. + </p> + <p> + It seems that the only means by which in these modern times we are + permitted to develop the beautiful is music. It would appear definitively + settled that excellence in the plastic arts is the privilege of the + earlier ages of the world. All that is now produced in this respect is + mimetic, and, at the best, the skilful adaptation of traditional methods. + The creative faculty of modern man seems by an irresistible law at work on + the virgin soil of science, daily increasing by its inventions our command + over nature, and multiplying the material happiness of man. But the + happiness of man is not merely material. Were it not for music, we might + in these days say, the beautiful is dead. Music seems to be the only means + of creating the beautiful, in which we not only equal, but in all + probability greatly excel, the ancients. The music of modern Europe ranks + with the transcendent creations of human genius; the poetry, the statues, + the temples, of Greece. It produces and represents as they did whatever is + most beautiful in the spirit of man and often expresses what is most + profound. And who are the great composers, who hereafter will rank with + Homer, with Sophocles, with Praxiteles, or with Phidias? They are the + descendants of those Arabian tribes who conquered Canaan, and who by + favour of the Most High have done more with less means even than the + Athenians. + </p> + <p> + Forty years ago—not a longer period than the children of Israel were + wandering in the desert—the two most dishonoured races in Europe + were the Attic and the Hebrew, and they were the two races that had done + most for mankind. Their fortunes had some similarity: their countries were + the two smallest in the world, equally barren and equally famous; they + both divided themselves into tribes: both built a most famous temple on an + acropolis; and both produced a literature which all European nations have + accepted with reverence and admiration. Athens has been sacked oftener + than Jerusalem, and oftener razed to the ground; but the Athenians have + escaped expatriation, which is purely an Oriental custom. The sufferings + of the Jews, however, have been infinitely more prolonged and varied than + those of the Athenians. The Greek nevertheless appears exhausted. The + creative genius of Israel, on the contrary, never shone so bright; and + when the Russian, the Frenchman, and the Anglo-Saxon, amid applauding + theatres or the choral voices of solemn temples, yield themselves to the + full spell of a Mozart or a Mendelssohn, it seems difficult to comprehend + how these races can reconcile it to their hearts to persecute a Jew. + </p> + <p> + We have shown that the theological prejudice against the Jews has no + foundation, historical or doctrinal; we have shown that the social + prejudice, originating in the theological but sustained by superficial + observations, irrespective of religious prejudice, is still more unjust, + and that no existing race is so much entitled to the esteem and gratitude + of society as the Hebrew. It remains for us to notice the injurious + consequences to European society of the course pursued by the communities + to this race; and this view of the subject leads us to considerations + which it would become existing statesmen to ponder. + </p> + <p> + The world has by this time discovered that it is impossible to destroy the + Jews. The attempt to extirpate them has been made under the most + favourable auspices and on the largest scale; the most considerable means + that man could command have been pertinaciously applied to this object for + the longest period of recorded time. Egyptian Pharaohs, Assyrian kings, + Roman emperors, Scandinavian crusaders, Gothic princes, and holy + inquisitors have alike devoted their energies to the fulfilment of this + common purpose. Expatriation, exile, captivity, confiscation, torture on + the most ingenious, and massacre on the most extensive, scale, with a + curious system of degrading customs and debasing laws which would have + broken the heart of any other people, have been tried, and in vain. The + Jews, after all this havoc, are probably more numerous at this date than + they were during the reign of Solomon the Wise, are found in all lands, + and, unfortunately, prospering in most. All of which proves that it is in + vain for man to attempt to battle the inexorable law of nature, which has + decreed that a superior race shall never be destroyed or absorbed by an + inferior. + </p> + <p> + But the influence of a great race will be felt; its greatness does not + depend upon its numbers, otherwise the English would not have vanquished + the Chinese, nor would the Aztecs have been overthrown by Cortez and a + handful of Goths. That greatness results from its organization, the + consequences of which are shown in its energy and enterprise, in the + strength of its will and the fertility of its brain. Let us observe what + should be the influence of the Jews, and then ascertain how it is + exercised. The Jewish race connects the modern populations with the early + ages of the world, when the relations of the Creator with the created were + more intimate than in these days, when angels visited the earth, and God + himself even spoke with man. The Jews represent the Semitic principle; all + that is spiritual in our nature. They are the trustees of tradition and + the conservators of the religious element. They are a living and the most + striking evidence of the falsity of that pernicious doctrine of modern + times—the natural equality of man. The political equality of a + particular race is a matter of municipal arrangement, and depends entirely + on political considerations and circumstances; but the natural equality of + man now in vogue, and taking the form of cosmopolitan fraternity, is a + principle which, were it possible to act on it, would deteriorate the + great races and destroy all the genius of the world. What would be the + consequence on the great Anglo-Saxon republic, for example, were its + citizens to secede from their sound principle of reserve, and mingle with + their negro and coloured populations? In the course of time they would + become so deteriorated that their states would probably be reconquered and + regained by the aborigines whom they have expelled, and who would then be + their superiors. But though nature will never ultimately permit this + theory of natural equality to be practised, the preaching of this dogma + has already caused much mischief, and may occasion much more. The native + tendency of the Jewish race, who are justly proud of their blood, is + against the doctrine of the equality of man. They have also another + characteristic, the faculty of acquisition. Although the European laws + have endeavoured to prevent their obtaining property, they have + nevertheless become remarkable for their accumulated wealth. Thus it will + be seen that all the tendencies of the Jewish race are conservative. Their + bias is to religion, property, and natural aristocracy: and it should be + the interest of statesmen that this bias of a great race should be + encouraged, and their energies and creative powers enlisted in the cause + of existing society. + </p> + <p> + But existing society has chosen to persecute this race which should + furnish its choice allies, and what have been the consequences? + </p> + <p> + They may be traced in the last outbreak of the destructive principle in + Europe. An insurrection takes place against tradition and aristocracy, + against religion and property. Destruction of the Semitic principle, + extirpation of the Jewish religion, whether in the Mosaic or in the + Christian form, the natural equality of man, and the abrogation of + property, are proclaimed by the secret societies who form provisional + governments, and men of Jewish race are found at the head of every one of + them. The people of God coöperate with atheists; the most skilful + accumulators of property ally themselves with communists; the peculiar and + chosen race touch the hand of all the scum and low castes of Europe! And + all this because they wish to destroy that ungrateful Christendom which + owes to them even its name, and whose tyranny they can no longer endure. + </p> + <p> + When the secret societies, in February, 1848, surprised Europe, they were + themselves surprised by the unexpected opportunity, and so little capable + were they of seizing the occasion, that had it not been for the Jews, who + of late years unfortunately have been connecting themselves with these + unhallowed associations, imbecile as were the governments, the + uncalled-for outbreak would not have ravaged Europe. But the fiery energy + and the teeming resources of the children of Israel maintained for a long + time the unnecessary and useless struggle. If the reader throw his eye + over the provisional governments of Germany and Italy, and even of France, + formed at that period, he will recognize everywhere the Jewish element. + Even the insurrection, and defence, and administration of Venice, which, + from the resource and statesmanlike moderation displayed, commanded almost + the