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font-size: 90%;} + +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Architecture: Tusayan and +Cibola, by Victor Mindeleff and Cosmos Mindeleff + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Study of Pueblo Architecture: Tusayan and Cibola + Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the + Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1886-1887, + Government Printing Office, Washington, 1891, pages 3-228 + +Author: Victor Mindeleff and Cosmos Mindeleff + +Illustrator: Henry Hobart Nichols + +Release Date: November 17, 2006 [EBook #19856] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, Håkon Hope and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale +de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class = "mynote"> +A few words in this e-text use the uncommon letters “Ĕ”, “ĭ”, “ŏ” +(vowel with breve or “short” mark); they have been given <ins class = +"greek" title = "like this">popup transliterations</ins>. If the +apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, you +may need to change your browser’s “file encoding” or “character set”, or +change your default font.<br> +<br> +Some words in the text have variant spellings that were left unchanged. +The main ones are: +<p class = "hanging"> +<b>nyumu</b>: <i>sometimes hyphenated as <b>nyu-mu</b></i></p> +<p class = "hanging"> +<b>Mashongnavi</b>, <b>Shupaulovi</b>, <b>Sichumovi</b> (names): +<i>sometimes written with accents as <b>Mashóngnavi</b>, +<b>Shupaúlovi</b>, <b>Sichúmovi</b></i></p> + +<p>Brackets and parenthetical question marks are as in the original. +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They are marked in the +text with <ins class = "correction" title = "like this">mouse-hover +popups</ins>.</div> + +<span class = "pagenum">3</span> +<a name = "page003" id = "page003"> </a> +<!--png 041--> + +<hr class = "mid"> + +<h3>A STUDY</h3> + +<h6>OF</h6> + +<h2>PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE:</h2> + +<h4 class = "extended">TUSAYAN AND CIBOLA.</h4> + +<h6>BY</h6> + +<h4>VICTOR MINDELEFF.</h4> + +<hr class = "mid"> + +<a name = "page004" id = "page004"> </a> +<!--png 042--> + + +<span class = "pagenum">5</span> +<a name = "page005" id = "page005"> </a> +<!--png 043--> + +<h4>CONTENTS.</h4> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<table class = "index" summary = "table of contents"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "number">Page.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a class = "plain" href = "#intro"> +Introduction</a></td> +<td class = "number">13</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Chapter I.</span>— +<a class = "plain" href = "#chapI"> +<ins class = "correction" title = +"body text has ‘Traditional’">Traditionary</ins> history of +Tusayan</a></td> +<td class = "number">16</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapI_1"> +Explanatory</a></td> +<td class = "number">16</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapI_2"> +Summary of traditions</a></td> +<td class = "number">16</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapI_3"> +List of traditionary gentes</a></td> +<td class = "number">38</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapI_4"> +Supplementary legend</a></td> +<td class = "number">40</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Chapter II.</span>— +<a class = "plain" href = "#chapII"> +Ruins and inhabited villages of Tusayan</a></td> +<td class = "number">42</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_1"> +Physical features of the province</a></td> +<td class = "number">42</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_2"> +Methods of survey</a></td> +<td class = "number">44</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3"> +Plans and description of ruins</a></td> +<td class = "number">45</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_1"> +Walpi ruins</a></td> +<td class = "number">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_2"> +Old Mashongnavi</a></td> +<td class = "number">47</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_3"> +Shitaimuvi</a></td> +<td class = "number">48</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_4"> +Awatubi</a></td> +<td class = "number">49</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_5"> +Horn House</a></td> +<td class = "number">50</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_6"> +Small ruin <ins class = "correction" title = +"body text has ‘between Horn House and Bat House’">near Horn +House</ins></a></td> +<td class = "number">51</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_7"> +Bat House</a></td> +<td class = "number">52</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_8"> +Mishiptonga</a></td> +<td class = "number">52</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_9"> +<ins class = "correction" title = +"body text has ‘Moen-kopi ruins’">Moen-kopi</ins></a></td> +<td class = "number">53</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_10"> +Ruins on the Oraibi wash</a></td> +<td class = "number">54</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_11"> +Kwaituki</a></td> +<td class = "number">56</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_12"> +Tebugkihu, or Fire House</a></td> +<td class = "number">57</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_13"> +Chukubi</a></td> +<td class = "number">59</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_3_14"> +Payupki</a></td> +<td class = "number">59</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4"> +Plans and descriptions of inhabited villages</a></td> +<td class = "number">61</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4_1"> +Hano</a></td> +<td class = "number">61</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4_2"> +Sichumovi</a></td> +<td class = "number">62</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4_3"> +Walpi</a></td> +<td class = "number">63</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4_4"> +Mashongnavi</a></td> +<td class = "number">66</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4_5"> +Shupaulovi</a></td> +<td class = "number">71</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4_6"> +Shumopavi</a></td> +<td class = "number">73</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4_7"> +Oraibi</a></td> +<td class = "number">76</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapII_4_8"> +Moen-kopi</a></td> +<td class = "number">77</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "smallcaps">Chapter III.</span>— +<a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII"> +Ruins and inhabited villages of Cibola</a></td> +<td class = "number">80</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_1"> +Physical features of the province</a></td> +<td class = "number">80</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2"> +Plans and descriptions of ruins</a></td> +<td class = "number">80</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_1"> +Hawikuh</a></td> +<td class = "number">80</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_2"> +Ketchipauan</a></td> +<td class = "number">81</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_3"> +Chalowe</a></td> +<td class = "number">83</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_4"> +Hampassawan</a></td> +<td class = "number">84</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_5"> +K’iakima</a></td> +<td class = "number">85</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_6"> +Matsaki</a></td> +<td class = "number">86</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_7"> +Pinawa</a></td> +<td class = "number">86</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"> +<span class = "pagenum">6</span> +<a name = "page006" id = "page006"> </a> +<!--png 044--> +<a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_8"> +Halona</a></td> +<td class = "number">88</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_9"> +<ins class = "correction" title = +"body text has ‘Tâaaiyalana’ alone">Tâaaiyalana ruins</ins></a></td> +<td class = "number">89</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_2_10"> +<ins class = "correction" title = +"body text has ‘Kin-tiel’ alone">Kin-tiel and Kinna-Zinde</ins></a></td> +<td class = "number">91</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_3"> +Plans and descriptions of inhabited villages</a></td> +<td class = "number">94</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_3_1"> +Nutria</a></td> +<td class = "number">94</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_3_2"> +Pescado</a></td> +<td class = "number">95</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_3_3"> +Ojo Caliente</a></td> +<td class = "number">96</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIII_3_4"> +Zuñi</a></td> +<td class = "number">97</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Chapter IV.</span>— +<a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV"> +Architecture of Tusayan and Cibola compared by constructional +details</a></p></td> +<td class = "number">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_1"> +Introduction</a></td> +<td class = "number">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_2"> +Housebuilding</a></td> +<td class = "number">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_2_1"> +Rites and methods</a></td> +<td class = "number">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_2_2"> +Localization of gentes</a></td> +<td class = "number">104</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_2_3"> +Interior arrangement</a></td> +<td class = "number">108</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3"> +Kivas in Tusayan</a></td> +<td class = "number">111</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_1"> +General use of kivas by pueblo builders</a></td> +<td class = "number">111</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_2"> +Origin of the name</a></td> +<td class = "number">111</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_3"> +Antiquity of the kiva</a></td> +<td class = "number">111</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_4"> +Excavation of the kiva</a></td> +<td class = "number">112</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_5"> +Access</a></td> +<td class = "number">113</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_6"> +Masonry</a></td> +<td class = "number">114</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_7"> +Orientation</a></td> +<td class = "number">115</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_8"> +The ancient form of kiva</a></td> +<td class = "number">116</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_1_9"> +Native explanations of position</a></td> +<td class = "number">117</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2"> +Methods of kiva building and rites</a></td> +<td class = "number">118</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_1"> +Typical plans</a></td> +<td class = "number">118</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_2"> +Work by women</a></td> +<td class = "number">129</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_3"> +Consecration</a></td> +<td class = "number">129</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_4"> +Various uses of kivas</a></td> +<td class = "number">130</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_5"> +Kiva ownership</a></td> +<td class = "number">133</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_6"> +Motives for building a kiva</a></td> +<td class = "number">134</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_7"> +Significance of structural plan</a></td> +<td class = "number">135</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_8"> +Typical measurements</a></td> +<td class = "number">136</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset3"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_3_2_9"> +List of Tusayan Kivas</a></td> +<td class = "number">136</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4"> +Details of Tusayan and Cibola construction</a></td> +<td class = "number">137</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_1"> +Walls</a></td> +<td class = "number">137</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_2"> +Roofs and floors</a></td> +<td class = "number">148</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_3"> +Wall copings and roof drains</a></td> +<td class = "number">151</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_4"> +Ladders and steps</a></td> +<td class = "number">156</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_5"> +Cooking pits and ovens</a></td> +<td class = "number">162</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_6"> +Oven-shaped structures</a></td> +<td class = "number">167</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_7"> +Fireplaces and chimneys</a></td> +<td class = "number">167</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_8"> +Gateways and covered passages</a></td> +<td class = "number">180</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_9"> +Doors</a></td> +<td class = "number">182</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_10"> +Windows</a></td> +<td class = "number">194</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_11"> +Roof openings</a></td> +<td class = "number">201</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_12"> +Furniture</a></td> +<td class = "number">208</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_13"> +<ins class = "correction" title = +"body text has ‘Corrals and gardens’ only">Corrals and gardens; +eagle cages</ins></a></td> +<td class = "number">214</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_14"> +“Kisi” construction</a></td> +<td class = "number">217</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2"><a class = "plain" href = "#chapIV_4_15"> +Architectural nomenclature</a></td> +<td class = "number">220</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a class = "plain" href = "#concl"> +Concluding remarks</a></td> +<td class = "number">223</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td><td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "sans"><a class = "plain" href = "#notes"> +Footnotes</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "sans"><a class = "plain" href = "#index"> +Index</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "sans"><a class = "plain" href = "#nichols"> +About the Illustrations</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">7</span> +<a name = "page007" id = "page007"> </a> +<!--png 045--> +<h4>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h4> + +<div class = "mynote"> + +<p>Illustrations have been placed as close as practicable to their +discussion in the text. The printed page numbers show the original +location. Multi-part Figures are sometimes shown vertically (one drawing +above the other) where the original layout was horizontal.</p> + +<p>The Map and most site plans are shown as thumbnails linked to larger +versions.</p> + +</div> + +<table class = "index" summary = "list of plates"> +<tr> +<td></td><td></td> +<td class = "number">Page.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item smallcaps"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateI"> +Plate I.</a></td> +<td><p>Map of the provinces of Tusayan and Cibola</p></td> +<td class = "number">12</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateII"> +II.</a></td> +<td>Old Mashongnavi, plan</td> +<td class = "number">14</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateIII"> +III.</a></td> +<td>General view of Awatubi</td> +<td class = "number">16</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateIV"> +IV.</a></td> +<td>Awatubi (Talla-Hogan), plan</td> +<td class = "number">18</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateV"> +V.</a></td> +<td>Standing walls of Awatubi</td> +<td class = "number">20</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateVI"> +VI.</a></td> +<td>Adobe fragment in Awatubi</td> +<td class = "number">22</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateVII"> +VII.</a></td> +<td>Horn House ruin, plan</td> +<td class = "number">24</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateVIII"> +VIII.</a></td> +<td>Bat House</td> +<td class = "number">26</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateIX"> +IX.</a></td> +<td>Mishiptonga (Jeditoh)</td> +<td class = "number">28</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateX"> +X.</a></td> +<td>A small ruin near Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number">30</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXI"> +XI.</a></td> +<td><p>Masonry on the outer wall of the Fire-House, detail</p></td> +<td class = "number">32</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXII"> +XII.</a></td> +<td>Chukubi, plan</td> +<td class = "number">34</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXIII"> +XIII.</a></td> +<td>Payupki, plan</td> +<td class = "number">36</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXIV"> +XIV.</a></td> +<td>General view of Payupki</td> +<td class = "number">38</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXV"> +XV.</a></td> +<td>Standing walls of Payupki</td> +<td class = "number">40</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXVI"> +XVI.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Hano</td> +<td class = "number">42</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXVII"> +XVII.</a></td> +<td>View of Hano</td> +<td class = "number">44</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXVIII"> +XVIII.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXIX"> +XIX.</a></td> +<td>View of Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number">48</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXX"> +XX.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Walpi</td> +<td class = "number">50</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXI"> +XXI.</a></td> +<td>View of Walpi</td> +<td class = "number">52</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXII"> +XXII.</a></td> +<td>South passageway of Walpi</td> +<td class = "number">54</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXIII"> +XXIII.</a></td> +<td>Houses built over irregular sites, Walpi</td> +<td class = "number">56</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXIV"> +XXIV.</a></td> +<td>Dance rock and kiva, Walpi</td> +<td class = "number">58</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXV"> +XXV.</a></td> +<td>Foot trail to Walpi</td> +<td class = "number">60</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXVI"> +XXVI.</a></td> +<td>Mashongnavi, plan</td> +<td class = "number">62</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXVII"> +XXVII.</a></td> +<td>Mashongnavi with Shupaulovi in distance</td> +<td class = "number">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXVIII"> +XXVIII.</a></td> +<td>Back wall of a Mashongnavi house-row</td> +<td class = "number">66</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXIX"> +XXIX.</a></td> +<td><p>West side of a principal row in Mashongnavi</p></td> +<td class = "number">68</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXX"> +XXX.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number">70</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXI"> +XXXI.</a></td> +<td>View of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number">72</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXII"> +XXXII.</a></td> +<td>A covered passageway of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number">74</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXIII"> +XXXIII.</a></td> +<td>The chief kiva of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number">76</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXIV"> +XXXIV.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number">78</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXV"> +XXXV.</a></td> +<td>View of Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number">80</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXVI"> +XXXVI.</a></td> +<td>Oraibi, plan</td> +<td class = "number">In pocket.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXVII"> +XXXVII.</a></td> +<td><p>Key to the Oraibi plan, also showing localization of +gentes</p></td> +<td class = "number">82</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXVIII"> +XXXVIII.</a></td> +<td>A court of Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number">84</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXXXIX"> +XXXIX.</a></td> +<td>Masonry terraces of Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number">86</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXL"> +XL.</a></td> +<td>Oraibi house row, showing court side</td> +<td class = "number">88</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLI"> +XLI.</a></td> +<td>Back of Oraibi house row</td> +<td class = "number">90</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLII"> +XLII.</a></td> +<td>The site of Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number">92</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLIII"> +XLIII.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number">94</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLIV"> +XLIV.</a></td> +<td>Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number">96</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">8</span> +<a name = "page008" id = "page008"> </a> +<!--png 046--> +<a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLV"> +XLV.</a></td> +<td>The Mormon mill at Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number">98</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLVI"> +XLVI.</a></td> +<td>Hawikuh, plan</td> +<td class = "number">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLVII"> +XLVII.</a></td> +<td>Hawikuh, view</td> +<td class = "number">102</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLVIII"> +XLVIII.</a></td> +<td>Adobe church at Hawikuh</td> +<td class = "number">104</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXLIX"> +XLIX.</a></td> +<td>Ketchipanan, plan</td> +<td class = "number">106</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateL"> +L.</a></td> +<td>Ketchipauan</td> +<td class = "number">108</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLI"> +LI.</a></td> +<td>Stone church at Ketchipauan</td> +<td class = "number">110</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLII"> +LII.</a></td> +<td>K’iakima, plan</td> +<td class = "number">112</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLIII"> +LIII.</a></td> +<td>Site of K’iakima, at base of Tâaaiyalana</td> +<td class = "number">114</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLIV"> +LIV.</a></td> +<td>Recent wall at K’iakima</td> +<td class = "number">116</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLV"> +LV.</a></td> +<td>Matsaki, plan</td> +<td class = "number">118</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLVI"> +LVI.</a></td> +<td>Standing wall at Pinawa</td> +<td class = "number">120</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLVII"> +LVII.</a></td> +<td>Halona excavations as seen from Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">122</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLVIII"> +LVIII.</a></td> +<td>Fragments of Halona wall</td> +<td class = "number">124</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLIX"> +LIX.</a></td> +<td>The mesa of Tâaaiyalana, from Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">126</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLX"> +LX.</a></td> +<td>Tâaaiyalana, plan</td> +<td class = "number">128</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXI"> +LXI.</a></td> +<td>Standing walls of Tâaaiyalana ruins</td> +<td class = "number">130</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXII"> +LXII.</a></td> +<td>Remains of a reservoir on Tâaaiyalana</td> +<td class = "number">132</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXIII"> +LXIII.</a></td> +<td><p>Kin-tiel, plan (also showing excavations)</p></td> +<td class = "number">134</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXIV"> +LXIV.</a></td> +<td>North wall of Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number">136</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXV"> +LXV.</a></td> +<td>Standing walls of Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number">138</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXVI"> +LXVI.</a></td> +<td>Kinna-Zinde</td> +<td class = "number">140</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXVII"> +LXVII.</a></td> +<td>Nutria, plan</td> +<td class = "number">142</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXVIII"> +LXVIII.</a></td> +<td>Nutria, view</td> +<td class = "number">144</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXIX"> +LXIX.</a></td> +<td>Pescado, plan</td> +<td class = "number">146</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXX"> +LXX.</a></td> +<td>Court view of Pescado, showing corrals</td> +<td class = "number">148</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXI"> +LXXI.</a></td> +<td>Pescado houses</td> +<td class = "number">150</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXII"> +LXXII.</a></td> +<td>Fragments of ancient masonry in Pescado</td> +<td class = "number">152</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXIII"> +LXXIII.</a></td> +<td>Ojo Caliente, plan</td> +<td class = "number">In pocket.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXIV"> +LXXIV.</a></td> +<td>General view of Ojo Caliente</td> +<td class = "number">154</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXV"> +LXXV.</a></td> +<td>House at Ojo Caliente</td> +<td class = "number">156</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXVI"> +LXXVI.</a></td> +<td>Zuñi, plan</td> +<td class = "number">In pocket.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXVII"> +LXXVII.</a></td> +<td><p>Outline plan of Zuñi, showing distribution of oblique +openings</p></td> +<td class = "number">158</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXVIII"> +LXXVIII.</a></td> +<td><p>General inside view of Zuñi, looking west</p></td> +<td class = "number">160</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXIX"> +LXXIX.</a></td> +<td>Zuñi terraces</td> +<td class = "number">162</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXX"> +LXXX.</a></td> +<td>Old adobe church of Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">164</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXI"> +LXXXI.</a></td> +<td>Eastern rows of Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">166</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXII"> +LXXXII.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi court</td> +<td class = "number">168</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXIII"> +LXXXIII.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi small house</td> +<td class = "number">170</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXIV"> +LXXXIV.</a></td> +<td>A house-building at Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number">172</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXV"> +LXXXV.</a></td> +<td>A Tusayan interior</td> +<td class = "number">174</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXVI"> +LXXXVI.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi interior</td> +<td class = "number">176</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXVII"> +LXXXVII.</a></td> +<td>A kiva hatchway of Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number">178</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXVIII"> +LXXXVIII.</a></td> +<td><p>North kivas of Shumopavi, from the northeast</p></td> +<td class = "number">180</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateLXXXIX"> +LXXXIX.</a></td> +<td>Masonry in the north wing of Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number">182</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXC"> +XC.</a></td> +<td>Adobe garden walls near Zuñi.</td> +<td class = "number">184</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCI"> +XCI.</a></td> +<td>A group of stone corrals near Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number">186</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCII"> +XCII.</a></td> +<td><p>An inclosing wall of upright stones at Ojo Caliente</p></td> +<td class = "number">188</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCIII"> +XCIII.</a></td> +<td><p>Upright blocks of sandstone built into an ancient pueblo +wall</p></td> +<td class = "number">190</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCIV"> +XCIV.</a></td> +<td><p>Ancient wall of upright rocks in southwestern Colorado</p></td> +<td class = "number">192</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCV"> +XCV.</a></td> +<td>Ancient floor-beams at Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number">194</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCVI"> +XCVI.</a></td> +<td>Adobe walls in Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCVII"> +XCVII.</a></td> +<td>Wall coping and oven at Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">198</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCVIII"> +XCVIII.</a></td> +<td>Cross-pieces on Zuñi ladders</td> +<td class = "number">200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateXCIX"> +XCIX.</a></td> +<td>Outside steps at Pescado</td> +<td class = "number">202</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">9</span> +<a name = "page009" id = "page009"> </a> +<!--png 047--> +<a class = "plain" href = "#plateC"> +C.</a></td> +<td>An excavated room at Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number">204</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCI"> +CI.</a></td> +<td>Masonry chimneys of Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">206</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCII"> +CII.</a></td> +<td>Remains of a gateway in Awatubi</td> +<td class = "number">208</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCIII"> +CIII.</a></td> +<td>Ancient gateway, Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number">210</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCIV"> +CIV.</a></td> +<td>A covered passageway in Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">212</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCV"> +CV.</a></td> +<td>Small square openings in Pueblo Bonito</td> +<td class = "number">214</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCVI"> +CVI.</a></td> +<td><p>Sealed openings in a detached house of Nutria</p></td> +<td class = "number">216</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCVII"> +CVII.</a></td> +<td><p>Partial filling-in of a large opening in Oraibi, converting it +into a doorway</p></td> +<td class = "number">218</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCVIII"> +CVIII.</a></td> +<td><p>Large openings reduced to small windows, Oraibi</p></td> +<td class = "number">220</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCIX"> +CIX.</a></td> +<td>Stone corrals and kiva of Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">222</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCX"> +CX.</a></td> +<td>Portion of a corral in Pescado</td> +<td class = "number">224</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#plateCXI"> +CXI.</a></td> +<td>Zuñi eagle-cage</td> +<td class = "number">226</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "index" summary = "list of figures"> +<tr> +<td></td><td></td><td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item smallcaps"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig1"> +Fig. 1</a>.</td> +<td>View of the First Mesa</td> +<td class = "number">43</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig2"> +2.</a></td> +<td>Ruins, Old Walpi mound</td> +<td class = "number">47</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig3"> +3.</a></td> +<td>Ruin between Bat House and Horn House</td> +<td class = "number">51</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig4"> +4.</a></td> +<td>Ruin near Moen-kopi, plan</td> +<td class = "number">53</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig5"> +5.</a></td> +<td>Ruin 7 miles north of Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number">55</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig6"> +6.</a></td> +<td>Ruin 14 miles north of Oraibi (Kwaituki)</td> +<td class = "number">56</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig7"> +7.</a></td> +<td>Oval fire-house ruin, plan. (Tebugkihu)</td> +<td class = "number">58</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig8"> +8.</a></td> +<td>Topography of the site of Walpi</td> +<td class = "number">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig9"> +9.</a></td> +<td><p>Mashongnavi and Shupaulovi from Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number">66</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig10"> +10.</a></td> +<td>Diagram showing growth of Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">67</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig11"> +11.</a></td> +<td>Diagram showing growth of Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">68</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig12"> +12.</a></td> +<td>Diagram showing growth of Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">69</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig13"> +13.</a></td> +<td>Topography of the site of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number">71</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig14"> +14.</a></td> +<td>Court kiva of Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number">75</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig15"> +15.</a></td> +<td>Hampassawan, plan</td> +<td class = "number">84</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig16"> +16.</a></td> +<td>Pinawa, plan</td> +<td class = "number">87</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig17"> +17.</a></td> +<td>Nutria, plan; small diagram, old wall</td> +<td class = "number">94</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig18"> +18.</a></td> +<td>Pescado, plan, old wall diagram</td> +<td class = "number">95</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig19"> +19.</a></td> +<td>A Tusayan wood-rack</td> +<td class = "number">103</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig20"> +20.</a></td> +<td>Interior ground plan of a Tusayan room</td> +<td class = "number">108</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig21"> +21.</a></td> +<td><p>North kivas of Shumopavi from the southwest</p></td> +<td class = "number">114</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig22"> +22.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground plan of the chief-kiva of Shupaulovi</p></td> +<td class = "number">122</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig23"> +23.</a></td> +<td><p>Ceiling-plan of the chief-kiva of Shupaulovi</p></td> +<td class = "number">123</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig24"> +24.</a></td> +<td>Interior view of a Tusayan kiva</td> +<td class = "number">124</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig25"> +25.</a></td> +<td>Ground-plan of a Shupaulovi kiva</td> +<td class = "number">125</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig26"> +26.</a></td> +<td>Ceiling-plan of a Shupaulovi kiva</td> +<td class = "number">125</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig27"> +27.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground-plan of the chief-kiva of Mashongnavi</p></td> +<td class = "number">126</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig28"> +28.</a></td> +<td><p>Interior view of a kiva hatchway in Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number">127</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig29"> +29.</a></td> +<td><p>Mat used in closing the entrance of Tusayan kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number">128</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig30"> +30.</a></td> +<td><p>Rectangular sipapuh in a Mashongnavi kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number">131</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig31"> +31.</a></td> +<td>Loom-post in kiva floor at Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number">132</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig32"> +32.</a></td> +<td><p>A Zuñi chimney showing pottery fragments embedded in its adobe +base</p></td> +<td class = "number">139</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig33"> +33.</a></td> +<td><p>A Zuñi oven with pottery scales embedded in its surface</p></td> +<td class = "number">139</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig34"> +34.</a></td> +<td><p>Stone wedges of Zuñi masonry exposed in a rain-washed +wall</p></td> +<td class = "number">141</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig35"> +35.</a></td> +<td><p>An unplastered house wall in Ojo Caliente</p></td> +<td class = "number">142</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig36"> +36.</a></td> +<td><p>Wall decorations in Mashongnavi, executed in pink on a white +ground</p></td> +<td class = "number">146</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig37"> +37.</a></td> +<td>Diagram of Zuñi roof construction</td> +<td class = "number">149</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig38"> +38.</a></td> +<td><p>Showing abutment of smaller roof-beams over round +girders</p></td> +<td class = "number">151</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig39"> +39.</a></td> +<td>Single stone roof-drains</td> +<td class = "number">153</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig40"> +40.</a></td> +<td>Trough roof-drains of stone</td> +<td class = "number">153</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">10</span> +<a name = "page010" id = "page010"> </a> +<!--png 048--> +<a class = "plain" href = "#fig41"> +41.</a></td> +<td>Wooden roof-drains</td> +<td class = "number">154</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig42"> +42.</a></td> +<td>Curved roof-drains of stone in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number">154</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig43"> +43.</a></td> +<td><p>Tusayan roof-drains; a discarded metate and a gourd</p></td> +<td class = "number">155</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig44"> +44.</a></td> +<td><p>Zuñi roof-drain, with splash-stones on roof below</p></td> +<td class = "number">156</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig45"> +45.</a></td> +<td>A modern notched ladder in Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number">157</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig46"> +46.</a></td> +<td>Tusayan notched ladders from Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">157</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig47"> +47.</a></td> +<td>Aboriginal American forms of ladder</td> +<td class = "number">158</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig48"> +48.</a></td> +<td><p>Stone steps at Oraibi with platform at corner</p></td> +<td class = "number">161</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig49"> +49.</a></td> +<td><p>Stone steps, with platform at chimney, in Oraibi</p></td> +<td class = "number">161</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig50"> +50.</a></td> +<td>Stone steps in Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number">162</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig51"> +51.</a></td> +<td>A series of cooking pits in Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">163</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig52"> +52.</a></td> +<td>Pi-gummi ovens of Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">163</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig53"> +53.</a></td> +<td><p>Cross sections of pi-gummi ovens of Mashongnavi</p></td> +<td class = "number">163</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig54"> +54.</a></td> +<td><p>Diagrams showing foundation stones of a Zuñi oven</p></td> +<td class = "number">164</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig55"> +55.</a></td> +<td>Dome-shaped oven on a plinth of masonry</td> +<td class = "number">165</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig56"> +56.</a></td> +<td><p>Oven in Pescado exposing stones of masonry</p></td> +<td class = "number">166</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig57"> +57.</a></td> +<td><p>Oven in Pescado exposing stones of masonry</p></td> +<td class = "number">166</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig58"> +58.</a></td> +<td>Shrines in Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">167</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig59"> +59.</a></td> +<td><p>A poultry house in Sichumovi resembling an oven</p></td> +<td class = "number">167</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig60"> +60.</a></td> +<td><p>Ground-plan of an excavated room in Kin-tiel</p></td> +<td class = "number">168</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig61"> +61.</a></td> +<td><p>A corner chimney-hood with two supporting poles, Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number">170</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig62"> +62.</a></td> +<td>A curved chimney-hood of Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">170</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig63"> +63.</a></td> +<td><p>A Mashongnavi chimney-hood and walled-up fireplace</p></td> +<td class = "number">171</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig64"> +64.</a></td> +<td>A chimney-hood of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number">172</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig65"> +65.</a></td> +<td><p>A semi-detached square chimney-hood of Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number">172</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig66"> +66.</a></td> +<td><p>Unplastered Zuñi chimney-hoods, illustrating +construction</p></td> +<td class = "number">173</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig67"> +67.</a></td> +<td>A fireplace and mantel in Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number">174</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig68"> +68.</a></td> +<td>A second-story fireplace in Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number">174</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig69"> +69.</a></td> +<td>Piki stone and chimney-hood in Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number">175</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig70"> +70.</a></td> +<td><p>Piki stone and primitive andiron in Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number">176</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig71"> +71.</a></td> +<td><p>A terrace fireplace and chimney of Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number">177</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig72"> +72.</a></td> +<td><p>A terrace cooking-pit and chimney of Walpi</p></td> +<td class = "number">177</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig73"> +73.</a></td> +<td><p>A ground cooking-pit of Shumopavi covered with a chimney</p></td> +<td class = "number">178</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig74"> +74.</a></td> +<td>Tusayan chimneys</td> +<td class = "number">179</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig75"> +75.</a></td> +<td>A barred Zuñi door</td> +<td class = "number">183</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig76"> +76.</a></td> +<td>Wooden pivot hinges of a Zuñi door</td> +<td class = "number">184</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig77"> +77.</a></td> +<td>Paneled wooden doors in Hano</td> +<td class = "number">185</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig78"> +78.</a></td> +<td>Framing of a Zuñi door panel</td> +<td class = "number">186</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig79"> +79.</a></td> +<td>Rude transoms over Tusayan openings</td> +<td class = "number">188</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig80"> +80.</a></td> +<td><p>A large Tusayan doorway, with small transom openings</p></td> +<td class = "number">189</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig81"> +81.</a></td> +<td>A doorway and double transom in Walpi</td> +<td class = "number">189</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig82"> +82.</a></td> +<td><p>An ancient doorway in a Canyon de Chelly cliff ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number">190</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig83"> +83.</a></td> +<td><p>A symmetrical notched doorway in Mashongnavi</p></td> +<td class = "number">190</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig84"> +84.</a></td> +<td>A Tusayan notched doorway</td> +<td class = "number">191</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig85"> +85.</a></td> +<td><p>A large Tusayan doorway with one notched jamb</p></td> +<td class = "number">192</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig86"> +86.</a></td> +<td><p>An ancient circular doorway, or “stone-close,” in +Kin-tiel</p></td> +<td class = "number">193</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig87"> +87.</a></td> +<td><p>Diagram illustrating symmetrical arrangement of small openings in +Pueblo Bonito</p></td> +<td class = "number">195</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig88"> +88.</a></td> +<td><p>Incised decoration on a rude window-sash in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number">196</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig89"> +89.</a></td> +<td><p>Sloping selenite window at base of Zuñi wall on upper +terrace</p></td> +<td class = "number">197</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig90"> +90.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi window glazed with selenite</td> +<td class = "number">197</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig91"> +91.</a></td> +<td><p>Small openings in the back wall of a Zuñi house cluster.</p></td> +<td class = "number">198</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig92"> +92.</a></td> +<td>Sealed openings in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number">199</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig93"> +93.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi doorway converted into a window</td> +<td class = "number">201</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig94"> +94.</a></td> +<td>Zuñi roof-openings</td> +<td class = "number">202</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">11</span> +<a name = "page011" id = "page011"> </a> +<!--png 049--> +<a class = "plain" href = "#fig95"> +95.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi roof-opening with raised coping</td> +<td class = "number">203</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig96"> +96.</a></td> +<td>Zuñi roof-openings with one raised end</td> +<td class = "number">203</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig97"> +97.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi roof-hole with cover</td> +<td class = "number">204</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig98"> +98.</a></td> +<td>Kiva trap-door in Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">205</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig99"> +99.</a></td> +<td><p>Halved and pinned trap-door frame of a Zuñi kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number">206</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig100"> +100.</a></td> +<td><p>Typical sections of Zuñi oblique openings</p></td> +<td class = "number">208</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig101"> +101.</a></td> +<td><p>Arrangement of mealing stones in a Tusayan house</p></td> +<td class = "number">209</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig102"> +102.</a></td> +<td>A Tusayan grain bin</td> +<td class = "number">210</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig103"> +103.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi plume-box</td> +<td class = "number">210</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig104"> +104.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi plume-box</td> +<td class = "number">210</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig105"> +105.</a></td> +<td>A Tusayan mealing trough</td> +<td class = "number">211</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig106"> +106.</a></td> +<td>An ancient pueblo form of metate</td> +<td class = "number">211</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig107"> +107.</a></td> +<td>Zuñi stools</td> +<td class = "number">213</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig108"> +108.</a></td> +<td>A Zuñi chair</td> +<td class = "number">213</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig109"> +109.</a></td> +<td>Construction of a Zuñi corral</td> +<td class = "number">215</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig110"> +110.</a></td> +<td>Gardens of Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number">216</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig111"> +111.</a></td> +<td>“Kishoni,” or uncovered shade, of Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number">218</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig112"> +112.</a></td> +<td>A Tusayan field shelter, from southwest</td> +<td class = "number">219</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig113"> +113.</a></td> +<td>A Tusayan field shelter, from northeast</td> +<td class = "number">219</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a class = "plain" href = "#fig114"> +114.</a></td> +<td><p>Diagram showing ideal section of terraces, with Tusayan +names</p></td> +<td class = "number">223</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<a name = "page012" id = "page012"> </a> +<!--png 050--> + + +<!--png 051--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateI" id = "plateI" +href = "images/plates/plate1.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate1thumb.png" width = "405" height = "282" +alt = "map of pueblo region" +title = "map of pueblo region"></a></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate1.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate I.<br> +General Map of the Pueblo Region<br> +of Arizona and New Mexico,<br> +Showing Relative Position of the Provinces<br> +of Tusayan and Cibola.<br> +by<br> +Victor Mindeleff.</span></p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">13</span> +<a name = "page013" id = "page013"> </a> +<!--png 052--> +<h3 class = "chapter">A STUDY OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE<br> +IN TUSAYAN AND CIBOLA.</h3> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<h4 class = "smallcaps">By Victor Mindeleff.</h4> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<h5 class = "extended"><a name = "intro" id = "intro"> +INTRODUCTION.</a></h5> + + +<p>The remains of pueblo architecture are found scattered over thousands +of square miles of the arid region of the southwestern plateaus. This +vast area includes the drainage of the Rio Pecos on the east and that of +the Colorado on the west, and extends from central Utah on the north +beyond the limits of the United States southward, in which direction its +boundaries are still undefined.</p> + +<p>The descendants of those who at various times built these stone +villages are few in number and inhabit about thirty pueblos distributed +irregularly over parts of the region formerly occupied. Of these the +greater number are scattered along the upper course of the Rio Grande +and its tributaries in New Mexico; a few of them, comprised within the +ancient provinces of Cibola and Tusayan, are located within the drainage +of the Little Colorado. From the time of the earliest Spanish +expeditions into the country to the present day, a period covering more +than three centuries, the former province has been often visited by +whites, but the remoteness of Tusayan and the arid and forbidding +character of its surroundings have caused its more complete isolation. +The architecture of this district exhibits a close adherence to +aboriginal practices, still bears the marked impress of its development +under the exacting conditions of an arid environment, and is but slowly +yielding to the influence of foreign ideas.</p> + +<p>The present study of the architecture of Tusayan and Cibola embraces +all of the inhabited pueblos of those provinces, and includes a number +of the ruins traditionally connected with them. It will be observed by +reference to the map that the area embraced in these provinces comprises +but a small portion of the vast region over which pueblo culture once +extended.</p> + +<p>This study is designed to be followed by a similar study of two +typical groups of ruins, viz, that of Canyon de Chelly, in northeastern +Arizona, and that of the Chaco Canyon, of New Mexico; but it has been +necessary for the writer to make occasional reference to these ruins in +the present +<span class = "pagenum">14</span> +<a name = "page014" id = "page014"> </a> +<!--png 053--> +paper, both in the discussion of general arrangement and characteristic +ground plans, embodied in Chapters <span class = "smallroman">II</span> +and <span class = "smallroman">III</span> and in the comparison by +constructional details treated in Chapter <span class = +"smallroman">IV</span>, in order to define clearly the relations of the +various features of pueblo architecture. They belong to the same pueblo +system illustrated by the villages of Tusayan and Cibola, and with the +Canyon de Chelly group there is even some trace of traditional +connection, as is set forth by Mr. Stephen in Chapter <span class = +"smallroman">I</span>. The more detailed studies of these ruins, to be +published later, together with the material embodied in the present +paper, will, it is thought, furnish a record of the principal +characteristics of an important type of primitive architecture, which, +under the influence of the arid environment of the southwestern +plateaus, has developed from the rude lodge into the many-storied house +of rectangular rooms. Indications of some of the steps of this +development are traceable even in the architecture of the present +day.</p> + +<p>The pueblo of Zuñi was surveyed by the writer in the autumn of 1881 +with a view to procuring the necessary data for the construction of a +large-scale model of this pueblo. For this reason the work afforded a +record of external features only.</p> + +<p>The modern pueblos of Tusayan were similarly surveyed in the +following season (1882-’83), the plans being supplemented by +photographs, from which many of the illustrations accompanying this +paper have been drawn. The ruin of Awatubi was also included in the work +of this season.</p> + +<p>In the autumn of 1885 many of the ruined pueblos of Tusayan were +surveyed and examined. It was during this season’s work that the details +of the kiva construction, embodied in the last chapter of this paper, +were studied, together with interior details of the dwellings. It was in +the latter part of this season that the farming pueblos of Cibola were +surveyed and photographed.</p> + +<p>The Tusayan farming pueblo of Moen-kopi and a number of the ruins in +the province were surveyed and studied in the early part of the season +of 1887-’88, the latter portion of which season was principally devoted +to an examination of the Chaco ruins in New Mexico.</p> + +<p>In the prosecution of the field work above outlined the author has +been greatly indebted to the efficient assistance and hearty cooperation +of Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff, by whom nearly all the pueblos illustrated, +with the exception of Zuñi, have been surveyed and platted.</p> + +<p>The plans obtained have involved much careful work with surveying +instruments, and have all been so platted as faithfully to record the +minute variations from geometric forms which are so characteristic of +the pueblo work, but which have usually been ignored in the hastily +prepared sketch plans that have at times appeared. In consequence of the +necessary omission of just such information in hastily drawn plans, +erroneous impressions have been given regarding the degree of skill to +which the pueblo peoples had attained in the planning and building of +<span class = "pagenum">15</span> +<a name = "page015" id = "page015"> </a> +<!--png 056--> +their villages. In the general distribution of the houses, and in the +alignment and arrangement of their walls, as indicated in the plans +shown in Chapters <span class = "smallroman">II</span> and <span class = +"smallroman">III</span>, an absence of high architectural attainment is +found, which is entirely in keeping with the lack of skill apparent in +many of the constructional devices shown in Chapter <span class = +"smallroman">IV</span>.</p> + +<!--png 054--> +<!--png 055--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateII" id = "plateII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate2.png" width = "456" height = "638" +alt = "plan of Old Mashongnavi" +title = "plan of Old Mashongnavi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate II. Old Mashongnavi, plan.</p> + +<p>In preparing this paper for publication Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff has +rendered much assistance in the revision of manuscript, and in the +preparation of some of the final drawings of ground plans; on him has +also fallen the compilation and arrangement of Mr. A. M. Stephen’s +traditionary material from Tusayan, embraced in the first chapter of the +paper.</p> + +<p>This latter material is of special interest in a study of the pueblos +as indicating some of the conditions under which this architectural type +was developed, and it appropriately introduces the more purely +architectural study by the author.</p> + +<p>Such traditions must be used as history with the utmost caution, and +only for events that are very recent. Time relations are often +hopelessly confused and the narratives are greatly incumbered with +mythologic details. But while so barren in definite information, these +traditions are of the greatest value, often through their merely +incidental allusions, in presenting to our minds a picture of the +conditions under which the repeated migrations of the pueblo builders +took place.</p> + +<p>The development of architecture among the Pueblo Indians was +comparatively rapid and is largely attributable to frequent changes, +migrations, and movements of the people as described in Mr. Stephen’s +account. These changes were due to a variety of causes, such as disease, +death, the frequent warfare carried on between different tribes and +branches of the builders, and the hostility of outside tribes; but a +most potent factor was certainly the inhospitable character of their +environment. The disappearance of some venerated spring during an +unusually dry season would be taken as a sign of the disfavor of the +gods, and, in spite of the massive character of the buildings, would +lead to the migration of the people to a more favorable spot. The +traditions of the Zuñis, as well as those of the Tusayan, frequently +refer to such migrations. At times tribes split up and separate, and +again phratries or distant groups meet and band together. It is +remarkable that the substantial character of the architecture should +persist through such long series of compulsory removals, but while the +builders were held together by the necessity for defense against their +wilder neighbors or against each other, this strong defensive motive +would perpetuate the laborious type of construction. Such conditions +would contribute to the rapid development of the building art.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">16</span> +<a name = "page016" id = "page016"> </a> +<!--png 057--> +<h4 class = "chapter extended"><a name = "chapI" id = "chapI"> +CHAPTER I.</a></h4> + +<h5 class = "extended">TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF TUSAYAN.</h5> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapI_1" id = +"chapI_1">EXPLANATORY.</a></h5> + +<p>In this chapter<a class = "tag" name = "tag1" id = "tag1" href = +"#note1">1</a> is presented a summary of the traditions of the Tusayan, +a number of which were collected from old men, from Walpi on the east to +Moen-kopi on the west. A tradition varies much with the tribe and the +individual; an authoritative statement of the current tradition on any +point could be made only with a complete knowledge of all traditions +extant. Such knowledge is not possessed by any one man, and the material +included in this chapter is presented simply as a summary of the +traditions secured.</p> + +<p>The material was collected by Mr. A. M. Stephen, of Keam’s +Canyon, Arizona, who has enjoyed unusual facilities for the work, having +lived for a number of years past in Tusayan and possessed the confidence +of the principal priests—a very necessary condition in work of +this character. Though far from complete, this summary is a more +comprehensive presentation of the traditionary history of these people +than has heretofore been published.</p> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapI_2" id = "chapI_2"> +SUMMARY OF TRADITIONS.</a></h5> + +<p>The creation myths of the Tusayan differ widely, but none of them +designate the region now occupied as the place of their genesis. These +people are socially divided into family groups called wi´ngwu, the +descendants of sisters, and groups of wi´ngwu tracing descent from the +same female ancestor, and having a common totem called my´umu. Each of +these totemic groups preserves a creation myth, carrying in its details +special reference to themselves; but all of them claim a common origin +in the interior of the earth, although the place of emergence to the +surface is set in widely separated localities. They all agree in +maintaining this to be the fourth plane on which mankind has existed. In +the beginning all men lived together in the lowest depths, in a region +of darkness and moisture; their bodies were misshaped and horrible, and +they suffered great misery, moaning and bewailing continually. Through +the intervention of Myúingwa (a vague conception known as the god +of the interior) and of Baholikonga (a crested serpent of enormous +size, the genius of water), the “old men” obtained a seed from which +sprang a magic growth of cane. It penetrated through a crevice +<span class = "pagenum">17</span> +<a name = "page017" id = "page017"> </a> +<!--png 060--> +in the roof overhead and mankind climbed to a higher plane. A dim light +appeared in this stage and vegetation was produced. Another magic growth +of cane afforded the means of rising to a still higher plane on which +the light was brighter; vegetation was reproduced and the animal kingdom +was created. The final ascent to this present, or fourth plane, was +effected by similar magic growths and was led by mythic twins, according +to some of the myths, by climbing a great pine tree, in others by +climbing the cane, <i>Phragmites communis</i>, the alternate leaves of +which afforded steps as of a ladder, and in still others it is said to +have been a rush, through the interior of which the people passed up to +the surface. The twins sang as they pulled the people out, and when +their song was ended no more were allowed to come; and hence, many more +were left below than were permitted to come above; but the outlet +through which mankind came has never been closed, and Myu´ingwa sends +through it the germs of all living things. It is still symbolized by the +peculiar construction of the hatchway of the kiva and in the designs on +the sand altars in these underground chambers, by the unconnected circle +painted on pottery and by devices on basketry and other textile +fabrics.</p> + +<!--png 058--> +<!--png 059--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateIII" id = "plateIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate3.png" width = "454" height = "262" +alt = "Awatubi" +title = "Awatubi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate III. General view of Awatubi.</p> + +<p>All the people that were permitted to come to the surface were +collected and the different families of men were arranged together. This +was done under the direction of twins, who are called Pekónghoya, the +younger one being distinguished by the term Balíngahoya, the Echo. They +were assisted by their grandmother, Kóhkyang wúhti, the Spider woman, +and these appear in varying guises in many of the myths and legends. +They instructed the people in divers modes of life to dwell on mountain +or on plain, to build lodges, or huts, or windbreaks. They distributed +appropriate gifts among them and assigned each a pathway, and so the +various families of mankind were dispersed over the earth’s surface.</p> + +<p>The Hopituh,<a class = "tag" name = "tag2" id = "tag2" href = +"#note2">2</a> after being taught to build stone houses, were also +divided, and the different divisions took separate paths. The legends +indicate a long period of extensive migrations in separate communities; +the groups came to Tusayan at different times and from different +directions, but the people of all the villages concur in designating the +Snake people as the first occupants of the region. The eldest member of +that nyumu tells a curious legend of their migration from which the +following is quoted:</p> + +<blockquote> +At the general dispersal my people lived in snake skins, each family +occupying a separate snake skin bag, and all were hung on the end of a +rainbow, which swung around until the end touched Navajo Mountain, where +the bags dropped from it; and wherever a bag dropped, there was their +house. After they arranged their bags they came out from them as men and +women, and they then, built a stone house which had five sides. [The +story here relates the adventures of a mythic Snake Youth, who brought +back a strange woman who gave birth to rattlesnakes; these bit the +people and compelled them to migrate.] A brilliant star arose in the +southeast, +<span class = "pagenum">18</span> +<a name = "page018" id = "page018"> </a> +<!--png 061--> +which would shine for a while and then disappear. The old men said, +“Beneath that star there must be people,” so they determined to travel +toward it. They cut a staff and set it in the ground and watched till +the star reached its top, then they started and traveled as long as the +star shone; when it disappeared they halted. But the star did not shine +every night, for sometimes many years elapsed before it appeared again. +When this occurred, our people built houses during their halt; they +built both round and square houses, and all the ruins between here and +Navajo Mountain mark the places where our people lived. They waited till +the star came to the top of the staff again, then they moved on, but +many people were left in those houses and they followed afterward at +various times. When our people reached Wipho (a spring a few miles +north from Walpi) the star disappeared and has never been seen since. +They built a house there and after a time Másauwu (the god of the face +of the earth) came and compelled them to move farther down the valley, +to a point about half way between the East and Middle Mesa, and there +they stayed many plantings. One time the old men were assembled and +Másauwu came among them, looking like a horrible skeleton, and his bones +rattling dreadfully. He menaced them with awful gestures, and lifted off +his fleshless head and thrust it into their faces; but he could not +frighten them. So he said, “I have lost my wager; all that I have is +yours; ask for anything you want and I will give it to you.” At that +time our people’s house was beside the water course, and Másauwu said, +“Why are you sitting here in the mud? Go up yonder where it is dry.” So +they went across to the low, sandy terrace on the west side of the mesa, +near the point, and built a house and lived there. Again the old men +were assembled and two demons came among them and the old men took the +great Baho and the nwelas and chased them away. When they were +returning, and were not far north from, their village, they met the +Lenbaki (Cane-Flute, a religious society still maintained) of the Horn +family. The old men would not allow them to come in until Másauwu +appeared and declared them to be good Hopituh. So they built houses +adjoining ours and that made a fine, large village. Then other Hopituh +came in from time to time, and our people would say, “Build here, or +build there,” and portioned the land among the new comers.</blockquote> + +<p>The site of the first Snake house in the valley, mentioned in the +foregoing legend, is now barely to be discerned, and the people refuse +to point out the exact spot. It is held as a place of votive offerings +during the ceremony of the Snake dance, and, as its name, Bátni, +implies, certain rain-fetiches are deposited there in small jars buried +in the ground. The site of the village next occupied can be quite easily +distinguished, and is now called Kwetcap tutwi, ash heap terrace, and +this was the village to which the name Walpi was first applied—a +term meaning the place at the notched mesa, in allusion to a broad gap +in the stratum of sandstone on the summit of the mesa, and by which it +can be distinguished from a great distance. The ground plan of this +early Walpi can still be partly traced, indicating the former existence +of an extensive village of clustering, little-roomed houses, with thick +walls constructed of small stones.</p> + +<p>The advent of the Lenbaki is still commemorated by a biennial +ceremony, and is celebrated on the year alternating with their other +biennial ceremony, the Snake dance.</p> + +<p>The Horn people, to which the Lenbaki belonged, have a legend of +coming from a mountain range in the east.</p> + +<blockquote> +Its peaks were always snow covered, and the trees were always green. +From the hillside the plains were seen, over which roamed the deer, the +antelope, and the +<span class = "pagenum">19</span> +<a name = "page019" id = "page019"> </a> +<!--png 064--> +bison, feeding on never-failing grasses. Twining through these plains +were streams of bright water, beautiful to look upon. A place where none +but those who were of our people ever gained access.</blockquote> + +<p>This description suggests some region of the head-waters of the Rio +Grande. Like the Snake people, they tell of a protracted migration, not +of continuous travel, for they remained for many seasons in one place, +where they would plant and build permanent houses. One of these halting +places is described as a canyon with high, steep walls, in which was a +flowing stream; this, it is said, was the Tségi (the Navajo name for +Canyon de Chelly). Here they built a large house in a cavernous recess, +high up in the canyon wall. They tell of devoting two years<a class = +"tag" name = "tag3" id = "tag3" href = "#note3">3</a> to ladder making +and cutting and pecking shallow holes up the steep rocky side by which +to mount to the cavern, and three years more were employed in building +the house. While this work was in progress part of the men were planting +gardens, and the women and children were gathering stones. But no +adequate reason is given for thus toiling to fit this impracticable site +for occupation; the footprints of Másauwu, which they were following, +led them there.</p> + +<p>The legend goes on to tell that after they had lived there for a long +time a stranger happened to stray in their vicinity, who proved to be a +Hopituh, and said that he lived in the south. After some stay he left +and was accompanied by a party of the “Horn,” who were to visit the land +occupied by their kindred Hopituh and return with an account of them; +but they never came back. After waiting a long time another band was +sent, who returned and said that the first emissaries had found wives +and had built houses on the brink of a beautiful canyon, not far from +the other Hopituh dwellings. After this many of the Horns grew +dissatisfied with their cavern home, dissensions arose, they left their +home, and finally they reached Tusayan. They lived at first in one of +the canyons east of the villages, in the vicinity of Keam’s Canyon, and +some of the numerous ruins on its brink mark the sites of their early +houses. There seems to be no legend distinctly attaching any particular +ruin to the Horn people, although there is little doubt that the Snake +and the Horn were the two first peoples who came to the neighborhood of +the present villages. The Bear people were the next, but they arrived as +separate branches, and from opposite directions, although of the same +Hopituh stock. It has been impossible to obtain directly the legend of +the Bears from the west. The story of the Bears from the east tells of +encountering the Fire people, then living about 25 miles east from +Walpi; but these are now extinct, and nearly all that is known of them +is told in the Bear legend, the gist of which is as follows:</p> + +<p>The Bears originally lived among the mountains of the east, not far +distant from the Horns. Continual quarrels with neighboring villages +<span class = "pagenum">20</span> +<a name = "page020" id = "page020"> </a> +<!--png 065--> +brought on actual fighting, and the Bears left that region and traveled +westward. As with all the other people, they halted, built houses, and +planted, remaining stationary for a long while; this occurred at +different places along their route.</p> + +<p>A portion of these people had wings, and they flew in advance to +survey the land, and when the main body were traversing an arid region +they found water for them. Another portion had claws with which they dug +edible roots, and they could also use them for scratching hand and foot +holes in the face of a steep cliff. Others had hoofs, and these carried +the heaviest burdens; and some had balls of magic spider web, which they +could use on occasion for ropes, and they could also spread the web and +use it as a mantle, rendering the wearer invisible when he apprehended +danger.</p> + +<p>They too came to the Tségi (Canyon de Chelly), where they found +houses but no people, and they also built houses there. While living +there a rupture occurred, a portion of them separating and going far to +the westward. These seceding bands are probably that branch of the Bears +who claim their origin in the west. Some time after this, but how long +after is not known, a plague visited the canyon, and the greater portion +of the people moved away, but leaving numbers who chose to remain. They +crossed the Chinli valley and halted for a short time at a place a short +distance northeast from Great Willow water (“Eighteen Mile Spring”). +They did not remain there long, however, but moved a few miles farther +west, to a place occupied by the Fire people who lived in a large oval +house. The ruin of this house still stands, the walls from 5 to 8 feet +high, and remarkable from the large-sized blocks of stone used in their +construction; it is still known to the Hopituh as Tebvwúki, the +Fire-house. Here some fighting occurred, and the Bears moved westward +again to the head of Antelope (Jeditoh) Canyon, about 4 miles from +Keam’s Canyon and about 15 miles east from Walpi. They built there a +rambling cluster of small-roomed houses, of which the ground plan has +now become almost obliterated. This ruin is called by the Hopituh “the +ruin at the place of wild gourds.” They seem to have occupied this +neighborhood for a considerable period, as mention is made of two or +three segregations, when groups of families moved a few miles away and +built similar house clusters on the brink of that canyon.</p> + +<p>The Fire-people, who, some say, were of the Horn people, must have +abandoned their dwelling at the Oval House or must have been driven out +at the time of their conflict with the Bears, and seem to have traveled +directly to the neighborhood of Walpi. The Snakes allotted them a place +to build in the valley on the east side of the mesa, and about two miles +north from the gap. A ridge of rocky knolls and sand dunes lies at the +foot of the mesa here, and close to the main cliff is a spring. There +are two prominent knolls about 400 yards apart and the summits of these +are covered with traces of house walls; also portions of walls can be +discerned on all the intervening hummocks. The place is known as +Sikyátki, +<span class = "pagenum">21</span> +<a name = "page021" id = "page021"> </a> +<!--png 068--> +the yellow-house, from the color of the sandstone of which the houses +were built. These and other fragmentary bits have walls not over a foot +thick, built of small stones dressed by rubbing, and all laid in mud; +the inside of the walls also show a smooth coating of mud plaster. The +dimensions of the rooms are very small, the largest measuring 9½ feet +long, by 4½ feet wide. It is improbable that any of these structures +were over two stories high, and many of them were built in excavated +places around the rocky summits of the knolls. In these instances no +rear wall was built; the partition walls, radiating at irregular angles, +abut against the rock itself. Still, the great numbers of these houses, +small as they were, must have been far more than the Fire-people could +have required, for the oval house which they abandoned measures not more +than a hundred feet by fifty. Probably other incoming gentes, of whom no +story has been preserved, had also the ill fate to build there, for the +Walpi people afterward slew all its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>There is little or no detail in the legends of the Bear people as to +their life in Antelope Canyon; they can now distinguish only one ruin +with certainty as having been occupied by their ancestors, while to all +the other ruins fanciful names have been applied. Nor is there any +special cause mentioned for abandoning their dwellings there; probably, +however, a sufficient reason was the cessation of springs in their +vicinity. Traces of former large springs are seen at all of them, but no +water flows from them at the present time. Whatever their motive, the +Bears left Antelope <ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘Cañyon’">Canyon</ins>, +and moved over to the village of Walpi, on the +terrace below the point of the mesa. They were received kindly there, +and were apparently placed on an equal footing with the Walpi, for it +seems the Snake, Horn, and Bear have always been on terms of friendship. +They built houses at that village, and lived there for some considerable +time; then they moved a short distance and built again almost on the +very point of the mesa. This change was not caused by any disagreement +with their neighbors; they simply chose that point as a suitable place +on which to build all their houses together. The site of this Bear house +is called Kisákobi, the obliterated house, and the name is very +appropriate, as there is merely the faintest trace here and there to +show where a building stood, the stones having been used in the +construction of the modern Walpi. These two villages were quite close +together, and the subsequent construction of a few additional groups of +rooms almost connected them, so that they were always considered and +spoken of as one.</p> + +<p>It was at this period, while Walpi was still on this lower site, that +the Spaniards came into the country. They met with little or no +opposition, and their entrance was marked by no great disturbances. No +special tradition preserves any of the circumstances of this event; +these first coming Spaniards being only spoken of as the “Kast´ilumuh +who wore iron garments, and came from the south,” and this brief mention +may be accounted for by the fleeting nature of these early visits.</p> + +<p>The zeal of the Spanish priests carried them everywhere throughout +<span class = "pagenum">22</span> +<a name = "page022" id = "page022"> </a> +<!--png 069--> +their newly acquired territory, and some time in the seventeenth century +a band of missionary monks found their way to Tusayan. They were +accompanied by a few troops to impress the people with a due regard for +Spanish authority, but to display the milder side of their mission, they +also brought herds of sheep and cattle for distribution. At first these +were herded at various springs within a wide radius around the villages, +and the names still attaching to these places memorize the introduction +of sheep and cattle to this region. The Navajo are first definitely +mentioned in tradition as occupants of this vicinity in connection with +these flocks and herds, in the distribution of which they gave much +undesirable assistance by driving off the larger portion to their own +haunts.</p> + +<p>The missionaries selected Awatubi, Walpi, and Shumopavi as the sites +for their mission buildings, and at once, it is said, began to introduce +a system of enforced labor. The memory of the mission period is held in +great detestation, and the onerous toil the priests imposed is still +adverted to as the principal grievance. Heavy pine timbers, many of +which are now pointed out in the kiva roofs, of from 15 to 20 feet in +length and a foot or more in diameter, were cut at the San Francisco +Mountain, and gangs of men were compelled to carry and drag them to the +building sites, where they were used as house beams. This necessitated +prodigious toil, for the distance by trail is a hundred miles, most of +the way over a rough and difficult country. The Spaniards are said to +have employed a few ox teams in this labor, but the heaviest share was +performed by the impressed Hopituh, who were driven in gangs by the +Spanish soldiers, and any who refused to work were confined in a prison +house and starved into submission.</p> + +<p>The “men with the long robes,” as the missionaries were called, are +said to have lived among these people for a long time, but no trace of +their individuality survives in tradition.</p> + +<p>Possibly the Spanish missionaries may have striven to effect some +social improvement among these people, and by the adoption of some harsh +measures incurred the jealous anger of the chiefs. But the system of +labor they enforced was regarded, perhaps justly, as the introduction of +serfdom, such as then prevailed in the larger communities in the Rio +Grande valleys. Perhaps tradition belies them; but there are many +stories of their evil, sensual lives—assertions that they violated +women, and held many of the young girls at their mission houses, not as +pupils, but as concubines.</p> + +<p>In any case, these hapless monks were engaged in a perilous mission +in seeking to supplant the primitive faith of the Tusayan, for among the +native priests they encountered prejudices even as violent as their own. +With too great zeal they prohibited the sacred dances, the votive +offerings to the nature-deities, and similar public observances, and +strove to suppress the secret rites and abolish the religious orders and +societies. But these were too closely incorporated with the system of +gentes and +<span class = "pagenum">23</span> +<a name = "page023" id = "page023"> </a> +<!--png 072--> +other family kinships to admit of their extinction. Traditionally, it is +said that, following the discontinuance of the prescribed ceremonies, +the favor of the gods was withdrawn, the clouds brought no rain, and the +fields yielded no corn. Such a coincidence in this arid region is by no +means improbable, and according to the legends, a succession of dry +seasons resulting in famine has been of not infrequent occurrence. The +superstitious fears of the people were thus aroused, and they cherished +a mortal hatred of the monks.</p> + +<p>In such mood were they in the summer of 1680, when the village +Indians rose in revolt, drove out the Spaniards, and compelled them to +retreat to Mexico. There are some dim traditions of that event still +existing among the Tusayan, and they tell of one of their own race +coming from the river region by the way of Zuñi to obtain their +cooperation in the proposed revolt. To this they consented.</p> + +<p>Only a few Spaniards being present at that time, the Tusayan found +courage to vent their enmity in massacre, and every one of the hated +invaders perished on the appointed day. The traditions of the massacre +center on the doom of the monks, for they were regarded as the +embodiment of all that was evil in Spanish rule, and their pursuit, as +they tried to escape among the sand dunes, and the mode of their +slaughter, is told with grim precision; they were all overtaken and +hacked to pieces with stone tomahawks.</p> + +<p>It is told that while the monks were still in authority some of the +Snake women urged a withdrawal from Walpi, and, to incite the men to +action, carried their mealing-stones and cooking vessels to the summit +of the mesa, where they desired the men to build new houses, less +accessible to the domineering priests. The men followed them, and two or +three small house groups were built near the southwest end of the +present village, one of them being still occupied by a Snake family, but +the others have been demolished or remodeled. A little farther north, +also on the west edge, the small house clusters there were next built by +the families of two women called Tji-vwó-wati and Si-kya-tcí-wati. +Shortly after the massacre the lower village was entirely abandoned, and +the building material carried above to the point which the Snakes had +chosen, and on which the modern Walpi was constructed. Several beams of +the old mission houses are now pointed out in the roofs of the +kivas.</p> + +<p>There was a general apprehension that the Spaniards would send a +force to punish them, and the Shumopavi also reconstructed their village +in a stronger position, on a high mesa overlooking its former site. The +other villages were already in secure positions, and all the smaller +agricultural settlements were abandoned at this period, and excepting at +one or two places on the Moen-kopi, the Tusayan have ever since confined +themselves to the close vicinity of their main villages.</p> + +<p>The house masses do not appear to bear any relation to division by +phratries. It is surprising that even the social division of the +phratries +<span class = "pagenum">24</span> +<a name = "page024" id = "page024"> </a> +<!--png 073--> +is preserved. The Hopituh certainly marry within phratries, and +occasionally with the same gens. There is no doubt, however, that in the +earlier villages each gens, and where practicable, the whole of the +phratry, built their houses together. To a certain extent the house of +the priestess of a gens is still regarded as the home of the gens. She +has to be consulted concerning proposed marriages, and has much to say +in other social arrangements.</p> + +<p>While the village of the Walpi was still upon the west side of the +mesa point, some of them moved around and built houses beside a spring +close to the east side of the mesa. Soon after this a dispute over +planting ground arose between them and the Sikyátki, whose village was +also on that side of the mesa and but a short distance above them. From +this time forward bad blood lay between the Sikyátki and the Walpi, who +took up the quarrel of their suburb. It also happened about that time, +so tradition says, more of the Coyote people came from the north, and +the Pikyás nyu-mu, the young cornstalk, who were the latest of the Water +people, came in from the south. The Sikyátki, having acquired their +friendship, induced them to build on two mounds, on the summit of the +mesa overlooking their village. They had been greatly harrassed by the +young slingers and archers of Walpi, who would come across to the edge +of the high cliff and assail them with impunity, but the occupation of +these two mounds by friends afforded effectual protection to their +village. These knolls are about 40 yards apart, and about 40 feet above +the level of the mesa which is something over 400 feet above Sikyátki. +Their roughly leveled summits measure 20 by 10 feet and are covered with +traces of house walls; and it is evident that groups of small-roomed +houses were clustered also around the sloping sides. About a hundred +yards south from their dwellings the people of the mounds built for +their own protection a strong wall entirely across the mesa, which at +that point is contracted to about 200 feet in width, with deep vertical +cliffs on either side. The base of the wall is still quite distinct, and +is about 3 feet thick.</p> + +<p>But no reconciliation was ever effected between the Walpi and the +Sikyátki and their allies, and in spite of their defensive wall frequent +assaults were made upon the latter until they were forced to retreat. +The greater number of them retired to Oraibi and the remainder to +Sikyátki, and the feud was still maintained between them and the +Walpi.</p> + +<p>Some of the incidents as well as the disastrous termination of this +feud are still narrated. A party of the Sikyátki went prowling through +Walpi one day while the men were afield, and among other outrages, one +of them shot an arrow through a window and killed a chief’s daughter +while she was grinding corn. The chief’s son resolved to avenge the +death of his sister, and some time after this went to Sikyátki, +professedly to take part in a religious dance, in which he joined until +just before the close of the ceremony. Having previously observed where +the handsomest girl was seated among the spectators on the house +terraces, +<span class = "pagenum">25</span> +<a name = "page025" id = "page025"> </a> +<!--png 076--> +he ran up the ladder as if to offer her a prayer emblem, but instead he +drew out a sharp flint knife from his girdle and cut her throat. He +threw the body down where all could see it, and ran along the adjoining +terraces till he cleared the village. A little way up the mesa was a +large flat rock, upon which he sprang and took off his dancer’s mask so +that all might recognize him; then turning again to the mesa he sped +swiftly up the trail and escaped.</p> + +<p>And so foray and slaughter continued to alternate between them until +the planting season of some indefinite year came around. All the +Sikyátki men were to begin the season by planting the fields of their +chief on a certain day, which was announced from the housetop by the +Second Chief as he made his customary evening proclamations, and the +Walpi, becoming aware of this, planned a fatal onslaught. Every man and +woman able to draw a bow or wield a weapon were got in readiness and at +night they crossed the mesa and concealed themselves along its edge, +overlooking the doomed village. When the day came they waited until the +men had gone to the field and then rushed down upon the houses. The +chief, who was too old to go afield, was the first one killed, and then +followed the indiscriminate slaughter of women and children, and the +destruction of the houses. The wild tumult in the village alarmed the +Sikyátki and they came rushing back, but too late to defend their homes. +Their struggles were hopeless, for they had only their planting sticks +to use as weapons, which availed but little against the Walpi with their +bows and arrows, spears, slings, and war clubs. Nearly all of the +Sikyátki men were killed, but some of them escaped to Oraibi and some to +Awatubi. A number of the girls and younger women were spared, and +distributed among the different villages, where they became wives of +their despoilers.</p> + +<p>It is said to have been shortly after the destruction of Sikyátki +that the first serious inroad of a hostile tribe occurred within this +region, and all the stories aver that these early hostiles were from the +north, the Ute being the first who are mentioned, and after them the +Apache, who made an occasional foray.</p> + +<p>While these families of Hopituh stock had been building their +straggling dwellings along the canyon brinks, and grouping in villages +around the base of the East Mesa, other migratory bands of Hopituh had +begun to arrive on the Middle Mesa. As already said, it is admitted that +the Snake were the first occupants of this region, but beyond that fact +the traditions are contradictory and confused. It is probable, however, +that not long after the arrival of the Horn, the Squash people came from +the south and built a village on the Middle Mesa, the ruin of which is +called Chukubi. It is on the edge of the cliff on the east side of the +neck of that mesa, and a short distance south of the direct trail +leading from Walpi to Oraibi. The Squash people say that they came from +Palát Kwabi, the Red Land in the far South, and this vague term +expresses nearly all their knowledge of that traditional land. They say +they lived +<span class = "pagenum">26</span> +<a name = "page026" id = "page026"> </a> +<!--png 077--> +for a long time in the valley of the Colorado Chiquito, on the south +side of that stream and not far from the point where the railway crosses +it. They still distinguish the ruin of their early village there, which +was built as usual on the brink of a canyon, and call it Etípsíkya, +after a shrub that grows there profusely. They crossed the river +opposite that place, but built no permanent houses until they reached +the vicinity of Chukubi, near which two smaller clusters of ruins, on +knolls, mark the sites of dwellings which they claim to have been +theirs. Three groups (nyumu) traveling together were the next to follow +them; these were the Bear, the Bear-skin-rope, and the Blue Jay. They +are said to have been very numerous, and to have come from the vicinity +of San Francisco Mountain. They did not move up to Chukubi, but built a +large village on the summit, at the south end of the mesa, close to the +site of the present Mashongnavi. Soon afterward came the Burrowing Owl, +and the Coyote, from the vicinity of Navajo Mountains in the north, but +they were not very numerous. They also built upon the Mashongnavi +summit.</p> + +<p>After this the Squash people found that the water from their springs +was decreasing, and began moving toward the end of the mesa, where the +other people were. But as there was then no suitable place left on the +summit, they built a village on the sandy terrace close below it, on the +west side; and as the springs at Chukubi ultimately ceased entirely, the +rest of the Squash people came to the terrace and were again united in +one village. Straggling bands of several other groups, both wingwu and +nyumu, are mentioned as coming from various directions. Some built on +the terrace and some found house room in Mashongnavi. This name is +derived as follows: On the south side of the terrace on which the Squash +village was built is a high column of sandstone which is vertically +split in two, and formerly there was a third pillar in line, which has +long since fallen. These three columns were called Tútuwalha, the +guardians, and both the Squash village and the one on the summit were so +named. On the north side of the terrace, close to the present village, +is another irregular massy pillar of sandstone called Mashóniniptu, +meaning “the other which remains erect,” having reference to the one on +the south side, which had fallen. When the Squash withdrew to the summit +the village was then called Mashóniniptuovi, “at the place of the other +which remains erect;” now that term is never used, but always its +syncopated form, Mashongnavi.</p> + +<p>The Squash village, on the south end of the Middle Mesa, was attacked +by a fierce band that came from the north, some say the Ute, others say +the Apache; but whoever the invaders were, they completely overpowered +the people, and carried off great stores of food and other plunder. The +village was then evacuated, the houses dismantled, and the material +removed to the high summit, where they reconstructed their dwellings +around the village which thenceforth bore its present name of +Mashongnavi. Some of the Squash people moved over to Oraibi, and +portions of the Katchina and Paroquet people came from +<span class = "pagenum">27</span> +<a name = "page027" id = "page027"> </a> +<!--png 080--> +there to Mashongnavi about the same time, and a few of these two groups +occupied some vacant houses also in Shupaulovi; for this village even at +that early date had greatly diminished in population, having sustained a +disastrous loss of men in the canyon affrays east of Walpi.</p> + +<p>Shumopavi seems to have been built by portions of the same groups who +went to the adjacent Mashongnavi, but the traditions of the two villages +are conflicting. The old traditionists at Shumopavi hold that the first +to come there were the Paroquet, the Bear, the Bear-skin-rope, and the +Blue Jay. They came from the west—probably from San Francisco +Mountain. They claim that ruins on a mesa bluff about 10 miles south +from the present village are the remains of a village built by these +groups before reaching Shumopavi, and the Paroquets arrived first, it is +said, because they were perched on the heads of the Bears, and, when +nearing the water, they flew in ahead of the others. These groups built +a village on a broken terrace, on the east side of the cliff, and just +below the present village. There is a spring close by called after the +Shunóhu, a tall red grass, which grew abundantly there, and from which +the town took its name. This spring was formerly very large, but two +years ago a landslide completely buried it; lately, however, a small +outflow is again apparent.</p> + +<p>The ruins of the early village cover a hillocky area of about 800 by +250 feet, but it is impossible to trace much of the ground plan with +accuracy. The corner of an old house still stands, some 6 or 8 feet +high, extending about 15 feet on one face and about 10 feet on the +other. The wall is over 3 feet in thickness, but of very clumsy masonry, +no care having been exercised in dressing the stones, which are of +varying sizes and laid in mud plaster. Interest attaches to this +fragment, as it is one of the few tangible evidences left of the Spanish +priests who engaged in the fatal mission to the Hopituh in the sixteenth +century. This bit of wall, which now forms part of a sheep-fold, is +pointed out as the remains of one of the mission buildings.</p> + +<p>Other groups followed—the Mole, the Spider, and the “Wíksrun.” +These latter took their name from a curious ornament worn by the men. A +piece of the leg-bone of a bear, from which the marrow had been +extracted and a stopper fixed in one end, was attached to the fillet +binding the hair, and hung down in front of the forehead. This gens and +the Mole are now extinct.</p> + +<p>Shumopavi received no further accession of population, but lost to +some extent by a portion of the Bear people moving across to Walpi. No +important event seems to have occurred among them for a long period +after the destruction of Sikyátki, in which they bore some part, and +only cursory mention is made of the ingress of “enemies from the north;” +but their village, apparently, was not assailed.</p> + +<p>The Oraibi traditions tend to confirm those of Shumopavi, and tell +that the first houses there were built by Bears, who came from the +latter place. The following is from a curious legend of the early +settlement:</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">28</span> +<a name = "page028" id = "page028"> </a> +<!--png 081--> +The Bear people had two chiefs, who were brothers; the elder was called +Vwen-ti-só-mo, and the younger Ma-tcí-to. They had a desperate quarrel +at Shumopavi, and their people divided into two factions, according as +they inclined to one or other of the contestants. After a long period of +contention Ma-tcí-to and his followers withdrew to the mesa where Oraibi +now stands, about 8 miles northwest from Shumopavi, and built houses a +little to the southwest of the limits of the present town. These houses +were afterwards destroyed by “enemies from the north,” and the older +portion of the existing town, the southwest ends of the house rows, were +built with stones from the demolished houses. Fragments of these early +walls are still occasionally unearthed.</p> + +<p>After Ma-tcí-to and his people were established there, whenever any +of the Shumopavi people became dissatisfied with that place they built +at Oraibi, Ma-tcí-to placed a little stone monument about halfway +between these two villages to mark the boundary of the land. +Vwenti-so´-mo objected to this, but it was ultimately accepted with the +proviso that the village growing the fastest should have the privilege +of moving it toward the other village. The monument still stands, and is +on the direct Oraibi trail from Shumopavi, 3 miles from the latter. It +is a well dressed, rectangular block of sandstone, projecting two feet +above the ground, and measures 8½ by 7 inches. On the end is carved the +rude semblance of a human head, or mask, the eyes and mouth being merely +round shallow holes, with a black line painted around them. The stone is +pecked on the side, but the head and front are rubbed quite smooth, and +the block, tapering slightly to the base, suggests the ancient Roman +Termini.</p> + +<p>There are Eagle people living at Oraibi, Mashongnavi, and Walpi, and +it would seem as if they had journeyed for some time with the later +Snake people and others from the northwest. Vague traditions attach them +to several of the ruins north of the Moen-kopi, although most of these +are regarded as the remains of Snake dwellings.</p> + +<p>The legend of the Eagle people introduces them from the west, coming +in by way of the Moen-kopi water course. They found many people living +in Tusayan, at Oraibi, the Middle Mesa, and near the East Mesa, but the +Snake village was yet in the valley. Some of the Eagles remained at +Oraibi, but the main body moved to a large mound just east of +Mashongnavi, on the summit of which they built a village and called it +Shi-tái-mu. Numerous traces of small-roomed houses can be seen on this +mound and on some of the lower surroundings. The uneven summit is about +300 by 200 feet, and the village seems to have been built in the form of +an irregular ellipse, but the ground plan is very obscure.</p> + +<p>While the Eagles were living at Shi-tái-mu, they sent “Yellow Foot” +to the mountain in the east (at the headwaters of the Rio Grande) to +obtain a dog. After many perilous adventures in caverns guarded by bear, +mountain lion, and rattlesnake, he got two dogs and returned. +<span class = "pagenum">29</span> +<a name = "page029" id = "page029"> </a> +<!--png 083--> +They were wanted to keep the coyotes out of the corn and the gardens. +The dogs grew numerous, and would go to Mashongnavi in search of food, +and also to some of the people of that village, which led to serious +quarrels between them and the Eagle people. Ultimately the Shi-tái-mu +chief proclaimed a feast, and told the people to prepare to leave the +village forever. On the feast day the women arranged the food basins on +the ground in a long line leading out of the village. The people passed +along this line, tasting a mouthful here or there, but without stopping, +and when they reached the last basin they were beyond the limits of the +village. Without turning around they continued on down into the valley +until they were halted by the Snake people. An arrangement was effected +with the latter, and the Eagles built their houses in the Snake village. +A few of the Eagle families who had become attached to Mashongnavi chose +to go to that village, where their descendants still reside, and are yet +held as close relatives by the Eagles of Walpi. The land around the East +Mesa was then portioned out, the Snakes, Horns, Bears, and Eagles each +receiving separate lands, and these old allotments are still +approximately maintained.</p> + +<p>According to the Eagle traditions the early occupants of Tusayan came +in the following succession: Snake, Horn, Bear, Middle Mesa, Oraibi, and +Eagle, and finally from the south came the Water families. This sequence +is also recognized in the general tenor of the legends of the other +groups.</p> + +<p>Shupaulovi, a small village quite close to Mashongnavi, would seem to +have been established just before the coming of the Water people. Nor +does there seem to have been any very long interval between the arrival +of the earliest occupants of the Middle Mesa and this latest colony. +These were the Sun people, and like the Squash folk, claim to have come +from Palátkwabi, the Red Land, in the south. On their northward +migration, when they came to the valley of the Colorado Chiquito, they +found the Water people there, with whom they lived for some time. This +combined village was built upon Homólobi, a round terraced mound near +Sunset Crossing, where fragmentary ruins covering a wide area can yet be +traced.</p> + +<p>Incoming people from the east had built the large village of Awatubi, +high rock, upon a steep mesa about nine miles southeast from Walpi. When +the Sun people came into Tusayan they halted at that village and a few +of them remained there permanently, but the others continued west to the +Middle Mesa. At that time also they say Chukubi, Shitaimu, Mashongnavi, +and the Squash village on the terrace were all occupied, and they built +on the terrace close to the Squash village also. The Sun people were +then very numerous and soon spread their dwellings over the summit where +the ruin now stands, and many indistinct lines of house walls around +this dilapidated village attest its former size. Like the neighboring +village, it takes its name from a rock near by, +<span class = "pagenum">30</span> +<a name = "page030" id = "page030"> </a> +<!--png 084--> +which is used as a place for the deposit of votive offerings, but the +etymology of the term can not be traced.</p> + +<p>Some of the Bear people also took up their abode at Shupaulovi, and +later a nyumu of the Water family called Batni, moisture, built with +them; and the diminished families of the existing village are still +composed entirely of these three nyumu.</p> + +<p>The next arrivals seem to have been the Asanyumu, who in early days +lived in the region of the Chama, in New Mexico, at a village called +Kaékibi, near the place now known as Abiquiu. When they left that region +they moved slowly westward to a place called Túwii (Santo Domingo), +where some of them are said to still reside. The next halt was at +Kaiwáika (Laguna) where it is said some families still remain, and they +staid also a short time at A´ikoka (Acoma); but none of them remained at +that place. From the latter place they went to Sióki (Zuñi), where they +remained a long time and left a number of their people there, who are +now called Aiyáhokwi by the Zuñi. They finally reached Tusayan by way of +Awatubi. They had been preceded from the same part of New Mexico by the +Honan nyumu (the Badger people), whom they found living at the +last-named village. The Magpie, the Pute Kóhu (Boomerang-shaped hunting +stick), and the Field-mouse families of the Asa remained and built +beside the Badger, but the rest of its groups continued across to the +Walpi Mesa. They were not at first permitted to come up to Walpi, which +then occupied its present site, but were allotted a place to build at +Coyote Water, a small spring on the east side of the mesa, just under +the gap. They had not lived there very long, however, when for some +valuable services in defeating at one time a raid of the Ute (who used +to be called the Tcingawúptuh) and of the Navajo at another, they were +given for planting grounds all the space on the mesa summit from the gap +to where Sichumovi now stands, and the same width, extending across the +valley to the east. On the mesa summit they built the early portion of +the house mass on the north side of the village, now known as Hano. But +soon after this came a succession of dry seasons, which caused a great +scarcity of food almost amounting to a famine, and many moved away to +distant streams. The Asa people went to Túpkabi (Deep Canyon, the de +Chelly), about 70 miles northeast from Walpi, where the Navajo received +them kindly and supplied them with food. The Asa had preserved some +seeds of the peach, which they planted in the canyon nooks, and numerous +little orchards still flourish there. They also brought the Navajo new +varieties of food plants, and their relations grew very cordial. They +built houses along the base of the canyon walls, and dwelt there for two +or three generations, during which time many of the Asa women were given +to the Navajo, and the descendants of these now constitute a numerous +clan among the Navajo, known as the Kiáini, the High-house people.</p> + +<p>The Navajo and the Asa eventually quarreled and the latter returned +to Walpi, but this was after the arrival of the Hano, by whom they +<span class = "pagenum">31</span> +<a name = "page031" id = "page031"> </a> +<!--png 087--> +found their old houses occupied. The Asa were taken into the village of +Walpi, being given a vacant strip on the east edge of the mesa, just +where the main trail comes up to the village. The Navajo, Ute, and +Apache had frequently gained entrance to the village by this trail, and +to guard it the Asa built a house group along the edge of the cliff at +that point, immediately overlooking the trail, where some of the people +still live; and the kiva there, now used by the Snake order, belongs to +them. There was a crevice in the rock, with a smooth bottom extending to +the edge of the cliff and deep enough for a ki´koli. A wall was built to +close the outer edge and it was at first intended to build a dwelling +house there, but it was afterward excavated to its present size and made +into a kiva, still called the wikwálhobi, the kiva of the Watchers of +the High Place. The Walpi site becoming crowded, some of the Bear and +Lizard people moved out and built houses on the site of the present +Sichumovi; several Asa families followed them, and after them came some +of the Badger people. The village grew to an extent considerably beyond +its present size, when it was abandoned on account of a malignant +plague. After the plague, and within the present generation, the village +was rebuilt—the old houses being torn down to make the new +ones.</p> + +<p>After the Asa came the nest group to arrive was the Water family. +Their chief begins the story of their migration in this way:</p> + +<blockquote> +In the long ago the Snake, Horn, and Eagle people lived here (in +Tusayan), but their corn grew only a span high, and when they sang for +rain the cloud god sent only a thin mist. My people then lived in the +distant Pa-lát Kwá-bi in the South. There was a very bad old man there, +who, when he met any one, would spit in his face, blow his nose upon +him, and rub ordure upon him. He ravished the girls and did all manner +of evil. Baholikonga got angry at this and turned the world upside down, +and water spouted up through the kivas and through the fireplaces in the +houses. The earth was rent in great chasms, and water covered everything +except one narrow ridge of mud; and across this the serpent deity told +all the people to travel. As they journeyed across, the feet of the bad +slipped and they fell into the dark water, but the good, after many +days, reached dry land. While the water was rising around the village +the old people got on the tops of the houses, for they thought they +could not struggle across with the younger people; but Baholikonga +clothed them with the skins of turkeys, and they spread their wings out +and floated in the air just above the surface of the water, and in this +way they got across. There were saved of our people Water, Corn, Lizard, +Horned Toad, Sand, two families of Rabbit, and Tobacco. The turkey tail +dragged in the water—hence the white on the turkey tail now. +Wearing these turkey-skins is the reason why old people have dewlaps +under the chin like a turkey; it is also the reason why old people use +turkey-feathers at the religious ceremonies.</blockquote> + +<p>In the story of the wandering of the Water people, many vague +references are made to various villages in the South, which they +constructed or dwelt in, and to rocks where they carved their totems at +temporary halting places. They dwelt for a long time at Homólobi, where +the Sun people joined them; and probably not long after the latter left +the Water people followed on after them. The largest number of this +family seem +<span class = "pagenum">32</span> +<a name = "page032" id = "page032"> </a> +<!