respect and sympathy of Europe, were accomplished by a Jew—Manini—who, + by the bye, is a Jew who professes the whole of the Jewish religion, and + believes in Calvary as well as Sinai,—‘a converted Jew,’ as the + Lombards styled him, quite forgetting, in the confusion of their ideas, + that it is the Lombards who are the converts—not Manini. + </p> + <p> + Thus it will be seen, that the persecution of the Jewish race has deprived + European society of an important conservative element, and added to the + destructive party an influential ally. Prince Metternich, the most + enlightened of modern statesmen, not to say the most intellectual of men, + was, though himself a victim of the secret societies, fully aware of these + premises. It was always his custom, great as were the difficulties which + in so doing he had to encounter, to employ as much as possible the Hebrew + race in the public service. He could never forget that Napoleon, in his + noontide hour, had been checked by the pen of the greatest of political + writers; he had found that illustrious author as great in the cabinet as + in the study; he knew that no one had more contributed to the deliverance + of Europe. It was not as a patron, but as an appreciating and devoted + friend, that the High Chancellor of Austria appointed Frederick Gentz + secretary to the Congress of Vienna—and Frederick Gentz was a child + of Israel. + </p> + <p> + It is no doubt to be deplored that several millions of the Jewish race + should persist in believing in only a part of their religion; but this is + a circumstance which does not affect Europe, and time, with different + treatment, may remove the anomaly which perhaps may be accounted for. It + should be recollected, that the existing Jews are perhaps altogether the + descendants of those various colonies and emigrations which, voluntary or + forced, long preceded the advent. Between the vast carnage of the Roman + wars, from Titus to Hadrian, and the profession of Christ by his + countrymen, which must have been very prevalent, since the Christian + religion was solely sustained by the Jews of Palestine during the greater + part of its first century, it is improbable that any descendants of the + Jews of Palestine exist who disbelieve in Christ. After the fall of + Jerusalem and the failure of Barchochebas, no doubt some portion of the + Jews found refuge in the desert, returning to their original land after + such long and strange vicissitudes. This natural movement would account + for those Arabian tribes, of whose resistance to Mohammed we have ample + and authentic details, and who, if we are to credit the accounts which + perplex modern travellers, are to this day governed by the Pentateuch + instead of the Koran. + </p> + <p> + When Christianity was presented to the ancestors of the present Jews, it + came from a very suspicious quarter, and was offered in a very + questionable shape. Centuries must have passed in many instances before + the Jewish colonies heard of the advent, the crucifixion, and the + atonement; the latter, however, a doctrine in perfect harmony with Jewish + ideas. When they first heard of Christianity, it appeared to be a Gentile + religion, accompanied by idolatrous practices, from which severe + monotheists, like the Arabians, always recoil, and holding the Jewish race + up to public scorn and hatred. This is not the way to make converts. + </p> + <p> + There have been two great colonies of the Jewish race in Europe; in Spain + and in Sarmatia. The origin of the Jews in Spain is lost in the night of + time. That it was of great antiquity we have proof. The tradition, once + derided, that the Iberian Jews were a Phoenician colony has been favoured + by the researches of modern antiquaries, who have traced the Hebrew + language in the ancient names of the localities. It may be observed, + however, that the languages of the Jews and the Philistines, or + Phoenicians, were probably too similar to sanction any positive induction + from such phenomena; while on the other hand, in reply to those who have + urged the improbability of the Jews, who had no seaports, colonizing + Spain, it may be remarked that the colony may have been an expatriation by + the Philistines in the course of the long struggle which occurred between + them and the invading tribes previous to the foundation of the Hebrew + monarchy. We know that in the time of Cicero the Jews had been settled + immemorially in Spain. When the Romans, converted to Christianity and + acted on by the priesthood, began to trouble the Spanish Jews, it appears + by a decree of Constantine that they were owners and cultivators of the + soil, a circumstance which alone proves the antiquity and the nobility of + their settlement, for the possession of the land is never conceded to a + degraded race. The conquest of Spain by the Goths in the fifth and sixth + centuries threatened the Spanish Jews, however, with more serious + adversaries than the Romans. The Gothic tribes, very recently converted to + their Syrian faith, were full of barbaric zeal against those whom they + looked upon as the enemies of Jesus. But the Spanish Jews sought + assistance from their kinsmen the Saracens on the opposite coast; Spain + was invaded and subdued by the Moors, and for several centuries the Jew + and the Saracen lived under the same benignant laws and shared the same + brilliant prosperity. In the history of Spain during the Saracenic + supremacy any distinction of religion or race is no longer traced. And so + it came to pass that when at the end of the fourteenth century, after the + fell triumph of the Dominicans over the Albigenses, the holy inquisition + was introduced into Spain, it was reported to Torquemada that two-thirds + of the nobility of Arragon, that is to say of the proprietors of the land, + were Jews. + </p> + <p> + All that these men knew of Christianity was, that it was a religion of + fire and sword, and that one of its first duties was to avenge some + mysterious and inexplicable crime which had been committed ages ago by + some unheard of ancestors of theirs in an unknown land. The inquisitors + addressed themselves to the Spanish Jews in the same abrupt and ferocious + manner in which the monks saluted the Mexicans and the Peruvians. All + those of the Spanish Jews, who did not conform after the fall of the + Mohammedan kingdoms, were expatriated by the victorious Goths, and these + refugees were the main source of the Italian Jews, and of the most + respectable portion of the Jews of Holland. These exiles found refuge in + two republics; Venice and the United Provinces. The Portuguese Jews, it is + well known, came from Spain, and their ultimate expulsion from Portugal + was attended by the same results as the Spanish expatriation. + </p> + <p> + The other great division of Jews in Europe are the Sarmatian Jews, and + they are very numerous. They amount to nearly three millions. These + unquestionably entered Europe with the other Sarmatian nations, descending + the Borysthenes and ascending the Danube, and are according to all + probability the progeny of the expatriations of the times of + Tiglath-Pileser and Nebuchadnezzar. They are the posterity of those + ‘devout men,’ Parthians, Medes, and Elamites, who were attending the + festivals at Jerusalem at the time of the descent of the Holy Spirit. + Living among barbarous pagans, who never molested them, these people went + on very well, until suddenly the barbarous pagans, under the influence of + an Italian priesthood, were converted to the Jewish religion, and then as + a necessary consequence the converts began to harass, persecute, and + massacre the Jews. + </p> + <p> + These people had never heard of Christ. Had the Romans not destroyed + Jerusalem, these Sarmatian Jews would have had a fair chance of obtaining + from civilized beings some clear and coherent account of the great events + which had occurred. They and their fathers before them would have gone up + in customary pilgrimage to the central sacred place, both for purposes of + devotion and purposes of trade, and they might have heard from Semitic + lips that there were good tidings for Israel. What they heard from their + savage companions, and the Italian priesthood which acted on them, was, + that there were good tidings for all the world except Israel, and that + Israel, for the commission of a great crime of which they had never heard + and could not comprehend, was to be plundered, massacred, hewn to pieces, + and burnt alive in the name of Christ and for the sake of Christianity. + </p> + <p> + The Eastern Jews, who are very numerous, are in general the descendants of + those who in the course of repeated captivities settled in the great + Eastern monarchies, and which they never quitted. They live in the same + cities and follow the same customs as they did in the days of Cyrus. They + are to be found in Persia, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor; at Bagdad, at + Hamadan, at Smyrna. We know from the Jewish books how very scant was the + following which accompanied Esdras and Nehemiah back to Jerusalem. A + fortress city, built on a ravine, surrounded by stony mountains and + watered by a scanty stream, had no temptations after the gardens of + Babylon and the broad waters of the Euphrates. But Babylon has vanished + and Jerusalem remains, and what are the waters of Euphrates to the brook + of Kedron! It is another name than that of Jesus of Nazareth with which + these Jews have been placed in collision, and the Ishmaelites have not + forgotten the wrongs of Hagar in their conduct to the descendants of + Sarah. + </p> + <p> + Is it therefore wonderful that a great portion of the Jewish race should + not believe in the most important portion of the Jewish religion? As, + however, the converted races become more humane in their behaviour to the + Jews, and the latter have opportunity fully to comprehend and deeply to + ponder over true Christianity, it is difficult to suppose that the result + will not be very different. Whether presented by a Roman or Anglo-Catholic + or Genevese divine, by pope, bishop, or presbyter, there is nothing, one + would suppose, very repugnant to the feelings of a Jew when he learns that + the redemption of the human race has been effected by the mediatorial + agency of a child of Israel: if the ineffable mystery of the Incarnation + be developed to him, he will remember that the blood of Jacob is a chosen + and peculiar blood; and if so transcendent a consummation is to occur, he + will scarcely deny that only one race could be deemed worthy of + accomplishing it. There may be points of doctrine on which the northern + and western races may perhaps never agree. The Jew like them may follow + that path in those respects which reason and feeling alike dictate; but + nevertheless it can hardly be maintained that there is anything revolting + to a Jew to learn that a Jewess is the queen of heaven, or that the flower + of the Jewish race are even now sitting on the right hand of the Lord God + of Sabaoth. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps, too, in this enlightened age, as his mind expands, and he takes a + comprehensive view of this period of progress, the pupil of Moses may ask + himself, whether all the princes of the house of David have done so much + for the Jews as that prince who was crucified on Calvary. Had it not been + for Him, the Jews would have been comparatively unknown, or known only as + a high Oriental caste which had lost its country. Has not He made their + history the most famous in the world? Has not He hung up their laws in + every temple? Has not He vindicated all their wrongs? Has not He avenged + the victory of Titus and conquered the Caesars? What successes did they + anticipate from their Messiah? The wildest dreams of their rabbis have + been far exceeded. Has not Jesus conquered Europe and changed its name + into Christendom? All countries that refuse the cross wither, while the + whole of the new world is devoted to the Semitic principle and its most + glorious offspring the Jewish faith, and the time will come when the vast + communities and countless myriads of America and Australia, looking upon + Europe as Europe now looks upon Greece, and wondering how so small a space + could have achieved such great deeds, will still find music in the songs + of Sion and still seek solace in the parables of Galilee. + </p> + <p> + These may be dreams, but there is one fact which none can contest. + Christians may continue to persecute Jews, and Jews may persist in + disbelieving Christians, but who can deny that Jesus of Nazareth, the + Incarnate Son of the Most High God, is the eternal glory of the Jewish + race? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Jewish Disabilities</i> +</pre> + <p> + IT WOULD seem to follow from the views expressed in the preceding chaptet, + that in communities professing a belief in our Lord, the Jewish race ought + not to be subject to any legislative dishonour or disqualification. These + views, however, were not those which influenced Lord George Bentinck in + forming his opinion that the civil disabilities of those subjects of her + Majesty who profess that limited belief in divine revelation which is + commonly called the Jewish religion should be removed. He had supported a + measure to this effect in the year 1833, guided in that conduct by his + devoted attachment to the equivocal principle of religious liberty, the + unqualified application of which principle seems hardly consistent with + that recognition of religious truth by the state to which we yet adhere, + and without which it is highly probable that the northern and western + races, after a disturbing and rapidly degrading period of atheistic + anarchy, may fatally recur to their old national idolatries, modified and + mythically dressed up according to the spirit of the age. It may be + observed that the decline and disasters of modern communities have + generally been relative to their degree of sedition against the Semitic + principle. Since the great revolt of the Celts against the first and + second testament, at the close of the last century, France has been + alternately in a state of collapse or convulsion. Throughout the awful + trials of the last sixty years, England, notwithstanding her deficient and + meagre theology, has always remembered Sion. The great Transatlantic + republic is intensely Semitic, and has prospered accordingly. This sacred + principle alone has consolidated the mighty empire of all the Russias. How + omnipotent it is cannot be more clearly shown than by the instance of + Rome, where it appears in its most corrupt form. An old man on a Semitic + throne baffles the modern Attilas, and the recent invasion of the + barbarians, under the form of red republicans, socialists, communists, all + different phases which describe the relapse of the once converted races + into their primitive condition of savagery. Austria would long ago have + dissolved but for the Semitic principle, and if the north of Germany has + never succeeded in attaining that imperial position which seemed its + natural destiny, it is that the north of Germany has never at any time + been thoroughly converted. Some perhaps may point to Spain as a remarkable + instance of decline in a country where the Semitic principle has exercised + great influence. But the fall of Spain was occasioned by the expulsion of + her Semitic population: a million families of Jews and Saracens, the most + distinguished of her citizens for their industry and their intelligence, + their learning and their wealth. + </p> + <p> + It appears that Lord George Bentinck had offended some of his followers by + an opinion expressed in his address to his constituency in ‘47, that in + accordance with the suggestion of Mr. Pitt, some provision should be made + for the Roman Catholic priesthood of Ireland out of the land. Although + this opinion might offend the religious sentiments of some, and might be + justly looked upon by others as a scheme ill-suited to the character of an + age adverse to any further religious endowments, it must be acknowledged + that no member of the Protectionist party had any just cause of complaint + against Lord George for the expression of an opinion which he had always + upheld, and of his constancy to which he had fairly given his friends + notice. This was so generally felt that the repining died away. The Jewish + question, as it was called, revived these religious emotions. These + feelings, as springing from the highest sentiment of our nature, and + founded, however mistaken in their application, on religious truth, are + entitled to deep respect and tenderness; but no one can indulge them by + the compromise of the highest principles, or by sanctioning a course which + he really believes to be destructive of the very object which their + votaries wish to cherish. + </p> + <p> + As there are very few Englishmen of what is commonly called the Jewish + faith, and as therefore it was supposed that political considerations + could not enter into the question, it was hoped by many of the followers + of Lord George Bentinck that he would not separate himself from his party + on this subject, and very earnest requests and representations were made + to him with that view. He was not insensible to them; he gave them + prolonged and painful consideration; they greatly disquieted him. In his + confidential correspondence he often recurs to the distress and anxiety + which this question and its consequences as regarded his position with + those friends to whom he was much attached occasioned him. It must not, + therefore, be supposed that, in the line he ultimately took with reference + to this question, he was influenced, as some have unkindly and + unwarrantably fancied, by a self-willed, inexorable, and imperious spirit. + He was no doubt, by nature, a proud man, inclined even to arrogance, and + naturally impatient of contradiction; but two severe campaigns in the + House of Commons had already mitigated these characteristics: he + understood human nature, he was fond of his party, and, irrespective of + other considerations, it pained his ardent and generous heart to mortify + his comrades. It was therefore not in any degree from temper, but from + principle,—from