--png 088--> +to have made their dwellings first at Mashongnavi and Shupaulovi; but +like the Sun people they soon spread to all the villages.</p> + +<p>The narrative of part of this journey is thus given by the chief +before quoted:</p> + +<blockquote> +It occupied 4 years to cross the disrupted country. The kwakwanti +(a warrior order) went ahead of the people and carried seed of +corn, beans, melons, squashes, and cotton. They would plant corn in the +mud at early morning and by noon it was ripe and thus the people were +fed. When they reached solid ground they rested, and then they built +houses. The kwakwanti were always out exploring—sometimes they +were gone as long as four years. Again we would follow them on long +journeys, and halt and build houses and plant. While we were traveling +if a woman became heavy with child we would build her a house and put +plenty of food in it and leave her there, and from these women sprang +the Pima, Maricopa, and other Indians in the South.</blockquote> + +<blockquote> +Away in the South, before we crossed the mountains (south of the Apache +country) we built large houses and lived there a long while. Near these +houses is a large rock on which was painted the rain-clouds of the Water +phratry, also a man carrying corn in his arms; and the other phratries +also painted the Lizard and the Rabbit upon it. While they were living +there the kwakwanti made an expedition far to the north and came in +conflict with a hostile people. They fought day after day, for days and +days—they fought by day only and when night came they separated, +each party retiring to its own ground to rest. One night the cranes came +and each crane took a kwakwanti on his back and brought them back to +their people in the South.</blockquote> + +<blockquote> +Again all the people traveled north until they came to the Little +Colorado, near San Francisco Mountains, and there they built houses up +and down the river. They also made long ditches to carry the water from +the river to their gardens. After living there a long while they began +to be plagued with swarms of a kind of gnat called the sand-fly, which +bit the children, causing them to swell up and die. The place becoming +unendurable, they were forced again to resume their travels. Before +starting, one of the Rain-women, who was big with child, was made +comfortable in one of the houses on the mountain. She told her people to +leave her, because she knew this was the place where she was to remain +forever. She also told them, that hereafter whenever they should return +to the mountain to hunt she would provide them with plenty of game. +Under her house is a spring and any sterile woman who drinks of its +water will bear children. The people then began a long journey to reach +the summit of the table land on the north. They camped for rest on one +of the terraces, where there was no water, and they were very tired and +thirsty. Here the women celebrated the rain-feast—they danced for +three days, and on the fourth day the clouds brought heavy rain and +refreshed the people. This event is still commemorated by a circle of +stones at that place. They reached a spring southeast from Káibitho +(Kumás Spring) and there they built a house and lived for some time. Our +people had plenty of rain and cultivated much corn and some of the Walpi +people came to visit us. They told ns that their rain only came here and +there in fine misty sprays, and a basketful of corn was regarded as a +large crop. So they asked us to come to their land and live with them +and finally we consented. When we got there we found some Eagle people +living near the Second Mesa; our people divided, and part went with the +Eagle and have ever since remained there; but we camped near the First +Mesa. It was planting time and the Walpi celebrated their rain-feast but +they brought only a mere misty drizzle. Then we celebrated our +rain-feast and planted. Great rains and thunder and lightning +immediately followed and on the first day after planting our corn was +half an arm’s length high; on the fourth day it was its full height, and +in one moon it was ripe. When we were going up to the village (Walpi was +then north of the gap, probably), we were met by a +<span class = "pagenum">33</span> +<a name = "page033" id = "page033"> </a> +<!--png 091--> +Bear man who said that our thunder frightened the women and we must not +go near the village. Then the kwakwanti said, “Let us leave these people +and seek a land somewhere else,” but our women said they were tired of +travel and insisted upon our remaining. Then “Fire-picker” came down +from the village and told us to come up there and stay, but after we had +got into the village the Walpi women screamed out against us—they +feared our thunder—and so the Walpi turned us away. Then our +people, except those who went to the Second Mesa, traveled to the +northeast as far as the Tsegi (Canyon de Chelly), but I can not tell +whether our people built the louses there. Then they came hack to this +region again and built houses and had much trouble with the Walpi, but +we have lived here ever since.</blockquote> + +<p>Groups of the Water people, as already stated, were distributed among +all the villages, although the bulk of them remained at the Middle Mesa; +but it seems that most of the remaining groups subsequently chose to +build their permanent houses at Oraibi. There is no special tradition of +this movement; it is only indicated by this circumstance, that in +addition to the Water families common to every village, there are still +in Oraibi several families of that people which have no representatives +in any of the other villages. At a quite early day Oraibi became a place +of importance, and they tell of being sufficiently populous to establish +many outlying settlements. They still identify these with ruins on the +detached mesas in the valley to the south and along the Moen-kopi +(“place of flowing water”) and other intermittent streams in the west. +These sites were occupied for the purpose of utilizing cultivable tracts +of land in their vicinity, and the remotest settlement, about 45 miles +west, was especially devoted to the cultivation of cotton, the place +being still called by the Navajo and other neighboring tribes, the +“cotton planting ground.” It is also said that several of the larger +ruins along the course of the Moen-kopi were occupied by groups of the +Snake, the Coyote, and the Eagle who dwelt in that region for a long +period before they joined the people in Tusayan. The incursions of +foreign bands from the north may have hastened that movement, and the +Oraibi say they were compelled to withdraw all their outlying colonies. +An episode is related of an attack upon the main village when a number +of young girls were carried off, and 2 or 3 years afterward the same +marauders returned and treated with the Oraibi, who paid a ransom in +corn and received all their girls back again. After a quiet interval the +pillaging bands renewed their attacks and the settlements on the +Moen-kopi were vacated. They were again occupied after another peace was +established, and this condition of alternate occupancy and abandonment +seems to have existed until within quite recent time.</p> + +<p>While the Asa were still sojourning in Canyon de Chelly, and before +the arrival of the Hano, another bloody scene had been enacted in +Tusayan. Since the time of the Antelope Canyon feuds there had been +enmity between Awatubi and some of the other villages, especially Walpi, +and some of the Sikyatki refugees had transmitted their feudal wrongs to +their descendants who dwelt in Awatubi. They had long been perpetrating +all manner of offenses; they had intercepted hunting +<span class = "pagenum">34</span> +<a name = "page034" id = "page034"> </a> +<!--png 092--> +parties from the other villages, seized their game, and sometimes killed +the hunters; they had fallen upon men in outlying corn fields, +maltreating and sometimes slaying them, and threatened still more +serious outrage. Awatubi was too strong for Walpi to attack +single-handed, so the assistance of the other villages was sought, and +it was determined to destroy Awatubi at the close of a feast soon to +occur. This was the annual “feast of the kwakwanti,” which is still +maintained and is held during the month of November by each village, +when the youths who have been qualified by certain ordeals are admitted +to the councils. The ceremonies last several days, and on the concluding +night special rites are held in the kivas. At these ceremonies every man +must be in the kiva to which he belongs, and after the close of the +rites they all sleep there, no one being permitted to leave the kiva +until after sunrise on the following day.</p> + +<p>There was still some little intercourse between Awatubi and Walpi, +and it was easily ascertained when this feast was to be held. On the day +of its close, the Walpi sent word to their allies “to prepare the war +arrow and come,” and in the evening the fighting bands from the other +villages assembled at Walpi, as the foray was to be led by the chief of +that village. By the time night had fallen something like 150 marauders +had met, all armed, of course; and of still more ominous import than +their weapons were the firebrands they carried—shredded cedar bark +loosely bound in rolls, resinous splinters of piñon, dry greasewood +(a furze very easily ignited), and pouches full of pulverized red +peppers.</p> + +<p>Secure in the darkness from observation, the bands followed the Walpi +chief across the valley, every man with his weapons in hand and a bundle +of inflammables on his back. Beaching the Awatubi mesa they cautiously +crept up the steep, winding trail to the summit, and then stole round +the village to the passages leading to the different courts holding the +kivas, near which they hid themselves. They waited till just before the +gray daylight came, then the Walpi chief shouted his war cry and the +yelling bands rushed to the kivas. Selecting their positions, they were +at them in a moment, and quickly snatching up the ladders through the +hatchways, the only means of exit, the doomed occupants were left as +helpless as rats in a trap. Fire was at hand in the numerous little +cooking pits, containing the jars of food prepared for the celebrants, +the inflammable bundles were lit and tossed into the kivas, and the +piles of firewood on the terraced roofs were thrown down upon the blaze, +and soon each kiva became a furnace. The red pepper was then cast upon +the fire to add its choking tortures, while round the hatchways the +assailants stood showering their arrows into the mass of struggling +wretches. The fires were maintained until the roofs fell in and buried +and charred the bones of the victims. It is said that every male of +Awatubi who had passed infancy perished in the slaughter, not one +escaping. Such of the women and children as were spared were taken out, +and all the houses were destroyed, after which the captives were divided +among the different villages.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">35</span> +<a name = "page035" id = "page035"> </a> +<!--png 094--> +The date of this last feudal atrocity can be made out with some degree +of exactness, because in 1692, Don Diego Vargas with a military force +visited Tusayan and mentions Awatubi as a populous village at which he +made some halt. The Hano (Tewa) claim that they have lived in Tusayan +for five or six generations, and that when they arrived there was no +Awatubi in existence; hence it must have been destroyed not long after +the close of the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>Since the destruction of Awatubi only one other serious affray has +occurred between the villages; that was between Oraibi and Walpi. It +appears that after the Oraibi withdrew their colonies from the south and +west they took possession of all the unoccupied planting grounds to the +east of the village, and kept reaching eastward till they encroached +upon some land claimed by the Walpi. This gave rise to intermittent +warfare in the outlying fields, and whenever the contending villagers +met a broil ensued, until the strife culminated in an attack upon Walpi. +The Oraibi chose a day when the Walpi men were all in the field on the +east side of the mesa, but the Walpi say that their women and dogs held +the Oraibi at bay until the men came to the rescue. A severe battle was +fought at the foot of the mesa, in which the Oraibi were routed and +pursued across the Middle Mesa, where an Oraibi chief turned and +implored the Walpi to desist. A conciliation was effected there, and +harmonious relations have ever since existed between them. Until within +a few years ago the spot where they stayed pursuit was marked by a +stone, on which a shield and a dog were depicted, but it was a source of +irritation to the Oraibi and it was removed by some of the Walpi.</p> + +<p>In the early part of the eighteenth century the Ute from the north, +and the Apache from the south made most disastrous inroads upon the +villages, in which Walpi especially suffered. The Navajo, who then lived +upon their eastern border, also suffered severely from the same bands, +but the Navajo and the Tusayan were not on the best terms and never made +any alliance for a common defense against these invaders.</p> + +<p>Hano was peopled by a different linguistic stock from that of the +other villages—a stock which belongs to the Rio Grande group. +According to Polaka, the son of the principal chief, and himself an +enterprising trader who has made many journeys to distant +localities—and to others, the Hano once lived in seven villages on +the Rio Grande, and the village in which his forefathers lived was +called Tceewáge. This, it is said, is the same as the present Mexican +village of Peña Blanca.</p> + +<p>The Hano claim that they came to Tusayan only after repeated +solicitation by the Walpi, at a time when the latter were much harassed +by the Ute and Apache. The story, as told by Kwálakwai, who lives in +Hano, but is not himself a Hano, begins as follows:</p> + +<blockquote> +<ins class = "correction" title = "text has open quote">Long</ins> ago +the Hopi´tuh were few and were continually harassed by the Yútamo (Ute), +Yuíttcemo (Apache), and Dacábimo (Navajo). The chiefs of the Tcuin nyumu +(Snake people) and the Hánin nyumu (Bear people) met together and made +the ba´ho (sacred plume stick) and sent it with a man from each of these +people to the house of the Tewa, called Tceewádigi, which was far off on +the Múina (river) near Alavia (<ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘Sante’">Santa</ins> Fé).</blockquote> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">36</span> +<a name = "page036" id = "page036"> </a> +<!--png 095--> +The messengers did not succeed in persuading the Tewa to come and the +embassy was sent three times more. On the fourth visit the Tewa +consented to come, as the Walpi had offered to divide their land and +their waters with them, and set out for Tusayan, led by their own chief, +the village being left in the care of his son. This first band is said +to have consisted of 146 women, and it was afterwards followed by +another and perhaps others.</p> + +<p>Before the Hano arrived there had been a cessation of hostile +inroads, and the Walpi received them churlishly and revoked their +promises regarding the division of land and waters with them. They were +shown where they could build houses for themselves on a yellow sand +mound on the east side of the mesa just below the gap. They built there, +but they were compelled to go for their food up to Walpi. They could get +no vessels to carry their food in, and when they held out their hands +for some the Walpi women mockingly poured out hot porridge and scalded +the fingers of the Hano.</p> + +<p>After a time the Ute came down the valley on the west side of the +mesa, doing great harm again, and drove off the Walpi flocks andiron +Then the Hano got ready for war; they tied buckskins around their loins, +whitened their legs with clay, and stained their body and arms with dark +red earth (ocher). They overtook the Ute near Wípho (about 3 miles north +from Hano), but the Ute had driven the flocks up the steep mesa side, +and when they saw the Tewa coming they killed all the sheep and piled +the carcasses up for a defense, behind which they lay down. They had a +few firearms also, while the Hano had only clubs and bows and arrows; +but after some fighting the Ute were driven out and the Tewa followed +after them. The first Ute was killed a short distance beyond, and a +stone heap still (?) marks the spot. Similar heaps marked the places +where other Ute were killed as they fled before the Hano, but not far +from the San Juan the last one was killed.</p> + +<p>Upon the return of the Hano from this successful expedition they were +received gratefully and allowed to come up on the mesa to live—the +old houses built by the Asa, in the present village of Hano, being +assigned to them. The land was then divided, an imaginary line between +Hano and Sichumovi, extending eastward entirely across the valley, +marked the southern boundary, and from this line as far north as the +spot where the last Utah was killed was assigned to the Hano as their +possession.</p> + +<blockquote> +When the Hano first came the Walpi said to them, “let us spit in your +mouths, and you will learn our tongue,” and to this the Hano consented. +When the Hano came up and built on the mesa they said to the Walpi, “let +us spit in your mouths and you will learn our tongue,” but the Walpi +would not listen to this, saying it would make them vomit. This is the +reason why all the Hano can talk Hopí, and none of the Hopítuh can talk +Hano.</blockquote> + +<p>The Asa and the Hano were close friends while they dwelt in New +Mexico, and when they came to this region both of them were called +Hánomuh by the other people of Tusayan. This term signifies the mode in +which the women of these people wear their hair, cut off in front on a +line with +<span class = "pagenum">37</span> +<a name = "page037" id = "page037"> </a> +<!--png 097--> +the mouth and carelessly parted or hanging over the face, the back hair +rolled up in a compact queue at the nape of the neck. This uncomely +fashion prevails with both matron, and maid, while among the other +Tusayan the matron parts her hair evenly down the head and wears it +hanging in a straight queue on either side, the maidens wearing theirs +in a curious discoid arrangement over each temple.</p> + +<p>Although the Asa and the Hano women have the same peculiar fashion of +wearing the hair, still there is no affinity of blood claimed between +them. The Asa speak the same language as the other Tusayan, but the Tewa +(Hano) have a quite distinct language which belongs to the Tañoan stock. +They claim that the occupants of the following pueblos, in the same +region of the Rio Grande, are of their people and speak the same +tongue.</p> + +<table class = "text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td>Kótite</td> +<td>Cochití (?).</td> +<td>Kápung</td> +<td>Santa Clara (?)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Númi</td> +<td>Nambé.</td> +<td>Pokwádi</td> +<td>Pojoaque.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ohke</td> +<td>San Juan.</td> +<td>Tetsógi</td> +<td>Tesuque.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Posówe</td> +<td class = "rightpad">(Doubtless extinct.)</td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "2">Also half of Taos.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Pleasant relations existed for some time, but the Walpi again grew +ill-tempered; they encroached upon the Hano planting grounds and stole +their property. These troubles increased, and the Hano moved away from +the mesa; they crossed the west valley and built temporary shelters. +They sent some men to explore the land on the westward to find a +suitable place for a new dwelling. These scouts went to the Moen-kopi, +and on returning, the favorable story they told of the land they had +seen determined the Tewa to go there.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile some knowledge of these troubles had reached Tceewádigi, +and a party of the Tewa came to Tusayan to take their friends back. This +led the Hopituh to make reparation, which restored the confidence of the +Hano, and they returned to the mesa, and the recently arrived party were +also induced to remain. Yet even now, when the Hano (Tewa) go to visit +their people on the river, the latter beseech them to come back, but the +old Tewa say, “we shall stay here till our breath leaves us, then surely +we shall go back to our first home to live forever.”</p> + +<p>The Walpi for a long time frowned down all attempts on the part of +the Hano to fraternize; they prohibited intermarriages, and in general +tabued the Hano. Something of this spirit was maintained until quite +recent years, and for this reason the Hano still speak their own +language, and have preserved several distinctive customs, although now +the most friendly relations exist among all the villages. After the Hano +were quietly established in their present position the Asa returned, and +the Walpi allotted them a place to build in their own village. As before +mentioned, the house mass on the southeast side of Walpi, at the head of +the trail leading up to the village at that point, is still occupied by +Asa families, and their tenure of possession was on the condition that +they should always defend that point of access and guard the south end +<span class = "pagenum">38</span> +<a name = "page038" id = "page038"> </a> +<!--png 098--> +of the village. Their kiva is named after this circumstance as that of +“the Watchers of the High Place.”</p> + +<p>Some of the Bear and Lizard families being crowded for building +space, moved from Walpi and built the first houses on the site of the +present village of Sichumovi, which is named from the Sivwapsi, a shrub +which formerly grew there on some mounds (chumo).</p> + +<p>This was after the Asa had been in Walpi for some time; probably +about 125 years ago. Some of the Asa, and the Badger, the latter +descendants of women saved from the Awatubi catastrophe, also moved to +Sichumovi, but a plague of smallpox caused the village to be abandoned +shortly afterward. This pestilence is said to have greatly reduced the +number of the Tusayan, and after it disappeared there were many vacant +houses in every village. Sichumovi was again occupied by a few Asa +families, but the first houses were torn down and new ones constructed +from them.</p> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapI_3" id = "chapI_3"> +LIST OF TRADITIONARY GENTES.</a></h5> + +<p>In the following table the early phratries (nyu-mu) are arranged in +the order of their arrival, and the direction from which each came is +given, except in the case of the Bear people. There are very few +representatives of this phratry existing now, and very little tradition +extant concerning its early history. The table does not show the +condition of these, organizations in the present community but as they +appear in the traditional accounts of their coming to Tusayan, although +representatives of most of them can still be found in the various +villages. There are, moreover, in addition to these, many other gentes +and sub-gentes of more recent origin. The subdivision, or rather the +multiplication of gentes may be said to be a continuous process; as, for +example, in “corn” can be found families claiming to be of the root, +stem, leaf, ear, blossom, etc., all belonging to corn; but there may be +several families of each of these components constituting district +sub-gentes. At present there are really but four phratries recognized +among the Hopituh, the Snake, Horn, Eagle, and Rain, which is +indifferently designated as Water or Corn:</p> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"> +1. Ho´-nan—Bear.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td>Ho´-nan</td> +<td>Bear.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ko´-kyañ-a</td> +<td>Spider.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Tco´-zir</td> +<td>Jay.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>He´k-pa</td> +<td>Fir.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><p> +2. Tcu´-a—Rattlesnake—from the west and north.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Tcu´-a</td> +<td>Rattlesnake.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Yu´ñ-ya</td> +<td>Cactus—opuntia.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Pü´n-e</td> +<td>Cactus, the species that grows in dome-like masses.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ü´-se</td> +<td>Cactus, candelabra, or branching stemmed species.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>He´-wi</td> +<td>Dove.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Pi-vwa´ni</td> +<td>Marmot.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Pi´h-tca</td> +<td>Skunk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ka-la´-ci-au-u</td> +<td>Raccoon.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><p> +3. A´-la—Horn—from the east.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>So´-wiñ-wa</td> +<td>Deer.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Tc´ib-io</td> +<td>Antelope.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Pa´ñ-wa</td> +<td>Mountain sheep.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><p> +<span class = "pagenum">39</span> +<a name = "page039" id = "page039"> </a> +<!--png 101--> +4. Kwa´-hü—Eagle—from the west and south.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Kwa´-hü</td> +<td>Eagle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Kwa´-yo</td> +<td>Hawk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Mas-si´ kwa´-yo</td> +<td>Chicken hawk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Tda´-wa</td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ka-ha´-bi</td> +<td>Willow.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Te´-bi</td> +<td>Greasewood.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><p> +5. Ka-tci´-na—Sacred, dancer—from the east.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ka-tci´-na</td> +<td>Sacred dancer.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Gya´-zro</td> +<td>Parroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Uñ-wu´-si</td> +<td>Raven.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Si-kya´-tci</td> +<td>Yellow bird.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Si-he´-bi</td> +<td>Cottonwood.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Sa-la´-bi</td> +<td>Spruce.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><p> +6. A´sa—a plant (unknown)—from the Chama.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>A´sa</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Tca´-kwai-na</td> +<td>Black earth Katcina.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Pu´tc-ko-hu</td> +<td>Boomerang hunting stick.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Pi´-ca</td> +<td>Field mouse.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Hoc´-bo-a</td> +<td>Road runner, or chaparral cock.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Po-si´-o</td> +<td>Magpie.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Kwi´ñobi</td> +<td>Oak.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><p> +7. Ho-na´-ni—Badger—from the east.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ho-na´-ni</td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Müñ-ya´u-wu</td> +<td>Porcupine.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Wu-so´-ko</td> +<td>Vulture.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Bu´-li</td> +<td>Butterfly.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Bu-li´-so</td> +<td>Evening primrose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Na´-hü</td> +<td>Medicine of all kinds; generic.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><p> +8. Yo´-ki—Rain—from the south.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Yo´-ki</td> +<td>Rain.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>O´-mau</td> +<td>Cloud.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ka´i-e</td> +<td>Corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Mu´r-zi-bu-si</td> +<td>Bean.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ka-wa´i-ba-tuñ-a</td> +<td>Watermelon.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Si-vwa´-pi</td> +<td>Bigelovia graveolens.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The foregoing is the Water or Rain phratry proper, but allied to them +are the two following phratries, who also came to this region with the +Water phratry.</p> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "3"> +LIZARD.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td>Ka´-kü-tci</td> +<td class = "leftline middle" rowspan = "4">Species of lizards.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ba-tci´p-kwa-si</td> +<!--<td></td>--> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Na´-nan-a-wi</td> +<!--<td></td>--> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Mo´-mo-bi</td> +<!--<td></td>--> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Pi´-sa</td> +<td>White sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Tdu´-wa</td> +<td>Red sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Ten´-kai</td> +<td>Mud.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "3"> +RABBIT.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>So´-wi</td> +<td>Jackass rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Tda´-bo</td> +<td>Cottontail rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Pi´-ba</td> +<td>Tobacco.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td>Tcoñ-o</td> +<td>Pipe.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Polaka gives the following data:</p> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td colspan = "5"> +Te´-wa gentes and phratries.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td><i>Tewa</i></td> +<td><i>Hopi´tuh</i></td> +<td><i>Navajo.</i></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "rightline">Ko´<sup>n</sup>-lo</td> +<td>Ka´-ai</td> +<td>Nata´<sup>n</sup></td> +<td>Corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "rightline">Cä</td> +<td>Pi´-ba</td> +<td>Na´-to</td> +<td>Tobacco.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "filler" colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "rightline">Ke</td> +<td>Ho´-nau</td> +<td>Cac</td> +<td>Bear.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "rightline">Tce´-li</td> +<td>Ca´-la-bi</td> +<td>Ts´-co</td> +<td>Spruce.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "filler" colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "rightline">Ke´gi</td> +<td>Ki´-hu</td> +<td>Ki-a´-ni</td> +<td>House.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "rightline">Tuñ</td> +<td>Tda´-wu</td> +<td>Tjon-a-ai´</td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "filler" colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "rightline">O´-ku-wuñ</td> +<td>O´-mau</td> +<td>Kus</td> +<td>Cloud.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "rightline">Nuñ</td> +<td>Tcu´-kai</td> +<td>Huc-klic</td> +<td>Mud.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The gentes bracketed are said to “belong together,” but do not seem +to have distinctive names—as phratries.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">40</span> +<a name = "page040" id = "page040"> </a> +<!--png 102--> +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapI_4" id = "chapI_4"> +SUPPLEMENTARY LEGEND.</a></h5> + +<p>An interesting ruin which occurs on a mesa point a short distance +north of Mashongnavi is known to the Tusayan under the name of Payupki. +There are traditions and legends concerning it among the Tusayan, but +the only version that could be obtained is not regarded by the writer as +being up to the standard of those incorporated in the “Summary” and it +is therefore given separately, as it has some suggestive value. It was +obtained through Dr. Jeremiah Sullivan, then resident in Tusayan.</p> + +<p>The people of Payupki spoke the same language as those on the first +mesa (Walpi). Long ago they lived in the north, on the San Juan, but +they were compelled to abandon that region and came to a place about 20 +miles northwest from Oraibi. Being compelled to leave there, they went +to Canyon de Chelly, where a band of Indians from the southeast joined +them, with whom they formed an alliance. Together the two tribes moved +eastward toward the Jemez Mountains, whence they drifted into the valley +of the Rio Grande. There they became converts to the fire-worship then +prevailing, but retained their old customs and language. At the time of +the great insurrection (of 1680) they sheltered the native priests that +were driven from some of the Rio Grande villages, and this action +created such distrust and hatred among the people that the Payupki were +forced to leave their settlement. Their first stop was at Old Laguna (12 +miles east of the modern village) and they had with them then some 35 or +40 of the priests. After leaving Laguna they came to Bear Spring (Fort +Wingate) and had a fight there with the Apache, whom they defeated. They +remained at Bear Spring for several years, until the Zuñi compelled them +to move. They then attempted to reach the San Juan, but were deceived in +the trail, turned to the west and came to where Pueblo Colorado is now +(the present post-office of Ganado, between Fort Defiance and Keam’s +Canyon). They remained there a long time, and through their success in +farming became so favorably known that they were urged to come farther +west. They refused, in consequence of which some Tusayan attacked them. +They were captured and brought to Walpi (then on the point) and +afterwards they were distributed among the villages. Previous to this +capture the priests had been guiding them by feathers, smoke, and signs +seen in the fire. When the priest’s omens and oracles had proved false +the people were disposed to kill them, but the priests persuaded them to +let it depend on a test case—offering to kill themselves in the +event of failure. So they had a great feast at Awatubi. The priests had +long, hollow reeds inclosing various substances—feathers, flour, +corn-pollen, sacred water, native tobacco (piba), corn, beans, melon +seeds, etc., and they formed in a circle at sunrise on the plaza and had +their incantations and prayers. As the sun rose a priest stepped forth +before the people and blew through his reed, desirous of blowing +<span class = "pagenum">41</span> +<a name = "page041" id = "page041"> </a> +<!--png 105--> +that which was therein away from him, to scatter it abroad. But the wind +would not blow and the contents of the reed fell to the ground. The +priests were divided into groups, according to what they carried. In the +evening all but two groups had blown. Then the elder of the twain turned +his back eastward, and the reed toward the setting sun, and he blew, and +the wind caught the feather and carried it to the west. This was +accepted as a sign and the next day the Tusayan freed the slaves, giving +each a blanket with corn in it. They went to the mesa where the ruin now +stands and built the houses there. They asked for planting grounds, and +fields were given them; but their crops did not thrive, and they stole +corn from the Mashongnavi. Then, fearful lest they should be surprised +at night, they built a wall as high as a man’s head about the top of +their mesa, and they had big doorways, which they closed and fastened at +night. When they were compelled to plant corn for themselves they +planted it on the ledges of the mesa, but it grew only as high as a +man’s knees; the leaves were very small and the grains grew only on one +side of it. After a time they became friendly with the Mashongnavi +again, and a boy from that village conceived a passion for a Payupki +girl. The latter tribe objected to a marriage but the Mashongnavi were +very desirous for it and some warriors of that village proposed if the +boy could persuade the girl to fly with him, to aid and protect him. On +an appointed day, about sundown, the girl came down from the mesa into +the valley, but she was discovered by some old women who were baking +pottery, who gave the alarm. Hearing the noise a party of the +Mashongnavi, who were lying in wait, came up, but they encountered a +party of the Payupki who had come out and a fight ensued. During the +fight the young man was killed; and this caused so much bitterness of +feeling that the Payupki were frightened, and remained quietly in their +pueblo for several days. One morning, however, an old woman came over to +Mashongnavi to borrow some tobacco, saying that they were going to have +a dance in her village in five days. The next day the Payupki quietly +departed. Seeing no smoke from the village the Mashongnavi at first +thought that the Payupki were preparing for their dance, but on the +third day a band of warriors was sent over to inquire and they found the +village abandoned. The estufas and the houses of the priests were pulled +down.</p> + +<p>The narrator adds that the Payupki returned to San Felipe whence they +came.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">42</span> +<a name = "page042" id = "page042"> </a> +<!--png 106--> +<h4 class = "chapter extended"><a name = "chapII" id = "chapII"> +CHAPTER II.</a></h4> + +<h5 class = "extended">RUINS AND INHABITED VILLAGES OF TUSAYAN.</h5> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapII_1" id = "chapII_1"> +PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE PROVINCE.</a></h5> + +<p>That portion of the southwestern plateau country comprised in the +Province of Tusayan has usually been approached from the east, so that +the easternmost of the series of mesas upon which the villages are +situated is called the “First Mesa.” The road for 30 or 40 miles before +reaching this point traverses the eastern portion of the great plateau +whose broken margin, farther west, furnishes the abrupt mesa-tongues +upon which the villages are built. The sandstone measures of this +plateau are distinguished from many others of the southwest by their +neutral colors. The vegetation consisting of a scattered growth of +stunted piñon and cedar, interspersed with occasional stretches of +dull-gray sage, imparts an effect of extreme monotony to the landscape. +The effect is in marked contrast to the warmth and play of color +frequently seen elsewhere in the plateau country.</p> + +<p>The plateaus of Tusayan are generally diversified by canyons and +buttes, whose precipitous sides break down into long ranges of rocky +talus and sandy foothills. The arid character of this district is +especially pronounced about the margin of the plateau. In the immediate +vicinity of the villages there are large areas that do not support a +blade of grass, where barren rocks outcrop through drifts of sand or lie +piled in confusion at the bases of the cliffs. The canyons that break +through the margins of these mesas often have a remarkable similarity of +appearance, and the consequent monotony is extremely embarrassing to the +traveler, the absence of running water and clearly defined drainage +confusing his sense of direction.</p> + +<p>The occasional springs which furnish scanty water supply to the +inhabitants of this region are found generally at great distances apart, +and there are usually but few natural indications of their location. +They often occur in obscure nooks in the canyons, reached by tortuous +trails winding through the talus and foothills, or as small seeps at the +foot of some mesa. The convergence of numerous Navajo trails, however, +furnishes some guide to these rare water sources.</p> + +<p>The series of promontories upon which the Tusayan villages are built +are exceptionally rich in these seeps and springs. About the base of +<span class = "pagenum">43</span> +<a name = "page043" id = "page043"> </a> +<!--png 108--> +the “First Mesa” (<a href = "#fig1">Fig. 1</a>), within a distance +of 4 or 5 miles from the villages located upon it, there are at least +five places where water can be obtained. One of these is a mere surface +reservoir, but the others appear to be permanent springs. The quantity +of water, however, is so small that it produces no impression on the +arid and sterile effect of the surroundings, except in its immediate +vicinity. Here small patches of green, standing out in strong relief +against their sandy back-grounds, mark the position of clusters of low, +stunted peach trees that have obtained a foothold on the steep sand +dunes.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig1" id = "fig1"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig1.png" width = "438" height = "285" +alt = "First Mesa" +title = "First Mesa"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span> +View of the First Mesa.</p> + +<p>In the open plains surrounding the mesa rim (6,000 feet above the +sea), are seen broad stretches of dusty sage brush and prickly +greasewood. Where the plain rises toward the base of the mesa a +scattered growth of scrub cedar and piñon begins to appear. But little +of this latter growth is seen in the immediate vicinity of the villages; +it is, however, the characteristic vegetation of the mesas, while, in +still higher altitudes, toward the San Juan, open forests of timber are +met with. This latter country seems scarcely to have come within the +ancient builder’s province; possibly on account of its coldness in +winter and for the reason that it is open to the incursions of warlike +hunting tribes. Sage brush and greasewood grow abundantly near the +villages, and these curious gnarled and twisted shrubs furnish the +principal fuel of the Tusayan.</p> + +<p>Occasionally grassy levels are seen that for a few weeks in early +summer are richly carpeted with multitudes of delicate wild flowers. The +beauty of these patches of gleaming color is enhanced by contrast with +the forbidding and rugged character of the surroundings; but in a very +short time these blossoms disappear from the arid and parched desert +<span class = "pagenum">44</span> +<a name = "page044" id = "page044"> </a> +<!--png 109--> +that they have temporarily beautified. These beds of bloom are not seen +in the immediate vicinity of the present villages, but are unexpectedly +met with in portions of the neighboring mesas and canyons.</p> + +<p>After crossing the 6 or 7 miles of comparatively level country that +intervenes between the mouth of Keam’s Canyon and the first of the +occupied mesas, the toilsome ascent begins; at first through slopes and +dunes and then over masses of broken talus, as the summit of the mesa is +gradually approached. Near the top the road is flanked on one side by a +very abrupt descent of broken slopes, and on the other by a precipitous +rocky wall that rises 30 or 40 feet above. The road reaches the brink of +the promontory by a sharp rise at a point close to the village of +Hano.</p> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapII_2" id = "chapII_2"> +METHODS OF SURVEY.</a></h5> + +<p>Before entering upon a description of the villages and ruins, a few +words as to the preparation of the plans accompanying this paper will +not be amiss. The methods pursued in making the surveys of the inhabited +pueblos were essentially the same throughout. The outer wall of each +separate cluster was run with a compass and a tape measure, the lines +being closed and checked upon the corner from which the beginning was +made, so that the plan of each group stands alone, and no accumulation +of error is possible. The stretched tapeline afforded a basis for +estimating any deviations from a straight line which the wall presented, +and as each sight was plotted on the spot these deviations are all +recorded on the plan, and afford an indication of the degree of accuracy +with which the building was carried out. Upon the basis thus obtained, +the outlines of the second stories were drawn by the aid of measurements +from the numerous jogs and angles; the same process being repeated for +each of the succeeding stories. The plan at this stage recorded all the +stories in outline. The various houses and clusters were connected by +compass sights and by measurements. A tracing of the outline plan was +then made, on which the stories were distinguished by lines of different +colors, and upon this tracing were recorded all the vertical +measurements. These were generally taken at every corner, although in a +long wall it was customary to make additional measurements at +intervening points.</p> + +<p>Upon the original outline were then drawn all such details as coping +stones, chimneys, trapdoors, etc., the tapeline being used where +necessary to establish positions. The forms of the chimneys as well as +their position and size were also indicated on this drawing, which was +finally tinted to distinguish the different terraces. Upon this colored +sheet were located all openings. These were numbered, and at the same +time described in a notebook, in which were also recorded the necessary +vertical measurements, such as their height and elevation above the +ground. In the same notebook the openings were also fully described. The +ladders were located upon the same sheet, and were consecutively +<span class = "pagenum">45</span> +<a name = "page045" id = "page045"> </a> +<!--png 112--> +lettered and described in the notebook. This description furnishes a +record of the ladder, its projection above the coping, if any, the +difference in the length of its poles, the character of the tiepiece, +etc. Altogether these notebooks furnish a mass of statistical data which +has been of great service in the elaboration of this report and in the +preparation of models. Finally, a level was carried over the whole +village, and the height of each corner and jog above an assumed base was +determined. A reduced tracing was then made of the plan as a basis for +sketching in such details of topography, etc., as it was thought +advisable to preserve.</p> + +<p>These plans were primarily intended to be used in the construction of +large scale models, and consequently recorded an amount of information +that could not be reproduced upon the published drawings without causing +great confusion.</p> + +<p>The methods followed in surveying the ruins underwent some changes +from time to time as the work progressed. In the earlier work the lines +of the walls, so far as they could be determined, were run with a +compass and tapeline and gone over with a level. Later it was found more +convenient to select a number of stations and connect them by +cross-sights and measurements. These points were then platted, and the +walls and lines of débris were carefully drawn in over the framework of +lines thus obtained, additional measurements being taken when necessary. +The heights of standing walls were measured from both sides, and +openings were located on the plan and described in a notebook, as was +done in the survey of the inhabited villages. The entire site was then +leveled, and from the data obtained contour lines were drawn with a +5-foot interval. Irregularities in the directions of walls were noted. +In the later plans of ruins a scale of symbols, seven in number, were +employed to indicate the amount and distribution of the débris. The +plans, as published, indicate the relative amounts of débris as seen +upon the ground. Probable lines of wall are shown on the plan by dotted +lines drawn through the dots which indicate débris. With this exception, +the plans show the ruins as they actually are. Standing walls, as a +rule, are drawn in solid black; their heights appear on the field +sheets, but could not be shown upon the published plans without +confusing the drawing. The contour lines represent an interval of 5 +feet; the few cases in which the secondary or negative contours are used +will not produce confusion, as their altitude is always given in +figures.</p> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapII_3" id = "chapII_3"> +PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF RUINS.</a></h5> + +<p>The ruins described in this chapter comprise but a few of those found +within the province of Tusayan. These were surveyed and recorded on +account of their close traditional connection with the present villages, +and for the sake of the light that they might throw upon the relation of +the modern pueblos to the innumerable stone buildings of unknown date so +widely distributed over the southwestern plateau country. Such +<span class = "pagenum">46</span> +<a name = "page046" id = "page046"> </a> +<!--png 113--> +traditional connection with the present peoples could probably be +established for many more of the ruins of this country by investigations +similar to those conducted by Mr. Stephen in the Tusayan group; but this +phase of the subject was not included in our work. In the search for +purely architectural evidence among these ruins it must be confessed +that the data have proved disappointingly meager. No trace of the +numerous constructive details that interest the student of pueblo +architecture in the modern villages can be seen in the low mounds of +broken down masonry that remain in most of the ancient villages of +Tusayan. But little masonry remains standing in even the best preserved +of these ruins, and villages known to have been occupied within two +centuries are not distinguishable from the remains to which distinct +tradition (save that they were in the same condition when the first +people of the narrators’ gens came to this region) no longer clings. +Though but little architectural information is to be derived from these +ruins beyond such as is conveyed by the condition and character of the +masonry and the general distribution of the plan, the plans and relation +to the topography are recorded as forming, in connection with the +traditions, a more complete account than can perhaps be obtained +later.</p> + +<p>In our study of architectural details, when a comparison is suggested +between the practice at Tusayan and that of the ancient builders, our +illustrations for the latter must often be drawn from other portions of +the builders’ territory where better preserved remains furnish the +necessary data.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_1" id = "chapII_3_1"> +WALPI RUINS.</a></h6> + +<p>In the case of the pueblo of Walpi, a portion of whose people seem to +have been the first comers in this region, a number of changes of sites +have taken place, at least one of which has occurred within the historic +period. Of the various sites occupied one is pointed out north of the +gap on the first mesa. At the present time this site is only a low mound +of sand-covered débris with no standing fragment of wall visible. The +present condition of this early Walpi is illustrated in <a href = +"#fig2">Fig. 2</a>. In the absence of foundation walls or other definite +lines, the character of the site is expressed by the contour lines that +define its relief. Another of the sites occupied by the Walpi is said to +have been in the open valley separating the first from the second mesa, +but here no trace of the remains of a stone village has been discovered. +This traditional location is referred to by Mr. Stephen in his account +of Walpi. The last site occupied previous to the present one on the mesa +summit was on a lower bench of the first mesa promontory at its southern +extremity. Here the houses are said to have been distributed over quite +a large area, and occasional fragments of masonry are still seen at +widely separated points; but the ground plan can not now be traced. This +was the site of a Spanish mission, and some of the Tusayan point out the +position formerly occupied by mission buildings, but no architectural +evidence of such structures is visible. It seems to be fairly certain, +however, that +<span class = "pagenum">47</span> +<a name = "page047" id = "page047"> </a> +<!--png 115--> +this was the site of Walpi at a date well within the historic period, +although now literally there is not one stone upon another. The +destruction in this instance has probably been more than usually +complete on account of the close proximity of the succeeding pueblo, +making the older remains a very convenient stone quarry for the +construction of the houses on the mesa summit. Of the three abandoned +sites of Walpi referred to, not one furnishes sufficient data for a +suggestion of a ground plan or of the area covered.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig2" id = "fig2"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig2.png" width = "395" height = "476" +alt = "Old Walpi mound" +title = "Old Walpi mound"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span> +Ruins, Old Walpi mound.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_2" id = "chapII_3_2"> +OLD MASHONGNAVI.</a></h6> + +<p>In the case of Mashongnavi we have somewhat more abundant material. +It will be desirable to quote a few lines of narrative from the account +of a Mashongnavi Indian of the name of Nuvayauma, as indicating the +causes that led to the occupation of the site illustrated.</p> + +<blockquote> +We turned and came to the north, meeting the Apache and “Beaver +Indians,” with whom we had many battles, and being few we were defeated, +after which we came +<span class = "pagenum">48</span> +<a name = "page048" id = "page048"> </a> +<!--png 116--> +up to Mashongnavi [the ruin at the “Giant’s Chair”] and gave that rock +its name [name not known], and built our houses there. The Apache came +upon us again, with the Comanche, and then we came to [Old Mashóngnavi]. +We lived there in peace many years, having great success with crops, and +our people increased in numbers, and the Apache came in great numbers +and set fire to the houses and burned our corn, which you will find +to-day there burnt and charred. After they had destroyed our dwellings +we came upon the mesa, and have lived here since.</blockquote> + +<p>The ruins referred to as having been the first occupied by the +Mashongnavi at a large isolated rock known as the “Giant’s Chair,” have +not been examined. The later village from which they were driven by the +attacks of the Apache to their present site has been surveyed. The plan +of the fallen walls and lines of débris by which the form of much of the +old pueblo can still be traced is given in <a href = "#plateII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">II</span></a>. The plan of the best preserved +portion of the pueblo towards the north end of the sheet clearly +indicates a general adherence to the inclosed court arrangement with +about the same degree of irregularity that characterizes the modern +village. Besides the clearly traceable portions of the ruin that bear +such resemblance to the present village in arrangement, several small +groups and clusters appear to have been scattered along the slope of the +foothills, but in their present state of destruction it is not clear +whether these clusters were directly connected with the principal group, +or formed part of another village. Occasional traces of foundation walls +strongly suggest such connection, although from the character of the +site this intervening space could hardly have been closely built over. +With the exception of the main cluster above described the houses occupy +very broken and irregular sites. As indicated on the plan, the slope is +broken by huge irregular masses of sandstone protruding from the soil, +while much of the surface is covered by scattered fragments that have +fallen from neighboring pinnacles and ledges. The contours indicate the +general character of the slopes over which these irregular features are +disposed. The fragment of ledge shown on the north end of the plate, +against which a part of the main cluster has been built, is a portion of +a broad massive ledge of sandstone that supports the low buttes upon +which the present villages of Mashongnavi and Shupaúlovi are built, and +continues as a broad, level shelf of solid rock for several miles along +the mesa promontory. Its continuation on the side opposite that shown in +the plate may be seen in the general view of Shupaulovi (<a href = +"#plateXXXI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXXI</span></a>).</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_3" id = "chapII_3_3"> +SHITAIMUVI.</a></h6> + +<p>The vestiges of another ruined village, known as Shitaimuvi, are +found in the vicinity of Mashongnavi, occupying and covering the crown +of a rounded foothill on the southeast side of the mesa. No plan of this +ruin could be obtained on account of the complete destruction of the +walls. No line of foundation stones even could be found, although the +whole area is more or less covered with the scattered stones of former +masonry. An exceptional quantity of pottery fragments is also strewn +<span class = "pagenum">49</span> +<a name = "page049" id = "page049"> </a> +<!--png 119--> +over the surface. These bear a close resemblance to the fine class of +ware characteristic of “Talla Hogan” or “Awatubi,” and would suggest +that this pueblo was contemporaneous with the latter. Some reference to +this ruin win be found in the traditionary material in Chapter <span +class = "smallroman">I</span>.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_4" id = "chapII_3_4"> +AWATUBI.</a></h6> + +<p>The ruin of Awatubi is known to the Navajo as Talla Hogan, a term +interpreted as meaning “singing house” and thought to refer to the +chapel and mission that at one time nourished here, as described by Mr. +Stephen in Chapter <span class = "smallroman">I</span>. Tradition +ascribes great importance to this village. At the time of the Spanish +conquest it was one of the most prosperous of the seven “cities” of +Tusayan, and was selected as the site of a mission, a distinction shared +by Walpi, which was then on a lower spur of the first mesa, and by +Shumopavi, which also was built on a lower site than the present village +of that name. Traditions referring to this pueblo have been collected +from several sources and, while varying somewhat in less important +details, they all concur in bringing the destruction of the village well +within the period of Spanish occupation.</p> + +<!--png 062--> +<!--png 063--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateIV" id = "plateIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate4.png" width = "458" height = "517" +alt = "plan of Awatubi (Talla-Hogan)" +title = "plan of Awatubi (Talla-Hogan)"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate IV. Awatubi (Talla-Hogan), plan.</p> + +<p>On the historical site, too, we know that Cruzate on the occasion of +the attempted reconquest of the country visited this village in 1692, +and the ruin must therefore be less than two centuries old, yet the +completeness of destruction is such that over most of its area no +standing wall is seen, and the outlines of the houses and groups are +indicated mainly by low ridges and masses of broken-down masonry, partly +covered by the drifting sands. The group of rooms that forms the south +east side of the pueblo is an exception to the general rule. Here +fragmentary walls of rough masonry stand to a height, in some cases, of +8 feet above the débris. The character of the stonework, as may be seen +from <a href = "#plateV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">V</span></a>, is +but little better than that of the modern villages. This better +preserved portion of the village seems to have formed part of a cluster +of mission buildings. At the points designated A on the ground plan may +be seen the remnants of walls that have been built of straw adobe in the +typical Spanish manner. These rest upon foundations of stone masonry. +See <a href = "#plateVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">VI</span></a>. +The adobe fragments are probably part of the church or associated +buildings. At two other points on the ground plan, both on the northeast +side, low fragments of wall are still standing, as may be seen from the +plate. At one of these points the remains indicate that the village was +provided with a gateway near the middle of the northeast side.</p> + +<!--png 066--> +<!--png 067--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateV" id = "plateV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate5.png" width = "456" height = "260" +alt = "Awatubi walls" +title = "Awatubi walls"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate V. Standing walls of Awatubi.</p> + +<p>The general plan of this pueblo is quite different from that of the +present villages, and approaches the older types in symmetry and +compactness. There is a notable absence of the arrangement of rooms into +long parallel rows. This typical Tusayan feature is only slightly +approximated in some subordinate rows within the court. The plan +suggests that the original pueblo was built about three sides of a +rectangular +<span class = "pagenum">50</span> +<a name = "page050" id = "page050"> </a> +<!--png 120--> +court, the fourth or southeast side—later occupied by the mission +buildings—being left open, or protected only by a low wall. +Outside the rectangle of the main pueblo, on the northeast side, are two +fragments of rude masonry, built by Navajo sheep herders. Near the west +corner of the pueblo are the vestiges of two rooms, outside the pueblo +proper, which seem to belong to the original construction.</p> + +<!--png 070--> +<!--png 071--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateVI" id = "plateVI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate6.png" width = "462" height = "282" +alt = "Awatubi adobe" +title = "Awatubi adobe"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate VI. Adobe fragment in Awatubi.</p> + +<p>Awatubi is said to have had excavated rectangular kivas, situated in +the open court, similar to those used in the modern village. The people +of Walpi had partly cleared out one of these chambers and used it as a +depository for ceremonial plume-sticks, etc., but the Navajo came and +carried off their sacred deposits, tempted probably by their market +value as ethnologic specimens. No trace of these kivas was visible at +the time the ruins were surveyed.</p> + +<p>The Awatubi are said to have had sheep at the time the village was +destroyed. Some of the Tusayan point out the remains of a large sheep +corral near the spring, which they say was used at that time, but it is +quite as likely to have been constructed for that purpose at a much +later date.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_5" id = "chapII_3_5"> +HORN HOUSE.</a></h6> + +<p>The Horn House is so called because tradition connects this village +with some of the people of the Horn phratry of the Hopituh or Tusayan. +The ruin is situated on a projecting point of the mesa that forms the +western flank of Jeditoh Valley, not far from where the Holbrook road to +Keam’s Canyon ascends the brink of the mesa. The village is almost +completely demolished, no fragment of standing wall remaining in place. +Its general plan and distribution are quite clearly indicated by the +usual low ridges of fallen masonry partly covered by drifted sand. There +is but little loose stone scattered about, the sand having filled in all +the smaller irregularities.</p> + +<p>It will be seen from the plan, <a href = "#plateVII">Pl. <span class += "smallroman">VII</span></a>, that the village has been built close to +the edge of the mesa, following to some extent the irregularities of its +outline. The mesa ruin at this point, however, is not very high, the +more abrupt portion having a height of 20 or 30 feet. Near the north end +of the village the ground slopes very sharply toward the east and is +rather thickly covered with the small stones of fallen masonry, though +but faint vestiges of rooms remain. In plan the ruin is quite elongated, +following the direction of the mesa. The houses were quite irregularly +disposed, particularly in the northern portion of the ruin. But here the +indications are too vague to determine whether the houses were +originally built about one long court or about two or more smaller ones. +The south end of the pueblo, however, still shows a well defined court +bounded on all sides by clearly traceable rooms. At the extreme south +end of the ruin the houses have very irregular outlines, a result of +their adaptation to the topography, as may be seen in the +illustration.</p> + +<!--png 074--> +<!--png 075--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateVII" id = "plateVII" +href = "images/plates/plate7.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate7thumb.png" width = "352" height = "203" +alt = "plan of Horn House ruin" +title = "plan of Horn House ruin"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate7.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate VII. Horn House ruin, plan.</span></p> + +<p>The plan shows the position of a small group of cottonwood trees, +just below the edge of the mesa and nearly opposite the center of the +<span class = "pagenum">51</span> +<a name = "page051" id = "page051"> </a> +<!--png 123--> +village. These trees indicate the proximity of water, and mark the +probable site of the spring that furnished this village with at least +part of its water supply.</p> + +<p>There are many fragments of pottery on this spot, but they are not so +abundant as at Awatubi.</p> + +<p>Two partly excavated rooms were seen at this ruin, the work of some +earlier visitors who hoped to discover ethnologic or other treasure.</p> + +<p>These afforded no special information, as the character of the +masonry exposed differed in no respect from that seen at other of the +Tusayan ruins. No traces of adobe construction or suggestions of foreign +influence were seen at this ruin.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_6" id = "chapII_3_6"> +SMALL RUIN BETWEEN HORN HOUSE AND BAT HOUSE.</a></h6> + +<p>On a prolongation of the mesa occupied by the Horn House, midway +between it and another ruined pueblo known as the Bat House, occur the +remains of a small and compact cluster of houses (<a href = +"#fig3">Fig. 3</a>). It is situated on the very mesa edge, here +about 40 feet high, at the head of a small canyon which opens into the +Jeditoh Valley, a quarter of a mile below.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig3" id = "fig3"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig3.png" width = "447" height = "337" +alt = "ruin" +title = "ruin"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span> +Ruin between Bat House and Horn House.</p> + +<p>The site affords an extended outlook to the south over a large part +of Jeditoh Valley. The topography about this point, which receives the +drainage of a considerable area of the mesa top, would fit it especially +for the establishment of a reservoir. This fact probably had much +<span class = "pagenum">52</span> +<a name = "page052" id = "page052"> </a> +<!--png 124--> +to do with its selection as a dwelling site. The masonry is in about the +same state of preservation as that of the Horn House, and some of the +stones of the fallen walls seem to have been washed down from the mesa +edge to the talus below.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_7" id = "chapII_3_7"> +BAT HOUSE.</a></h6> + +<p>The Bat House is a ruin of nearly the same size as the Horn House, +although in its distribution it does not follow the mesa edge so closely +as the latter, and is not so elongated in its general form. The northern +portion is quite irregular, and the rooms seem to have been somewhat +crowded. The southern half, with only an occasional room traceable, as +indicated on the plan, <a href = "#plateVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">VIII</span></a>, still shows that the rooms were +distributed about a large open court.</p> + +<!--png 078--> +<!--png 079--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateVIII" id = "plateVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate8.png" width = "448" height = "571" +alt = "Bat House" +title = "Bat House"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate VIII. Bat House.</p> + +<p>The Bat House is situated on the northwest side of the Jeditoh +Valley, on part of the same mesa occupied by the two ruins described +above. It occupies the summit of a projecting spur, overlooking the main +valley for an extent of more than 5 miles. The ruin lies on the extreme +edge of the cliff, here about 200 feet high, and lying beneath it on the +east and south are large areas of arable land. Altogether it forms an +excellent defensive site, combined with a fair degree of convenience to +fields and water from the Tusayan point of view.</p> + +<p>This ruin, near its northeastern extremity, contains a feature that +is quite foreign to the architecture of Tusayan, viz, a defensive wall. +It is the only instance of the use by the Hopituh of an inclosing wall, +though it is met with again at Payupki (<a href = "#plateXIII">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">XIII</span></a>), which, however, was built by +people from the Rio Grande country.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_8" id = "chapII_3_8"> +MISHIPTONGA.</a></h6> + +<p>Mishiptonga is the Tusayan name for the southernmost, and by far the +largest, of the Jeditoh series of ruins (<a href = "#plateIX">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">IX</span></a>). It occurs quite close to the +Jeditoh spring which gives its name to the valley along whose northern +and western border are distributed the ruins above described, beginning +with the Horn house.</p> + +<!--png 082--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateIX" id = "plateIX" +href = "images/plates/plate9.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate9thumb.png" width = "395" height = "273" +alt = "plan of Mishiptonga" +title = "plan of Mishiptonga"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate9.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate IX. Mishiptonga (Jeditoh).</span></p> + +<p>This village is rather more irregular in its arrangement than any +other of the series. There are indications of a number of courts +inclosed by large and small clusters of rooms, very irregularly +disposed, but with a general trend towards the northeast, being roughly +parallel with the mesa edge. In plan this village approaches somewhat +that of the inhabited Tusayan villages. At the extreme southern +extremity of the mesa promontory is a small secondary bench, 20 feet +lower than the site of the main village. This bench has also been +occupied by a number of houses. On the east side the pueblo was built to +the very edge of the bluff, where small fragments of masonry are still +standing. The whole village seems so irregular and crowded in its +arrangement that it suggests a long period of occupancy and growth, much +more than do the other villages of this (Jeditoh) group.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">53</span> +<a name = "page053" id = "page053"> </a> +<!--png 127--> +The pueblo may have been abandoned or destroyed prior to the advent of +the Spaniards in this country, as claimed by the Indians, for no +traditional mention of it is made in connection with the later feuds and +wars that figure so prominently in the Tusayan oral history of the last +three centuries. The pueblo was undoubtedly built by some of the ancient +gentes of the Tusayan stock, as its plan, the character of the site +chosen, and, where traceable, the quality of workmanship link it with +the other villages of the Jeditoh group.</p> + +<!--png 085--> +<!--png 086--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateX" id = "plateX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate10.png" width = "477" height = "300" +alt = "small ruin" +title = "small ruin"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate X. A small ruin near Moen-kopi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_9" id = "chapII_3_9"> +MOEN-KOPI RUINS.</a></h6> + +<p>A very small group of rooms, even smaller than the neighboring +farming pueblo of Moen-kopi, is situated on the western edge of the mesa +summit about a quarter of a mile north of the modern village of +Moen-kopi. As the plan shows (<a href = "#fig4">Fig. 4</a>), the +rooms were distributed in three rows around a small court. This ruin +also follows the general northeastern trend which has been noticed both +in the ruined and in the occupied pueblos of Tusayan. The rows here were +only one room deep and not more than a single story high at any point, +as indicated by the very small amount of débris. As the plate shows, +nearly the entire plan is clearly defined by fragments of standing +walls. The walls are built of thin tablets of the dark-colored sandstone +which caps the mesa. Where the walls have fallen the débris is +comparatively free +<span class = "pagenum">54</span> +<a name = "page054" id = "page054"> </a> +<!--png 128--> +from earth, indicating that adobe has been sparingly used. The walls, in +places standing to a height of 2 or 3 feet, as may be seen in the +illustration, <a href = "#plateX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">X</span></a>, show unusual precision of workmanship and +finish, resembling in this respect some of the ancient pueblos farther +north. This is to some extent due to the exceptional suitability of the +tabular stones of the mesa summit. The almost entire absence of pottery +fragments and other objects of art which are such a constant +accompaniment of the ruins throughout this region strongly suggest that +it was occupied for a very short time. In Chapter <span class = +"smallroman">III</span> it will be shown that a similar order of +occupation took place at Ojo Caliente, one of the Zuñi farming villages. +This ruin is probably of quite recent origin, as is the present village +of Moen-kopi, although it may possibly have belonged to an earlier +colony of which we have no distinct trace. This fertile and well watered +valley, a veritable garden spot in the Tusayan deserts, must have been +one of the first points occupied. Some small cliff-dwellings, single +rooms in niches of a neighboring canyon wall, attest the earlier use of +the valley for agricultural purposes, although it is doubtful whether +these rude shelters date back of the Spanish invasion of the +province.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig4" id = "fig4"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig4.png" width = "439" height = "360" +alt = "plan of ruin" +title = "plan of ruin"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span> +Ruin near Moen-kopi, plan.</p> + +<p>A close scrutiny of the many favorable sites in this vicinity would +probably reveal the sand-encumbered remains of some more important +settlement than any of those now known.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_10" id = "chapII_3_10"> +RUINS ON THE ORAIBI WASH.</a></h6> + +<p>The wagon road from Keam’s Canyon to Tuba City crosses the Oraibi +wash at a point about 7 miles above the village of Oraibi. As it enters +a branch canyon on the west side of the wash it is flanked on each side +by rocky mesas and broken ledges. On the left or west side a bold +promontory, extending southward, is quite a conspicuous feature of the +landscape. The entire flat mesa summit, and much of the slope of a rocky +butte that rises from it, are covered with the remains of a small +pueblo, as shown on the plan, <a href = "#fig5">Fig. 5</a>. All of +this knoll except its eastern side is lightly covered with scattered +débris. On the west and north sides there are many large masses of +broken rock distributed over the slope. There is no standing wall +visible from below, but on closer approach several interesting specimens +of masonry are seen. On the north side, near the west end, there is a +fragment of curved wall which follows the margin of the rock on which it +is built. It is about 8 or 10 feet long and 3 feet high on the outer +side. The curve is carefully executed and the workmanship of the masonry +good. Farther east, and still on the north side, there is a fragment of +masonry exhibiting a reversed curve. This piece of wall spans the space +between two adjoining rocks, and the top of the wall is more than 10 +feet above the rock on which it stands. The shape of this wall and its +relation to the surroundings are indicated on the plan, <a href = +"#fig5">Fig. 5</a>. On the south side of the ruin on the mesa +surface, and near an outcropping rock, are the remains +<span class = "pagenum">55</span> +<a name = "page055" id = "page055"> </a> +<!--png 131--> +of what appears to have been a circular room, perhaps 8 or 10 feet in +diameter, though it is too much broken down to determine this +accurately. Only a small portion of the south wall can be definitely +traced. On the south slope of the mesa are indications of walls, too +vaguely defined to admit of the determination of their direction. +Similar vestiges of masonry are found on the north and west, but not +extending to as great a distance from the knoll as those on the +south.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig5" id = "fig5"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig5.png" width = "438" height = "323" +alt = "ruin" +title = "ruin"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 5.</span> +Ruin 7 miles north of Oraibi.</p> + +<p>In that portion of the ruin which lies on top of the knoll, the walls +so far as traced conform to the shape of the site. The ground plan of +the buildings that once occupied the slopes can not be traced, and it is +impossible to determine whether its walls were carried through +continuously.</p> + +<p>The masonry exhibited in the few surviving fragments of wall is of +unusually good quality, resembling somewhat that of the Fire House, <a +href = "#fig7">Fig. 7</a>, and other ruins of that class. The +stones are of medium size, not dressed, and are rather rougher and less +flat than is usual, but the wall has a good finish. The stone, however, +is of poor quality. Most of the débris about the ruin consists of small +stone fragments and sand, comparatively few stones of the size used in +the walls being seen. The material evidently came from the immediate +vicinity of the ruin.</p> + +<p>Pottery fragments were quite abundant about this ruin, most of the +ware represented being of exceptional quality and belonging to the older +types; red ware with black lines and black and white ware were +especially abundant.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">56</span> +<a name = "page056" id = "page056"> </a> +<!--png 132--> +There is quite an extensive view from the ruin, the top of the butte +commanding an outlook down the valley past Oraibi, and about 5 miles +north. There is also an extended outlook up the valley followed by the +wagon road above referred to, and over two branch valleys, one on the +east and another of much less extent on the west. The site was well +adapted for defense, which must have been one of the principal motives +for its selection.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_11" id = "chapII_3_11"> +KWAITUKI.</a></h6> + +<p>The ruin known to the Tusayan as Kwaituki (<a href = +"#fig6">Fig. 6</a>) is also on the west side of the Oraibi wash, 14 +miles above Oraibi, and about 7 miles above the ruin last described. Its +general resemblance to the latter is very striking. The builders have +apparently been actuated by the same motives in their choice of a site, +and their manner of utilizing it corresponds very closely. The crowning +feature of the rocky knoll in this case is a picturesque group of +rectangular masses of sandstone, somewhat irregularly distributed. The +bare summit of a large block-like mass still retains the vestiges of +rooms, and probably most of the groups were at one time covered with +buildings, forming a prominent citadel-like group in the midst of the +village. To the north of this rocky butte a large area seems to have +been at one time inclosed by buildings, forming a court of unusual +dimensions. Along the outer margin of the pueblo +<span class = "pagenum">57</span> +<a name = "page057" id = "page057"> </a> +<!--png 135--> +occasional fragments of walls define former rooms, but the amount and +character of the débris indicate that the inner area was almost +completely inclosed with buildings. The remains of masonry extend on the +south a little beyond the base of the central group of rocks, but here +the vestiges of stonework are rather faint and scattered.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig6" id = "fig6"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig6.png" width = "435" height = "354" +alt = "ruin" +title = "ruin"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 6.</span> +Ruin 14 miles north of Oraibi (Kwaituki).</p> + +<p>In the nearly level tops of some of the rocks forming the central +pile are many smoothly worn depressions or cavities, which have +evidently been used for the grinding and shaping of stone +implements.</p> + +<p>A remarkable feature occurring within this village is a cave or +underground fissure in the rocks, which evidently had been used by the +inhabitants. The mouth or entrance to this cavern, partly obstructed and +concealed at the time of our visit, occurs at the point A on the plan. +On clearing away the rubbish at the mouth and entering it was found so +obstructed with broken rock and fine dust that but little progress could +be made in its exploration; but the main crevice in the rock could be +seen by artificial light to extend some 10 feet back from the mouth, +where it became very shallow. It could be seen that the original cavern +had been improved by the pueblo-builders, as some of the timbers that +had been placed inside were still in position, and a low wall of masonry +on the south side remained intact. Some Navajos stated that they had +discovered this small cave a couple of years before and had taken from +it a large unbroken water jar of ancient pottery and some other +specimens. The place was probably used by the ancient occupants simply +for storage.</p> + +<p>Fragments of pottery of excellent quality were very abundant about +this ruin and at the foot of the central rocks the ground was thickly +strewn with fragments, often of large size.</p> + +<p>The defensive character of this site parallels that of the ruin 7 +miles farther south in quite a remarkable manner, and the villages were +apparently built and occupied at the same time.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_12" id = "chapII_3_12"> +TEBUGKIHU, OR FIRE HOUSE.</a></h6> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig7" id = "fig7"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig7.png" width = "190" height = "290" +alt = "plan of ruin" +title = "plan of ruin"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 7.</span> +Oval (Fire House) ruin,<br> +plan (Tebugkihu). +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>About 15 miles northeast of Keam’s Canyon, and about 25 miles from +Walpi, is a small ruin called by the Tusayan “Tebugkihu,” built by +people of the Fire gens (now extinct). As the plan (<a href = +"#fig7">Fig. 7</a>) clearly shows, this pueblo is very different +from the typical Tusayan villages that have been previously described. +The apparent unity of the plan, and the skillful workmanship somewhat +resembling the pueblos of the Chaco are in marked contrast to the +irregularity and careless construction of most of the Tusayan ruins. Its +distance from the center of the province, too, suggests outside +relationship; but still the Tusayan traditions undoubtedly connect the +place with some of the ancestral gentes, as seen in Chapter <span class += "smallroman">I</span>.</p> + +<p>The small and compact cluster of rooms is in a remarkable state of +preservation, especially the outside wall. This wall was carefully and +massively constructed, and stands to the height of several feet around +<span class = "pagenum">58</span> +<a name = "page058" id = "page058"> </a> +<!--png 136--> +the entire circumference of the ruin, except along the brink of the +cliff, as the plan shows.</p> + +<p>This outer wall contains by far the largest stones yet found +incorporated in pueblo masonry. A fragment of this masonry is +illustrated in <a href = "#plateXI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XI</span></a>. The largest stone shown measures about 5 +feet in length, and the one adjoining on the right measures about 4 +feet. These dimensions are quite remarkable in pueblo masonry, which is +distinguished by the use of very small stones.</p> + +<!--png 089--> +<!--png 090--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXI" id = "plateXI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate11.png" width = "455" height = "287" +alt = "Fire-House masonry" +title = "Fire-House masonry"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XI. Masonry on the outer wall of the Fire-House, detail.</p> + +<p>The well defined outer wall of this cluster to the unaided eye +appears to be elliptical, but it will be seen from the plan that the +ellipse is somewhat pointed on the side farthest from the cliff. As in +other cases of ancient pueblos with curved outlines, the outer wall +seems to have been built first, and the inner rooms, while kept as +rectangular as possible, were adjusted to this curve. This arrangement +often led to a cumulating divergence from radial lines in some of the +partitions, which irregularity was taken up in one room, as in this +instance, in the space near the gate. The outer wall is uniform in +construction so far as preserved. Many irregularities appear, however, +in the construction of the inner or partition walls, and some of the +rooms show awkward attempts at adjustment to the curve of the outer +wall.</p> + +<p>The ruin is situated on the very brink of a small canyon, which +probably contained a spring at the foot of the cliff close under the +ruin site, as the vegetation there has an unusual appearance of +freshness, suggesting the close proximity of water to the surface. A +steep trail evidently connected the village with the bottom of the +canyon. Some of the rocks of the mesa rim were marked by numerous +cup-like cavities similar to those seen at Kwaituki, and used in the +polishing and forming of stone implements. The type of pueblo here +illustrated belonged to a people who relied largely on the architecture +for defense, differing in this respect from the spirit of Tusayan +architecture generally, where the inaccessible character of the site was +the chief dependence.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_13" id = "chapII_3_13"> +CHUKUBI.</a></h6> + +<p>The ruin called Chukubi by the Tusayan (<a href = "#plateXII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XII</span></a>) is situated on the Middle +Mesa, about 3 miles northeast of Mashongnavi. It occupies a promontory +above the same broad sandstone ledge that forms such a +<span class = "pagenum">59</span> +<a name = "page059" id = "page059"> </a> +<!--png 139--> +conspicuous feature in the vicinity of Mashongnavi and Shupaulovi, and +which supports the buttes upon which these villages are built.</p> + +<!--png 093--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXII" id = "plateXII" +href = "images/plates/plate12.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate12thumb.png" width = "474" height = "245" +alt = "plan of Chukubi" +title = "plan of Chukubi"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate12.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XII. Chukubi, plan.</span></p> + +<p>Little masonry now remains on this site, but here and there a +fragment aids in defining the general plan of the pueblo. In general +form the village was a large rectangle with a line of buildings across +its center, dividing it into two unequal courts, and a projecting wing +on the west side. As may be seen from the illustration, one end of the +ruin forms a clearly defined rectangular court, composed of buildings +mostly two rooms deep. Here, as in other ruins of Tusayan, the +arrangement about inclosed courts is in contrast with the parallelism of +rows, so noticeable a feature in the occupied villages. At the east end +of the ruin are several curious excavations. The soft sandstone has been +hollowed out to a depth of about 10 inches, in prolongation of the +outlines of adjoining rooms. Such excavation to obtain level floors is +quite unusual among the pueblo builders; it was practiced to a very +small extent, and only where it could be done with little trouble. Any +serious inequality of surface was usually incorporated in the +construction, as will be noticed at Walpi (<a href = "#plateXXIII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXIII</span></a>). Vestiges of masonry +indicating detached rooms were seen in each of the courts of the main +rectangle.</p> + +<p>On the slope of the hill, just above the broad ledge previously +described, there is a fine spring, but no trace of a trail connecting it +with the pueblo could be found.</p> + +<p>This village was advantageously placed for defense, but not to the +same degree as Payupki, illustrated in <a href = "#plateXIII">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">XIII</span></a>.</p> + +<!--png 099--> +<!--png 100--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXIV" id = "plateXIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate14.png" width = "451" height = "251" +alt = "Payupki" +title = "Payupki"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XIV. General view of Payupki.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_3_14" id = "chapII_3_14"> +PAYUPKI.</a></h6> + +<p>The ruin called Payupki (<a href = "#plateXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XIII</span></a>) occupies the summit of a bold promontory +south of the trail, from Walpi to Oraibi, and about 6 miles northwest +from Mashongnavi. The outer extremity of this promontory is separated +from the mesa by a deep notch. The summit is reached from the mesa by +way of the neck, as the outer point itself is very abrupt, much of the +sandstone ledge being vertical. A bench, 12 or 15 feet below the summit +and in places quite broad, encircles the promontory. This bench also +breaks off very abruptly.</p> + +<!--png 096--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXIII" id = "plateXIII" +href = "images/plates/plate13.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate13thumb.png" width = "448" height = "200" +alt = "plan of Payupki" +title = "plan of Payupki"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate13.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XIII. Payupki, plan.</span></p> + +<p>As may be seen from the plan, the village is quite symmetrically laid +out and well arranged for defense. It is placed at the mesa end of the +promontory cap, and for greater security the second ledge has also been +fortified. All along the outer margin of this ledge are the remains of a +stone wall, in some places still standing to a height of 1 or 2 feet. +This wall appears to have extended originally all along the ledge around +three sides of the village. The steepness of the cliff on the remaining +side rendered a wall superfluous. On the plain below this promontory, +and immediately under the overhanging cliff, are two corrals, and also +<span class = "pagenum">60</span> +<a name = "page060" id = "page060"> </a> +<!--png 140--> +the remains of a structure that resembles a kiva, but which appears to +be of recent construction.</p> + +<p>In the village proper (<a href = "#plateXIV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XIV</span></a>) are two distinctly traceable kivas. One of +these, situated in the court, is detached and appears to have been +partly underground. The other, located in the southeast end of the +village, has also, like the first, apparently been sunk slightly below +the surface. There is a jog in the standing wall of this kiva which +corresponds to that usually found in the typical Tusayan kivas (see +Figs. <a href = "#fig22">22</a> and <a href = "#fig25">25</a>). On the +promontory and east of the village is a single room of more than average +length, with a well formed door in the center of one side. This room has +every appearance of being contemporary with the rest of the village, but +its occurrence in this entirely isolated position is very unusual. Still +farther east there is a mass of debris that may have belonged to a +cluster of six or eight rooms, or it may possibly be the remains of +temporary stone shelters for outlooks over crops, built at a later date +than the pueblo. As may be seen from the illustration (<a href = +"#plateXV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XV</span></a>), the walls are +roughly built of large slabs of sandstone of various sizes. The work is +rather better than that of modern Tusayan, but much inferior to that +seen in the skillfully laid masonry of the ruins farther north. In many +of these walls an occasional sandstone slab of great length is +introduced. This peculiarity is probably due to the character of the +local material, which is more varied than usual. All of the stone here +used is taken from ledges in the immediate vicinity. It is usually light +in color and of loose texture, crumbling readily, and subject to rapid +decay, particularly when used in walls that are roughly constructed.</p> + +<!--png 103--> +<!--png 104--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXV" id = "plateXV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate15.png" width = "459" height = "270" +alt = "Payupki walls" +title = "Payupki walls"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XV. Standing walls of Payupki.</p> + +<p>Much of the pottery scattered about this ruin has a very modern +appearance, some of it having the characteristic surface finish and +color of the Rio Grande ware. A small amount of ancient pottery also +occurs here, some of the fragments of black and white ware displaying +intricate fret patterns. The quantity of these potsherds is quite small, +and they occur mainly in the refuse heaps on the mesa edge.</p> + +<p>This ruin combines a clearly defined defensive plan with utilization +of one of the most inaccessible sites in the vicinity, producing +altogether a combination that would seem to have been impregnable by any +of the ordinary methods of Indian warfare.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">61</span> +<a name = "page061" id = "page061"> </a> +<!--png 143--> +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapII_4" id = "chapII_4"> +PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE INHABITED VILLAGES.</a></h5> + +<!--png 110--> +<!--png 111--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXVII" id = "plateXVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate17.png" width = "482" height = "316" +alt = "Hano" +title = "Hano"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XVII. View of Hano.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_4_1" id = "chapII_4_1"> +HANO.</a></h6> + +<p>The village of Hano, or Tewa, is intrusive and does not properly +belong to the Tusayan stock, as appears from their own traditions. It is +somewhat loosely planned (<a href = "#plateXVI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XVI</span></a>) and extends nearly across the mesa tongue, +which is here quite narrow, and in general there is no appreciable +difference between the arrangement here followed and that of the other +villages. One portion of the village, however, designated as House No. 5 +on the plan, differs somewhat from the typical arrangement in long +irregular rows, and approaches the pyramidal form found among the more +eastern pueblos, notably at Taos and in portions of Zuñi. As has been +seen, tradition tells us that this site was taken up by the Tewa at a +late date and subsequent to the Spanish conquest; but some houses, +formerly belonging to the Asa people, formed a nucleus about which the +Tewa village of Hano was constructed. The pyramidal house occupied by +the old governor, is said to have been built over such remains of +earlier houses.</p> + +<!--png 107--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXVI" id = "plateXVI" +href = "images/plates/plate16.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate16thumb.png" width = "369" height = "142" +alt = "plan of Hano" +title = "plan of Hano"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate16.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XVI. Plan of Hano</span> (<i>rotated</i>).</p> + +<p>The largest building in the village appears to have been added to +from time to time as necessity for additional space arose, resulting in +much the same arrangement as that characterizing most of the Tusayan +houses, viz, a long, irregular row, not more than three stories high at +any point. The small range marked No. 4 on the plan contains a section +three stories high, as does the long row and also the pyramidal cluster +above referred to. (<a href = "#plateXVII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XVII</span></a>.)</p> + +<p>The kivas are two in number, one situated within the village and the +other occupying a position in the margin of the mesa. These ceremonial +chambers, so far as observed, appear to be much like those in the other +villages, both in external and internal arrangement.</p> + +<p>Within the last few years the horse trail that afforded access to +Hano and Sichumovi has been converted into a wagon road, and during the +progress of this work, under the supervision of an American, +considerable blasting was done. Among other changes the marginal kiva, +which was nearly in line with the proposed improvements, was removed. +This was done despite the protest of the older men, and their +predictions of dire calamity sure to follow such sacrilege. A new site +was selected close by and the newly acquired knowledge of the use of +powder was utilized in blasting out the excavation for this subterranean +chamber. It is altogether probable that the sites of all former kivas +were largely determined by accident, these rooms being built at points +where natural fissures or open spaces in the broken mesa edge furnished +a suitable depression or cavity. The builders were not capable of +working the stone to any great extent, and their operations were +probably limited to trimming out such natural excavations and in part +lining them with masonry.</p> + +<p>There is a very noticeable scarcity of roof-holes, aside from those +of the first terrace. As a rule the first terrace has no external +openings +<span class = "pagenum">62</span> +<a name = "page062" id = "page062"> </a> +<!--png 144--> +on the ground and is entered from its roof through large trap-doors, as +shown on the plans. The lower rooms within this first terrace are not +inhabited, but are used as storerooms.</p> + +<p>At several points ruined walls are seen, remains of abandoned rooms +that have fallen into decay. Occasionally a rough, buttress-like +projection from a wall is the only vestige of a room or a cluster of +rooms, all traces on the ground having been obliterated.</p> + +<p>The mesa summit, that forms the site of this village, is nearly +level, with very little earth on its surface. A thin accumulation of +soil and rubbish lightly covers the inner court, but outside, along the +face of the long row, the bare rock is exposed continuously. Where the +rooms have been abandoned and the walls have fallen, the stones have all +been utilized in later constructions, leaving no vestige of the former +wall on the rocky site, as the stones of the masonry have always been +set upon the surface of the rock, with no excavation or preparation of +footings of any kind.</p> + +<!--png 117--> +<!--png 118--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXIX" id = "plateXIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate19.png" width = "480" height = "321" +alt = "Sichumovi" +title = "Sichumovi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XIX. View of Sichumovi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_4_2" id = "chapII_4_2"> +SICHUMOVI.</a></h6> + +<p>According to traditional accounts this village was founded at a more +recent date than Walpi. It has, however, undergone many changes since +its first establishment.</p> + +<p>The principal building is a long irregular row, <ins class = +"correction" title = "text reads ‘similiar’">similar</ins> to that of +Hano (<a href = "#plateXVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XVIII</span></a>). A portion of an L-shaped cluster west of +this row, and a small row near it parallel to the main building, form a +rude approximation to the inclosed court arrangement. The terracing +here, however, is not always on the court side, whereas in ancient +examples such arrangement was an essential defensive feature, as the +court furnished the only approach to upper terraces. In all of these +villages there is a noticeable tendency to face the rows eastward +instead of toward the court. The motive of such uniformity of direction +in the houses must have been strong, to counteract the tendency to +adhere to the ancient arrangement. The two kivas of the village are +built side by side, in contact, probably on account of the presence at +this point of a favorable fissure or depression in the mesa surface.</p> + +<!--png 114--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXVIII" id = "plateXVIII" +href = "images/plates/plate18.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate18thumb.png" width = "494" height = "252" +alt = "plan of Sichumovi" +title = "plan of Sichumovi"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate18.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XVIII. Plan of Sichumovi.</span></p> + +<p>On the south side of the village are the remains of two small +clusters of rooms that apparently have been abandoned a long time. A +portion of a room still bounded by standing walls has been utilized as a +corral for burros (<a href = "#plateXIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XIX</span></a>).</p> + +<p>At this village are three small detached houses, each composed of but +a single room, a feature not at all in keeping with the spirit of pueblo +construction. In this instance it is probably due to the selection of +the village as the residence of whites connected with the agency or +school. Of these single-room houses, one, near the south end of the long +row, was being built by an American, who was living in another such +house near the middle of this row. The third house, although fairly well +preserved at the time of the survey, was abandoned and falling into +ruin. Adjoining the middle one of these three buildings on +<span class = "pagenum">63</span> +<a name = "page063" id = "page063"> </a> +<!--png 146--> +the south side are the outlines of two small compartments, which were +evidently built as corrals for burros and are still used for that +purpose.</p> + +<p>This village, though limited to two stories in height, has, like the +others of the first mesa, a number of roof holes or trapdoors in the +upper story, an approach to the Zuñi practice. This feature among the +Tusayan villages is probably due to intercourse with the more eastern +pueblos, for it seems to occur chiefly among those having such +communication most frequently. Its presence is probably the result +simply of borrowing a convenient feature from those who invented it to +meet a necessity. The conditions under which the houses were built have +hardly been such as to stimulate the Tusayan to the invention of such a +device. The uniform height of the second-story roofs seen in this +village, constituting an almost unbroken level, is a rather exceptional +feature in pueblo architecture. Only one depression occurs in the whole +length of the main row.</p> + +<!--png 125--> +<!--png 126--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXI" id = "plateXXI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate21.png" width = "482" height = "317" +alt = "Walpi" +title = "Walpi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXI. View of Walpi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_4_3" id = "chapII_4_3"> +WALPI.</a></h6> + +<p>Of all the pueblos, occupied or in ruins, within the provinces of +Tusayan and Cibola, Walpi exhibits the widest departure from the typical +pueblo arrangement (Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XX</span>).</p> + +<p>The carelessness characteristic of Tusayan architecture seems to have +reached its culmination here. The confused arrangement of the rooms, +mainly due to the irregularities of the site, contrasts with the work at +some of the other villages, and bears no comparison with much of the +ancient work. The rooms seem to have been clustered together with very +little regard to symmetry, and right angles are very unusual. (See +Fig. 8.)</p> + +<table class = "figures" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<!--png 121--> +<!--png 122--> +<a name = "plateXX" id = "plateXX" +href = "images/plates/plate20.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate20thumb.png" width = "214" height = "512" +alt = "plan of Walpi" +title = "plan of Walpi"></a></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig8" id = "fig8"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig8.png" width = "220" height = "693" +alt = "Walpi topography" +title = "Walpi topography"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate20.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps">Plate XX. Plan of Walpi.</span> +</td> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 8.</span> +Topography<br> +of the site of Walpi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The general plan of the village of to-day confirms the traditional +accounts of its foundation. According to these its growth was gradual, +beginning with a few small clusters, which were added to from time to +time as the inhabitants of the lower site upon the spur of the mesa, +where the mission was established, moved up and joined the pioneers on +the summit. It is probable that some small rooms or clusters were built +on this conspicuous promontory soon after the first occupation of this +region, on account of its exceptionally favorable position as an outlook +over the fields (<a href = "#plateXXI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXI</span></a>).</p> + +<p>Though the peculiar conformation of the site on which the village has +been built has produced an unusual irregularity of arrangement, yet even +here an imperfect example of the typical inclosed court may be found, at +one point containing the principal kiva or ceremonial chamber of the +village. It is probable that the accidental occurrence of a suitable +break or depression in the mesa top determined the position of this kiva +at an early date and that the first buildings clustered about this +point.</p> + +<p>A unique feature in this kiva is its connection with a second +subterranean chamber, reached from the kiva through an ordinary doorway. +The depression used for the kiva site must have been either larger than +was needed or of such form that it could not be thrown into one +rectangular +<span class = "pagenum">64</span> +<a name = "page064" id = "page064"> </a> +<!--png 147--> +chamber. It was impossible to ascertain the form of this second room, as +the writer was not permitted to approach the connecting doorway, which +was closed with a slab of cottonwood. This chamber, used as a receptacle +for religious paraphernalia, was said to connect with an upper room +within the cluster of dwellings close by, but this could not be verified +at the time of our visit. The plan indicates that such an adjoining +chamber, if of average size, could easily extend partly under the +dwellings on either the west or south side of the court. The rocky mesa +summit is quite irregular in this vicinity, with rather an abrupt ascent +to the passageway on the south as shown in <a href = "#plateXXII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXII</span></a>. Southeast from the kiva +there is a large mass of rocks projecting above the general level, which +has been incorporated into a cluster of dwelling rooms. Its character +and relation to the architecture may be seen in <a href = +"#plateXXIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXIII</span></a>. So +irregular a site was not likely to be built upon until most of the +available level surface had been taken up, for even in masonry of much +higher development than can be found in Tusayan the builders, unable to +overcome such obstacles as a large mass of protruding rock, have +accommodated their buildings to such irregularities. This is very +noticeable in the center cluster of Mummy Cave (in Canyon del Muerto, +Arizona), where a large mass of sandstone, fallen from the roof of the +rocky niche in which the houses were built, has been incorporated into +the house cluster. Between this and another kiva to the north the mesa +top is nearly level. The latter kiva is +<span class = "pagenum">65</span> +<a name = "page065" id = "page065"> </a> +<!--png 150--> +also subterranean and was built in an accidental break in sandstone. On +the very margin of this fissure stands a curious isolated rock that has +survived the general erosion of the mesa. It is near this rock that the +celebrated Snake-dance takes place, although the kiva from which the +dancers emerge to perform the open air ceremony is not adjacent to this +monument (<a href = "#plateXXIV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXIV</span></a>).</p> + +<!--png 129--> +<!--png 130--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXII" id = "plateXXII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate22.png" width = "477" height = "289" +alt = "Walpi passageway" +title = "Walpi passageway"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXII. South passageway of Walpi.</p> + +<p>A short distance farther toward the north occur a group of three more +kivas. These are on the very brink of the mesa, and have been built in +recesses in the crowning ledge of sandstone of such size that they could +conveniently be walled up on the outside, the outer surface of rude +walls being continuous with the precipitous rock face of the mesa.</p> + +<!--png 133--> +<!--png 134--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXIII" id = "plateXXIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate23.png" width = "457" height = "323" +alt = "Walpi houses" +title = "Walpi houses"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXIII. Houses built over irregular sites, Walpi.</p> + +<p>The positions of all these ceremonial chambers seem to correspond +with exceptionally rough and broken portions of the mesa top, showing +that their location in relation to the dwelling clusters was due largely +to accident and does not possess the significance that position does in +many ancient pueblos built on level and unencumbered sites, where the +adjustment was not controlled by the character of the surface.</p> + +<!--png 137--> +<!--png 138--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXIV" id = "plateXXIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate24.png" width = "482" height = "319" +alt = "Walpi kiva" +title = "Walpi kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXIV. Dance rock and kiva, Walpi.</p> + +<p>The Walpi promontory is so abrupt and difficult of access that there +is no trail by which horses can be brought to the village without +passing through Hano and Sichumovi, traversing the whole length of the +mesa tongue, and crossing a rough break or depression in the mesa summit +close to the village. Several foot trails give access to the village, +partly over the nearly perpendicular faces of rock. All of these have +required to be artificially improved in order to render them +practicable. Plate <span class = "smallroman">XXV</span>, from a +photograph, illustrates one of these trails, which, a portion of the +way, leads up between a huge detached slab of sandstone and the face of +the mesa. It will be seen that the trail at this point consists to a +large extent of stone steps that have been built in. At the top of the +flight of steps where the trail to the mesa summit turns to the right +the solid sandstone has been pecked out so as to furnish a series of +footholes, or steps, with no projection or hold of any kind alongside. +There are several trails on the west side of the mesa leading down both +from Walpi and Sichúmovi to a spring below, which are quite as abrupt as +the example illustrated. All the water used in these villages, except +such as is caught during showers in the basin-like water pockets of the +mesa top, is laboriously brought up these trails in large earthenware +canteens slung over the backs of the women.