as pure, as high, and as noble a sense of duty as + ever actuated a man in public life,—that Lord George Bentinck + ultimately resolved that it was impossible for him to refuse to vote for + the removal of what are commonly called Jewish disabilities. He had voted + in this particular cause shortly after his entrance into public life; it + was in accordance with that general principle of religious liberty to + which he was an uncompromising adherent; it was in complete agreement with + the understanding which subsisted between himself and the Protectionist + party, when at their urgent request he unwillingly assumed the helm. He + was entreated not to vote at all; to stay away, which the severe + indisposition under which he was then labouring warranted. He did not + rudely repulse these latter representations, as has been circulated. On + the contrary, he listened to them with kindness, and was not uninfluenced + by them. Enfeebled by illness, he had nearly brought himself to a + compliance with a request urged with affectionate importunity, but from + which his reason and sense of duty held him aloof. After long and deep and + painful pondering, when the hour arrived, he rose from his bed of + sickness, walked into the House of Commons, and not only voted, but spoke + in favour of his convictions. His speech remains, one of the best ever + delivered on the subject, not only full of weighty argument, but touched + with a high and even tender vein of sentiment. + </p> + <p> + This vote and speech of Lord George Bentinck no doubt mortified at the + moment a considerable portion of his followers, and occasioned great + dissatisfaction among a very respectable though limited section of them. + This latter body must either have forgotten or they must have been + strangely unacquainted with the distinct understanding on which Lord + George had undertaken the lead of the party, or otherwise they could not + have felt authorized in conveying to him their keen sense of + disapprobation. Unfortunately he received this when the House had + adjourned for the holidays, and when Mr. Bankes, who had been the organ of + communication with him in ‘46, was in the country, and when the party was + of course generally dispersed. Lord George did not take any pains to + ascertain whether the representation which was made to him was that of the + general feeling of a large party, or that only of a sincere, highly + estimable, but limited section. He was enfeebled and exhausted by + indisposition; he often felt, even when in health, that the toil of his + life was beyond both his physical and moral energies; and though he was of + that ardent and tenacious nature that he never would have complained, but + have died at his post, the opportunity of release coming to him at a + moment when he was physically prostrate was rather eagerly seized, and the + world suddenly learnt at Christmas, with great astonishment, that the + renowned leader of the Protectionist party had relinquished his trust. + </p> + <p> + The numerous communications which he received must have convinced him that + the assumed circumstances under which he acted had not been accurately + appreciated by him. He was implored to reconsider his course, as one very + detrimental to the cause to which he was devoted, and which would probably + tend to the triumph of those whose policy he had attempted to defeat, and + whose personal conduct he had at least succeeded in punishing. + </p> + <p> + ‘The prophesied time has come,’ he wrote to his friend Mr. Bankes, on the + 23rd of December, 1847, ‘when I have ceased to be able to serve the party, + the great cause of Protection, or my country, by any longer retaining the + commission bestowed on me in the spring of 1846. You will remember, + however, that when unfeignedly and honestly, but in vain, trying to escape + from being raised to a position which I foresaw I must fail to maintain + with advantage to you or honour to myself, I at last gave my consent, I + only did so on the express understanding that my advancement should be + held to be merely a pro tempore appointment, waiting till the country + should have the opportunity of sending to Parliament other men better + fitted to lead the country gentlemen of England. I have recalled these + circumstances to your mind with no other purpose than that the party may + feel how entirely free they are, without even the suspicion of doing an + injustice to me or of showing me in this any disrespect, to remodel their + arrangements, and to supersede my lieutenancy by the appointment of a + superior and permanent commander.’ + </p> + <p> + And again on Christmas-day, to the same gentleman, in reply to an + acknowledgment of the preceding, he says, while thanking Mr. Bankes ‘for + his warm-hearted letter as very grateful to his feelings,’—’ + Confidentially I tell you, that far from feeling in the least annoyed, I + shall feel greatly relieved by a restoration to privacy and freedom. I + worked upon my spirit in ‘46 and ‘47; but I have learnt now that I have + shaken my constitution to the foundation, and I seriously doubt my being + able to work on much longer.’ + </p> + <p> + He wrote on the 24th of December to one of his most intimate friends and + warmest supporters, Mr. Christopher, the member for Lincolnshire, who had + remonstrated with him as to his decision: ‘It is not in my nature to + retain a station one moment after I get a hint even that any portion of + those who raised me to it are wearied of seeing me there. The old members + of the party will all recollect how clearly I foresaw and foretold that I + should be found a very inconvenient as well as a very inefficient leader, + so soon as the great Protection battle was brought to a close. I predicted + all that has since occurred; and no one more cordially agrees than I do in + the wisdom of the present decision, the spirit I presume of which is that + no great party or large body of men can be successfully, or to any good + purpose, led except by a man who heart and soul sympathizes with them in + all their feelings, partialities, and prejudices. Cold reason has a poor + chance against such influences. There can be no <i>esprit de corps</i> and + no zeal where there is not a union of prejudices as well as of commercial + opinions. The election of a leader united with the great body of the party + in these respects, will tend greatly to reunite its scattered particles, + even on those questions where I shall be able to give my aid with all my + wonted zeal, which will not be the less spirited because it will be free + and independent.’ + </p> + <p> + At a later period, acknowledging an address signed by the great body of + the Protectionist party, and presented to him by the present Earl Talbot, + then a member of the House of Commons, Lord George wrote, ‘The + considerations which obliged me to surrender a post of honour which every + independent and high-minded English gentleman has at all times prized + above the highest rewards in the gift of the crown, “the leadership of the + country gentlemen of England,” will never influence me to swerve from any + endeavours of which my poor abilities and bodily energies are capable in + the promotion of the prosperity of all classes in the British empire at + home and in the colonies, any more than they can ever make me forget the + attachment, the friendship, and the enthusiastic support of those who + stood by me to the end of the death struggle for British interests and for + English good faith and political honour, and to whose continued friendship + and constancy I know I am indebted for this graceful and grateful + compliment.’ + </p> + <p> + If Lord George Bentinck was inexorable to the entreaties of his friends, + it must not be supposed that he was influenced in the course which he + pursued, as was presumed by many at the time not acquainted with the + circumstances, by any feeling of pique or brooding sullenness. No + high-spirited man under vexatious and distressing circumstances ever + behaved with more magnanimity. In this he was actuated in a great degree + by a sense of duty, but still more by that peculiar want of selfishness + which was one of the most beautiful traits of his character. The moment he + had at all recovered from the severe attack by which, to use his own + language, he had been ‘struck down in the first week of the session,’ and + from the effects of which it may be doubted whether he ever entirely + recovered, he laboured zealously to induce some competent person to + undertake the office which he had thought it expedient to resign, offering + in several instances to serve in the ranks, and to assist with his utmost + energies, both in and out of the House, the individual who would undertake + the responsible direction in the Commons. + </p> + <p> + These efforts, though indefatigable, were not successful, for those who + were competent to the office cared not to serve under any one except + himself. About this time, a personage of great station, and who very much + admired Lord George Bentinck, wrote to him, and recommended him not to + trouble himself about the general discipline of the party, but to follow + his own course, and lead that body of friends who under all circumstances + would adhere to him, instancing the case of Mr. Canning, under + circumstances not altogether dissimilar. Lord George replied: ‘As for my + rallying a personal party round myself, as Mr. Canning did, I have no + pretension to anything of the kind; when Mr. Canning did that, the House + of Commons, and England too, acknowledged him to be the greatest orator + who had survived Pitt and Fox; he had been Secretary of State for foreign + affairs, and had taken a conspicuous part in rousing the country to carry + on the war against France.’ + </p> + <p> + The nature of the subject, dealing as it necessarily does with so many + personal details, renders it impossible to make public the correspondence + in which Lord George Bentinck was engaged at this time in his attempts to + place the Protectionist party under the guidance of one who would unite + all sympathies; but were that publication possible, it would place Lord + George Bentinck in a very noble and amiable light, and prove a gentleness + and softness in his nature for which those who were not very intimate with + him did not give him credit. Not that it must be for a moment supposed + that he was insensible to what was occurring. He was the most sensitive as + well as the proudest of men. When the writer called at Harcourt House, to + bid him farewell, before the Christmas holidays, and, conversing very + frankly on the course which he was then pursuing, inquired as to his + future proceedings, Lord George said with emotion: ‘In this cause I have + shaken my constitution and shortened my days, and I will succeed or die.’ + In the course of the year 1848, walking home, talking together, from the + House of Commons, he twice recurred to this terrible alternative. + </p> + <p> + But all considerations were merged at this moment in the predominant one + which was to keep the party together. He wrote to a friend at the end of + January, who urged him, as the hour of work approached and the injurious + inconveniences of his abdication would be more felt, to confer with his + former followers and reconsider his position, that no personal feeling + prevented his taking that course, but that he felt any resumption of + responsibility on his part would not be pleasing to a section of those who + formerly served with him, and that there would be a ‘split’ in the ranks. + ‘As far as I am personally concerned,’ he added, ‘I could submit to + anything short of having my ears cut off and appearing as a “Croppy,” to + be free again. My pride cannot stand leading an unwilling party; I would + just as soon thrust myself into a dinner-room where I was at once an + uninvited and an unwelcome guest.’ + </p> + <p> + In the meantime, according to his custom, the moment that he had + sufficiently recovered from his illness, he prepared with the utmost zeal + for the coming struggle respecting the fate of our sugar colonies, in + which subject he was soon absorbed. + </p> + <p> + Parliament reassembled on the 3rd of February, and on that night Lord + George Bentinck brought forward his motion for ‘a select committee to + inquire into the present condition and prospects of the interests + connected with and dependent on sugar and coffee planting in her Majesty’s + East and West Indian possessions and the Mauritius, and to consider + whether any and what measures can be adopted by Parliament for their + relief.’ When he entered the House, Lord George walked up to the head of + the second bench below the gangway, on the opposition side, and thus + significantly announced that he was no longer the responsible leader of + the Protectionist party. It was the wish of the writer of these pages, who + had resolved to stand or fall by him, to have followed his example and to + have abdicated the prominent seat in which the writer had been unwillingly + and fortuitously placed; but by the advice, or rather at the earnest + request, of Lord George Bentinck, this course was relinquished as + indicative of schism, which he wished to discourage; and the circumstance + is only mentioned as showing that Lord George was not less considerate at + this moment of the interests of the Protectionist party than when he led + them with so much confidence and authority. The session, however, was to + commence without a leader, without any recognized organ of communication + between parties, or any responsible representative of opinion in debate. + All again was chaos. There is, however, something so vital in the + Conservative party that it seems always to rally under every disadvantage. + </p> + <p> + Lord George spoke well to his resolution: the House soon recognized he was + master of his case, and though few foresaw at the moment the important + consequences to which this motion would lead, the House was interested + from the first; and though there was no division, the debate lasted two + days, and was sustained on both sides with great animation. + </p> + <p> + The mover vindicated himself very successfully for only proposing a + committee of inquiry. ‘It has been represented to me,’ he said, ‘by the + colonies and by persons in this country who are interested in them, that + the course which I am proposing is not consistent with the necessities of + the case; that there is something pusillanimous in the motion which I am + going to make; that in point of fact the interests connected with sugar + and coffee planting are in extremis; and that while the question of their + redress is being discussed in a committee above-stairs, these great + interests will perish. They say to me that a committee of inquiry will be + to them of the nature of that comfort which, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + “Like cordials after death, come late; ” + </pre> + <p> + and that before the committee shall have reported, the West-Indian + interest will be altogether past recovery. But, sir, it is for me to + consider what my power is to obtain any substantial relief by a direct + vote of this House; and when I remember that in July, 1846, I moved a + resolution the purport of which was, to maintain the protection for the + West-Indian and the East-Indian free-labour colonies which they now seek, + and that I had but one hundred and thirty gentlemen to support me, while + two hundred and sixty-five votes were recorded in favour of the measure of + the Government admitting slave-labour sugar, I feel that it is hopeless + for me to endeavour in this House, where I have no reason to suppose any + addition has been made to the members acquiescing in my views, to convert + that minority into a majority; and more especially when I recollect that + on that occasion but five gentlemen connected with the West-Indian and + East-Indian interests recorded their votes with me, I think the + West-Indian interest has not a good case against me when they blame me for + not taking a more resolute step on this occasion.’ + </p> + <p> + He was not, however, without hope from the course which he had decided to + pursue. ‘Looking, as I have done, at the deplorable state of the West + Indies, the East Indies, and the Mauritius, and holding, as I do, in my + hand a list of forty-eight great houses in England—twenty-six of the + first commercial houses in London, sixteen in Liverpool, and six elsewhere—which + have failed, and whose liabilities amount in the whole to £6,300,000 and + upwards, none of which I believe would have fallen had it not been for the + ruin brought upon them by the change in the sugar duties and the + consequent reduction in the price of their produce,—I do hope, + through the intervention of a committee of this House, I may be able to + prevail upon the House to change its policy with regard to this great + question.’ + </p> + <p> + Lord George was supported in this debate by Mr. Thomas Baring, in one of + the best speeches ever made in the House of Commons. Few more combine + mastery of the case with parliamentary point than this gentleman. It is + not impossible to find a man capable of addressing the House of Commons + who understands the subject; it is not impossible to find a man who can + convey his impressions on any subject to the House in a lively and + captivating manner, though both instances are rarer than the world would + imagine; but a man who at the same time understands a question and can + handle it before a popular assembly in a popular style, who teaches + without being pedantic, can convey an argument in an epigram, and instruct + as the Mexicans did by picture, possesses a talent for the exercise of + which he is responsible to his sovereign and his country. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Baring said that he could not perfectly agree either with Lord John + Russell or Lord George Bentinck, that Protection or Free Trade must be in + what they called a circle, round which in their legislation they must + always move; that they must either give protection to everything or free + trade to everything. He could not say that because sugar claimed + protection, coals must have protection also. Neither would he, on the + other hand, apply free trade to every article. He acknowledged the + advantage of competition as a stimulus: he thought that, placing things on + equal grounds, competition was undoubtedly a great advantage. He could + understand a competition to try the mutual speed of race-horses; but there + could be no competition between a race-horse and a steam-engine, for the + power of the animal could bear no comparison with that of the machine! + </p> + <p> + Mr. Baring could look back to no legislation more humiliating than the + legislation regarding our colonies. No great interest was ever so much + trifled with, so much sacrificed to the cry of the day; at one moment to + no slavery and another to cheap sugar. + </p> + <p> + The committee was granted, and it was generally felt that the question was + consequently quieted for the session. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>Leader Perforce</i> +</pre> + <p> + DURING the first six weeks of this famous committee the attendance of its + members was not very regular, and its labours attracted little attention. + The evidence on the East-India part of the question was closed and + reported to the House by the end of February; after that period the + evidence was reported to the House every week or ten days. Towards the end + of March, rumours began to circulate of the extraordinary vigour and + ability with which this investigation was pursued, and of the novel, + authentic, and striking evidence that had been elicited. The proceedings + were talked of in the House of Commons and on the Royal Exchange; the City + men who were examined went back to their companions with wondrous tales of + the energy and acuteness of Harcourt House, and the order, method, and + discipline of the committee-room at Westminster. As time elapsed, the + hopes of the colonial interest again revived. It was generally felt that + Lord George had succeeded in establishing an irresistible case. It was + rumoured that the government could not withstand it. Those who had + originally murmured at the course which he had adopted of moving for a + committee of inquiry, instead of proposing a specific measure of relief, + and had treated an investigation as a mere means of securing inaction, now + recanted their rash criticism, and did justice to his prescience and + superior judgment, as well as to his vast information and indefatigable + exertions. The week during which the committee sat on their report was a + very anxious one; the divisions were known every day in the House of + Commons; the alternations of success and discomfiture, and the balanced + numbers that so often called for the interposition of the chairman, were + calculated to sustain the excitement; and when, on the 29th of May, it was + known that the report was at length agreed to, and that a committee of + free traders had absolutely recommended a differential duty of 10s. in + favour of our own produce, one might have fancied from the effect visibly + produced, that a government was changed. + </p> + <p> + A few days before—it was the day after the Derby, May 25th—the + writer met Lord George Ben-tinck in the library of the House of Commons. + He was standing before the book-shelves, with a volume in his hand, and + his countenance was greatly disturbed. His resolutions in favour of the + colonial interest after all his labours had been negatived by the + committee on the 22nd, and on the 24th, his horse Surplice, whom he had + parted with among the rest of his stud, solely that he might pursue + without distraction his labours on behalf of the great interests of the + country, had won that paramount and Olympian stake, to gain which had been + the object of his life. He had nothing to console him, and nothing to + sustain him except his pride. Even that deserted him before a heart which + he knew at least could yield him sympathy. He gave a sort of superb groan:— + </p> + <p> + ‘All my life I have been trying for this, and for what have I sacrificed + it!’ he murmured. + </p> + <p> + It was in vain to offer solace. + </p> + <p> + ‘You do not know what the Derby is,’ he moaned out. + </p> + <p> + ‘Yes, I do; it is the blue ribbon of the turf.’ + </p> + <p> + ‘It is the blue ribbon of the turf,’ he slowly repeated to himself, and + sitting down at the table, he buried himself in a folio of statistics. + </p> + <p> + But on Monday, the 29th, when the resolution in favour of a 10s. + differential duty for the colonies had at the last moment been carried, + and carried by his casting vote, ‘the blue ribbons of the turf were all + forgotten. Not for all the honours and successes of all the meetings, + spring or autumn, Newmarket, Epsom, Goodwood, Doncaster, would he have + exchanged that hour of rapture. His eye sparkled with fire, his nostril + dilated with triumph, his brow was elate like a conqueror, his sanguine + spirit saw a future of continued and illimitable success. + </p> + <p> + ‘We have saved the colonies,’ he said,—‘saved the colonies. I knew + it must be so. It is the knell of free trade.’ + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the formal renunciation of the leadership of the + Protectionist party by Lord George Bentinck, it was soon evident to the + House and the country that that renunciation was merely formal. In these + days of labour, the leader of a party must be the man who does the work, + and that work cannot now be accomplished without the devotion of a life. + Whenever a great question arose, the people out of doors went to Lord + George Bentinck, and when the discussion commenced, he was always found to + be the man armed with the authority of knowledge. There was, however, no + organized debate and no party discipline. No one was requested to take a + part, and no attendance was ever summoned. The vast majority sitting on + the Protectionist benches always followed Bentinck, who, whatever might be + his numbers in the lobby, always made a redoubtable stand in the House. + The situation however, it cannot be denied, was a dangerous one for a + great party to persevere in, but no permanent damage accrued, because + almost every one hoped that before the session was over, the difficulty + would find a natural solution in the virtual chief resuming his formal and + responsible post. Notwithstanding his labours on the two great committees + of the year—those on colonial and commercial distress,—Lord + George Bentinck found time to master the case of the shipping interest + when the navigation laws were attacked, to impugn in a formal motion the + whole of the commercial policy of Sir Robert Peel, even while the sugar + and coffee planting committee was still sitting, and to produce, early in + March, a rival budget. It was mainly through the prolonged resistance + which he organized against the repeal of the navigation laws, that the + government, in 1848, was forced to abandon their project. The resistance + was led with great ability by Mr. Herries, and the whole party put forward + their utmost strength to support him. But it is very difficult to convey a + complete picture of the laborious life of Lord George Bentinck during the + sitting of Parliament. At half-past nine o’clock there called upon him the + commercial representatives of the question of the day; after these + conferences came his elaborate and methodical correspondence, all of which + he carried on himself in a handwriting clear as print, and never employing + a secretary; at twelve or one o’clock he was at a committee, and he only + left the committee-room to take his seat in the House of Commons, which he + never quitted till the House adjourned, always long past midnight, and + often at two o’clock in the morning. Here he was ready for all comers, + never omitting an opportunity to vindicate his opinions, or watching with + lynx-like vigilance the conduct of a public office. What was not his least + remarkable trait is, that although he only breakfasted on dry toast, he + took no sustenance all this time, dining at White’s at half-past two + o’clock in the morning. After his severe attack of the influenza he broke + through this habit a little during the last few months of his life, moved + by the advice of his physician and the instance of his friends. The writer + of these observations prevailed upon him a little the last year to fall + into the easy habit of dining at Bellamy’s, which saves much time, and + permits the transaction of business in conversation with a congenial + friend. But he grudged it: he always thought that something would be said + or done in his absence, which would not have occurred had he been there; + some motion whisked through, or some return altered. His principle was + that a member should never be absent from his seat. + </p> + <p> + The session of ‘48 had been one of unexampled length, having lasted ten + months, and, as usual under such circumstances, the obstacles to the + transaction of public business were sought everywhere except in the real + quarter. The forms of the House and the propensity to unnecessary + discussion among its members were chiefly denounced. Lord George Bentinck + did not agree in the justness of these criminations; they were eagerly + caught by the thoughtless and the superficial, but it was his habit to + investigate and analyze everything, and he found that these charges had no + basis. The forms of the House of Commons are the result of accumulated + experience and have rarely been tampered with successfully, while on the + other hand a parliamentary government is by name and nature essentially a + government of discussion. It is not at all difficult to conceive a mode of + governing a country more expeditious than by a parliament; but where truth + as well as strength is held to be an essential element of legislation, + opinion must be secured an unrestricted organ. Superfluity of debate may + often be inconvenient to a minister, and sometimes perhaps even + distasteful to the community; but criticizing such a security for justice + and liberty as a free-spoken parliament is like quarrelling with the + weather because there is too much rain or too much sunshine. The casual + inconvenience should be forgotten in the permanent blessing. Acting upon + these false imputations a committee was even appointed, two years ago, of + the most eminent members of the House of Commons, to investigate the + subject and suggest remedies, and some votaries of the Transatlantic type + recommended the adoption of the rules of Congress where each speaker is + limited to an hour. But an hour from an uninteresting speaker would be a + great infliction. The good sense and the good taste of the House of + Commons will be found on the whole to be the best regulators of the + duration of a debate. + </p> + <p> + The truth is that the delay in the conduct of parliamentary business which + has been much complained of during the last few years, murmurs of which + were especially rife in 1848, is attributable to the fact that the + ministry, though formed of men inferior in point of ability to none who + could be reasonably intrusted with administration, had not sufficient + parliamentary strength. After all their deliberations and foresight,—after + all their observations of the times and study of the public interest, + their measures when launched from the cabinet into the House were not + received by a confiding majority, firm in their faith in the statesmanlike + qualities of the authors of these measures and in their sympathy with the + general political system of which the ministry was the representative. On + the contrary, the success of the measures depended on a* variety of + sections who in their aggregate exceeded in number and influence the party + of the ministers. These became critics and took the ministerial measures + in hand; the measures became, the measures, not of the cabinet, but of the + House of Commons; and a purely legislative assembly became, in consequence + of the weakness of the government, yearly more administrative. This was + undoubtedly a great evil, and occasioned, besides great delay, many crude + enactments, as will be the case where all are constructors and none are + responsible, but the evil was not occasioned by the forms of the House or + the length of the speeches. Sir Robert Peel was unquestionably a very able + administrator, but if he had not had a majority of ninety he would have + fallen in as ill repute as has been too often the lot of Lord John + Russell. + </p> + <p> + Lord George Bentinck was very anxious that there should be a parliamentary + summary of this enormous and eventful session of ‘48, that the conduct of + business by the ministry should be traced and criticized and the character + of the House of Commons vindicated, and he appealed to the writer of these + observations to undertake the task. But the writer was unwilling to accede + to this suggestion, not only because at the end of August he shrank from a + laborious effort, but principally because he did not hold that his + position in the House of Commons warranted on his part such an + interference, since, after all, he was only the comrade in arms of one who + chose to be only an independent member of the House. He therefore + unaffectedly stated that he thought the office was somewhat above his + measure. But Lord George Bentinck would not listen to these + representations. ‘I don’t pretend to know much,’ he said, ‘but I can judge + of men and horses.’ It is difficult to refuse those who are themselves + setting a constant example of self-sacrifice, and therefore, so far as the + labour was concerned, the writer would not have shrunk from the exertion + even on the last day of the month of August, and when the particular wish + of Lord George was found to be more general than the writer presumed to + suppose, he accordingly endeavoured to accomplish the intention. + </p> + <p> + Three or four days after this, the writer, about to leave London, called + at Harcourt House, to say farewell to his comrade in arms. He passed with + Lord George the whole morning, rather indulging in the contemplation of + the future than in retrospect. Lord George was serene, cheerful, and + happy. He was content with himself, which was rarely the case, and + remembered nothing of his career but its distinction, and the ennobling + sense of having done his duty. + </p> + <p> + Any misunderstandings that may have for a moment irritated him seemed + forgotten; he appeared conscious that he possessed the confidence and + cordial regard of the great majority of the Protectionist party, although + he chose to occupy a private post, and he was proud of the consciousness. + He was still more sensible of the sympathy which he had created out of + doors, which he greatly appreciated, and to which, though with his usual + modesty, he more than once recurred. ‘The thing is to get the people out + of doors with you,’ he repeated, ‘men like the merchants; all the rest + follow.’ It was evident that the success of his colonial committee had + greatly satisfied his spirit. He had received that day the vote of thanks + of the West-India body for his exertions. He said more than once, that + with a weak government, a parliamentary committee properly worked might do + wonders. He said he would have a committee on import duties next year, and + have all the merchants to show what share the foreigners had obtained of + the reductions that had been made of late years. He maintained, that, + quite irrespective of the general arrangements of the new commercial + system, Sir Robert Peel had thrown away a great revenue on a number of + articles of very inferior importance, and he would prove this to the + country. He said our colonial empire ought to be reconstructed by a total + abolition of all duties on produce from her Majesty’s dominions abroad. + </p> + <p> + All his ideas were large, clear, and coherent. He dwelt much on the + vicissitudes which most attend all merely foreign trade, which, though it + should be encouraged, ought not to be solely relied on, as was the fashion + of this day. Looking upon war as occasionally inevitable, he thought a + commercial system based upon the presumption of perpetual peace to be full + of ruin. His policy was essentially imperial and not cosmopolitan. + </p> + <p> + About to part probably for many months, and listening to him as he spoke, + according to his custom, with so much fervour and sincerity, one could not + refrain from musing over his singular and sudden career. It was not three + years since he had in an instant occupied the minds of men. No series of + parliamentary labours had ever produced so much influence in the country + in so short a time. Never was a reputation so substantial built up in so + brief a period. AH the questions with which he had dealt were colossal + questions: the laws that should regulate competition between native and + foreign labour; the interference of the state in the development of the + resources of Ireland; the social and commercial condition of our tropical + colonies; the principles upon which our revenue should be raised; the laws + which should regulate and protect our navigation. But it was not that he + merely expressed opinions upon these subjects; he came forward with + details in support of his principles and policy, which it had before been + believed none but a minister could command. Instead of experiencing the + usual and almost inevitable doom of private members of Parliament, and + having his statements shattered by official information, Lord George + Bentinck on the contrary, was the assailant, and the successful assailant, + of an administration on these very heads. He often did their work more + effectually than all their artificial training enabled them to do it. His + acute research, and his peculiar sources of information, roused the + vigilance of all the public offices of the country. Since his time, there + has been more care in preparing official returns, and in arranging the + public correspondence placed on the table of the House of Commons. + </p> + <p> + When one remembered that in this room, not three years ago, he was trying + to find a lawyer who would make a speech for him in Parliament, it was + curious to remember that no one in the period had probably addressed the + House of Commons oftener. Though his manner, which was daily improving, + was