</p> + +<!--png 141--> +<!--png 142--> +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "plateXXV" id = "plateXXV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate25.png" width = "359" height = "486" +alt = "trail to Walpi" +title = "trail to Walpi"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXV. Foot trail to Walpi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Supplies of every kind, provisions, harvested crops, fuel, etc., are +brought up these steep trails, and often from a distance of several +miles, yet these conservative people tenaciously cling to the +inconvenient situation selected by their fathers long after the +necessity for so doing has passed away. At present no argument of +convenience or comfort seems sufficient to induce them to abandon their +homes on the rocky heights and build near the water supply and the +fields on which they depend for subsistence.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">66</span> +<a name = "page066" id = "page066"> </a> +<!--png 151--> +One of the trails referred to in the description of Hano has been +converted into a wagon road, as has been already described. The Indians +preferred to expend the enormous amount of labor necessary to convert +this bridle path into a wagon road in order slightly to overcome the +inconvenience of transporting every necessary to the mesa upon their own +backs or by the assistance of burros. This concession to modern ideas is +at best but a poor substitute for the convenience of homes built in the +lower valleys.</p> + +<!--png 148--> +<!--png 149--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXVII" id = "plateXXVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate27.png" width = "486" height = "319" +alt = "Mashongnavi" +title = "Mashongnavi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXVII. Mashongnavi with Shupaulovi in distance.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_4_4" id = "chapII_4_4"> +MASHONGNAVI.</a></h6> + +<p>Mashongnavi, situated on the summit of a rocky knoll, is a compact +though irregular village, and the manner in which it conforms to the +general outline of the available ground is shown on the plan. +Convenience of access to the fields on the east and to the other +villages probably prompted the first occupation of the east end of this +rocky butte (<a href = "#plateXXVI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXVI</span></a>).</p> + +<!--png 145--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXVI" id = "plateXXVI" +href = "images/plates/plate26.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate26thumb.png" width = "370" height = "264" +alt = "plan of Mashongnavi" +title = "plan of Mashongnavi"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate26.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XXVI. Mashongnavi, plan.</span></p> + +<p>In Mashongnavi of to-day the eastern portion of the village forms a +more decided court than do the other portions. The completeness in +itself of this eastern end of the pueblo, in connection with the form of +the adjoining rows, strongly suggests that this was the first portion of +the pueblo built, although examination of the masonry and construction +furnish but imperfect data as to the relative age of different portions +of the village. One uniform gray tint, with only slight local variations +in character and finish of masonry, imparts a monotonous effect of +antiquity to the whole mass of dwellings. Here and there, at rare +intervals, is seen a wall that has been newly plastered; but, +ordinarily, masonry of 10 years’ age looks nearly as old as that built +200 years earlier. Another feature that suggests the greater antiquity +of the eastern court of the pueblo is the presence and manner of +occurrence here of the kiva. The old builders may have been influenced +to some extent in their choice of site by the presence of a favorable +depression for the construction of a kiva, though this particular +example of the ceremonial room is only partly subterranean. The other +kivas are almost or quite below the ground level. Although a favorable +depression might readily occur on the summit of the knoll, a deep +cavity, suitable for the construction of the subterranean kiva, would +not be likely to occur at such a distance from the margin of the +sandstone ledge. The builders evidently preferred to adopt such half-way +measures with their first kiva in order to +<span class = "pagenum">67</span> +<a name = "page067" id = "page067"> </a> +<!--png 154--> +secure its inclosure within the court, thus conforming to the typical +pueblo arrangement. The numerous exceptions to this arrangement seen in +Tusayan are due to local causes. +<!----> +<span class = "floatleft caption"> +<a name = "fig9" id = "fig9"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig9.png" width = "433" height = "118" +alt = "Mashongnavi and Shupaulovi" +title = "Mashongnavi and Shupaulovi"><br> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 9.</span> +Mashongnavi and Shupaulovi from Shumopavi.</span> +<!----> +The general view of Mashongnavi given in <a href = "#plateXXVII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXVII</span></a> shows that the site of this +pueblo, as well as that of its neighbor, Shupaulovi, was not +particularly defensible, and that this fact would have weight in +securing adherence in the first portion +<span class = "pagenum">68</span> +<a name = "page068" id = "page068"> </a> +<!--png 155--> +of the pueblo built to the defensive inclosed court containing the +ceremonial chamber. The plan strongly indicates that the other courts of +the pueblo were added as the village grew, each added row facing toward +the back of an older row, producing a series of courts, which, to the +present time, show more terracing on their western sides. The eastern +side of each court is formed, apparently, by a few additions +<span class = "pagenum">69</span> +<a name = "page069" id = "page069"> </a> +<!--png 158--> +of low rooms to what was originally an unbroken exterior wall, and which +is still clearly traceable through these added rooms. Such an exterior +wall is illustrated in <a href = "#plateXVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XVIII</span></a>. This process continued until the last +cluster nearly filled the available site and a wing was thrown out +corresponding to a tongue or spur of the knoll upon which it was built. +Naturally the westernmost or newer portions show more clearly +<span class = "pagenum">70</span> +<a name = "page070" id = "page070"> </a> +<!--png 159--> +the evidence of additions and changes, but such evidence is not wholly +wanting in the older portions. The large row that bounds the original +eastern court on the west side may be seen on the plan to be of unusual +width, having the largest number of rooms that form a terrace with +western aspect; yet the nearly straight line once defining the original +back wall of the court inclosing cluster on this side has not been +obscured to any great extent by the later additions (<a href = +"#plateXXVIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXVIII</span></a>). This +village furnishes the most striking example in the whole group of the +manner in which a pueblo was gradually enlarged as increasing population +demanded more space. Such additions were often carried out on a definite +plan, although the results in Tusayan fall far short of the symmetry +that characterizes many ruined pueblos in New Mexico and Arizona.</p> + +<!--png 152--> +<!--png 153--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXVIII" id = "plateXXVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate28.png" width = "486" height = "283" +alt = "back wall of house-row" +title = "back wall of house-row"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXVIII. Back wall of a Mashongnavi house-row.</p> + +<p>A few of these ancient examples, especially some of the smaller ruins +of the Chaco group, are so symmetrical in their arrangement that they +seem to be the result of a single effort to carry out a clearly fixed +plan. By far the largest number of pueblos, however, built among the +southwest tablelands, if occupied for any length of time, must have been +subject to irregular enlargement. In some ancient examples, such +additions to the first plan undoubtedly took place without marring the +general symmetry. This was the case at Pueblo Bonito, on the Chaco, +where the symmetrical and even curve of the exterior defensive wall, +which was at least four stories high, remained unbroken, while the large +inclosed court was encroached upon by wings added to the inner terraces. +These additions comfortably provided for a very large increase of +population after the first building of the pueblo, without changing its +exterior appearance.</p> + +<p>In order to make clearer this order of growth in Mashongnavi, a +series of skeleton diagrams is added in Figs. <a href = "#fig10">10</a>, +<a href = "#fig11">11</a>, and <a href = "#fig12">12</a>, giving the +outlines of the pueblo at various supposed periods in the course of its +enlargement. The larger plan of the village (<a href = "#plateXXVI">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXVI</span></a>) serves as a key to these +terrace outlines.</p> + +<table class = "figures" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig10" id = "fig10" href = "images/figures/fig10.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig10thumb.png" width = "161" height = "308" +alt = "Mashongnavi" +title = "Mashongnavi"></a></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig11" id = "fig11" href = "images/figures/fig11.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig11thumb.png" width = "159" height = "311" +alt = "Mashongnavi" +title = "Mashongnavi"></a></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig12" id = "fig12" href = "images/figures/fig12.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig12thumb.png" width = "165" height = "306" +alt = "Mashongnavi" +title = "Mashongnavi"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/figures/fig10.png">full size</a></td> +<td class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/figures/fig11.png">full size</a></td> +<td class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/figures/fig12.png">full size</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "3"><span class = "smallcaps">Figs. 10, +11, 12.</span> +Diagrams showing growth of Mashongnavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The first diagram illustrates the supposed original cluster of the +east court (<a href = "#fig10">Fig. 10</a>), the lines of which can +be traced on the larger plan, and it includes the long, nearly straight +line that marks the western edge of the third story. This diagram shows +also, in dotted lines, the general plan that may have guided the first +additions to the west. The second diagram (<a href = +"#fig11">Fig. 11</a>) renders all the above material in full tint, +again indicating further additions by dotted lines, and so on. (<a href += "#fig12">Fig. 12</a>.) The portions of a terrace, which face westward +in the newer courts of the pueblo, illustrated in <a href = +"#plateXXIX">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXIX</span></a>, were +probably built after the western row, completing the inclosure, and were +far enough advanced to indicate definitely an inclosed court, upon which +the dwelling rooms faced.</p> + +<!--png 156--> +<!--png 157--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXIX" id = "plateXXIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate29.png" width = "448" height = "254" +alt = "row in Mashongnavi" +title = "row in Mashongnavi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXIX. West side of a principal row in Mashongnavi.</p> + +<br> + +<!--png 164--> +<!--png 165--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXI" id = "plateXXXI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate31.png" width = "483" height = "318" +alt = "Shupaulovi" +title = "Shupaulovi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXXI. View of Shupaulovi.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">71</span> +<a name = "page071" id = "page071"> </a> +<!--png 162--> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_4_5" id = "chapII_4_5"> +SHUPAULOVI.</a></h6> + +<p>This village, by far the smallest pueblo of the Tusayan group, +illustrates a simple and direct use of the principle of the inclosed +court. The plan (<a href = "#plateXXX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXX</span></a>) shows that the outer walls are scarcely +broken by terraces, and nearly all the dwelling apartments open inwards +upon the inclosure, in this respect closely following the previously +described ancient type, although widely differing from it in the +irregular disposition of the rooms. (<a href = "#plateXXXI">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">XXXI</span></a>) A comparison with the first of the +series of diagrams illustrating the growth of Mashóngnavi, will show how +similar the villages may have been at one stage, and how suitable a +nucleus for a large pueblo this village would prove did space and +character of the site permit. Most of the available summit of the rocky +knoll has already been covered, as will be seen from the topographic +sketch of the site (<a href = "#fig13">Fig. 13</a>). The plan shows +also that some efforts at extension of the pueblo have been made, but +the houses outside of the main cluster have been abandoned, and are +rapidly going to ruin. Several small rooms occur on the outer faces of +the rows, but it can be readily seen that they do not form a part of the +original plan but were added to an already complete structure.</p> + +<!--png 160--> +<!--png 161--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXX" id = "plateXXX" +href = "images/plates/plate30.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate30thumb.png" width = "395" height = "218" +alt = "plan of Shupaulovi" +title = "plan of Shupaulovi"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate30.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XXX. Plan of Shupaulovi.</span></p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig13" id = "fig13"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig13.png" width = "442" height = "314" +alt = "topography of Shupaulovi" +title = "topography of Shupaulovi"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 13.</span> +Topography of the site of Shupaulovi.</p> + +<p>In the inclosed court of this pueblo occurs a small box-like stone +inclosure, covered with a large slab, which is used as a sort of shrine +or depository for the sacred plume sticks and other ceremonial +offerings. +<span class = "pagenum">72</span> +<a name = "page072" id = "page072"> </a> +<!--png 163--> +This feature is found at some of the other villages, notably at +Mashongnavi, in the central court, and at Hano, where it is located at +some distance outside of the village, near the main trail to the +mesa.</p> + +<p>The plan of this small village shows three covered passageways +similar to those noted in Walpi on the first mesa, though their presence +here can not be ascribed to the same motives that impelled the Walpi to +build in this way; for the densely crowded site occupied by the latter +compelled them to resort to this expedient. One of these is illustrated +in <a href = "#plateXXXII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXXII</span></a>. Its presence may be due in this instance +to a determination to adhere to the protected court while seeking to +secure convenient means of access to the inclosed area. It is remarkable +that this, the smallest of the group, should contain this feature.</p> + +<!--png 168--> +<!--png 169--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXII" id = "plateXXXII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate32.png" width = "444" height = "255" +alt = "Shupaulovi passageway" +title = "Shupaulovi passageway"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXXII. A covered passageway of Shupaulovi.</p> + +<p>This village has but two kivas, one of which is on the rocky summit +near the houses and the other on the lower ground near the foot of the +trail that leads to the village. The upper kiva is nearly subterranean, +the roof being but a little above the ground on the side toward the +village, but as the rocky site slopes away a portion of side wall is +exposed. This was roughly built, with no attempt to impart finish to its +outer face, either by careful laying of the masonry or by plastering. <a +href = "#plateXXXIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXXIII</span></a> +illustrates this kiva in connection with the southeastern portion of the +village. The plan shows how the prolongation of the side rows of the +village forms a suggestion of a second court. Its development into any +such feature as the secondary or additional courts of Mashóngnavi was +prohibited by the restricted site.</p> + +<!--png 172--> +<!--png 173--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXIII" id = "plateXXXIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate33.png" width = "452" height = "242" +alt = "Shupaulovi kiva" +title = "Shupaulovi kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXXIII. The chief kiva of Shupaulovi.</p> + +<p>As in other villages of this group, the desire to adhere to the +subterranean form of ceremonial chamber outweighed the inducement to +place it within the village, or, in the case of the second kiva, even of +placing it on the same level as the houses, which are 30 feet above it +with an abrupt trail between them. It is curious and instructive to see +a room, the use of which is so intimately connected with the inner life +of the village, placed in such a comparatively remote and inaccessible +position through an intensely conservative adherence to ancient practice +requiring this chamber to be depressed.</p> + +<p>The general view of the village given in <a href = "#plateXXXI">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXXI</span></a> strikingly illustrates the +blending of the rectangular forms of the architecture with the angular +and sharply defined fractures of the surrounding rock. This close +correspondence in form between the architecture and its immediate +surroundings is greatly heightened by the similarity in color. Mr. +Stephen has called attention to a similar effect on the western side of +Walpi and its adjacent mesa edge, which he thought indicates a distinct +effort at concealment on the part of the builders, by blending the +architecture with the surroundings. This similarity of effect is often +accidental, and due to the fact that the materials of the houses and of +the mesas on which they are built are identical. Even in the case of +Walpi, cited by Mr. Stephen, where the buildings come to the very mesa +edge, and in their vertical lines appear to carry out the effect of +<span class = "pagenum">73</span> +<a name = "page073" id = "page073"> </a> +<!--png 166--> +the vertical fissures in the upper benches of sandstone, there was no +intentional concealment. It is more likely that, through the necessity +of building close to the limits of the crowded sites, a certain degree +of correspondence was unintentionally produced between the jogs and +angles of the houses and those of the mesa edge.</p> + +<p>Such correspondence with the surroundings, which forms a striking +feature of many primitive types of construction where intention of +concealment had no part, is doubtless mainly due to the use of the most +available material, although the expression of a type of construction +that has prevailed for ages in one locality would perhaps be somewhat +influenced by constantly recurring forms in its environment. In the +system of building under consideration, such influence would, however, +be a very minute fraction in the sum of factors producing the type and +could never account for such examples of special and detailed +correspondence as the cases cited, nor could it have any weight in +developing a rectangular type of architecture.</p> + +<p>In the development of primitive arts the advances are slow and +laborious, and are produced by adding small increments to current +knowledge. So vague and undefined an influence as that exerted by the +larger forms of surrounding nature are seldom recognized and +acknowledged by the artisan; on the contrary, experiments, resulting in +improvement, are largely prompted by practical requirements. +Particularly is this the case in the art of house-building.</p> + +<!--png 179--> +<!--png 180--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXV" id = "plateXXXV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate35.png" width = "480" height = "316" +alt = "Shumopavi" +title = "Shumopavi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXXV. View of Shumopavi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_4_6" id = "chapII_4_6"> +SHUMOPAVI.</a></h6> + +<p>This village, although not so isolated as Oraibi, has no near +neighbors and is little visited by whites or Indians. The inhabitants +are rarely seen at the trading post to which the others resort, and they +seem to be pretty well off and independent as compared with their +neighbors of the other villages (<a href = "#plateXXXIV">Pl. <span class += "smallroman">XXXIV</span></a>). The houses and courts are in keeping +with the general character of the people and exhibit a degree of +neatness and thrift that contrasts sharply with the tumble-down +appearance of some of the other villages, especially those of the Middle +Mesa and Oraibi. There is a general air of newness about the place, +though it is questionable whether the architecture is more recent than +that of the other villages of Tusayan. This effect is partly due to the +custom of frequently renewing the coating of mud plaster. In most of the +villages little care is taken to repair the houses until the owner feels +that to postpone such action longer would endanger its stability. Many +of the illustrations in this chapter indicate the proportion of rough +masonry usually exposed in the walls. At Shumopavi (<a href = +"#plateXXXV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXXV</span></a>), however, +most of the walls are smoothly plastered. In this respect they resemble +Zuñi and the eastern pueblos, where but little naked masonry can be +seen. Another feature that adds to the effect of neatness and finish in +this village is the frequent use of a whitewash of +<span class = "pagenum">74</span> +<a name = "page074" id = "page074"> </a> +<!--png 167--> +gypsum on the outer face of the walls. This wash is used partly as an +ornament and partly as protection against the rain. The material, called +by the Mexicans “yeso,” is very commonly used in the interior of their +houses throughout this region, both by Mexicans and Indians. More rarely +it is used among the pueblos as an external wash. Here, however, its +external use forms quite a distinctive feature of the village. The same +custom in several of the cliff houses of Canyon de Chelly attests the +comparative antiquity of the practice, though not necessarily its +pre-Columbian origin.</p> + +<!--png 176--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXIV" id = "plateXXXIV" +href = "images/plates/plate34.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate34thumb.png" width = "330" height = "260" +alt = "plan of Shumopavi" +title = "plan of Shumopavi"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate34.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XXXIV. Plan of Shumopavi.</span></p> + +<p>Shumopavi, compared with the other villages, shows less evidence of +having been built on the open court idea, as the partial inclosures +assume such elongated forms in the direction of the long, straight rows +of the rooms; yet examination shows that the idea was present to a +slight extent.</p> + +<p>At the southeast corner of the pueblo there is a very marked approach +to the open court, though it is quite evident that the easternmost row +has its back to the court, and that the few rooms that face the other +way are later additions. In fact, the plan of the village and the +distribution of the terraces seem to indicate that the first +construction consisted only of a single row facing nearly east, and was +not an inclosed court, and that a further addition to the pueblo assumed +nearly the same form, with its face or terraced side toward the back of +the first row only partly adapting itself by the addition of a few small +rooms later, to the court arrangement, the same operation being +continued, but in a form not so clearly defined, still farther toward +the west.</p> + +<p>The second court is not defined on the west by such a distinct row as +the others, and the smaller clusters that to some extent break the long, +straight arrangement bring about an approximation to a court, though +here again the terraces only partly face it, the eastern side being +bounded by the long exterior wall of the middle row, two and three +stories high, and almost unbroken throughout its entire length of 400 +feet. The broken character of the small western row, in conjunction with +the clusters near it, imparts a distinct effect to the plan of this +portion, differentiating it in character from the masses of houses +formed by the other two rows. The latter are connected at their southern +end by a short cross row which converts this portion of the village +practically into a single large house. Two covered passageways, however, +which are designated on the plan, give access to the southeast portion +of the court. This portion is partly separated from the north half of +the inclosure by encroaching groups of rooms. This partial division of +the original narrow and long court appears to be of later date.</p> + +<p>The kivas are four in number, of which but one is within the village. +The latter occupies a partly inclosed position in the southwest portion, +and probably owes its place to some local facility for building a kiva +on this spot in the nature of a depression in the mesa summit; but even +<span class = "pagenum">75</span> +<a name = "page075" id = "page075"> </a> +<!--png 170--> +with such aid the ceremonial chamber was built only partly under ground, +as may be seen in <a href = "#fig14">Fig. 14</a>. The remaining three +kivas are more distinctly subterranean, and in order to obtain a +suitable site one of these was located at a distance of more than 200 +feet from the village, toward the mesa edge on the east. The other two +are built very close together, apparently in contact, just beyond the +northern extremity of the village. One of these is about 3 feet above +the surface at one corner, but nearly on a level with the ground at its +western side where it adjoins its neighbor. These two kivas are +illustrated in <a href = "#plateLXXXVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXVIII</span></a> and <a href = "#fig21">Fig. 21</a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig14" id = "fig14"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig14.png" width = "433" height = "213" +alt = "Shumopavi kiva" +title = "Shumopavi kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 14.</span> +Court kiva of Shumopavi.</p> + +<p>Here again we find that the ceremonial chamber that forms so +important a feature among these people, occupies no fixed relation to +the dwellings, and its location is largely a matter of accident, a site +that would admit of the partial excavation or sinking of the chamber +below the surface being the main requisite. The northwest court contains +another of the small inclosed shrines already described as occurring at +Shupaulovi and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The stonework of this village also possesses a somewhat distinctive +character. Exposed masonry, though comparatively rare in this +well-plastered pueblo, shows that stones of suitable fracture were +selected and that they were more carefully laid than in the other +villages. In places the masonry bears a close resemblance to some of the +ancient work, where the spaces between the longer tablets of stone were +carefully chinked with small bits of stone, bringing the whole wall to a +uniform face, and is much in advance of the ordinary slovenly methods of +construction followed in Tusayan.</p> + +<p>Shumopavi is the successor of an older village of that name, one of +the cities of the ancient Tusayan visited by a detachment of Coronado’s +expedition in 1540. The ruins of that village still exist, and they +formerly contained vestiges of the old church and mission buildings +established +<span class = "pagenum">76</span> +<a name = "page076" id = "page076"> </a> +<!--png 171--> +by the monks. The squared beams from, these buildings were considered +valuable enough to be incorporated in the construction of ceremonial +kivas in some of the Tusayan villages. This old site was not visited by +the party.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_4_7" id = "chapII_4_7"> +ORAIBI.</a></h6> + +<p>This is one of the largest modern pueblos, and contains nearly half +the population of Tusayan; yet its great size has not materially +affected the arrangement of the dwellings. The general plan (see Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXXVI</span>), simply shows an unusually +large collection of typical Tusayan house-rows, with the general +tendency to face eastward displayed in the other villages of the group. +There is a remarkable uniformity in the direction of the rows, but there +are no indications of the order in which the successive additions to the +village were made, such as were found at Mashóngnavi.</p> + +<p class = "mynote"> +The white strip along the middle of this plan represents the area near a +tight fold in the printed original. The width of the unreadable area is +conjectural.</p> + +<!--in pocket--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXVI" id = "plateXXXVI" +href = "images/plates/plate36.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate36thumb.png" width = "425" height = "414" +alt = "plan of Oraibi" +title = "plan of Oraibi"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate36.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XXXVI. Oraibi, plan.</span></p> + +<!--png 183--> +<!--png 184--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXVII" id = "plateXXXVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate37.png" width = "448" height = "674" +alt = "key to Oraibi plan" +title = "key to Oraibi plan"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXXVII. Key to the Oraibi plan, also showing localization of +gentes.</p> + +<p>The clusters of rooms do not surpass the average dimensions of those +in the smaller villages. In five of the clusters in Oraibi a height of +four stories is reached by a few rooms; a height seen also in Walpi.</p> + +<!--png 187--> +<!--png 188--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXVIII" id = "plateXXXVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate38.png" width = "487" height = "310" +alt = "Oraibi court" +title = "Oraibi court"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXXVIII. A court of Oraibi.</p> + +<p>At several points in Oraibi, notably on the west side of cluster No. +7, may be seen what appears to be low terraces faced with rough masonry. +The same thing is also seen at Walpi, on the west side of the +northernmost cluster. This effect is produced by the gradual filling in +of abandoned and broken-down marginal houses, with fallen masonry and +drifted sand. The appearance is that of intentional construction, as may +be seen in <a href = "#plateXXXIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXXIX</span></a>.</p> + +<!--png 191--> +<!--png 192--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXXXIX" id = "plateXXXIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate39.png" width = "449" height = "264" +alt = "Oraibi terraces" +title = "Oraibi terraces"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XXXIX. Masonry terraces of Oraibi.</p> + +<p>The rarity of covered passageways in this village is noteworthy, and +emphasizes the marked difference in the character of the Tusayan and +Zuñi ground plans. The close crowding of rooms in the latter has made a +feature of the covered way, which in the scattered plan of Oraibi is +rarely called for. When found it does not seem an outgrowth of the same +conditions that led to its adoption in Zuñi. A glance at the plans will +show how different has been the effect of the immediate environment in +the two cases. In Zuñi, built on a very slight knoll in the open plain, +the absence of a defensive site has produced unusual development of the +defensive features of the architecture, and the result is a remarkably +dense clustering of the dwellings. At Tusayan, on the other hand, the +largest village of the group does not differ in character from the +smallest. Occupation of a defensive site has there, in a measure taken +the place of a special defensive arrangement, or close clustering of +rooms. Oraibi is laid out quite as openly as any other of the group, and +as additions to its size have from time to time been made the builders +have, in the absence of the defensive motive for crowding the rows or +groups into large clusters, simply followed the usual arrangement. The +crowding that brought about the use of the covered way was due in Walpi +to restricted site, as nearly all the available summit of its rocky +promontory has been covered with buildings. In Zuñi, on +<span class = "pagenum">77</span> +<a name = "page077" id = "page077"> </a> +<!--png 174--> +the other hand, it was the necessity for defense that led to the close +clustering of the dwellings and the consequent employment of the covered +way.</p> + +<!--png 195--> +<!--png 196--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXL" id = "plateXL"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate40.png" width = "462" height = "328" +alt = "Oraibi house row" +title = "Oraibi house row"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XL. Oraibi house row, showing court side.</p> + +<p>A further contrast between the general plans of Oraibi and Zuñi is +afforded in the different manner in which the roof openings have been +employed in the two cases. The plan of Zuñi, <a href = "#plateLXXVI">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">LXXVI</span></a>, shows great numbers of +small openings, nearly all of which are intended exclusively for the +admission of light, a few only being provided with ladders. In Oraibi, +on the other hand, there are only seventeen roof openings above the +first terrace, and of these not more than half are intended for the +admission of light. The device is correspondingly rare in other villages +of the group, particularly in those west of the first mesa. In +Mashóngnavi the restricted use of the roof openings is particularly +noticeable; they all are of the same type as those used for access to +first terrace rooms. There is but one roof opening in a second story. An +examination of the plan, <a href = "#plateXXX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXX</span></a>, will show that in Shupaúlovi but two such +openings occur above the first terrace, and in the large village of +Shumopavi, <a href = "#plateXXXIV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXXIV</span></a>, only about eight. None of the smaller +villages can be fairly compared with Zuñi in the employment of this +feature, but in Oraibi we should expect to find its use much more +general, were it not for the fact that the defensive site has taken the +place of the close clustering of rooms seen in the exposed village of +Zuñi, and, in consequence, the devices for the admission of light still +adhere to the more primitive arrangement (Pls. <a href = +"#plateXL"><span class = "smallroman">XL</span></a> and <a href = +"#plateXLI"><span class = "smallroman">XLI</span></a>).</p> + +<!--png 199--> +<!--png 200--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLI" id = "plateXLI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate41.png" width = "455" height = "268" +alt = "Oraibi house row" +title = "Oraibi house row"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLI. Back of Oraibi house row.</p> + +<p>The highest type of pueblo construction, embodied in the large +communal fortress houses of the valleys, could have developed only as +the builders learned to rely for protection more upon their architecture +and less upon the sites occupied. So long as the sites furnished a large +proportion of the defensive efficiency of a village, the invention of +the builders was not stimulated to substitute artificial for natural +advantages. Change of location and consequent development must +frequently have taken place owing to the extreme inconvenience of +defensive sites to the sources of subsistence.</p> + +<p>The builders of large valley pueblos must frequently have been forced +to resort hastily to defensive sites on finding that the valley towns +were unfitted to withstand attack. This seems to have been the case with +the Tusayan; but that the Zuñi have adhered to their valley pueblo +through great difficulties is clearly attested by the internal evidence +of the architecture itself, even were other testimony altogether +wanting.</p> + +<!--png 211--> +<!--png 212--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLIV" id = "plateXLIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate44.png" width = "450" height = "289" +alt = "Moen-kopi" +title = "Moen-kopi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLIV. Moen-kopi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapII_4_8" id = "chapII_4_8"> +MOEN-KOPI.</a></h6> + +<p>About 50 miles west from Oraibi is a small settlement used by a few +families from Oraibi during the farming season, known as Moen-kopi. (<a +href = "#plateXLIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XLIII</span></a>). +The present village is comparatively recent, but, as is the case with +many others, it has been built over the remains of an older settlement. +It is said to have been founded within the memory of +<span class = "pagenum">78</span> +<a name = "page078" id = "page078"> </a> +<!--png 175--> +some of the Mormon pioneers at the neighboring town of Tuba City, named +after an old Oraibi chief, recently deceased.</p> + +<!--png 207--> +<!--png 208--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLIII" id = "plateXLIII" +href = "images/plates/plate43.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate43thumb.png" width = "413" height = "186" +alt = "plan of Moen-kopi" +title = "plan of Moen-kopi"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate43.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XLIII. Plan of Moen-kopi</span> (<i>rotated</i>).</p> + +<p>The site would probably have attracted a much larger number of +settlers, had it not been so remote from the main pueblos of the +province, as in many respects it far surpasses any of the present +village sites. A large area of fertile soil can be conveniently +irrigated from copious springs in the side of a small branch of the +Moen-kopi wash. The village occupies a low, rounded knoll at the +junction of this branch with the main wash, which on the opposite or +southern side is quite precipitous. The gradual encroachments of the +Mormons for the last twenty years have had some effect in keeping the +Tusayan from more fully utilizing the advantages of this site (<a href = +"#plateXLII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XLII</span></a>).</p> + +<!--png 203--> +<!--png 204--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLII" id = "plateXLII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate42.png" width = "452" height = "273" +alt = "Moen-kopi site" +title = "Moen-kopi site"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLII. The site of Moen-kopi.</p> + +<p>Moen-kopi is built in two irregular rows of one-story houses. There +are also two detached single rooms in the village—one of them +built for a kiva, though apparently not in use at the time of our +survey, and the other a small room with its principal door facing an +adjoining row. The arrangement is about the same that prevails in the +other villages, the rows having distinct back walls of rude masonry.</p> + +<p>Rough stone work predominates also in the fronts of the houses, +though it is occasionally brought to a fair degree of finish. Some adobe +work is incorporated in the masonry, and at one point a new and still +unroofed room was seen built of adobe bricks on a stone foundation about +a foot high. There is but little adobe masonry, however, in Tusayan. Its +use in this case is probably due to Mormon influence.</p> + +<p>Moen-kopi was the headquarters of a large business enterprise of the +Mormons a number of years ago. They attempted to concentrate the product +of the Navajo wool trade at this point and to establish here a +completely appointed woolen mill. Water was brought from a series of +reservoirs built in a small valley several miles away, and was conducted +to a point on the Moen-kopi knoll, near the end of the south row of +houses, where the ditch terminated in a solidly constructed box of +masonry. From this in turn the water was delivered through a large pipe +to a turbine wheel, which furnished the motive power for the works. The +ditch and masonry are shown on the ground plan of the village (<a href = +"#plateXLIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XLIII</span></a>). This +mill was a large stone building, and no expense was spared in fitting it +up with the most complete machinery. At the time of our visit the whole +establishment had been abandoned for some years and was rapidly going to +decay. The frames had been torn from the windows, and both the floor of +the building and the ground in its vicinity were strewn with fragments +of expensive machinery, broken cog-wheels, shafts, etc. This building is +shown in <a href = "#plateXLV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XLV</span></a>, and may serve as an illustration of the +contrast between Tusayan masonry and modern stonemason’s work carried +out with the same material. The comparison, however, is not entirely +fair, as applied to the pueblo builders in general, as the Tusayan mason +is unusually careless in his work. Many old examples are seen in which +the finish of the walls compares very +<span class = "pagenum">79</span> +<a name = "page079" id = "page079"> </a> +<!--png 177--> +favorably with the American mason’s work, though the result is attained +in a wholly different manner, viz, by close and careful chinking with +numberless small tablets of stone. This process brings the wall to a +remarkably smooth and even surface, the joints almost disappearing in +the mosaic-like effect of the wall mass. The masonry of Moen-kopi is +more than ordinarily rough, as the small village was probably built +hastily and used for temporary occupation as a farming center. In the +winter the place is usually abandoned, the few families occupying it +during the farming months returning to Oraibi for the season of +festivities and ceremonials.</p> + +<!--png 217--> +<!--png 218--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLV" id = "plateXLV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate45.png" width = "454" height = "317" +alt = "Mormon mill" +title = "Mormon mill"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLV. The Mormon mill at Moen-kopi.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">80</span> +<a name = "page080" id = "page080"> </a> +<!--png 178--> +<h4 class = "chapter extended"><a name = "chapIII" id = "chapIII"> +CHAPTER III.</a></h4> + +<h5 class = "extended">RUINS AND INHABITED VILLAGES OF CIBOLA.</h5> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapIII_1" id = "chapIII_1"> +PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE PROVINCE.</a></h5> + +<p>Though the surroundings of the Cibolan pueblos and ruins exhibit the +ordinary characteristics of plateau scenery, they have not the +monotonous and forbidding aspect that characterizes the mesas and +valleys of Tusayan. The dusty sage brush and the stunted cedar and +piñon, as in Tusayan, form a conspicuous feature of the landscape, but +the cliffs are often diversified in color, being in cases composed of +alternating bands of light gray and dark red sandstone, which impart a +considerable variety of tints to the landscape. The contrast is +heightened by the proximity of the Zuñi Mountains, an extensive +timber-bearing range that approaches within 12 miles of Zuñi, narrowing +down the extent of the surrounding arid region.</p> + +<p>Cibola has also been more generously treated by nature in the matter +of water supply, as the province contains a perennial stream which has +its sources near the village of Nutria, and, flowing past the pueblo of +Zuñi, disappears a few miles below. During the rainy season the river +empties into the Colorado Chiquito. The Cibolan pueblos are built on the +foothills of mesas or in open valley sites, surrounded by broad fields, +while the Tusayan villages are perched upon mesa promontories that +overlook the valley lands used for cultivation.</p> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapIII_2" id = "chapIII_2"> +PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF RUINS.</a></h5> + +<!--png 225--> +<!--png 226--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLVII" id = "plateXLVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate47.png" width = "483" height = "294" +alt = "Hawikuh" +title = "Hawikuh"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLVII. Hawikuh, view.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_1" id = "chapIII_2_1"> +HAWIKUH.</a></h6> + +<p>The village of Hawikuh, situated about 15 miles to the south of Zuñi, +consisted of irregular groups of densely clustered cells, occupying the +point of a spur projecting from a low rounded hill. The houses are in +such a ruined condition that few separate rooms can be traced, and these +are much obscured by débris. This débris covers the entire area +extending down the east slope of the hill to the site of the church. The +large amount of débris and the comparative thinness of such walls as are +found suggest that the dwellings had been densely clustered, and carried +to the height of several stories. Much of the space between the village +on the hill and the site of the Spanish church on the plain at its foot +is covered with masonry débris, part of which has slid down from above +(<a href = "#plateXLVI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XLVI</span></a>).</p> + +<!--png 221--> +<!--png 222--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLVI" id = "plateXLVI" +href = "images/plates/plate46.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate46thumb.png" width = "292" height = "450" +alt = "plan of Hawikuh" +title = "plan of Hawikuh"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate46.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XLVI. Hawikuh, plan.</span></p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">81</span> +<a name = "page081" id = "page081"> </a> +<!--png 181--> +The arrangement suggests a large principal court of irregular form. The +surrounding clusters are very irregularly disposed, the directions of +the prevailing lines of walls greatly varying in different groups. There +is a suggestion also of several smaller courts, as well as of alleyways +leading to the principal one.</p> + +<p>The church, built on the plain below at a distance of about 200 feet +from the main village, seems to have been surrounded by several groups +of rooms and inclosures of various sizes, differing somewhat in +character from those within the village. These groups are scattered and +open, and the small amount of debris leads to the conclusion that this +portion of the village was not more than a single story in height. (<a +href = "#plateXLVII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XLVII</span></a>.)</p> + +<p>The destruction of the village has been so complete that no vestige +of constructional details remains, with the exception of a row of posts +in a building near the church. The governor of Zuñi stated that these +posts were part of a projecting porch similar to those seen in +connection with modern houses. (See Pls. <a href = "#plateLXXI"><span +class = "smallroman">LXXI</span></a>, <a href = "#plateLXXV"><span class += "smallroman">LXXV</span></a>.) Suggestions of this feature are met +with at other points on the plain, but they all occur within the newer +portion of the village around the church. Some of the larger inclosures +in this portion of the village were very lightly constructed, and cover +large areas. They were probably used as corrals. Inclosures for this +purpose occur at other pueblos traditionally ascribed to the same +age.</p> + +<!--png 229--> +<!--png 230--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLVIII" id = "plateXLVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate48.png" width = "486" height = "299" +alt = "Hawikuh church" +title = "Hawikuh church"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XLVIII. Adobe church at Hawikuh.</p> + +<p>The church in this village was constructed of adobe bricks, without +the introduction of any stonework. The bricks appear to have been molded +with an unusual degree of care. The massive angles of the northwest, or +altar end of the structure, have survived the stonework of the adjoining +village and stand to-day 13 feet high. (<a href = "#plateXLVIII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XLVIII</span></a>.)</p> + +<!--png 236--> +<!--png 237--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateL" id = "plateL"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate50.png" width = "484" height = "301" +alt = "Ketchipauan" +title = "Ketchipauan"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate L. Ketchipauan.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_2" id = "chapIII_2_2"> +KETCHIPAUAN.</a></h6> + +<p>The small village of Ketchipauan appears to have been arranged about +two courts of unequal dimensions. It is difficult to determine, however, +how much of the larger court, containing the stone church, is of later +construction. (<a href = "#plateXLIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XLIX</span></a>.)</p> + +<!--png 233--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXLIX" id = "plateXLIX" +href = "images/plates/plate49.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate49thumb.png" width = "336" height = "565" +alt = "plan of Ketchipanan" +title = "plan of Ketchipanan"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate49.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate XLIX. Ketchipanan, plan.</span></p> + +<p>All the northwest portion of the village is now one large inclosure +or corral, whose walls have apparently been built of the fallen masonry +from the surrounding houses, leaving the central space clear. This wall +on the northeast side of the large inclosure apparently follows the jogs +and angles of the original houses. This may have been the outer line of +rooms, as traces of buildings occur for some distance within it. On the +opposite side the wall is nearly continuous, the jogs being of slight +projection. Here some traces of dwellings occur outside of the wall in +places to a depth of three rooms. The same thing occurs also at the +north corner. The continuation of these lines suggests a rectangular +court of considerable size, bounded symmetrically by groups of +compartments averaging three rooms deep. (<a href = "#plateL">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">L</span></a>.)</p> + +<p>Several much smaller inclosures made in the same way occur in the +village, but they apparently do not conform to the original courts.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">82</span> +<a name = "page082" id = "page082"> </a> +<!--png 182--> +At the present time dwelling rooms are traceable over a portion of the +area south and west of the church. As shown on the plan, upright posts +occasionally occur. These appear to have been incorporated into the +original walls, but the latter are so ruined that this can not be stated +positively, as such posts have sometimes been incorporated in modern +corral walls. In places they suggest the balcony-like feature seen in +modern houses, as in Hawikuh, but in the east portion of the pueblo they +are irregularly scattered about the rooms. A considerable area on the +west side of the ruin is covered with loosely scattered stones, +affording no suggestions of a ground plan. They do not seem sufficient +in amount to be the remains of dwelling rooms.</p> + +<!--png 240--> +<!--png 241--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLI" id = "plateLI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate51.png" width = "482" height = "295" +alt = "Ketchipauan church" +title = "Ketchipauan church"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LI. Stone church at Ketchipauan.</p> + +<p>The Spanish church in this pueblo was built of stone, but the walls +were much more massive than those of the dwellings. The building is well +preserved, most of the walls standing 8 or 10 feet high, and in places +14 feet. This church was apparently built by Indian labor, as the walls +everywhere show the chinking with small stones characteristic of the +native work. In this village also, the massive Spanish construction has +survived the dwelling houses.</p> + +<p>The ground plan of the church shows that the openings were splayed in +the thickness of the walls, at an angle of about 45°. In the doorway, in +the east end of the building, the greater width of the opening is on the +inside, a rather unusual arrangement; in the window, on the north side, +this arrangement is reversed, the splay being outward. On the south side +are indications of a similar opening, but at the present time the wall +is so broken out that no well defined jamb can be traced, and it is +impossible to determine whether the splayed opening was used or not. The +stones of the masonry are laid with extreme care at the angles and in +the faces of these splays, producing a highly finished effect.</p> + +<p>The position of the beam-holes on the inner face of the wall suggests +that the floor of the church had been raised somewhat above the ground, +and that there may have been a cellar-like space under it. No beams are +now found, however, and no remains of wood are seen in the “altar” end +of the church. At the present time there are low partitions dividing the +inclosed area into six rooms or cells. The Indians state that these were +built at a late date to convert the church into a defense against the +hostile Apache from the south. These partitions apparently formed no +part of the original design, yet it is difficult to see how they could +have served as a defense, unless they were intended to be roofed over +and thus converted into completely inclosed rooms. A stone of somewhat +larger size than usual has been built into the south wall of the church. +Upon its surface some native artist has engraved a rudely drawn +mask.</p> + +<p>About 150 yards southeast from the church, and on the edge of the low +mesa upon which the ruin stands, has been constructed a reservoir of +large size which furnished the pueblo with a reserve water supply. The +ordinary supply was probably derived from the valley below, where +<span class = "pagenum">83</span> +<a name = "page083" id = "page083"> </a> +<!--png 185--> +water is found at no great distance from the pueblo. Springs may also +have formerly existed near the village, but this reservoir, located +where the drainage of a large area discharges, must have materially +increased the water supply. The basin or depression is about 110 feet in +diameter and its present depth in the center is about 4 feet; but it has +undoubtedly been filled in by sediment since its abandonment. More than +half of its circumference was originally walled in, but at the present +time the old masonry is indicated only by an interrupted row of large +foundation stones and fallen masonry. Some large stones, apparently +undisturbed portions of the mesa edge, have been incorporated into the +inclosing masonry. The Indians stated that originally the bottom of this +basin was lined with stones, but these statements could not be verified. +Without excavation on the upper side, the basin faded imperceptibly into +the rising ground of the surrounding drainage. Other examples of these +basin reservoirs are met with in this region.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_3" id = "chapIII_2_3"> +CHALOWE.</a></h6> + +<p>About 15° north of west from Hawikuh, and distant 1½ miles from it, +begins the series of ruins called Chalowe. They are located on two low +elevations or foothills extending in a southwestern direction from the +group of hills, upon whose eastern extremity Hawikuh is built. The +southernmost of the series covers a roughly circular area about 40 feet +in diameter. Another cluster, measuring about 30 feet by 20, lies +immediately north of it, with an intervening depression of a foot or so. +About 475 feet northwest occurs a group of three rooms situated on a +slight rise, A little east of north and a half a mile distant from the +latter is a small hill, upon which is located a cluster of about the +same form and dimensions as the one first described. Several more +vaguely defined clusters are traceable near this last one, but they are +all of small dimensions.</p> + +<p>This widely scattered series of dwelling clusters, according to the +traditional accounts, belonged to one tribe, which was known by the +general name of Chalowe. It is said to have been inhabited at the time +of the first arrival of the Spaniards. The general character and +arrangement however, are so different from the prevailing type in this +region that it seems hardly probable that it belonged to the same people +and the same age as the other ruins.</p> + +<p>No standing walls are found in any portion of the group, and the +small amount of scattered masonry suggests that the rooms were only one +story high. Yet the débris of masonry may have been largely covered up +by drifting sand. Now it is hardly possible to trace the rooms, and over +most of the area only scattered stones mark the positions of the groups +of dwellings.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_4" id = "chapIII_2_4"> +HAMPASSAWAN.</a></h6> + +<p>Of the village of Hampassawan, which is said traditionally to have +been one of the seven cities of Cibola visited by Coronado, nothing now +<span class = "pagenum">84</span> +<a name = "page084" id = "page084"> </a> +<!--png 186--> +remains but two detached rooms, both showing vestiges of an upper story. +With this exception, the destruction of the village is complete and only +a low rise in the plain marks its site. Owing to its exposed position, +the fallen walls have been completely covered with drifting sand and +earth, no vestige of the buildings showing through the dense growth of +sagebrush that now covers it.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig15" id = "fig15" href = "images/figures/fig15.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig15thumb.png" width = "213" height = "272" +alt = "fig. 15 thumbnail" +title = "fig. 15 thumbnail"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/figures/fig15.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 15.</span> +Hampassawan, plan. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The two surviving rooms referred to appear to have been used from +time to time, as outlooks over corn fields close by, and as a defense +against the Navajo. Their final abandonment, and that of the cultivation +of the adjoining fields, is said to have been due to the killing of a +<span class = "pagenum">85</span> +<a name = "page085" id = "page085"> </a> +<!--png 189--> +Zuñi there, by the Navajo, within very recent times. These rooms have +been several times repaired, the one on the west particularly. In the +latter an additional wall has been built upon the northern side, as +shown on the plan, <a href = "#fig15">Fig. 15</a>. The old roof seems to +have survived until recently, for, although at the present time the room +is covered with a roof of rudely split cedar beams, the remains of the +old, carefully built roof lie scattered about in the corners of the +room, under the dirt and débris. The openings are very small and seem to +have been modified since the original construction, but it is difficult +to distinguish between the older original structure and the more recent +additions.</p> + +<!--png 247--> +<!--png 248--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLIII" id = "plateLIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate53.png" width = "421" height = "318" +alt = "K’iakima" +title = "K’iakima"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LIII. Site of K’iakima, at base of Tâaaiyalana.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_5" id = "chapIII_2_5"> +K’IAKIMA.</a></h6> + +<p>On the south side of the isolated mesa of Tâaaiyalana and occupying a +high rounded spur of foothills, is the ruined village of K’iakima (<a +href = "#plateLII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LII</span></a>). A +long gulch on the west side of the spur contains, for 300 or 400 yards, +a small stream which is fed from springs near the ruined village.</p> + +<!--png 244--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLII" id = "plateLII" +href = "images/plates/plate52.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate52thumb.png" width = "369" height = "304" +alt = "plan of K’iakima" +title = "plan of K’iakima"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate52.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate LII. K’iakima, plan.</span></p> + +<p>The entire surface of the hill is covered with scattered débris of +fallen walls, which must at one time have formed a village of +considerable size. Over most of this area the walls can not be traced; +the few rooms which can be distinctly outlined, occurring in a group on +the highest part of the hill. Standing walls are here seen, but they are +apparently recent, one room showing traces of a chimney (<a href = +"#plateLIV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LIV</span></a>). Some of the +more distinct inclosures, built from fallen masonry of the old village, +seem to have been intended for corrals. This is the case also with the +remains found on the cliffs to the north of the village, whose position +is shown on the plan (<a href = "#plateLIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LIII</span></a>). Here nearly all the scattered stones of +the original one-story buildings, have been utilized for these large +inclosures. It is quite possible that these smaller structures on the +ledge of the mesa were built and occupied at a much later date than the +principal village. <a href = "#plateLIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LIII</span></a> illustrates a portion of the base of +Tâaaiyalana where these inclosures appear.</p> + +<!--png 251--> +<!--png 252--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLIV" id = "plateLIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate54.png" width = "452" height = "293" +alt = "K’iakima wall" +title = "K’iakima wall"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LIV. Recent wall at K’iakima.</p> + +<p>A striking feature of this ruin is the occurrence in the northeast +corner of the village of large upright slabs of stone. The largest of +these is about 3 feet wide and stands 5½ feet out of the ground. One of +the slabs is of such symmetrical form that it suggests skillful +artificial treatment, but the stone was used just as it came from a seam +in the cliff above. From the same seam many slabs of nearly equal size +and symmetrical form have fallen out and now lie scattered about on the +talus below. Some are remarkable for their perfectly rectangular form, +while all are distinguished by a notable uniformity in thickness. Close +by, and apparently forming part of the same group, are a number of +stones imbedded in the ground with their upper edges exposed and placed +at right angles to the faces of the vertical monuments. The taller slabs +are said by the Indians to have been erected as a defense against the +attacks of the Apache upon this pueblo, but only a portion of the group +could, from their position, have been of any use for this +<span class = "pagenum">86</span> +<a name = "page086" id = "page086"> </a> +<!--png 190--> +purpose. The stones probably mark graves. Although thorough excavation +of the hard soil could not be undertaken, digging to the depth of 18 +inches revealed the same character of pottery fragments, ashes, etc., +found in many of the pueblo graves. Mr. E. W. Nelson found +identical remains in graves in the Rio San Francisco region which he +excavated in collecting pottery. Comparatively little is known, however, +of the burial practices of this region, so it would be difficult to +decide whether this was an ordinary method of burial or not.</p> + +<p>This pueblo has been identified by Mr. Cushing, through Zuñi +tradition, as the scene of the death of Estevanico, the negro who +accompanied the first Spanish expedition to Cibola.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_6" id = "chapIII_2_6"> +MATSAKI.</a></h6> + +<p>Matsaki is situated on a foothill at the base of Tâaaiyalana, near +its northwestern extremity. This pueblo is in about the same state of +preservation as K’iakima, no complete rooms being traceable over most of +the area. Traces of walls, where seen, are not uniform in direction, +suggesting irregular grouping of the village. At two points on the plan +rooms partially bounded by standing walls are found. These appear to owe +their preservation to their occupation as outlooks over fields in the +vicinity long after the destruction of the pueblo. One of the two rooms +shows only a few feet of rather rude masonry. The walls of the other +room, in one corner, stand the height of a full story above the +surrounding débris, a low room under it having been partially filled up +with fallen masonry and earth. The well preserved inner corner of the +exposed room shows lumps of clay adhering here and there to the walls, +the remnants of an interior corner chimney. No trace of the supports for +a chimney hood, such as occur in the modern fireplaces, could be found. +The form outlined against the wall by these slight remains indicates a +rather rudely constructed feature which was added at a late date to the +room and formed no part of its original construction. It was probably +built while the room was used as a farming outlook. As shown on the +ground plan (<a href = "#plateLV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LV</span></a>), a small cluster of houses once stood at +some little distance to the southwest of the main pueblo and was +connected with the latter by a series of rooms. The intervening space +may have been a court. At the northern edge of the village a primitive +shrine has been erected in recent times and is still in use. It is +rudely constructed by simply piling up stones to a height of 2½ or 3 +feet, in a rudely rectangular arrangement, with an opening on the east. +This shrine, facing east, contains an upright slab of thin sandstone on +which a rude sun-symbol has been engraved. The governor of Zuñi, in +explaining the purpose of this shrine, compared its use to that of our +own astronomical observatories, which he had seen.</p> + +<!--png 255--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLV" id = "plateLV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate55.png" width = "477" height = "356" +alt = "plan of Matsaki" +title = "plan of Matsaki"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LV. Matsaki, plan.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_7" id = "chapIII_2_7"> +PINAWA.</a></h6> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig16" id = "fig16" href = "images/figures/fig16.png"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig16thumb.png" width = "212" height = "220" +alt = "Plan of Pinawa" +title = "Plan of Pinawa"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/figures/fig16.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 16.</span> +Pinawa, plan. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The ruins of the small pueblo of Pinawa occupy a slight rise on the +south side of the Zuñi River, a short distance west of Zuñi. The road +<span class = "pagenum">87</span> +<a name = "page087" id = "page087"> </a> +<!--png 193--> +from Zuñi to Ojo Caliente traverses the ruin. Over most of the area +rooms can not be traced. One complete room, however, has been preserved +and appears to be still occupied during the cultivation of the +neighboring “milpas.” It is roofed over and in good condition, though +the general character of the masonry resembles the older work. On the +plan (<a href = "#fig16">Fig. 16</a>) it will be seen that the +stones of the original masonry have been collected and built into a +number of large inclosures, which have in turn been partly destroyed. +The positions of the entrances to these inclosures can be traced by the +absence of stones on the surface. The general outline of the corral-like +inclosures appears to have followed comparatively well preserved +portions of the original wall, as was the case at Ketchipauan. (<a href += "#plateLVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LVI</span></a>.)</p> + +<!--png 258--> +<!--png 259--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLVI" id = "plateLVI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate56.png" width = "456" height = "308" +alt = "Pinawa wall" +title = "Pinawa wall"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LVI. Standing wall at Pinawa.</p> + +<p>On the southwest side of the pueblo, portions of the outer wall are +distinctly traceable, some of the stones being still in position. This +<span class = "pagenum">88</span> +<a name = "page088" id = "page088"> </a> +<!--png 194--> +portion of the outline is distinguished by a curious series of curves, +resembling portions of Nutria and Pescado, but intersecting in an +unusual manner.</p> + +<p>The Ojo Caliente road passes between the main ruin and the standing +room above described. The remnants of the fallen masonry are so few and +so promiscuously scattered over this area that the continuity of remains +can not be fully traced.</p> + +<!--png 262--> +<!--png 263--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLVII" id = "plateLVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate57.png" width = "451" height = "241" +alt = "Halona" +title = "Halona"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LVII. Halona excavations as seen from Zuñi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_8" id = "chapIII_2_8"> +HALONA.</a></h6> + +<p>An ancient pueblo called Halona is said to have belonged to the +Cibolan group, and to have been inhabited at the time of the conquest. +It occupied a portion of the site upon which the present pueblo of Zuñi +stands. A part of this pueblo was built on the opposite side of the +river, where the remains of walls were encountered at a slight depth +below the surface of the ground in excavating for the foundations of Mr. +Cushing’s house. At that time only scattered remains of masonry were met +with, and they furnished but little indication of details of plan or +arrangement. Later—during the summer of 1888—Mr. Cushing +made extensive additions to his house on the south side of the river, +and in excavating for the foundations laid bare a number of small rooms. +Excavation was continued until December of that year, when a large part +of the ancient village had been exposed. <a href = "#plateLVII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">LVII</span></a>, from a photograph, +illustrates a portion of these remains as seen from the southwest corner +of Zuñi. The view was taken in the morning during a light fall of snow +which, lightly covering the tops of the walls left standing in the +excavations, sharply defined their outlines against the shadows of the +rooms.</p> + +<p>It seems impossible to restore the entire outline of the portion of +Halona that has served as a nucleus for modern Zuñi from such data as +can be procured. At several points of the present village, however, +vestiges of the old pueblo can be identified. Doubtless if access could +be obtained to all the innermost rooms of the pueblo some of them would +show traces of ancient methods of construction sufficient, at least, to +admit of a restoration of the general form of the ancient pueblo. At the +time the village was surveyed such examination was not practicable. The +portion of the old pueblo serving as a nucleus for later construction +would probably be found under houses Nos. 1 and 4, forming practically +one mass of rooms. Strangers and outsiders are not admitted to these +innermost rooms. Outcrops in the small cluster No. 2 indicate by their +position a continuous wall of the old pueblo, probably the external one. +Portions of the ancient outer wall are probably incorporated into the +west side of cluster No. 1. On the north side of cluster No. 2 (see <a +href = "#plateLXXVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXVI</span></a>) +may be seen a buttress-like projection whose construction of small +tabular stones strongly contrasts with the character of the surrounding +walls, and indicates that it is a fragment of the ancient pueblo. This +projecting buttress answers no purpose whatever in its present +position.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">89</span> +<a name = "page089" id = "page089"> </a> +<!--png 197--> +The above suggestions are confirmed by another feature in the same +house-cluster. On continuing the line of this buttress through the +governor’s house we find a projecting fragment of second story wall, the +character and finish of which is clearly shown in <a href = +"#plateLVIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LVIII</span></a>. Its +general similarity to ancient masonry and contrast with the present +careless methods of construction are very noticeable. The height of this +fragment above the ground suggests that the original pueblo was in a +very good state of preservation when it was first utilized as a nucleus +for later additions. That portion under house No. 1 is probably equally +well preserved. The frequent renovation of rooms by the application of a +mud coating renders the task of determining the ancient portions of the +cluster by the character of the masonry a very difficult one. Ceilings +would probably longest retain the original appearance of the ancient +rooms as they are not subjected to such renovation.</p> + +<!--png 266--> +<!--png 267--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLVIII" id = "plateLVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate58.png" width = "486" height = "348" +alt = "Halona wall" +title = "Halona wall"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LVIII. Fragments of Halona wall.</p> + +<p>Mr. Cushing thought that the outer western wall of the ancient pueblo +was curved in outline. It is more probable, however, that it regulated +the lines of the present outer rooms, and is reflected in them, as the +usual practice of these builders was to put one partition directly over +another in adding to the height of a building. This would suggest a +nearly rectangular form, perhaps with jogs and offsets, for the old +builders could not incorporate a curved outer wall into a mass of +rectangular cells, such as that seen in the present pueblo. On the other +hand, the outer wall of the original pueblo may have been outside of +rooms now occupied, for the village had been abandoned for some time +before the colony returned to the site.</p> + +<!--png 270--> +<!--png 271--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLIX" id = "plateLIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate59.png" width = "479" height = "297" +alt = "Tâaaiyalana" +title = "Tâaaiyalana"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LIX. The mesa of Tâaaiyalana, from Zuñi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_9" id = "chapIII_2_9"> +TÂAAIYALANA.</a></h6> + +<p>On the abandonment of the pueblos known as the Seven Cities of +Cibola, supposed to have occurred at the time of the general uprising of +the pueblos in 1680, the inhabitants of all the Cibolan villages sought +refuge on the summit of Tâaaiyalana, an isolated mesa, 3 miles southeast +from Zuñi, and there built a number of pueblo clusters.</p> + +<p>This mesa, otherwise known as “Thunder Mountain,” rises to the height +of 1,000 feet above the plain, and is almost inaccessible. There are two +foot trails leading to the summit, each of which in places traverses +abrupt slopes of sandstone where holes have been pecked into the rock to +furnish foot and hand holds. From the northeast side the summit of the +mesa can be reached by a rough and tortuous burro trail. All the rest of +the mesa rim is too precipitous to be scaled. Its appearance as seen +from Zuñi is shown in <a href = "#plateLIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LIX</span></a>.</p> + +<p>On the southern portion of this impregnable site and grouped about a +point where nearly the whole drainage of the mesa top collects, are +found the village remains. The Zuñis stated that the houses were +distributed in six groups or clusters, each taking the place of one of +the abandoned towns. Mr. Frank H. Cushing <a class = "tag" name = "tag4" +id = "tag4" href = "#note4">4</a> was also under the impression +<span class = "pagenum">90</span> +<a name = "page090" id = "page090"> </a> +<!--png 198--> +that these houses had been built as six distinct clusters of one +village, and he has found that at the time of the Pueblo rebellion, but +six of the Cibolan villages were occupied. An examination of the plan, +however, will at once show that no such definite scheme of arrangement +governed the builders. There are but three, or at most four groups that +could be defined as distinct clusters, and even in the case of these the +disposition is so irregular and their boundaries so ill defined, through +the great number of outlying small groups scattered about, that they can +hardly be considered distinct. There are really thirty-eight separate +buildings (<a href = "#plateLX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LX</span></a>) ranging in size from one of two rooms, near +the southern extremity to one of one hundred and three rooms, situated +at the southwestern corner of the whole group and close to the western +edge of the mesa where the foot trails reach the summit. There is also +great diversity in the arrangement of rooms. In some cases the clusters +are quite compact, and in others the rooms are distributed in narrow +rows. In the large cluster at the northwestern extremity the houses are +arranged around a court; with this exception the clusters of rooms are +scattered about in an irregular manner, regardless of any defensive +arrangement of the buildings. The builders evidently placed the greatest +reliance on their impregnable site, and freely adopted such arrangement +as convenience dictated.</p> + +<!--png 274--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLX" id = "plateLX" +href = "images/plates/plate60.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate60thumb.png" width = "362" height = "223" +alt = "plan of Tâaaiyalana" +title = "plan of Tâaaiyalana"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate60.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate LX. Tâaaiyalana, plan.</span></p> + +<p class = "mynote"> +The outlined area in the lower right was printed as an inset directly +below the scale of distance.</p> + +<p>The masonry of these villages was roughly constructed, the walls +being often less than a foot thick. Very little adobe mortar seems to +have been used; some of the thickest and best preserved walls have +apparently been laid nearly dry (<a href = "#plateLXI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXI</span></a>). The few openings still preserved also show +evidence of hasty and careless construction. Over most of the area the +debris of the fallen walls is very clearly marked, and is but little +encumbered with earth or drifted sand. This imparts an odd effect of +newness to these ruins, as though the walls had recently fallen. The +small amount of debris suggests that the majority of these buildings +never were more than one story high, though in four of the broadest +clusters (see plan, <a href = "#plateLX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LX</span></a>) a height of two, and possibly three, stories +may have been attained. All the ruins are thickly covered by a very +luxurious growth of braided cactus, but little of which is found +elsewhere in the neighborhood. The extreme southeastern cluster, +consisting of four large rooms, differs greatly in character from the +rest of the ruins. Here the rooms or inclosures are defined only by a +few stones on the surface of the ground and partly embedded in the soil. +There is no trace of the debris of fallen walls. These outlined +inclosures appear never to have been walled to any considerable height. +Within one of the rooms is a slab of stone, about which a few ceremonial +plume sticks have been set on end within recent times.</p> + +<!--png 277--> +<!--png 278--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXI" id = "plateLXI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate61.png" width = "457" height = "281" +alt = "Tâaaiyalana walls" +title = "Tâaaiyalana walls"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXI. Standing walls of Tâaaiyalana ruins.</p> + +<p>The motive that led to the occupation of this mesa was defense; the +cause that led to the selection of the particular site was facility for +procuring a water supply. The trail on the west side passes a spring +half way down the mesa. There was another spring close to the foot +<span class = "pagenum">91</span> +<a name = "page091" id = "page091"> </a> +<!--png 201--> +trail on the south side; this, however, was lower, being almost at the +foot of the talus.</p> + +<p>In addition to these water sources, the builders collected and stored +the drainage of the mesa summit near the southern gap or recess. At this +point are still seen the remains of two reservoirs or dams built of +heavy masonry. Only a few stones are now in place, but these indicate +unusually massive construction. Another reservoir occurs farther along +the mesa rim to the southeast, beyond the limits of the plan as given. +As may be seen from the plan (<a href = "#plateLX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LX</span></a>) the two reservoirs at the gap are quite +close together. These receptacles have been much filled up with +sediment. <a href = "#plateLXII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXII</span></a> gives a view of the principal or +westernmost reservoir as seen from the northeast. On the left are the +large stones once incorporated in the masonry of the dam. This masonry +appears to have originally extended around three-fourths of the +circumference of the reservoir. As at Ketchipauan, previously described, +the upper portion of the basins merged insensibly into the general +drainage and had no definite limit.</p> + +<!--png 281--> +<!--png 282--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXII" id = "plateLXII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate62.png" width = "452" height = "301" +alt = "Tâaaiyalana reservoir" +title = "Tâaaiyalana reservoir"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXII. Remains of a reservoir on Tâaaiyalana.</p> + +<p>The Zuñi claim to have here practiced a curious method of water +storage. They say that whenever there was snow on the ground the +villagers would turn out in force and roll up huge snowballs, which were +finally collected into these basins, the gradually melting snow +furnishing a considerable quantity of water. The desert environment has +taught these people to avail themselves of every expedient that could +increase their supply of water.</p> + +<p>It is proper to state that in the illustrated plan of the Tâaaiyalana +ruins the mesa margin was sketched in without the aid of instrumental +sights, and hence is not so accurately recorded as the plans and +relative positions of the houses. It was all that could be done at the +time, and will sufficiently illustrate the general relation of the +buildings to the surrounding topography.</p> + +<!--png 293--> +<!--png 294--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXV" id = "plateLXV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate65.png" width = "453" height = "262" +alt = "Kin-tiel walls" +title = "Kin-tiel walls"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXV. Standing walls of Kin-tiel.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_2_10" id = "chapIII_2_10"> +KIN-TIEL.</a></h6> + +<p>All the ruins above described bear close traditional and historic +relationship to Zuñi. This is not the case with the splendidly preserved +ancient pueblo of Kin-tiel, but the absence of such close historic +connection is compensated for by its architectural interest. Differing +radically in its general plan from the ruins already examined, it still +suggests that some resemblance to the more ancient portions of Nutria +and Pescado, as will be seen by comparing the ground plans (Pls. <a href += "#plateLXVII"><span class = "smallroman">LXVII</span></a> and <a href += "#plateLXIX"><span class = "smallroman">LXIX</span></a>). Its state of +preservation is such that it throws light on details which have not +survived the general destruction in the other pueblos. These features +will be referred to in the discussion and comparison of these +architectural groups by constructional details in Chapter <span class = +"smallroman">IV</span>.</p> + +<p>This pueblo, located nearly midway between Cibola and Tusayan, is +given on some of the maps as Pueblo Grande. It is situated on a small +<span class = "pagenum">92</span> +<a name = "page092" id = "page092"> </a> +<!--png 202--> +arm of the Pueblo Colorado wash, 22 or 23 miles north of Navajo Springs, +and about the same distance south from Pueblo Colorado (Ganado +post-office). Geographically the ruins might belong to either Tusayan or +Cibola, but Mr. Cushing has collected traditional references among the +Zuñi as to the occupation of this pueblo by related peoples at a time +not far removed from the first Spanish visit to this region.</p> + +<!--png 285--> +<!--png 286--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXIII" id = "plateLXIII" +href = "images/plates/plate63.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate63thumb.png" width = "238" height = "393" +alt = "plan of Kin-tiel" +title = "plan of Kin-tiel"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate63.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate LXIII. Kin-tiel, plan (also showing excavations).</span></p> + +<p>The plan (<a href = "#plateLXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXIII</span></a>) shows a marked contrast to the +irregularity seen in the ruins previously described. The pueblo was +clearly defined by a continuous and unbroken outer wall, which probably +extended to the full height of the highest stories (<a href = +"#plateLXIV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXIV</span></a>). This +symmetrical form is all the more remarkable in a pueblo of such large +dimensions, as, with the exception of Pueblo Bonito of the Chaco group, +it is the largest ancient pueblo examined by this Bureau. This village +seems to belong to the same type as the Chaco examples, representing the +highest development attained in building a large defensive pueblo +practically as a single house. All the terraces faced upon one or more +inclosed courts, through which access was gained to the rooms. The +openings in this outer wall, especially near the ground, were few in +number and very small in size, as shown in <a href = "#plateCIV">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">CIV</span></a>. The pueblo was built in two +wings of nearly equal size on the opposite slopes of a large sandy wash, +traversing its center from east to west. This wash doubtless at one time +furnished peculiar facilities for storage of water within or near the +village, and this must have been one of the inducements for the +selection of the site. At the time of our survey, however, not a drop of +water was to be found about the ruin, nor could vestiges of any +construction for gathering or storing water be traced. Such vestiges +would not be likely to remain, as they must have been washed away by the +violent summer torrents or buried under the accumulating sands. Two +seasons subsequent to our work at this point it was learned that an +American, digging in some rooms on the arroyo margin, discovered the +remains of a well or reservoir, which he cleared of sand and debris and +found to be in good condition, furnishing so steady a water supply that +the discoverer settled on the spot. This was not seen by the writer. +There is a small spring, perhaps a mile from the pueblo in a +northeasterly direction, but this source would have been wholly +insufficient for the needs of so large a village. It may have furnished +a much more abundant supply, however, when it was in constant use, for +at the time of our visit it seemed to be choked up. About a mile and a +half west quite a lagoon forms from the collected drainage of several +broad valleys, and contains water for a long time after the cessation of +the rains. About 6 miles to the north, in a depression of a broad +valley, an extensive lake is situated, and its supply seems to be +constant throughout the year, except, perhaps, during an unusually dry +season. These various bodies of water were undoubtedly utilized in the +horticulture of the occupants of Kin-tiel; in fact, near the borders of +the larger lake referred to is a small house of two rooms; much similar +in workmanship to the main +<span class = "pagenum">93</span> +<a name = "page093" id = "page093"> </a> +<!--png 205--> +pueblo, evidently designed as an outlook over fields. This building is +illustrated in <a href = "#plateLXVI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXVI</span></a>.</p> + +<!--png 289--> +<!--png 290--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXIV" id = "plateLXIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate64.png" width = "442" height = "264" +alt = "Kin-tiel wall" +title = "Kin-tiel wall"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXIV. North wall of Kin-tiel.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the inner houses differs in the two halves of the +ruin. It will be seen that in the north half the general arrangement is +roughly parallel with the outer walls, with the exception of a small +group near the east end of the arroyo. In the south half, on the other +hand, the inner rows are nearly at right angles to the outer room +clusters. An examination of the contours of the site will reveal the +cause of this difference in the different configuration of the slopes in +the two cases. In the south half the rows of rooms have been built on +two long projecting ridges, and the diverging small cluster in the north +half owes its direction to a similar cause. The line of outer wall being +once fixed as a defensive bulwark, there seems to have been but little +restriction in the adjustment of the inner buildings to conform to the +irregularities of the site. (<a href = "#plateLXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXIII</span></a>.)</p> + +<p>Only three clearly defined means of access to the interior of the +pueblo could be found in the outer walls, and of these only two were +suitable for general use. One was at a reentering angle of the outer +wall, just south of the east end of the arroyo, where the north wall, +continued across the arroyo, overlaps the outer wall of the south half, +and the other one was near the rounded northeastern corner of the +pueblo. The third opening was a doorway of ordinary size in the thick +north wall. It seems probable that other gateways once existed, +especially in the south half. From its larger size and more compact +arrangement this south half would seem to have greatly needed such +facilities, but the preserved walls show no trace of them.</p> + +<p>The ground plan furnishes indications, mostly in the north half, of +several large rooms of circular form, but broken down remains of square +rooms are so much like those of round ones in appearance, owing to the +greater amount of débris that collects at the corners, that it could not +be definitely determined that the ceremonial rooms here were of the +circular form so common in the ancient pueblos. While only circular +kivas have been found associated with ancient pueblos of this type, the +kivas of all the Cibola ruins above described are said by the Zuñis to +have been rectangular. The question can be decided for this pueblo only +by excavation on a larger scale than the party was prepared to +undertake. Slight excavation at a point where a round room was indicated +on the surface, revealed portions of straight walls only.</p> + +<!--png 297--> +<!--png 298--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXVI" id = "plateLXVI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate66.png" width = "454" height = "269" +alt = "Kinna-Zinde" +title = "Kinna-Zinde"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXVI. Kinna-Zinde.</p> + +<p>The large size of the refuse heap on the south side of the village +indicates that the site had been occupied for many generations. +Notwithstanding this long period of occupation, no important structure +of the village seems to have extended beyond the plan. On the north +side, outside the main wall, are seen several rectangles faintly +outlined by stones, but these do not appear to have been rooms. They +resemble similar inclosures seen in connection with ruined pueblos +farther south, which proved on excavation to contain graves.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">94</span> +<a name = "page094" id = "page094"> </a> +<!--png 206--> +The positions of the few excavations made are indicated on the plan (<a +href = "#plateLXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXIII</span></a>). Our facilities for such work were most +meager, and whatever results were secured were reached at no great +distance from the surface. One of these excavations, illustrated in <a +href = "#plateC">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">C</span></a>, will +be described at greater length in Chapter <span class = +"smallroman">IV</span>.</p> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapIII_3" id = "chapIII_3"> +PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INHABITED VILLAGES.</a></h5> + +<!--png 305--> +<!--png 306--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXVIII" id = "plateLXVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate68.png" width = "468" height = "289" +alt = "Nutria" +title = "Nutria"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXVIII. Nutria, view.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_3_1" id = "chapIII_3_1"> +NUTRIA.</a></h6> + +<p>Nutria is the smallest of the three farming pueblos of Zuñi, and is +located about 23 miles by trail northeast from Zuñi at the head of +Nutria valley. The water supply at this point is abundant, and furnishes +a running stream largely utilized in irrigating fields in the vicinity. +Most of the village is compactly arranged, as may be seen from the plan +(<a href = "#plateLXVII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXVII</span></a> +and <a href = "#fig17">Fig. 17</a>), but a few small clusters, of late +construction, containing two or three rooms each, are situated toward +the east at quite a distance from the principal group. It is now +occupied solely as a farming pueblo during the planting and harvesting +season.</p> + +<!--png 301--> +<!--png 302--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXVII" id = "plateLXVII" +href = "images/plates/plate67.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate67thumb.png" width = "366" height = "183" +alt = "plan of Nutria" +title = "plan of Nutria"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate67.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate LXVII. Nutria, plan.</span></p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig17" id = "fig17"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig17.png" width = "417" height = "211" +alt = "Nutria diagram" +title = "Nutria diagram"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 17.</span> +Nutria, plan; small diagram, old wall.</p> + +<p>The outline of this small pueblo differs greatly from those of most +of the Cibolan villages. The village (<a href = "#plateLXVIII">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">LXVIII</span></a>), particularly in its +northernmost cluster, somewhat approximates the form of the ancient +pueblo of Kin-tiel (<a href = "#plateLXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXIII</span></a>), and has apparently been built on the +remains of an older village of somewhat corresponding form, as indicated +by its curved outer wall. Fragments of carefully constructed masonry of +the ancient type, contrasting noticeably with the surrounding modern +construction, afford additional evidence of this. The ancient village +must have been provided originally with ceremonial rooms or kivas, but +no traces of such rooms are now to be found.</p> + +<p>At the close of the harvest, when the season of feasts and +ceremonials begins, lasting through most of the winter, the occupants of +these farming +<span class = "pagenum">95</span> +<a name = "page095" id = "page095"> </a> +<!--png 209--> +villages close up their houses and move back to the main pueblo leaving +them untenanted until the succeeding spring.</p> + +<p>The great number of abandoned and ruined rooms is very noticeable in +the farming pueblos illustrated in this and two of the succeeding plans +(Pls. <a href = "#plateLXIX"><span class = "smallroman">LXIX</span></a> +and <a href = "#plateLXXIII"><span class = +"smallroman">LXXIII</span></a>). The families that farm in their +vicinity seem to occupy scarcely more than half of the available +rooms.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_3_2" id = "chapIII_3_2"> +PESCADO.</a></h6> + +<p>This village, also a Zuñi farming pueblo, is situated in a large +valley about 12 miles northeast from Zuñi. Although it is much larger +than Nutria it is wholly comprised within the compact group illustrated. +The tendency to build small detached houses noticed at Nutria and at Ojo +Caliente has not manifested itself here. The prevalence of abandoned and +roofless houses is also noticeable.</p> + +<!--png 309--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXIX" id = "plateLXIX" +href = "images/plates/plate69.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate69thumb.png" width = "452" height = "304" +alt = "plan of Pescado" +title = "plan of Pescado"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate69.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate LXIX. Pescado, plan.</span></p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig18" id = "fig18"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig18.png" width = "448" height = "286" +alt = "Pescado diagram" +title = "Pescado diagram"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 18.</span> +Pescado, plan, old wall diagram.</p> + +<p>The outlines of the original court inclosing pueblo (<a href = +"#plateLXX">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXX</span></a>) are very +clearly marked, as the farming Zuñis in their use of this site have +scarcely gone outside of the original limits of the ancient pueblo. The +plan, <a href = "#plateLXIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXIX</span></a> and <a href = "#fig18">Fig. 18</a>, shows a +small irregular row built in the large inclosed court; this row, with +the inclosures and corrals that surround it, probably formed no part of +the original plan. The full curved outline is broken only at the west +end of the village by small additions to the outer wall, and the north +and east walls also closely follow the boundary of the original pueblo. +In fact, at two points along the north wall fragments of carefully +executed masonry, probably forming part of the external wall of the +ancient pueblo, are still preserved (<a href = "#plateLXXII">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">LXXII</span></a>). This outer wall was probably +once continuous to the full height of the +<span class = "pagenum">96</span> +<a name = "page096" id = "page096"> </a> +<!--png 210--> +pueblo, but the partial restorations of the buildings by the Zuñi +farmers resemble more closely the modern arrangement. Small rooms have +been added to the outside of the cluster and in some cases the terraces +are reached by external stone steps, in contrast with the defensive +arrangement prevailing generally in pueblos of this form. A number of +dome-shaped ovens have been built outside the walls.</p> + +<!--png 312--> +<!--png 313--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXX" id = "plateLXX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate70.png" width = "472" height = "291" +alt = "Pescado court" +title = "Pescado court"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXX. Court view of Pescado, showing corrals.</p> + +<!--png 316--> +<!--png 317--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXI" id = "plateLXXI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate71.png" width = "455" height = "257" +alt = "Pescado houses" +title = "Pescado houses"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXI. Pescado houses.</p> + +<!--png 320--> +<!--png 321--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXII" id = "plateLXXII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate72.png" width = "455" height = "264" +alt = "Pescado masonry" +title = "Pescado masonry"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXII. Fragments of ancient masonry in Pescado.</p> + +<p>The principle of pueblo plan embodied in Kin-tiel, before referred +to, is traceable in this village with particular clearness, +distinguishing it from most of the Cibolan pueblos. No traces of kivas +were met with in this village.</p> + +<!--png 324--> +<!--png 325--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXIV" id = "plateLXXIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate74.png" width = "483" height = "269" +alt = "Ojo Caliente" +title = "Ojo Caliente"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXIV. General view of Ojo Caliente.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_3_3" id = "chapIII_3_3"> +OJO CALIENTE.</a></h6> + +<p>The farming village of Ojo Caliente is located near the dry wash of +the Zuñi River, and is about 15 miles distant from Zuñi, in a southerly +direction. It is about midway between Hawikuh and Ketchipauan, two of +the seven cities of Cibola above described. Though situated in fertile +and well watered country and close to the remains of the ancient +villages, it bears indications of having been built in comparatively +recent times. There are no such evidences of connection with an older +village as were found at Nutria and Pescado. The irregular and small +clusters that form this village are widely scattered over a rather rough +and broken site, as shown on the plan (Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXIII</span>). Here again a large portion of the village +is untenanted. The large cluster toward the eastern extremity of the +group, and the adjoining houses situated on the low, level ground, +compose the present inhabited village. The houses occupying the elevated +rocky sites to the west (<a href = "#plateLXXIV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXIV</span></a>) are in an advanced stage of decay, and +have been for a long time abandoned.</p> + +<!--pocket--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXIII" id = "plateLXXIII" +href = "images/plates/plate73.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate73thumb.png" width = "489" height = "183" +alt = "plan of Ojo Caliente" +title = "plan of Ojo Caliente"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate73.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate LXXIII. Ojo Caliente, plan.</span></p> + +<p>This southern portion of the Cibola district seems to have been much +exposed to the inroads of the Apache. One of the effects of this has +already been noticed in the defensive arrangement in the Ketchipauan +church. On account of such danger, the Zuñi were likely to have built +the first house-clusters here on the highest points of the rocky +promontory, notwithstanding the comparative inconvenience of such sites. +Later, as the farmers gained confidence or as times became safer, they +built houses down on the flat now occupied; but this apparently was not +done all at once. The distribution of the houses over sites of varying +degrees of inaccessibility, suggests a succession of approaches to the +occupation of the open and unprotected valley.</p> + +<p>Some of the masonry of this village is carelessly constructed, and, +as in the other farming pueblos, there is much less adobe plastering and +smoothing of outer walls than in the home pueblo.</p> + +<!--png 328--> +<!--png 329--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXV" id = "plateLXXV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate75.png" width = "452" height = "277" +alt = "Ojo Caliente house" +title = "Ojo Caliente house"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXV. House at Ojo Caliente.</p> + +<p>At the time of the survey the occupation of this village throughout +the year was proposed by several families, who wished to resort to the +parent village only at stated ceremonials and important festivals. The +comparative security of recent times is thus tending to the +disintegration of the huge central pueblo. This result must be +inevitable, as the +<span class = "pagenum">97</span> +<a name = "page097" id = "page097"> </a> +<!--png 215--> +dying out of the defensive motive brings about a realization of the +great inconvenience of the present centralized system.</p> + +<!--png 336--> +<!--png 337--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXVIII" id = "plateLXXVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate78.png" width = "485" height = "320" +alt = "Zuñi" +title = "Zuñi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXVIII. General inside view of Zuñi, looking west.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIII_3_4" id = "chapIII_3_4"> +ZUÑI.</a></h6> + +<p>The pueblo of Zuñi is built upon a small knoll on the north bank of +the Zuñi River, about three miles west of the conspicuous mesa of +Tâaaiyalana. It is the successor of all the original “Seven Cities of +Cibola” of the Spaniards, and is the largest of the modern pueblos. As +before stated, the remains of Halona, one of the “seven cities,” as +identified by Mr. Cushing, have served as a nucleus for the construction +of the modern pueblo, and have been incorporated into the most densely +clustered portions, represented on the plan (Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXVI</span>) by numbers 1 and 4.</p> + +<!--pocket--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXVI" id = "plateLXXVI" +href = "images/plates/plate76.png"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate76thumb.png" width = "352" height = "192" +alt = "plan of Zuñi" +title = "plan of Zuñi"></a></p> +<p class = "caption"> +<a href = "images/plates/plate76.png">full size</a><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps"> +Plate LXXVI. Zuñi, plan.</span></p> + +<!--png 213--> +<!--png 214--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/plates/plate76k.png" width = "457" height = "295" +alt = "key to plate 76 (Zuñi plan)" +title = "key to plate 76 (Zuñi plan)"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Key to Zuñi plan (Plate LXXVI).</p> + +<p>Some of the Cibolan villages were valley pueblos, built at a distance +from the rocky mesas and canyons that must have served as quarries for +the stone used in building. The Halona site was of this type, the +nearest supply of stone being 3 miles distant. At this point (Halona) +the Zuñi River is perennial, and furnishes a plentiful supply of water +at all seasons of the year. It disappears, however, a few miles west in +a broad, sandy wash, to appear again 20 miles below the village, +probably through the accession of small streams from springs farther +down. The so-called river furnishes the sole water supply at Zuñi, with +the exception of a single well or reservoir on the north side of the +village.</p> + +<p>Zuñi has been built at a point having no special advantages for +defense; convenience to large areas of tillable soil has apparently led +to the selection of the site. This has subjected it in part to the same +influences that had at an earlier date produced the carefully walled +fortress pueblos of the valleys, where the defensive efficiency was due +to well planned and constructed buildings. The result is that Zuñi, +while not comparable in symmetry to many of the ancient examples, +displays a remarkably compact arrangement of dwellings in the portions +of the pueblos first occupied, designated on the plan (<a href = +"#plateLXXVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXVI</span></a>) as houses +1 and 4. Owing to this restriction of lateral expansion this portion of +the pueblo has been carried to a great height.</p> + +<!--png 332--> +<!--png 333--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXVII" id = "plateLXXVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate77.png" width = "509" height = "270" +alt = "outline plan of Zuñi" +title = "outline plan of Zuñi"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXVII. Outline plan of Zuñi, showing distribution of oblique +openings.</p> + +<p><a href = "#plateLXXVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXVIII</span></a> gives a general view of these higher +terraces of the village from the southeast. A height of five distinct +terraces from the ground is attained on the south side of this cluster. +The same point, however, owing to the irregularity of the site, is only +three terraces above the ground on the north side. The summit of the +knoll upon which the older portion of Zuñi has been built is so uneven, +and the houses themselves vary so much in dimensions, that the greatest +disparity prevails in the height of terraces. A three-terrace portion of +a cluster may have but two terraces immediately alongside, and +throughout the more closely built portions of the village the exposed +height of terraces varies from 1 foot to 8 or 10 feet. <a href = +"#plateLXXIX">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXIX</span></a> +illustrates this feature.</p> + +<!--png 340--> +<!--png 341--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXIX" id = "plateLXXIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate79.png" width = "482" height = "342" +alt = "Zuñi terraces" +title = "Zuñi terraces"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXIX. Zuñi terraces.</p> + +<p>The growth of the village has apparently been far beyond the original +expectation of the builders, and the crowded additions seem to have +<span class = "pagenum">98</span> +<a name = "page098" id = "page098"> </a> +<!--png 216--> +been joined to the clusters wherever the demand for more space was most +urgent, without following any definite plan in their arrangement. In +such of the ancient pueblo ruins as afford evidence of having passed +through a similar experience, the crowding of additional cells seems to +have been made to conform to some extent to a predetermined plan. At +Kin-tiel we have seen how such additions to the number of habitable +rooms could readily be made within the open court without affecting the +symmetry and defensive efficiency of the pueblo; but here the nucleus of +the large clusters was small and compact, so that enlargement has taken +place only by the addition of rooms on the outside, both on the ground +and on upper terraces.