not felicitous in the House, the authority of his intellect, his + knowledge, and his character, made him one of the great personages of + debate; but with the country who only read his speeches he ranked high as + an orator. It is only those who have had occasion critically to read and + examine the long series of his speeches who can be conscious of their + considerable merits. The information is always full and often fresh, the + scope large, the argument close, and the style, though simple, never bald, + but vigorous, idiomatic, and often picturesque. He had not credit for this + in his day, but the passages which have been quoted in this sketch will + prove the justness of this criticism. As a speaker and writer, his + principal need was condensation. He could not bear that anything should + remain untold. He was deficient in taste, but he had fervour of feeling, + and was by no means void of imagination. + </p> + <p> + The writer, in his frequent communications with him of faithful and + unbounded confidence, was often reminded of the character by Mr. Burke of + my Lord Keppell. + </p> + <p> + The labours of Lord George Bentinck had been supernatural, and one ought + perhaps to have felt then that it was impossible they could be continued + on such a scale of exhaustion; but no friend could control his eager life + in this respect; he obeyed the law of his vehement and fiery nature, being + one of those men who in whatever they undertake know no medium, but will + ‘succeed or die.’ + </p> + <p> + But why talk here and now of death! He goes to his native county and his + father’s proud domain, to breathe the air of his boyhood and move amid the + parks and meads of his youth. Every breeze will bear health, and the sight + of every hallowed haunt will stimulate his pulse. He is scarcely older + than Julius Cæsar when he commenced his public career, he looks as high + and brave, and he springs from a long-lived race. + </p> + <p> + He stood upon the <i>perron</i> of Harcourt House, the last of the great + hotels of an age of stately dwellings with its wings, and court-yard, and + carriage portal, and huge outward walls. He put forth his hand to bid + farewell, and his last words were characteristic of the man—of his + warm feelings and of his ruling passion: ‘God bless you; we must work, and + the country will come round us.’ + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + <i>The Curtain Falls</i> +</pre> + <p> + THE heavens darken; a new character enters upon the scene. + </p> + <p> + They say that when great men arise they have a mission to accomplish and + do not disappear until it is fulfilled. Yet this is not always true. After + all his deep study and his daring action Mr. Hampden died on an obscure + field, almost before the commencement of that mighty struggle which he + seemed born to direct. In the great contention between the patriotic and + the cosmopolitan principle which has hardly begun, and on the issue of + which the fate of this island as a powerful community depends, Lord George + Ben-tinck appeared to be produced to represent the traditionary influences + of our country in their most captivating form. Born a natural leader of + the people, he was equal to the post. Free from prejudices, his large mind + sympathized with all classes of the realm. His courage and his constancy + were never surpassed by man. He valued life only as a means of fulfilling + duty, and truly it may be said of him, that he feared none but God. + </p> + <p> + A few days after the interview noticed in the last chapter, Lord George + Bentinck returned to Welbeck. Some there were who thought him worn by the + exertions of the session, and that an unusual pallor had settled upon that + mantling and animated countenance. He himself never felt in better health + or was ever in higher spirits, and greatly enjoyed the change of life, and + that change to a scene so dear to him. + </p> + <p> + On the 21 st of September, after breakfasting with his family, he retired + to his room, where he employed himself With some papers, and then wrote + three letters, one to Lord Enfield, another to the Duke of Richmond, and + the third to the writer of these pages. That letter is now at hand; it is + of considerable length, consisting of seven sheets of note-paper, full of + interesting details of men and things, and written not only in a cheerful + but even a merry mood. Then, when his letters were sealed, about four + o’clock he took his staff and went forth to walk to Thoresby, the seat of + Lord Manvers, distant between five and six miles from Welbeck, where Lord + George was to make a visit of two days. In consequence of this his valet + drove over to Thoresby at the same time to meet his master. But the master + never came. Hours passed on and the master never came. At length the + anxious servant returned to Welbeck, and called up the groom who had + driven him over to Thoresby and who was in bed, and inquired whether he + had seen anything of Lord George on the way back, as his lord had never + reached Thoresby. The groom got up, and accompanied by the valet and two + others took lanthorns, and followed the footpath which they had seen Lord + George pursuing as they themselves went to Thoresby. + </p> + <p> + About a mile from the Abbey, on the path which they had observed him + following, lying close to the gate which separates a water meadow from the + deer-park, they found the body of Lord George Bentinck. He was lying on + his face; his arms were under his body, and in one hand he grasped his + walking-stick. His hat was a yard or two before him, having evidently been + thrown off in falling. The body was cold and stiff. He had been long dead. + </p> + <p> + A woodman and some peasants passing near the spot, about two hundred yards + from the gate in question, had observed Lord George, whom at the distance + they had mistaken for his brother the Marquis of Titchfield, leaning + against this gate. It was then about half-past four o’clock, or it might + be a quarter to five, so he could not have left his home much more than + half an hour. The woodman and his companions thought ‘the gentleman’ was + reading, as he held his head down. One of them lingered for a minute + looking at the gentleman, who then turned round, and might have seen these + passers-by, but he made no sign to them. + </p> + <p> + Thus it seems that the attack, which was supposed to be a spasm of the + heart, was not instantaneous in its effects, but with proper remedies + might have been baffled. Terrible to think of him in his death-struggle + without aid, and so near a devoted hearth! For that hearth, too, what an + impending future! + </p> + <p> + The terrible news reached Nottingham on the morning of the 22nd, at + half-past nine o’clock, and, immediately telegraphed to London, was + announced by a second edition of the ‘Times’ to the country. Consternation + and deep grief fell upon all men. One week later, the remains arrived from + Welbeck at Harcourt House, to be entombed in the family vault of the + Bentincks, that is to be found in a small building in a dingy street, now + a chapel of ease, but in old days the parish church among the fields of + the pretty village of Marylebone. + </p> + <p> + The day of interment was dark, and cold, and drizzling. Although the last + offices were performed in the most scrupulously private manner, the + feelings of the community could not be repressed. From nine till eleven + o’clock that day all the British shipping in the docks and the river, from + London Bridge to Gravesend, hoisted their flags half-mast high, and minute + guns were fired from appointed stations along the Thames. The same + mournful ceremony was observed in all the ports of England and Ireland; + and not only in these, for the flag was half-mast high on every British + ship at Antwerp, at Rotterdam, and at Havre. + </p> + <p> + Ere the last minute gun sounded, all was over. Followed to his tomb by + those brothers who, if not consoled, might at this moment be sustained by + the remembrance that to him they had ever been brothers not only in name + but in spirit, the vault at length closed on the mortal remains of <i>George + Bentinck</i>. + </p> + <p> + One who stood by his side in an arduous and unequal struggle, who often + shared his councils and sometimes perhaps soothed his cares, who knew well + the greatness of his nature and esteemed his friendship among the chief of + worldly blessings, has stepped aside from the strife and passion of public + life to draw up this record of his deeds and thoughts, that those who come + after us may form some conception of his character and career, and trace + in these faithful though imperfect pages the portraiture of an <i>English + Worthy</i>. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg’s Lord George Bentinck, by Benjamin Disraeli + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LORD GEORGE BENTINCK *** + +***** This file should be named 20007-h.htm or 20007-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/0/0/20007/ + +Produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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