</p> + +<!--png 344--> +<!--png 345--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXX" id = "plateLXXX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate80.png" width = "482" height = "279" +alt = "Zuñi church" +title = "Zuñi church"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXX. Old adobe church of Zuñi.</p> + +<p>The highest point of Zuñi, now showing five terraces, is said to have +had a height of seven terraces as late as the middle of the present +century, but at the time of the survey of the village no traces were +seen of such additional stories. The top of the present fifth terrace, +however, is more than 50 feet long, and affords sufficient space for the +addition of a sixth and seventh story.</p> + +<p>The court or plaza in which the church (<a href = "#plateLXXX">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">LXXX</span></a>) stands is so much larger +than such inclosures usually are when incorporated in a pueblo plan that +it seems unlikely to have formed part of the original village. It +probably resulted from locating the church prior to the construction of +the eastern rows of the village. Certain features in the houses +themselves indicate the later date of these rows.</p> + +<!--png 348--> +<!--png 349--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXI" id = "plateLXXXI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate81.png" width = "489" height = "309" +alt = "Zuñi rows" +title = "Zuñi rows"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXI. Eastern rows of Zuñi.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of dwellings about a court (<a href = +"#plateLXXXII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXII</span></a>), +characteristic of the ancient pueblos, is likely to have prevailed in +the small pueblo of Halona, about which clustered the many irregular +houses that constitute modern Zuñi. Occasional traces of such an +arrangement are still met with in portions of Zuñi, although nearly all +of the ancient pueblo has been covered with rooms of later date. In the +arrangement of Zuñi houses a noticeable difference in the manner of +clustering is found in different parts of the pueblo. That portion +designated as house No. 1 on the plan, built over the remains of the +original small pueblo, is unquestionably the oldest portion of the +village. The clustering seems to have gone on around this center to an +extraordinary and exceptional extent before any houses were built in +other portions. House No. 4 is a portion of the same structure, for +although a street or passageway intervenes it is covered with two or +three terraces, indicating that such connection was established at an +early date. The rows on the lower ground to the east (<a href = +"#plateLXXXI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXI</span></a>), where +the rooms are not so densely clustered, were built after the removal of +the defensive motive that influenced the construction of the central +pile. These portions, arranged approximately in rows, show a marked +resemblance to pueblos of known recent date. That they were built +subsequently to the main clusters is also indicated by the abundant use +of oblique openings and roof holes, where there is very little necessity +for such contrivances. This feature was originally devised to meet the +exceptional conditions of lighting +<span class = "pagenum">99</span> +<a name = "page099" id = "page099"> </a> +<!--png 219--> +imposed by dense crowding of the living rooms. It will be referred to +again in examining the details of openings, and its wide departure from +the arrangement found to prevail generally in pueblo constructions will +there be noted. The habit of making such provisions for lighting inner +rooms became fixed and was applied generally to many clusters much +smaller in size than those of other pueblos where this feature was not +developed and where the necessity for it was not felt. These less +crowded rooms of more recent construction form the eastern portion of +the pueblo, and also include the governor’s house on the south side.</p> + +<!--png 352--> +<!--png 353--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXII" id = "plateLXXXII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate82.png" width = "482" height = "312" +alt = "Zuñi court" +title = "Zuñi court"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXII. A Zuñi court.</p> + +<p>The old ceremonial rooms or kivas, and the rooms for the meeting of +the various orders or secret societies were, during the Spanish +occupancy, crowded into the innermost recesses of this ancient portion +of Zuñi under house No. 1. But the kivas, in all likelihood, occupied a +more marginal position before such foreign influence was brought to bear +on them, as do some of the kivas at the present time, and as is the +general practice in other modern pueblos.</p> + +<!--png 356--> +<!--png 357--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXIII" id = "plateLXXXIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate83.png" width = "483" height = "301" +alt = "Zuñi house" +title = "Zuñi house"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXIII. A Zuñi small house.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">100</span> +<a name = "page100" id = "page100"> </a> +<!--png 220--> +<h4 class = "chapter extended"><a name = "chapIV" id = "chapIV"> +CHAPTER IV.</a></h4> + +<h5 class = "extended"> +ARCHITECTURE OF TUSAYAN AND CIBOLA COMPARED BY CONSTRUCTIONAL +DETAILS.</h5> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapIV_1" id = "chapIV_1"> +INTRODUCTION.</a></h5> + +<p>In the two preceding chapters the more general features of form and +distribution in the ruined and inhabited pueblos of Tusayan and Cibola +have been described. In order to gain a full and definite idea of the +architectural acquirements of the pueblo builders it will be necessary +to examine closely the constructional details of their present houses, +endeavoring, when practicable, to compare these details with the rather +meager vestiges of similar features that have survived the destruction +of the older villages, noting the extent to which these have departed +from early types, and, where practicable, tracing the causes of such +deviation. For convenience of comparison the various details of +housebuilding for the two groups will be treated together.</p> + +<p>The writer is indebted to Mr. A. M. Stephen, the collector of +the traditionary data already given, for information concerning the +rites connected with house building at Tusayan incorporated in the +following pages, and also for the carefully collected and valuable +nomenclature of architectural details appended hereto. Material of this +class pertaining to the Cibola group of pueblos unfortunately could not +be procured.</p> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapIV_2" id = "chapIV_2"> +HOUSE BUILDING.</a></h5> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_2_1" id = "chapIV_2_1"> +RITES AND METHODS.</a></h6> + +<p>The ceremonials connected with house building in Tusayan are quite +meager, but the various steps in the ritual, described in their proper +connection in the following paragraphs, are well defined and definitely +assigned to those who participate in the construction of the +buildings.</p> + +<p>So far as could be ascertained there is no prearranged plan for an +entire house of several stories, or for the arrangement of contiguous +houses. Most of the ruins examined emphasize this absence of a clearly +defined general plan governing the location of rooms added to the +original cluster. Two notable exceptions to this want of definite plan +occur among the ruins described. In Tusayan the Fire House (<a href = +"#fig7">Fig. 7</a>) is evidently the result of a clearly defined +purpose to give a definite form to the entire cluster, just as, on a +very much larger scale, does the ruin of Kin-tiel, belonging to the +Cibola group (<a href = "#plateLXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXIII</span></a>). In both these cases the fixing of the +outer wall on a definite line seems to have +<span class = "pagenum">101</span> +<a name = "page101" id = "page101"> </a> +<!--png 223--> +been regarded as of more importance than the specific locations of +individual rooms or dwellings within this outline. Throughout that part +of Tusayan which has been examined, however, the single room seems now +to be regarded as the pueblo unit, and is spoken of as a complete house. +It is the construction of such a house unit that is here to be +described.</p> + +<p>A suitable site having been selected, the builder considers what the +dimensions of the house should be, and these he measures by paces, +placing a stone or other mark at each corner. He then goes to the woods +and cuts a sufficient number of timbers for the roof of a length +corresponding to the width of his house. Stones are also gathered and +roughly dressed, and in all these operations he is assisted by his +friends, usually of his own gens. These assistants receive no +compensation except their food, but that of itself entails considerable +expense on the builder, and causes him to build his house with as few +helpers as possible.</p> + +<p>The material having been accumulated, the builder goes to the village +chief, who prepares for him four small eagle feathers. The chief ties a +short cotton string to the stem of each, sprinkles them with votive +meal, and breathes upon them his prayers for the welfare of the proposed +house and its occupants. These feathers are called Nakwa kwoci, a term +meaning a breathed prayer, and the prayers are addressed to Másauwu, the +Sun, and to other deities concerned in house-life. These feathers are +placed at the four corners of the house and a large stone is laid over +each of them. The builder then decides where the door is to be located, +and marks the place by setting some food on each side of it; he then +passes around the site from right to left, sprinkling piki crumbs and +other particles of food, mixed with native tobacco, along the lines to +be occupied by the walls. As he sprinkles this offering he sings to the +Sun his Kitdauwi, house song: “Si-ai, a-hai, si-ai, a-hai.” The meaning +of these words the people have now forgotten.</p> + +<p>Mr. Stephen has been informed by the Indians that the man is a mason +and the woman the plasterer, the house belonging to the woman when +finished; but according to my own observation this is not the universal +practice in modern Tusayan. In the case of the house in Oraibi, +illustrated in <a href = "#plateXL">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XL</span></a> from a photograph, much, if not all, of the +masonry was laid, as well as finished and plastered, by the woman of the +house and her female relatives. There was but one man present at this +house-building, whose grudgingly performed duty consisted of lifting the +larger roof beams and lintels into place and of giving occasional +assistance in the heavier work. The ground about this house was strewn +with quantities of broken stone for masonry, which seemed to be all +prepared and brought to the spot before building began; but often the +various divisions of the work are carried on by both men and women +simultaneously. While the men were dressing the stones, the women +brought earth and water and mixed a mud plaster. Then the walls were +laid in irregular courses, using the mortar very sparingly.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">102</span> +<a name = "page102" id = "page102"> </a> +<!--png 224--> +The house is always built in the form of a parallelogram, the walls +being from 7 to 8 feet high, and of irregular thickness, sometimes +varying from 15 to 22 inches in different parts of the same wall.</p> + +<p>Pine, piñon, juniper, cottonwood, willow, and indeed all the +available trees of the region are used in house construction. The main +beams for the roof are usually of pine or cottonwood, from which the +bark has been stripped. The roof is always made nearly level, and the +ends of the beams are placed across the side walls at intervals of about +2 feet. Above these are laid smaller poles parallel with the side walls, +and not more than a foot apart. Across these again are laid reeds or +small willows, as close together as they can be placed, and above this +series is crossed a layer of grass or small twigs and weeds. Over this +framework a layer of mud is spread, which, after drying, is covered with +earth and firmly trodden down. The making of the roof is the work of the +women. When it is finished the women proceed to spread a thick coating +of mud for a floor. After this follows the application of plaster to the +walls. Formerly a custom prevailed of leaving a small space on the wall +unplastered, a belief then existing that a certain Katchina came and +finished it, and although the space remained bare it was considered to +be covered with an invisible plaster.</p> + +<p>The house being thus far completed, the builder prepares four +feathers similar to those prepared by the chief, and ties them to a +short piece of willow, the end of which is inserted over one of the +central roof beams. These feathers are renewed every year at the feast +of Soyalyina, celebrated in December, when the sun begins to return +north ward. The builder also makes an offering to Másauwu (called +“feeding the house”) by placing fragments of food among the rafters, +beseeching him not to hasten the departure of any of the family to the +under world.</p> + +<p>A hole is left in one corner of the roof, and under this the woman +builds a fireplace and chimney. The former is usually but a small cavity +about a foot square in the corner of the floor. Over this a chimney hood +is constructed, its lower rim being about 3 feet above the floor.</p> + +<p>As a rule the house has no eaves, the roof being finished with a +stone coping laid flush with the wall and standing a few inches higher +than the roof to preserve the earth covering from being blown or washed +away. Roof-drains of various materials are also commonly inserted in the +copings, as will be described later.</p> + +<p>All the natives, as far as could be ascertained, regard this +single-roomed house as being complete in itself, but they also consider +it the nucleus of the larger structure. When more space is desired, as +when the daughters of the house marry and require room for themselves, +another house is built in front of and adjoining the first one, and a +second story is often added to the original house. The same ceremony is +observed in building the ground story in front, but there is no ceremony +for the second and additional stories.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">103</span> +<a name = "page103" id = "page103"> </a> +<!--png 227--> +Anawita (war-chief of Sichumovi) describes the house in Walpi in which +he was born as having had five rooms on the ground floor, and as being +four stories high, but it was terraced both in front and rear, his +sisters and their families occupying the rear portion. The fourth story +consisted of a single room and had terraces on two opposite sides. This +old house is now very dilapidated, and the greater portion of the walls +have been carried away. There is no prescribed position for +communicating doorways, but the outer doors are usually placed in the +lee walls to avoid the prevailing southwest winds.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig19" id = "fig19"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig19.png" width = "320" height = "177" +alt = "Tusayan wood rack" +title = "Tusayan wood rack"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 19.</span> +A Tusayan wood rack. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Formerly on the approach of cold weather, and to some extent the +custom still exists, people withdrew from the upper stories to the +kikoli rooms, where they huddled together to keep warm. Economy in the +consumption of fuel also prompted this expedient; but these ground-floor +rooms forming the first terrace, as a rule having no external doorways, +and entered from without by means of a roof hatchway provided with a +ladder, are ordinarily used only for purposes of storage. Even their +roofs are largely utilized for the temporary storage of many household +articles, and in the autumn, after the harvests have been gathered, the +terraces and copings are often covered with drying peaches, and the +peculiar long strips into which pumpkins and squashes have been cut to +facilitate their desiccation for winter use. Among other things the +household supply of wood is sometimes piled up at one end of this +terrace, but more commonly the natives have so many other uses for this +space that the sticks of fuel are piled up on a rude projecting skeleton +of poles, supported on one side by two upright forked sticks set into +the ground, and on the other resting upon the stone coping of the wall, +as illustrated in <a href = "#fig19">Fig. 19</a>. At other times poles +are laid across a re-entering angle of a house and used as a wood rack, +without any support from the ground. At the autumn season not only is +the available space of the first terrace fully utilized, but every +projecting beam or stick is covered with strings of drying meat or +squashes, and many long poles are extended between convenient points to +do temporary +<span class = "pagenum">104</span> +<a name = "page104" id = "page104"> </a> +<!--png 228--> +duty as additional drying racks. There was in all cases at least one +fireplace on the inside in the upper stories, but the cooking was done +on the terraces, usually at the end of the first or kikoli roof. This is +still a general custom, and the end of the first terrace is usually +walled up and roofed, and is called tupubi. Tuma is the name of the flat +baking-stone used in the houses, but the flat stone used for baking at +the kisi in the field is called tupubi.</p> + +<p>Kikoli is the name of the ground story of the house, which has no +opening in the outer wall.</p> + +<p>The term for the terraced roofs is ihpobi, and is applied to all of +them; but the tupatca ihpobi, or third terrace, is the place of general +resort, and is regarded as a common loitering place, no one claiming +distinct ownership. This is suggestive of an early communal dwelling, +but nothing definite can now be ascertained on this point. In this +connection it may also be noted that the eldest sister’s house is +regarded as their home by her younger brothers and her nieces and +nephews.</p> + +<p>Aside from the tupubi, there are numerous small rooms especially +constructed for baking the thin, paper-like bread called piki. These are +usually not more than from 5 to 7 feet high, with interior dimensions +not larger than 7 feet by 10, and they are called tumcokobi, the place +of the flat stone, tuma being the name of the stone itself, and tcok +describing its flat position. Many of the ground-floor rooms in the +dwelling houses are also devoted to this use.</p> + +<p>The terms above are those more commonly used in referring to the +houses and their leading features. A more exhaustive vocabulary of +architectural terms, comprising those especially applied to the various +constructional features of the kivas or ceremonial rooms, and to the +“kisis,” or temporary brush shelters for field use, will be found near +the end of this paper.</p> + +<p>The only trace of a traditional village plan, or arrangement of +contiguous houses, is found in a meager mention in some of the +traditions, that rows of houses were built to inclose the kiva, and to +form an appropriate place for the public dances and processions of +masked dancers. No definite ground plan, however, is ascribed to these +traditional court-inclosing houses, although at one period in the +evolution of this defensive type of architecture they must have partaken +somewhat of the symmetrical grouping found on the Rio Chaco and +elsewhere.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_2_2" id = "chapIV_2_2"> +LOCALIZATION OF GENTES.</a></h6> + +<p>In the older and more symmetrical examples there was doubtless some +effort to distribute the various gentes, or at least the phratries, in +definite quarters of the village, as stated traditionally. At the +present day, however, there is but little trace of such localization. In +the case of Oraibi, the largest of the Tusayan villages, Mr. Stephen has +with great care and patience ascertained the distribution of the various +gentes in the village, as recorded on the accompanying skeleton plan +<span class = "pagenum">105</span> +<a name = "page105" id = "page105"> </a> +<!--png 231--> +(<a href = "#plateXXXVII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXXVII</span></a>). An examination of the diagram in +connection with the appended list of the families occupying Oraibi will +at once show that, however clearly defined may have been the quarters of +various gentes in the traditional village, the greatest confusion +prevails at the present time. The families numerically most important, +such as the Reed, Coyote, Lizard, and Badger, are represented in all of +the larger house clusters.</p> + +<h5><i>Families occupying Oraibi.</i></h5> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"> +[See house plan—house numbers in blue.]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">1.</td> +<td class = "rightpad">Kokop</td> +<td class = "rightpad">winwuh</td> +<td>Burrowing owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">2.</td> +<td>Pikyas</td> +<td>nyumuh</td> +<td>Young corn plant.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">3.</td> +<td>Bakab</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Reed (<i>Phragmites communis</i>).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">4.</td> +<td>Tuwa</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">5.</td> +<td>Tdap</td> +<td>nyumuh</td> +<td>Jack rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">6.</td> +<td>Honan</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">7.</td> +<td>Isn</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">8.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">9.</td> +<td>Kukuto</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">10.</td> +<td>Honan</td> +<td>nyumuh</td> +<td>Bear.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">11.</td> +<td>Honau</td> +<td></td> +<td>Bear.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">12.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">13.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">14.</td> +<td>Tcuin</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rattlesnake.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">15.</td> +<td>Awat</td> +<td></td> +<td>Bow.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">16.</td> +<td>Kokuan</td> +<td></td> +<td>Spider.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">17.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">18.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">19.</td> +<td>See 1</td> +<td></td> +<td>Burrowing owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">20.</td> +<td>See 1</td> +<td></td> +<td>Burrowing owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">21.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">22.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">23.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">23½.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">24.</td> +<td>See 2</td> +<td></td> +<td>Young corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">25.</td> +<td>Gyazro</td> +<td>nyumuh</td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">26.</td> +<td>See 2</td> +<td></td> +<td>Young corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">27.</td> +<td>Kwah</td> +<td>nyumuh</td> +<td>Eagle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">28.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">29.</td> +<td>See 27</td> +<td></td> +<td>Eagle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">30.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">31.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">32.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">33.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">34.</td> +<td>See 2</td> +<td></td> +<td>Young corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">35.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">36.</td> +<td>See 16</td> +<td></td> +<td>Spider.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">37.</td> +<td>Batun</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Squash.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">38.</td> +<td>See 15</td> +<td></td> +<td>Bow.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">39.</td> +<td>See 15</td> +<td></td> +<td>Bow.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">40.</td> +<td>See 1</td> +<td></td> +<td>Burrowing owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">41.</td> +<td>See 1</td> +<td></td> +<td>Burrowing owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">42.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">43.</td> +<td>Tdawuh</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">106</span> +<a name = "page106" id = "page106"> </a> +<!--png 232--> +44.</td> +<td>See 1</td> +<td></td> +<td>Burrowing owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">45.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">46.</td> +<td>See 1</td> +<td></td> +<td>Burrowing owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">47.</td> +<td>See 1</td> +<td></td> +<td>Burrowing-owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">48.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">49.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">50.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">51.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">52.</td> +<td>See 27</td> +<td></td> +<td>Eagle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">53.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">54.</td> +<td>See 1</td> +<td></td> +<td>Burrowing owl.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">55.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">56.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">57.</td> +<td>Pobol</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Moth.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">58.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">59.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">60.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">61.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">62.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">63.</td> +<td>Atoko</td> +<td>winwuh</td> +<td>Crane.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">64.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">65.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">66.</td> +<td>Keli</td> +<td>nyumuh</td> +<td>Hawk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">67.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">68.</td> +<td>See 43</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">69.</td> +<td>Kwan</td> +<td>nyumuh</td> +<td>Mescal cake.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">70.</td> +<td>See 27</td> +<td></td> +<td>Eagle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">71.</td> +<td>See 27</td> +<td></td> +<td>Eagle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">72.</td> +<td>See 2</td> +<td></td> +<td>Corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">73.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">74.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">75.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">76.</td> +<td>See 27</td> +<td></td> +<td>Eagle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">77.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">78.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">79.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">80.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">81.</td> +<td>See 43</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">82.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">83.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">84.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">85.</td> +<td>See 43</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">86.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">87.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">88.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">89.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">90.</td> +<td>Vacant.</td> +<td></td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">91.</td> +<td>See 2</td> +<td></td> +<td>Corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">92.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">93.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">94.</td> +<td>See 10</td> +<td></td> +<td>Bear.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">95.</td> +<td>See 19</td> +<td></td> +<td>Bear.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">96.</td> +<td>See 4</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">97.</td> +<td>See 4</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">98.</td> +<td>See 4</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">99.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">107</span> +<a name = "page107" id = "page107"> </a> +<!--png 234--> +100.</td> +<td>See 2</td> +<td></td> +<td>Corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">101.</td> +<td>See 2</td> +<td></td> +<td>Corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">102.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">103.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">104.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">105.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">106.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">107.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">108.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">109.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">110.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">111.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">112.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">113.</td> +<td>Vacant.</td> +<td></td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">114.</td> +<td>Vacant.</td> +<td></td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">115.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">116.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">117.</td> +<td>See 43</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">118.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">119.</td> +<td>See 43</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">120.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">121.</td> +<td>See 43</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">122.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">123.</td> +<td>See 4</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">124.</td> +<td>See 4</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">125.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">126.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">127.</td> +<td>See 43</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">128.</td> +<td>See 2</td> +<td></td> +<td>Corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">129.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">130.</td> +<td>See 4</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">131.</td> +<td>See 4</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">132.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">133.</td> +<td>See 9</td> +<td></td> +<td>Lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">134.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">135.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">136.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">137.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">138.</td> +<td>Vacant.</td> +<td></td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">139.</td> +<td>See 10</td> +<td></td> +<td>Bear.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">140.</td> +<td>See 3</td> +<td></td> +<td>Reed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">141.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">142.</td> +<td>See 25</td> +<td></td> +<td>Paroquet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">143.</td> +<td>See 43</td> +<td></td> +<td>Sun.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">144.</td> +<td>See 5</td> +<td></td> +<td>Rabbit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">145.</td> +<td>See 15</td> +<td></td> +<td>Bow.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">146.</td> +<td>Vacant.</td> +<td></td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">147.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">148.</td> +<td>Katcin</td> +<td>nyumuh</td> +<td>Katcina.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">149.</td> +<td>See 7</td> +<td></td> +<td>Coyote.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">150.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">151.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">152.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "item">153.</td> +<td>See 6</td> +<td></td> +<td>Badger.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">108</span> +<a name = "page108" id = "page108"> </a> +<!--png 235--> +Counting No. 23½, this makes 154 houses; 149 occupied, 5 vacant.</p> + +<table class = "text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td>Reed families</td> +<td class = "number">25</td> +<td rowspan = "7" width = "20%"> </td> +<td>Corn families</td> +<td class = "number">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Coyote families</td> +<td class = "number">17</td> +<td>Sun families</td> +<td class = "number">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Lizard families</td> +<td class = "number">14</td> +<td>Sand families</td> +<td class = "number">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Badger families</td> +<td class = "number">13</td> +<td>Eagle families</td> +<td class = "number">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Rabbit families</td> +<td class = "number">11</td> +<td>Bear families</td> +<td class = "number">5</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Paroquet families</td> +<td class = "number">10</td> +<td>Bow families</td> +<td class = "number">4</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Owl families</td> +<td class = "number">9</td> +<td>Spider families</td> +<td class = "number">2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "5"><p> +Snake, Squash, Moth, Crane, Hawk, Mescal cake, Katcina, one +each.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>No tradition of gentile localization was discovered in Cibola. +Notwithstanding the decided difference in the general arrangements of +rooms in the eastern and western portions of the village, the +architectural evidence does not indicate the construction of the various +portions of the present Zuñi by distinct groups of people.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_2_3" id = "chapIV_2_3"> +INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT.</a></h6> + +<p>On account of the purpose for which much of the architectural data +here given were originally obtained, viz, for the construction of large +scale models of the pueblos, the material is much more abundant for the +treatment of exterior than of interior details. Still, when the walls +and roof, with all their attendant features, have been fully recorded, +little remains to be described about a pueblo house; for such of its +interior details as do not connect with the external features are of the +simplest character. At the time of the survey of these pueblos no +exhaustive study of the interior of the houses was practicable, but the +illustrations present typical dwelling rooms from both Tusayan and Zuñi. +As a rule the rooms are smaller in Tusayan than at Zuñi.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig20" id = "fig20"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig20.png" width = "277" height = "276" +alt = "Tusayan room" +title = "Tusayan room"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 20.</span> +Interior ground plan<br> +of a Tusayan room. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The illustration, <a href = "#fig20">Fig. 20</a>, shows the ground +plan of a second-story room of Mashongnavi. This room measures 13 by 12½ +feet, and is considerably +<span class = "pagenum">109</span> +<a name = "page109" id = "page109"> </a> +<!--png 238--> +below the average size of the rooms in these villages. A projecting +buttress or pier in the middle of the east wall divides that end of the +room into two portions. One side is provided with facilities for storage +in the construction of a bench or ledge, used as a shelf, 3 feet high +from the floor; and a small inclosed triangular bin, built directly on +the floor, by fixing a thin slab of stone into the masonry. The whole +construction has been treated with the usual coating of mud, which has +afterwards been whitewashed, with the exception of a 10-inch band that +encircles the whole room at the floor line, occupying the position of a +baseboard. The other side of the dividing pier forms a recess, that is +wholly given up to a series of metates or mealing stones; an +indispensable feature of every pueblo household. It is quite common to +find a series of metates, as in the present instance, filling the entire +available width of a recess or bay, and leaving only so much of its +depth behind the stones as will afford floor space for the kneeling +women who grind the corn. In larger open apartments undivided by +buttress or pier, the metates are usually built in or near one corner. +They are always so arranged that those who operate them face the middle +of the room. The floor is simply a smoothly plastered dressing of clay +of the same character as the usual external roof covering. It is, in +fact, simply the roof of the room below smoothed and finished with +special care. Such apartments, even in upper stories, are sometimes +carefully paved over the entire surface with large flat slabs of stone. +It is often difficult to procure rectangular slabs of sufficient size +for this purpose, but the irregularities of outline of the large flat +stones are very skillfully interfitted, furnishing, when finished, a +smoothly paved floor easily swept and kept clean.</p> + +<p>On the right of the doorway as one enters this house are the +fireplace and chimney, built in the corner of the room. In this case the +chimney hood is of semicircular form, as indicated on the plan. The +entire chimney is illustrated in <a href = "#fig62">Fig. 62</a>, which +represents the typical curved form of hood. In the corner of the left as +one enters are two ollas, or water jars, which are always kept filled. +On the floor near the water jars is indicated a jug or canteen, a form +of vessel used for bringing in water from the springs and wells at the +foot of the mesa. At Zuñi water seems to be all brought directly in the +ollas, or water jars, in which it is kept, this canteen form not being +in use for the purpose.</p> + +<p>The entrance doorway to this house, as indicated on the plan, is set +back or stepped on one side, a type of opening which is quite common in +Tusayan. This form is illustrated in <a href = +"#fig84">Fig. 84</a>.</p> + +<!--png 360--> +<!--png 361--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXIV" id = "plateLXXXIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate84.png" width = "481" height = "323" +alt = "Oraibi building" +title = "Oraibi building"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXIV. A house-building at Oraibi.</p> + +<p>This room has three windows, all of very small size, but it has no +interior communication with any other room. In this respect it is +exceptional. Ordinarily rooms communicate with others of the +cluster.</p> + +<p><a href = "#plateLXXXV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXV</span></a> shows another typical Tusayan interior in +perspective. It illustrates essentially the same arrangement as does the +preceding example. The room is much larger than the one above described, +and it +<span class = "pagenum">110</span> +<a name = "page110" id = "page110"> </a> +<!--png 239--> +is divided midway of its length by a similar buttress. This buttress +supports a heavy girder, thus admitting of the use of two tiers of floor +beams to span the whole length of the room. The fireplace and chimney +are similar to those described, as is also the single compartment for +mealing stones. In this case, however, this portion of the room is quite +large, and the row of mealing stones is built at right angles to its +back wall and not parallel with it.</p> + +<!--png 364--> +<!--png 365--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXV" id = "plateLXXXV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate85.png" width = "459" height = "291" +alt = "Tusayan interior" +title = "Tusayan interior"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXV. A Tusayan interior.</p> + +<p>The right-hand portion of the room is provided with a long, straight +pole suspended from the roof beams. This is a common feature in both +Tusayan and Zuñi. The pole is used for the suspension of the household +stock of blankets and other garments. The windows of this house are +small, and two of them, in the right-hand division of the room, have +been roughly sealed up with masonry.</p> + +<p><a href = "#plateLXXXVI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXVI</span></a> illustrates a typical Zuñi interior. In +this instance the example happens to be rather larger than the average +room. It will be noticed that this apartment has many features in common +with that at Tusayan last described. The pole upon which blankets are +suspended is here incorporated into the original construction of the +house, its two ends being deeply embedded in the masonry of the wall. +The entire floor is paved with slabs of much more regular form than any +used at Tusayan. The Zuñi have access to building stone which is of a +much better grade than is available in Tusayan.</p> + +<!--png 368--> +<!--png 369--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXVI" id = "plateLXXXVI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate86.png" width = "484" height = "333" +alt = "Zuñi interior" +title = "Zuñi interior"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXVI. A Zuñi interior.</p> + +<p>This room is furnished with long, raised benches of masonry along the +sides, a feature much more common at Zuñi than at Tusayan. Usually such +benches extend along the whole length of a wall, but here the projection +is interrupted on one side by the fireplace and chimney, and on the left +it terminates abruptly near the beginning of a tier of mealing stones, +in order to afford floor space for the women who grind. The metates are +arranged in the usual manner, three in a row, but there is an additional +detached section placed at right angles to the main series. The sill of +the doorway by which this room communicates with an adjoining one is +raised about 18 inches above the floor, and is provided with a rudely +mortised door in a single panel. Alongside is a small hole through which +the occupant can prop the door on the inside of the communicating room. +The subsequent sealing of the small hand-hole with mud effectually +closes the house against intrusion. The unusual height of this door sill +from the floor has necessitated the construction of a small step, which +is built of masonry and covered with a single slab of stone. All the +doors of Zuñi are more or less raised above the ground or floor, though +seldom to the extent shown in the present example. This room has no +external door and can be directly entered only by means of the hatchway +and ladder shown in the drawing. At one time this room was probably +bounded by outer walls and was provided with both door and windows, +though now no evidence of the door remains, and the windows have become +niches in the wall utilized for the reception of the small odds and ends +of a Zuñi household. The +<span class = "pagenum">111</span> +<a name = "page111" id = "page111"> </a> +<!--png 242--> +chimney of this house will be noticed as differing materially, both in +form and in its position in the room, from the Tusayan examples. This +form is, however, the most common type of chimney used in Zuñi at the +present time, although many examples of the curved type also occur. It +is built about midway of the long wall of the room. The Tusayan chimneys +seldom occupy such a position, but are nearly always built in corners. +The use of a pier or buttress-projection for the support of a roof +girder that is characteristic of Tusayan is not practiced at Zuñi to any +extent. Deer horns have been built into the wall of the room to answer +the purpose of pegs, upon which various household articles are +suspended.</p> + +<p>The various features, whose positions in the pueblo dwelling house +have been briefly described above, will each be made the subject of more +exhaustive study in tracing the various modifications of form through +which they have passed. The above outline will furnish a general idea of +the place that these details occupy in the house itself.</p> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapIV_3" id = "chapIV_3"> +KIVAS IN TUSAYAN.</a></h5> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_1" id = "chapIV_3_1_1"><i>General use of +kivas.</i></a>—Wherever the remains of pueblo architecture occur +among the plateaus of the southwest there appears in every important +village throughout all changes of form, due to variations of environment +and other causes, the evidence of chambers of exceptional character. The +chambers are distinguishable from the typical dwelling rooms by their +size and position, and, generally, in ancient examples, by their +circular form. This feature of pueblo architecture has survived to the +present time, and is prominent in all modern pueblos that have come +under the writer’s notice, including the villages of Acoma and Jemez, +belonging to the Rio Grande group, as well as in the pueblos under +discussion. In all the pueblos that have been examined, both ancient and +modern, with the exception of those of Tusayan, these special rooms, +used for ceremonial purposes, occupy marginal or semidetached positions +in the house clusters. The latter are wholly detached from the houses, +as may be seen from the ground plans.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_2" id = "chapIV_3_1_2"><i>Origin of the +name.</i></a>—Such ceremonial rooms are known usually by the +Spanish term “estufa,” meaning literally a stove, and here used in the +sense of “sweat house,” but the term is misleading, as it more properly +describes the small sweat houses that are used ceremonially by +lodge-building Indians, such as the Navajo. At the suggestion of Major +Powell the Tusayan word for this everpresent feature of pueblo +architecture has been adopted, as being much more appropriate. The word +“kiva,” then, will be understood to designate the ceremonial chamber of +the pueblo building peoples, ancient and modern.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_3" id = "chapIV_3_1_3"><i>Antiquity of the +kiva.</i></a>—The widespread occurrence of this feature and its +evident antiquity distinguish it as being especially worthy of +exhaustive study, especially as embodied in its construction maybe found +survivals of early methods of arrangement that have long ago become +<span class = "pagenum">112</span> +<a name = "page112" id = "page112"> </a> +<!--png 243--> +extinct in the constantly improving art of housebuilding, but which are +preserved through the well known tendency of the survival of ancient +practice in matters pertaining to the religious observances of a +primitive people. Unfortunately, in the past the Zuñi have been exposed +to the repressive policy of the Spanish authorities, and this has +probably seriously affected the purity of the kiva type. At one time, +when the ceremonial observances of the Zuñi took place in secret for +fear of incurring the wrath of the Spanish priests, the original kivas +must have been wholly abandoned, and though at the present time some of +the kivas of Zuñi occupy marginal positions in the cell clusters, just +as in many ancient examples, it is doubtful whether these rooms +faithfully represent the original type of kiva. There seems to be but +little structural evidence to distinguish the present kivas from +ordinary large Zuñi rooms beyond the special character of the fireplace +and of the entrance trap door, features which will be fully described +later. At Tusayan, on the other hand, we find a distinct and +characteristic structural plan of the kiva, as well as many special +constructive devices. Although the position of the ceremonial room is +here exceptional in its entire separation from the dwelling, this is due +to clearly traceable influences in the immediate orograpic environment, +and the wholly subterranean arrangement of most of the kivas in this +group is also due to the same local causes.</p> + +<!--png 372--> +<!--png 373--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXVII" id = "plateLXXXVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate87.png" width = "424" height = "288" +alt = "Tusayan kiva hatchway" +title = "Tusayan kiva hatchway"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXVII. A kiva hatchway of Tusayan.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_4" id = "chapIV_3_1_4"><i>Excavation of the +kiva.</i></a>—The tendency to depress or partly excavate the +ceremonial chamber existed in Zuñi, as in all the ancient pueblo +buildings which have been examined; but the solid rock of the mesa tops +in Tusayan did not admit of the necessary excavation, and the +persistence of this requirement, which, as I shall elsewhere show, has +an important connection with the early types of pueblo building, +compelled the occupants of these rocky sites to locate their kivas at +points where depressions already existed. Such facilities were most +abundant near the margins of the mesas, where in many places large +blocks of sandstone have fallen out from the edge of the surface +stratum, leaving nearly rectangular spaces at the summit of the cliff +wall. The construction of their villages on these rocky promontories +forced the Tusayan builders to sacrifice, to a large extent, the +traditional and customary arrangement of the kivas within the +house-inclosed courts of the pueblo, in order to obtain properly +depressed sites. This accidental effect of the immediate environment +resulted in giving unusual prominence to the sinking of the ceremonial +room below the ground surface, but a certain amount of excavation is +found as a constant accompaniment of this feature throughout the pueblo +region in both ancient and modern villages. Even at Zuñi, where the +kivas appear to retain but few of the specialized features that +distinguish them at Tusayan, the floors are found to be below the +general level of the ground. But at Tusayan the development of this +single requirement has been carried to such an extent that many of the +kivas are +<span class = "pagenum">113</span> +<a name = "page113" id = "page113"> </a> +<!--png 245--> +wholly subterranean. This is particularly the case with those that +occupy marginal sites on the mesas, such as have been referred to above. +In such instances the broken-out recesses in the upper rocks have been +walled up on the outside, roughly lined with masonry within, and roofed +over in the usual manner. In many cases the depth of these rock niches +is such that the kiva roof when finished does not project above the +general level of the mesa summit, and its earth covering is +indistinguishable from the adjoining surface, except for the presence of +the box-like projection of masonry that surrounds the entrance trap door +and its ladder (see <a href = "#plateLXXXVII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXVII</span></a>). Frequently in such cases the surface +of the ground shows no evidence of the outlines or dimensions of the +underlying room. Examples of such subterranean kivas may be seen in the +foreground of the general view of a court in Oraibi (<a href = +"#plateXXXVIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXXVIII</span></a>), and +in the view of the dance rock at Walpi (<a href = "#plateXXIV">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">XXIV</span></a>). But such wholly subterranean +arrangement of the ceremonial chamber is by no means universal even at +Tusayan. Even when the kiva was placed within the village courts or +close to the houses, in conformity to the traditional plan and ancient +practice as evidenced in the ruins, naturally depressed sites were still +sought; but such sites as the mesa margin affords were rarely available +at any distance from the rocky rim. The result is that most of the court +kivas are only partly depressed. This is particularly noticeable in a +court kiva in Shumopavi, an illustration of which is given in <a href = +"#fig14">Fig. 14</a>.</p> + +<!--png 376--> +<!--png 377--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXVIII" id = "plateLXXXVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate88.png" width = "461" height = "277" +alt = "Shumopavi kivas" +title = "Shumopavi kivas"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXVIII. North kivas of Shumopavi, from the northeast.</p> + +<p>The mungkiva or principal kiva of Shupaulovi, illustrated in <a href += "#plateXXXIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXXIII</span></a>, is +scarcely a foot above the ground level on the side towards the houses, +but its rough walls are exposed to a height of several feet down on the +declivity of the knoll. The view of the stone corrals of Mashongnavi, +shown in <a href = "#plateCIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">CIX</span></a>, also illustrates a kiva of the type +described. This chamber is constructed on a sharp slope of the declivity +where a natural depression favored the builders. On the upper side the +roof is even with the ground, but on its outer or southern side the +masonry is exposed to nearly the whole depth of the chamber. At the +north end of Shumopavi, just outside the houses, are two kivas, one of +which is of the semi-subterranean type. The other shows scarcely any +masonry above the ground outside of the box-like entrance way. <a href = +"#plateLXXXVIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXVIII</span></a> +illustrates these two kivas as seen from the northeast, and shows their +relation to the adjacent houses. The following (<a href = +"#fig21">Fig. 21</a>) illustrates the same group from the opposite +point of view.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig21" id = "fig21"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig21.png" width = "432" height = "248" +alt = "Shumopavi kivas" +title = "Shumopavi kivas"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 21.</span> +North kivas of Shumopavi, seen from the southwest.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_5" id = +"chapIV_3_1_5"><i>Access.</i></a>—The last described +semi-subterranean kiva and the similar one in the court of the village, +show a short flight of stone steps on their eastern side. Entrance to +the ceremonial chamber is prevented when necessary by the removal of the +ladder from the outside, or in some instances by the withdrawal of the +rungs, which are loosely inserted into holes in the side pieces. There +is no means of preventing access to the exposed trap doors, which are +nearly on a level with the ground. As a matter of convenience and to +facilitate the entrance into +<span class = "pagenum">114</span> +<a name = "page114" id = "page114"> </a> +<!--png 246--> +the kiva of costumed and masked dancers, often encumbered with clumsy +paraphernalia, steps are permanently built into the outside wall of the +kiva in direct contradiction to the ancient principles of construction; +that is, in having no permanent or fixed means of access from the ground +to the first roof. These are the only cases in which stone steps spring +directly from the ground, although they are a very important feature in +Tusayan house architecture above the first story, as may be seen in any +of the general views of the villages. The justification of such an +arrangement in connection with the indefensible kiva roof lies obviously +in the different conditions here found as compared with the +dwellings.</p> + +<p>The subterranean kiva of the Shumopavi group, above illustrated, is +exceptional as occurring at some distance from the mesa rim. Probably +all such exceptions to the rule are located in natural fissures or +crevices of the sandstone, or where there was some unusual facility for +the excavation of the site to the required depth. The most noteworthy +example of such inner kiva being located with reference to favorable +rock fissures has been already described in discussing the ground plan +of Walpi and its southern court-inclosed kiva (<a href = +"#page065">p. 65</a>).</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_6" id = +"chapIV_3_1_6"><i>Masonry.</i></a>—The exterior masonry of these +chambers seems in all cases to be of ruder construction than that of the +dwelling houses. This is particularly noticeable in the kivas of Walpi +on the mesa edge, but is apparent even in some of the Zuñi examples. One +of the kivas of house No. 1 in Zuñi, near the churchyard, has small +openings in its wall that are rudely framed with stone slabs set in a +stone wall of exceptional roughness. Apparently there has never been any +attempt to smooth or reduce this wall to a finished surface with the +usual coating of adobe mud.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">115</span> +<a name = "page115" id = "page115"> </a> +<!--png 249--> +In Tusayan also some of the kiva walls look as though they had been +built of the first material that came to hand, piled up nearly dry, and +with no attempt at the chinking of joints, that imparts some degree of +finish to the dwelling-house masonry. The inside of these kivas, +however, is usually plastered smoothly, but the interior plastering is +applied on a base of masonry even in the case of the kivas that are +wholly subterranean. It seems to be the Tusayan practice to line all +sides of the kivas with stone masonry, regardless of the completeness +and fitness of the natural cavity. It is impossible, therefore, to +ascertain from the interior of a kiva how much of the work of excavation +is artificial and how much has been done by nature. The lining of +masonry probably holds the plastering of adobe mud much better than the +naked surface of the rock, but the Tusayan builders would hardly resort +to so laborious a device to gain this small advantage. The explanation +of this apparent waste of labor lies in the fact that kivas had been +built of masonry from time immemorial, and that the changed conditions +of the present Tusayan environment have not exerted their influence for +a sufficient length of time to overcome the traditional practice. As +will be seen later, the building of a kiva is accompanied by certain +rites and ceremonies based on the use of masonry walls, additional +testimony of the comparatively recent date of the present subterranean +types.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_7" id = +"chapIV_3_1_7"><i>Orientation.</i></a>—In questioning the Tusayan +on this subject Mr. Stephen was told that no attention to the cardinal +points was observed in the plan, although the walls are spoken of +according to the direction to which they most closely approximate. An +examination of the village plans of the preceding chapters, however, +will show a remarkable degree of uniformity in the directions of kivas +which can scarcely be due to accident in rooms built on such widely +differing sites. The intention seems to have been to arrange these +ceremonial chambers approximately on the north and south line, though +none of the examples approach the meridian very closely. Most of them +face southeast, though some, particularly in Walpi, face west of south. +In Walpi four of the five kivas are planned on a southwest and northeast +line, following the general direction of the mesa edge, while the +remaining one faces southeast. The difference in this last case may have +been brought about by exigencies of the site on the mesa edge and the +form of the cavity in which the kiva was built. Again at Hano and +Sichumovi (Pls. <a href = "#plateXVI"><span class = +"smallroman">XVI</span></a> and <a href = "#plateXVIII"><span class = +"smallroman">XVIII</span></a>) on the first mesa this uniformity of +direction prevails, but, as the plans show, the kivas in these two +villages are few in number. The two kivas of Shupaulovi will be seen (<a +href = "#plateXXX">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXX</span></a>) to +have the same direction, viz, facing southeast. In Shumopavi (<a href = +"#plateXXXIV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXXIV</span></a>) there are +four kivas all facing southeast. In Mashongnavi, however (<a href = +"#plateXXVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXVI</span></a>), the same +uniformity does not prevail. Three of the kivas face south of east, and +two others built in the edge of the rocky bench on the south side of the +village face west of south. In the large village +<span class = "pagenum">116</span> +<a name = "page116" id = "page116"> </a> +<!--png 250--> +of Oraibi there is remarkable uniformity in the direction of the many +kivas, there being a variation of only a few degrees in direction in the +whole number of thirteen shown on the plan (<a href = "#plateXXXVI">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXXVI</span></a>). But in the case of the +large kiva partly above ground designated as the Coyote kiva, the +direction from which it is entered is the reverse of that of the other +kivas. No explanation is offered that will account for this curious +single exception to the rule. The intention of the builders has +evidently been to make the altar and its attendant structural features +conform to a definite direction, fixed, perhaps, by certain requirements +of the ceremonial, but the irregularity of the general village plan in +many cases resulting from its adaptation to restricted sites, has given +rise to the variations that are seen.</p> + +<p>In Zuñi there was an evident purpose to preserve a certain uniformity +of direction in the kiva entrances. In house No. 1 (Pls. <a href = +"#plateLXXVI"><span class = "smallroman">LXXVI</span></a> and <a href = +"#plateLXXVII"><span class = "smallroman">LXXVII</span></a>) there are +two kivas, distinguishable on the plan by the large divided trap door. +The entrance of these both face southeast, and it can readily be seen +that this conformity has been provided intentionally, since the rooms +themselves do not correspond in arrangement. The roof opening is in one +case across the room and in the other it is placed longitudinally. As +has been pointed out above, the general plan of arranging the kivas is +not so readily distinguished in Zuñi as in Tusayan. Uniformity, so far +as it is traceable, is all the more striking as occurring where there is +so much more variation in the directions of the walls of the houses. +Still another confirmation is furnished by the pueblo of Acoma, situated +about 60 miles eastward from Zuñi. Here the kivas are six in number and +the directions of all the examples are found to vary but a few degrees. +These also face east of south.</p> + +<p>There are reasons for believing that the use of rectangular kivas is +of later origin in the pueblo system of building than the use of the +circular form of ceremonial chamber that is of such frequent occurrence +among the older ruins. Had strict orientation of the rectangular kiva +prevailed for long periods of time it would undoubtedly have exerted a +strong influence towards the orientation of the entire pueblo clusters +in which the kivas were incorporated; but in the earlier circular form, +the constructional ceremonial devices could occupy definite positions in +relation to the cardinal points at any part of the inner curve of the +wall without necessarily exerting any influence on the directions of +adjoining dwellings.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_8" id = "chapIV_3_1_8"><i>The ancient form of +kiva.</i></a>—In none of the ruins examined in the province of +Tusayan have distinct traces of ancient kivas been found, nor do any of +them afford evidence as to the character of the ceremonial rooms. It is +not likely, however, that the present custom of building these chambers +wholly under ground prevailed generally among the earlier Tusayan +villages, as some of the remains do not occupy sites that would suggest +such arrangement. The typical circular kiva characteristic +<span class = "pagenum">117</span> +<a name = "page117" id = "page117"> </a> +<!--png 253--> +of most of the ancient pueblos has not been seen within the limits of +Tusayan, although it occurs constantly in the ruins of Canyon de Chelly +which are occasionally referred to in Tusayan tradition as having been +occupied by related peoples. Mr. Stephen, however, found vestiges of +such ancient forms among the debris of fallen walls occupying two small +knolls on the edge of the first mesa, at a point that overlooks the +broken-down ruin of Sikyatki. On the southeast shoulder of one of the +knolls is a fragment of a circular wall which was originally 12 feet in +diameter. It is built of flat stones, from 2 to 4 inches thick, 6 to 8 +inches wide, and a foot or more in length, nearly all of which have been +pecked and dressed. Mud mortar has been sparingly used, and the masonry +shows considerable care and skill in execution; the curve of the wall is +fairly true, and the interstices of the masonry are neatly filled in +with smaller fragments, in the manner of some of the best work of the +Canyon de Chelly ruins.</p> + +<p>The knoll farther south shows similar traces, and on the southeast +slope is the complete ground plan of a round structure 16½ feet in +diameter. At one point of the curved wall, which is about 22 inches +thick, occurs the characteristic recessed katchinkihu (described later +in discussing the interior of kivas) indicating the use of this chamber +for ceremonial purposes.</p> + +<p>Although these remains probably antedate any of the Tusayan ruins +discussed above (Chapter <span class = "smallroman">II</span>), they +suggest a connection and relationship between the typical kiva of the +older ruins and the radically different form in use at the present +time.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_1_9" id = "chapIV_3_1_9"><i>Native explanations +of position.</i></a>—Notwithstanding the present practice in the +location of kivas, illustrated in the plans, the ideal village plan is +still acknowledged to have had its house-clusters so distributed as to +form inclosed and protected courts, the kivas being located within these +courts or occupying marginal positions in the house-clusters on the edge +of the inclosed areas. But the native explanations of the traditional +plan are vague and contradictory.</p> + +<p>In the floor of the typical kiva is a sacred cavity called the +sipapuh, through which comes the beneficent influence of the deities or +powers invoked. According to the accounts of some of the old men the +kiva was constructed to inclose this sacred object, and houses were +built on every side to surround the kiva and form its outer wall. In +earlier times, too, so the priests relate, people were more devout, and +the houses were planned with their terraces fronting upon the court, so +that the women and children and all the people, could be close to the +masked dancers (katchinas) as they issued from the kiva. The spectators +filled the terraces, and sitting there they watched the katchinas dance +in the court, and the women sprinkled meal upon them, while they +listened to their songs. Other old men say the kiva was excavated in +imitation of the original house in the interior of the earth, where the +human family were created, and from which they climbed to the surface of +the ground +<span class = "pagenum">118</span> +<a name = "page118" id = "page118"> </a> +<!--png 254--> +by means of a ladder, and through just such an opening as the hatchway +of the kiva. Another explanation commonly offered is that they are made +underground because they are thus cooler in summer, and more easily +warmed in winter.</p> + +<p>All these factors may have had some influence in the design, but we +have already seen that excavation to the extent here practiced is wholly +exceptional in pueblo building and the unusual development of this +requirement of kiva construction has been due to purely local causes. In +the habitual practice of such an ancient and traditional device, the +Indians have lost all record of the real causes of the perpetuation of +this requirement. At Zuñi, too, a curious explanation is offered for the +partial depression of the kiva floor below the general surrounding +level. Here it is naively explained that the floor is excavated in order +to attain a liberal height for the ceiling within the kiva, this being a +room of great importance. Apparently it does not occur to the Zuñi +architect that the result could be achieved in a more direct and much +less laborious manner by making the walls a foot or so higher at the +time of building the kiva, after the manner in which the same problem is +solved when it is encountered in their ordinary dwelling house +construction. Such explanations, of course, originated long after the +practice became established.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_3_2" id = "chapIV_3_2"> +METHODS OF KIVA BUILDING AND RITES.</a></h6> + +<p>The external appearance of the kivas of Tusayan has been described +and illustrated; it now remains to examine the general form and method +of construction of these subterranean rooms, and to notice the attendant +rites and ceremonies.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_2_1" id = "chapIV_3_2_1"><i>Typical +plans.</i></a>—All the Tusayan kivas +are in the form of a <ins class = "correction" title = +"text reads ‘paralellogram’">parallelogram</ins>, usually about 25 feet +long and half as wide, the ceiling, which is from 5½ to 8 feet high, +being slightly higher in the middle than at either end. There is no +prescribed rule for kiva dimensions, and seemingly the size of the +chamber is determined according to the number who are to use it, and who +assume the labor of its construction. A list of typical measurements +obtained by Mr. Stephen is appended (<a href = +"#page136">p. 136</a>).</p> + +<p>An excavation of the desired dimensions having been made, or an +existing one having been discovered, the person who is to be chief of +the kiva performs the same ceremony as that prescribed for the male head +of a family when the building of a dwelling house is undertaken. He +takes a handful of meal, mixed with piki crumbs, and a little of the +crumbled herb they use as tobacco, and these he sprinkles upon the +ground, beginning on the west side, passing southward, and so around, +the sprinkled line he describes marking the position to be occupied by +the walls. As he thus marks the compass of the kiva, he sings in a +droning tone “Si-ai, a-hai, a-hai, si-ai, a-hai”—no other words +but these. The meaning of these words seems to be unknown, but all the +priests agree in saying that the archaic chant is addressed to the sun, +and it +<span class = "pagenum">119</span> +<a name = "page119" id = "page119"> </a> +<!--png 256--> +is called Kitdauwi—the House Song. The chief then selects four +good-sized stones of hard texture for corner stones, and at each corner +he lays a baho, previously prepared, sprinkles it with the mixture with +which he has described the line of the walls, and then lays the corner +stone upon it. As he does this, he expresses his hope that the walls +“will take good root hold,” and stand firm and secure.</p> + +<p>The men have already quarried or collected a sufficient quantity of +stone, and a wall is built in tolerably regular courses along each side +of the excavation. The stones used are roughly dressed by fracture; they +are irregular in shape, and of a size convenient for one man to handle. +They are laid with only a very little mud mortar, and carried up, if the +ground be level, to within 18 inches of the surface. If the kiva is +built on the edge of the cliff, as at Walpi, the outside wall connects +the sides of the gap, conforming to the line of the cliff. If the +surface is sloping, the level of the roof is obtained by building up one +side of the kiva above the ground to the requisite height as illustrated +in <a href = "#fig21">Fig. 21</a>. One end of the “Goat” kiva at Walpi +is 5 feet above ground, the other end being level with the sloping +surface. When the ledge on the precipitous face of the mesa is uneven it +is filled in with rough masonry to obtain a level for the floor, and +thus the outside wall of some of the Walpi kivas is more than 12 feet +high, although in the interior the measurement from floor to ceiling is +much less.</p> + +<p>Both cottonwood and pine are used for the roof timbers; they are +roughly dressed, and some of them show that an attempt has been made to +hew them with four sides, but none are square. In the roof of the “Goat” +kiva, at Walpi, are four well hewn pine timbers, measuring exactly 6 by +10 inches, which are said to have been taken from the mission house +built near Walpi by the Spanish priests some three centuries ago. The +ceiling plan of the mungkiva of Shupaulovi (<a href = +"#fig23">Fig. 23</a>) shows that four of these old Spanish squared +beams have been utilized in its construction. One of these is covered +with a rude decoration of gouged grooves and bored holes, forming a +curious line-and-dot ornament. The other kiva of this village contains a +single undecorated square Spanish roof beam. This beam contrasts very +noticeably with the rude round poles of the native work, one of which, +in the case of the kiva last mentioned, is a forked trunk of a small +tree. Some of the Indians say that the timbers were brought by them from +the Shumopavi spring, where the early Spanish priests had established a +mission. According to these accounts, the home mission was established +at Walpi, with another chapel at Shumopavi, and a third and important +one at Awatubi.</p> + +<p>One man, Sikapiki by name, stated that the squared and carved beams +were brought from the San Francisco Mountains, more than a hundred miles +away, under the direction of the priests, and that they were carved and +finished prior to transportation. They were intended for the chapel and +cloister, but the latter building was never finished. +<span class = "pagenum">120</span> +<a name = "page120" id = "page120"> </a> +<!--png 257--> +The roof timbers were finally distributed among the people of Shumopavi +and Shupaulovi. At Shumopavi one of the kivas, known, as the +Nuvwatikyuobi (The-high-place-of-snow—San Francisco Mountains) +kiva, was built only 8 years ago. The main roof timbers are seven in +number. Four of them are hewn with flat sides, 8 by 12 inches to 9 by 13 +inches; the other three are round, the under sides slightly hewn, and +they are 12 inches in diameter. These timbers were brought from the San +Francisco Mountains while the Spaniards were here. The Shumopavi account +states that the people were compelled to drag most of the timbers with +ropes, although oxen were also used in some cases, and that the +Spaniards used them to roof their mission buildings. After the +destruction of the mission these timbers were used in the construction +of a dwelling house, which, falling into ruin, was abandoned and pulled +down. Subsequently they were utilized as described above. In the +Teosobi, Jay, the main timbers were taken out of it many years ago and +used in another kiva. The timbers now in the roof are quite small and +are laid in pairs, but they are old and much decayed. In the Gyarzobi, +Paroquet, are six squared timbers from the Spanish mission buildings, +measuring 9 by 13 inches, 8 by 12 inches, etc. These have the same +curious grooved and dotted ornamentation that occurs on the square beam +of Shupaulovi, above described. At the other end of the kiva are also +two unusually perfect round timbers that may have come from the mission +ruin. All of these show marks of fire, and are in places deeply +charred.</p> + +<p>In continuation of the kiva building process, the tops of the walls +are brought to an approximate level. The main roof timbers are then laid +parallel with the end walls, at irregular distances, but less than 3 +feet apart, except near the middle, where a space of about 7 feet is +left between two beams, as there the hatchway is to be built. The ends +of the timbers rest upon the side walls, and as they are placed in +position a small feather, to which a bit of cotton string is tied +(nakwakwoci) is also placed under each. Stout poles, from which the bark +has been stripped, are laid at right angles upon the timbers, with +slight spaces between them. Near the center of the kiva two short +timbers are laid across the two main beams about 5 feet apart; this is +done to preserve a space of 5 by 7 feet for the hatchway, which is made +with walls of stone laid in mud plaster, resting upon the two central +beams and upon the two side pieces. This wall or combing is carried up +so as to be at least 18 inches above the level of the finished roof. +Across the poles, covering the rest of the roof, willows and straight +twigs of any kind are laid close together, and over these is placed a +layer of dry grass arranged in regular rows. Mud is then carefully +spread over the grass to a depth of about 3 inches, and after it has +nearly dried it is again gone over so as to fill up all the cracks. A +layer of dry earth is then spread over all and firmly trodden down, to +render the roof water-tight and bring its surface level with the +surrounding ground, following the same method and order of construction +that prevails in dwelling-house buildings.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">121</span> +<a name = "page121" id = "page121"> </a> +<!--png 260--> +Short timbers are placed across the top of the hatchway wall, one end of +which is raised higher than the other, so as to form a slope, and upon +these timbers stone slabs are closely laid for a cover. (See <a href = +"#plateLXXXVII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXVII</span></a>.) An +open space, usually about 2 by 4½ feet, is preserved, and this is the +only outlet in the structure, serving at once as doorway, window, and +chimney.</p> + +<p>The roof being finished, a floor of stone flags is laid; but this is +never in a continuous level, for at one end it is raised as a platform +some 10 or 12 inches high, extending for about a third of the length of +the kiva and terminating in an abrupt step just before coming under the +hatchway, as illustrated in the ground plan of the mungkiva of +Shupaulovi (<a href = "#fig22">Fig. 22</a>, and also in Figs. <a href = +"#fig25">25</a> and <a href = "#fig27">27</a>). On the edge of the +platform rests the foot of a long ladder, which leans against the higher +side of the hatchway, and its tapering ends project 10 or 12 feet in the +air. Upon this platform the women and other visitors sit when admitted +to witness any of the ceremonies observed in the kiva. The main floor in +a few of the kivas is composed of roughly hewn planks, but this is a +comparatively recent innovation, and is not generally deemed desirable, +as the movement of the dancers on the wooden floor shakes the fetiches +out of position.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig22" id = "fig22"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig22.png" width = "434" height = "27" +alt = "plan of Shupaulovi kiva" +title = "plan of Shupaulovi kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 22.</span> +Ground plan of the chief kiva of Shupaulovi.</p> + +<p>On the lower or main floor a shallow pit of varying dimensions, but +usually about a foot square, is made for a fireplace, and is located +immediately under the opening in the hatchway. The intention in raising +the hatchway above the level of the roof and in elevating the ceiling in +the middle is to prevent the fire from igniting them. The ordinary fuel +used in the kiva is greasewood, and there are always several bundles of +the shrub in its green state suspended on pegs driven in the wall of the +hatchway directly over the fire. This shrub, when green, smolders and +emits a dense, pungent smoke, but when perfectly dry, burns with a +bright, sparkling flame.</p> + +<p>Across the end of the kiva on the main floor a ledge of masonry is +built, usually about 2 feet high and 1 foot wide, which serves as a +shelf for the display of fetiches and other paraphernalia during stated +observances (see <a href = "#fig22">Fig. 22</a>). A small, niche-like +aperture is made in the middle of this ledge, and is called the katchin +kihu (katchina house). During a festival certain masks are placed in it +when not in use by the dancers. Some of the kivas have low ledges built +along one or both sides for use as seats, and some have none, but all +except two or three have the ledge at the end containing the katchina +house.</p> + +<p>In the main floor of the kiva there is a cavity about a foot deep and +8 or 10 inches across, which is usually covered with a short, thick slab +of cottonwood, whose upper surface is level with the floor. Through the +middle of this short plank and immediately over the cavity a hole of 2 +or 2½ inches in diameter is bored. This hole is tapered, and is +accurately fitted with a movable wooden plug, the top of which is flush +with the surface of the plank. The plank and cavity usually occupy a +position +<span class = "pagenum">122</span> +<a name = "page122" id = "page122"> </a> +<!--png 261--> +in the main floor near the end of the kiva. This feature is the sipapuh, +the place of the gods, and the most sacred portion of the ceremonial +chamber. Around this spot the fetiches are set during a festival; it +typifies also the first world of the Tusayan genesis and the opening +through which the people first emerged. It is frequently so spoken of at +the present time.</p> + +<p>Other little apertures or niches are constructed in the side walls; +they usually open over the main floor of the kiva near the edge of the +dais that forms the second level, that upon which the foot of the ladder +rests. These are now dedicated to any special purpose, but are used as +receptacles for small tools and other ordinary articles. In early days, +however, these niches were used exclusively as receptacles for the +sacred pipes and tobacco and other smaller paraphernalia.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig23" id = "fig23"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig23.png" width = "440" height = "22" +alt = "ceiling plan of Shupaulovi kiva" +title = "ceiling plan of Shupaulovi kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 23.</span> +Ceiling plan of the chief kiva of Shupaulovi.</p> + +<p>In order to make clearer the relative positions of the various +features of kiva construction that have been described several typical +examples are here illustrated. The three ground plans given are drawn to +scale and represent kivas of average dimensions. Mr. Stephen has made a +series of typical kiva measurements, which is appended to this section, +and comparison of these with the plans will show the relation of the +examples selected to the usual dimensions of these rooms. <a href = +"#fig22">Fig. 22</a> is the ground plan of the mungkiva, or chief kiva, +of Shupaulovi. It will be observed that the second level of the kiva +floor, forming the <ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘dias’">dais</ins> before referred to, +is about 15 inches narrower on +each side than the main floor. The narrowing of this portion of the kiva +floor is not universal and does not seem to be regulated by any rule. +Sometimes the narrowing is carried out on one side only, as in the +mungkiva of Mashongnavi (<a href = "#fig27">Fig. 27</a>), sometimes +on both, as in the present example, +<span class = "pagenum">123</span> +<a name = "page123" id = "page123"> </a> +<!--png 264--> +and in other cases it is absent. In the second kiva of Shupaulovi, +illustrated in <a href = "#fig25">Fig. 25</a>, there is only one small +jog that has been built midway along the wall of the upper level and it +bears no relation to the point at which the change of floor level +occurs. The ledge, or <ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘dias’">dais</ins>, +is free for the use of spectators, the Indians say, +just as the women stand on the house terraces to witness a dance, and do +not step into the court. The ledge in this case is about a foot above +the main floor. Benches of masonry are built along each side, though, as +the plan shows, they are not of the same length. The bench on the +eastern side is about 4 feet shorter than the other, which is cut off by +a continuation of the high bench that contains the katchinkihu beyond +the corner of the room. These side benches are for the use of +participants in the ceremonies. When young men are initiated into the +various societies during the feasts in the fall of the year they occupy +the floor of the sacred division of the kiva, while the old members of +the order occupy the benches along the wall. The higher bench at the end +of the room is used as a shelf for paraphernalia. The hole, or recess, +in this bench, whose position is indicated by the dotted lines on the +plan, is the sacred orifice from which the katchina is said to come, and +is called the katchinkihu. In the floor of the kiva, near the +katchinkihu, is the sipapuh, the cottonwood plug set into a cottonwood +slab over a cavity in the floor. The plan shows how this plank, about 18 +inches wide and 6½ feet long, has been incorporated into the paving of +the main floor. The paving is composed of some quite large slabs of +sandstone whose irregular edges have been skillfully fitted to form a +smooth and well finished pavement. The position of the niches that form +pipe receptacles is shown on the plan opposite the fireplace in each +side wall. The position of the foot of the ladder is indicated, the side +poles resting upon the paved surface of the second level about 15 inches +from the edge of the step. <a href = "#fig23">Fig. 23</a> gives a +ceiling plan of the same kiva, illustrating the arrangement +<span class = "pagenum">124</span> +<a name = "page124" id = "page124"> </a> +<!--png 265--> +of such of the roof beams and sticks as are visible from inside. The +plan shows the position of the four Spanish beams before referred to, +the northernmost being the one that has the line and dot decoration. The +next two beams, laid in contact, are also square and of Spanish make. +The fourth Spanish beam is on the northern edge of the hatchway dome and +supports its wall. The adjoining beam is round and of native +workmanship. The position and dimensions of the large hatchway +projection are here indicated in plan, but the general appearance of +this curious feature of the Tusayan kiva can be better seen from the +interior view (<a href = "#fig24">Fig. 24</a>). Various uses are +attributed to this domelike structure, aside from the explanation that +it is built at a greater height in order to lessen the danger of +ignition of the roof beams. The old men say that formerly they smoked +and preserved meat in it. Others say it was used for drying bundles of +wood by suspension over the fire preparatory to use in the fireplace. It +is also said to constitute an upper chamber to facilitate the egress of +smoke, and doubtless it aids in the performance of this good office.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig24" id = "fig24"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig24.png" width = "438" height = "369" +alt = "Tusayan kiva" +title = "Tusayan kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 24.</span> +Interior view of a Tusayan kiva.</p> + +<p>The mud plaster that has been applied directly to the stone work of +the interior of this kiva is very much blackened by smoke. From about +half of the wall space the plaster has fallen or scaled off, and the +exposed +<span class = "pagenum">125</span> +<a name = "page125" id = "page125"> </a> +<!--png 268--> +stonework is much blackened as though the kiva had long been used with +the wall in this uncovered condition.</p> + +<p>The fireplace is simply a shallow pit about 18 inches square that is +placed directly under the opening of the combined hatchway and smoke +hole. It is usually situated from 2 to 3 feet from the edge of the +second level of the kiva floor. The paving stones are usually finished +quite neatly and smoothly where their edges enframe the firepit.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig25" id = "fig25"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig25.png" width = "431" height = "238" +alt = "Shupaulovi kiva" +title = "Shupaulovi kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 25.</span> +Ground plan of a Shupaulovi kiva.</p> + +<p>Figs. <a href = "#fig25">25</a> and <a href = "#fig26">26</a> +illustrate the ground and ceiling plans of the second kiva of the same +village. In all essential principles of arrangement it is identical with +the preceding example, but minor modifications will be noticed in +several of the features. The bench at the katchina, or “altar” end of +the kiva, has not the height that was seen in the mungkiva, but is on +the same level as the benches of the sides. Here the +<span class = "pagenum">126</span> +<a name = "page126" id = "page126"> </a> +<!--png 269--> +sipapuh is at much greater distance than usual from the katchina recess. +It is also quite exceptional in that the plug is let into an orifice in +one of the paving stones, as shown on the plan, instead of into a +cottonwood plank. Some of the paving stones forming the floor of this +kiva are quite regular in shape and of unusual dimensions, one of them +being nearly 5 feet long and 2 feet wide. The gray polish of long +continued use imparts to these stones an appearance of great hardness. +The ceiling plan of this kiva (<a href = "#fig26">Fig. 26</a>) +shows a single specimen of Spanish beam at the extreme north end of the +roof. It also shows a forked “viga” or ceiling beam, which is quite +unusual.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig26" id = "fig26"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig26.png" width = "441" height = "214" +alt = "ceiling plan of Shupaulovi kiva" +title = "ceiling plan of Shupaulovi kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 26.</span> +Ceiling plan of a Shupaulovi kiva.</p> + +<p>This kiva is better plastered than the mungkiva and shows in places +evidences of many successive coats. The general rule of applying the +interior plastering of the kiva on a base of masonry has been violated +in this example. The north end and part of the adjoining sides have been +brought to an even face by filling in the inequalities of the excavation +with reeds which are applied in a vertical position and are held in +place by long, slender, horizontal rods, forming a rude matting or +wattling. The rods are fastened to the rocky wall at favorable points by +means of small prongs of some hard wood, and the whole of the primitive +lathing is then thickly plastered with adobe mud. Mr. Stephen found the +Ponobi kiva of Oraibi treated in the same manner. The walls are lined +with a reed lathing over which mud is plastered. The reed used is the +Bakabi (<i>Phragmites communis</i>) whose stalks vary from a quarter of +an inch to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. In this instance the +reeds are also laid vertically, but they are applied to the ordinary +mud-laid kiva wall and not directly to the sides of the natural +excavation. The vertical laths are bound in place by horizontal reeds +laid upon them 1 or 2 feet apart. The horizontal reeds +<span class = "pagenum">127</span> +<a name = "page127" id = "page127"> </a> +<!--png 272--> +are held in place by pegs of greasewood driven into the wall at +intervals of 1 or 2 feet and are tied to the pegs with split yucca. +These specimens are very interesting examples of aboriginal lathing and +plastering applied to stone work.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig27" id = "fig27"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig27.png" width = "418" height = "273" +alt = "plan of Mashongnavi kiva" +title = "plan of Mashongnavi kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 27.</span> +Ground plan of the chief kiva of Mashongnavi.</p> + +<p>The ground plan of the mungkiva of Mashongnavi is illustrated in <a +href = "#fig27">Fig. 27</a>. In this example the narrowing of the room +at the second level of the floor is on one side. The step by which the +upper level is reached from the main floor is 8 inches high at the east +end, rising to 10 inches at the west end. The south end of the kiva is +provided with a small opening like a loop-hole, furnishing an outlook to +the south. The east side of the main portion of the kiva is not provided +with the usual bench. The portion of the bench at the katchina end of +the kiva is on a level with the west bench and continuous for a couple +of feet beyond the northeast corner along the east wall. The small wall +niches are on the west side and nearer the north end than usual. The +arrangement of the katchinkihu is quite different from that described in +the Shupaulovi kivas. The orifice occurs in the north wall at a height +of 3½ feet above the floor, and 2 feet 3 inches above the top of the +bench that extends across this end of the room. The firepit is somewhat +smaller than in the other examples illustrated. <a href = "#fig28">Fig. +28</a> illustrates the appearance of the kiva hatchway from within as +seen from the north end of the kiva, but the ladder has been omitted +from the drawing to avoid confusion. The ladder rests against the edge +of the coping that caps the dwarf wall on the near side of the hatchway, +its top leaning toward the spectator. The small smoke-blackened sticks +that are used for the suspension of bundles of greasewood and other fuel +in the hatchway are clearly shown. At the far end of the trapdoor, on +the outside, is indicated the mat of reeds or rushes that is used for +closing the openings when necessary. It is here shown rolled up at the +foot of the slope of the hatchway top, its customary position when not +in use. +<span class = "pagenum">128</span> +<a name = "page128" id = "page128"> </a> +<!--png 273--> +When this mat is used for closing the kiva opening it is usually held in +place by several large stone slabs laid over it. <a href = "#fig29">Fig. +29</a> illustrates a specimen of the Tusayan kiva mat.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig28" id = "fig28"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig28.png" width = "421" height = "234" +alt = "Tusayan kiva hatchway" +title = "Tusayan kiva hatchway"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 28.</span> +Interior view of a kiva hatchway in Tusayan.</p> + +<p>The above kiva plans show that each of the illustrated examples is +provided with four long narrow planks, set in the kiva floor close to +the +<span class = "pagenum">129</span> +<a name = "page129" id = "page129"> </a> +<!--png 275--> +wall and provided with orifices for the attachment of looms. This +feature is a common accompaniment of kiva construction and pertains to +the use of the ceremonial room as a workshop by the male blanket weavers +of Tusayan. It will be more fully described in the discussion of the +various uses of the kiva.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig29" id = "fig29"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig29.png" width = "348" height = "494" +alt = "Tusayan mat" +title = "Tusayan mat"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 29.</span> +Mat used in closing the entrance of Tusayan kiva.</p> + +<p>The essential structural features of the kivas above described are +remarkably similar, though the illustrations of types have been selected +at random. Minor modifications are seen in the positions of many of the +features, but a certain general relation between the various +constructional requirements of the ceremonial room is found to prevail +throughout all the villages.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_2_2" id = "chapIV_3_2_2"><i>Work by +women.</i></a>—After all the above described details have been +provided for, following the completion of the roofs and floors, the +women belonging to the people who are to occupy the kiva continue the +labor of its construction. They go over the interior surface of the +walls, breaking off projections and filling up the interstices with +small stones, and then they smoothly plaster the walls and the inside of +the hatchway with mud, and sometimes whitewash them with a gypsiferous +clay found in the neighborhood. Once every year, at the feast of Powuma +(the fructifying moon), the women give the kiva this same attention.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_2_3" id = +"chapIV_3_2_3"><i>Consecration.</i></a>—When all the work is +finished the kiva chief prepares a baho and “feeds the house,” as it is +termed; that is, he thrusts a little meal, with piki crumbs, over one of +the roof timbers, and in the same place inserts the end of the baho. As +he does this he expresses his hope that the roof may never fall and that +sickness and other evils may never enter the kiva.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to elicit intelligent explanation of the theory of +the baho and the prayer ceremonies in either kiva or house construction. +The baho is a prayer token; the petitioner is not satisfied by merely +speaking or singing his prayer, he must have some tangible thing upon +which to transmit it. He regards his prayer as a mysterious, impalpable +portion of his own substance, and hence he seeks to embody it in some +object, which thus becomes consecrated. The baho, which is inserted in +the roof of the kiva, is a piece of willow twig about six inches long, +stripped of its bark and painted. From it hang four small feathers +suspended by short cotton strings tied at equal distances along the +twig. In order to obtain recognition from the powers especially +addressed, different colored feathers and distinct methods of attaching +them to bits of wood and string are resorted to. In the present case +these are addressed to the “chiefs” who control the paths taken by the +people after coming up from the interior of the earth. They are thus +designated:</p> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td class = "rightpad">To the west: Siky´ak</td> +<td class = "rightpad">oma´uwu</td> +<td>Yellow Cloud.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class = "invisible">To the </span>south: Sa´kwa</td> +<td>oma´uwu</td> +<td>Blue Cloud.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class = "invisible">To the </span>east: Pal´a</td> +<td>oma´uwu</td> +<td>Red Cloud.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class = "invisible">To the </span>north: Kwetsh</td> +<td>oma´uwu</td> +<td>White Cloud.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">130</span> +<a name = "page130" id = "page130"> </a> +<!--png 276--> +Two separate feathers are also attached to the roof. These are addressed +to the zenith, héyap omáuwu—the invisible space of the +above—and to the nadir, Myuingwa—god of the interior of the +earth and maker of the germ of life. To the four first mentioned the +bahos under the corner stones are also addressed. These feathers are +prepared by the kiva chief in another kiva. He smokes devoutly over +them, and as he exhales the smoke upon them he formulates the prayers to +the chiefs or powers, who not only control the paths or lives of all the +people, but also preside over the six regions of space whence come all +the necessaries of life. The ancients also occupy his thoughts during +these devotions; he desires that all the pleasures they enjoyed while +here may come to his people, and he reciprocally wishes the ancients to +partake of all the enjoyments of the living.</p> + +<p>All the labor and ceremonies being completed the women prepare food +for a feast. Friends are invited, and the men dance all night in the +kiva to the accompaniment of their own songs and the beating of a +primitive drum, rejoicing over their new home. The kiva chief then +proclaims the name by which the kiva will be known. This is often merely +a term of his choosing, often without reference to its +appropriateness.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_2_4" id = "chapIV_3_2_4"><i>Various uses of +kivas.</i></a>—Allusions occur in some of the traditions, +suggesting that in earlier times one class of kiva was devoted wholly to +the purposes of a ceremonial chamber, and was constantly occupied by a +priest. An altar and fetiches were permanently maintained, and +appropriate groups of these fetiches were displayed from month to month, +as the different priests of the sacred feasts succeeded each other, each +new moon bringing its prescribed feast.</p> + +<p>Many of the kivas were built by religious societies, which still hold +their stated observances in them, and in Oraibi several still bear the +names of the societies using them. A society always celebrates in a +particular kiva, but none of these kivas are now preserved exclusively +for religious purposes; they are all places of social resort for the +men, especially during the winter, when they occupy themselves with the +arts common among them. The same kiva thus serves as a temple during a +sacred feast, at other times as a council house for the discussion of +public affairs. It is also used as a workshop by the industrious and as +a lounging place by the idle.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig30" id = "fig30"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig30.png" width = "149" height = "147" +alt = "sipapuh in Mashongnavi" +title = "sipapuh in Mashongnavi"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 30.</span> +Rectangular sipapuh<br> +in a Mashongnavi kiva. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>There are still traces of two classes of kiva, marked by the +distinction that only certain ones contain the sipapuh, and in these the +more important ceremonies are held. It is said that no sipapuh has been +made recently. The prescribed operation is performed by the chief and +the assistant priests or fetich keepers of the society owning the kiva. +Some say the mystic lore pertaining to its preparation is lost and none +can now be made. It is also said that a stone sipapuh was formerly used +instead of the cottonwood plank now commonly seen. The use of stone for +this purpose, however, is nearly obsolete, though the second +<span class = "pagenum">131</span> +<a name = "page131" id = "page131"> </a> +<!--png 279--> +kiva of Shupaulovi, illustrated in plan in <a href = "#fig25">Fig. +25</a>, contains an example of this ancient form. In one of the newest +kivas of Mashongnavi the plank of the sipapuh is pierced with a square +hole, which is cut with a shoulder, the shoulder supporting the plug +with which the orifice is closed (see <a href = "#fig30">Fig. 30</a>). +This is a decided innovation on the traditional form, as the orifice +from which the people emerged, which is symbolized in the sipapuh, is +described as being of circular form in all the versions of the Tusayan +genesis myth. The presence of the sipapuh possibly at one time +distinguished such kivas as were considered strictly consecrated to +religious observances from those that were of more general use. At +Tusayan, at the present time, certain societies do not meet in the +ordinary kiva but in an apartment of a dwelling house, each society +having its own exclusive place of meeting. The house so used is called +the house of the “Sister of the eldest brother,” meaning, probably, that +she is the descendant of the founder of the society. This woman’s house +is also called the “house of grandmother,” and in it is preserved the +tiponi and other fetiches of the society. The tiponi is a ceremonial +object about 18 inches long, consisting of feathers set upright around a +small disk of silicified wood, which serves as its base when set upon +the altar. This fetich is also called iso (grandmother), hence the name +given to the house where it is kept. In the house, where the order of +warriors (Kuleataka) meets, the eldest son of the woman who owns it is +the chief of the order. The apartment in which they meet is a low room +on the ground floor, and is entered only by a hatchway and ladder. There +is no sipapuh in this chamber, for the warriors appeal directly to +Cótukinungwa, the heart of the zenith, the sky god. Large figures of +animal fetiches are painted in different colors upon the walls. On the +west wall is the Mountain Lion; on the south, the Bear; on the east, the +Wild Cat, surmounted with a shield inclosing a star; on the north, the +White Wolf; and on the east side of this figure is painted a large disk, +representing the sun. The walls of the chambers of the other societies +are not decorated permanently. Here is, then, really another class of +kiva, although it is not so called by the people on the Walpi mesa. The +ordinary term for the ground story rooms is used, “kikoli,” the house +without any opening in its walls. But on the second mesa, and at Oraibi, +although they sometimes use this term kikoli, they commonly apply the +term “kiva” to the ground story of the dwelling house used as well as to +the underground chambers.</p> + +<p>It is probable that a class of kivas, not specially consecrated, has +existed from a very early period. The rooms in the dwelling houses have +always been small and dark, and in early times without chimneys. +<span class = "pagenum">132</span> +<a name = "page132" id = "page132"> </a> +<!--png 280--> +Within such cramped limits it was inconvenient for the men to practice +any of the arts they knew, especially weaving, which could have been +carried on out of doors, as is done still occasionally, but subject to +many interruptions. It is possible that a class of kivas was designed +for such ordinary purposes, though now one type of room seems to answer +all these various uses. In most of the existing kivas there are planks, +in which stout loops are secured, fixed in the floor close to the wall, +for attaching the lower beam of a primitive vertical loom, and +projecting vigas or beams are inserted into the walls at the time of +their construction as a provision for the attachment of the upper loom +poles. The planks or logs to which is attached the lower part of the +loom appear in some cases to be quite carefully worked. They are often +partly buried in the ground and under the edges of adjacent paving +stones in such a manner as to be held in place very securely against the +strain of the tightly stretched warp while the blanket is being made. +<!----> +<span class = "floatleft caption"> +<a name = "fig31" id = "fig31"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig31.png" width = "193" height = "91" +alt = "Tusayan loom post" +title = "Tusayan loom post"><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 31.</span> +Loom post<br> +in kiva at Tusayan.</span> +<!----> +The holes pierced in the upper surface of these logs are very neatly +executed in the manner illustrated in <a href = "#fig31">Fig. 31</a>, +which shows one of the orifices in section, together with the adjoining +paving stones. The outward appearance of the device, as seen at short +intervals along the length of the log, is also shown. Strips of buckskin +or bits of rope are passed through these U-shaped cavities, and then +over the lower pole of the loom at the bottom of the extended series of +warp threads. The latter can thus be tightened preparatory to the +operation of filling in with the woof. The kiva looms seem to be used +mainly for weaving the dark-blue and black blankets of diagonal and +diamond pattern, which form a staple article of trade with the Zuni and +the Rio Grande Pueblos. As an additional convenience for the practice of +weaving, one of the kivas of Mashongnavi is provided with movable seats. +These consist simply of single stones of suitable size and form. Usually +they are 8 or 10 inches thick, a foot wide, and perhaps 15 or 18 inches +long. Besides their use as seats, these stones are used in connection +with the edges of the stone slabs that cap the permanent benches of the +kiva to support temporarily the upper and lower poles of the blanket +loom while the warp is gradually wound around them. The large stones +that are incorporated into the side of the benches of some of the +Mashongnavi kivas have occasionally round, cup-shaped cavities, of about +an inch in diameter, drilled into them. These holes receive one end of a +warp stick, the other end, being supported in a corresponding hole of +the heavy, movable stone seat. The other warp stick is supported in a +similar manner, while the thread is passed around both in a horizontal +direction preparatory to placing and stretching it in a vertical +position for the final working of the blanket. A number of these +cup-shaped +<span class = "pagenum">133</span> +<a name = "page133" id = "page133"> </a> +<!--png 283--> +pits are formed along the side of the stone bench, to provide for +various lengths of warp that may be required. On the opposite side of +this same kiva a number of similar holes or depressions are turned into +the mud plastering of the wall. All these devices are of common +occurrence at other of the Tusayan kivas, and indicate the antiquity of +the practice of using the kivas for such industrial purposes. There is a +suggestion of similar use of the ancient circular kivas in an example in +Canyon de Chelly. At a small cluster of rooms, built partly on a rocky +ledge and partly on adjoining loose earth and rocky debris, a land slide +had carried away half of a circular kiva, exposing a well-defined +section of its floor and the debris within the room. Here the writer +found a number of partly finished sandals of yucca fiber, with the long, +unwoven fiber carefully wrapped about the finished portion of the work, +as though the sandals had been temporarily laid aside until the maker +could again work on them. A number of coils of yucca fiber, similar to +that used in the sandals, and several balls of brown fiber, formed from +the inner bark of the cedar, were found on the floor of the room. The +condition of the ruin and the debris that filled the kiva clearly +suggested that these specimens were in use just where they were found at +the time of the abandonment or destruction of the houses. No traces were +seen, however, of any structural devices like those of Tusayan that +would serve as aids to the weavers, though the weaving of the particular +articles comprised in the collection from this spot would probably not +require any cumbrous apparatus.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_2_5" id = "chapIV_3_2_5"><i>Kiva +ownership.</i></a>—The kiva is usually spoken of as being the home +of the organization which maintains it. Different kivas are not used in +common by all the inhabitants. Every man has a membership in some +particular one and he frequents that one only. The same person is often +a member of different societies, which takes him to different kivas, but +that is only on set occasions. There is also much informal visiting +among them, but a man presumes to make a loitering place only of the +kiva in which he holds membership.</p> + +<p>In each kiva there is a kiva mungwi (kiva chief), and he controls to +a great extent all matters pertaining to the kiva and its membership. +This office or trust is hereditary and passes from uncle to nephew +through the female line—that is, on the death of a kiva chief the +eldest son of his eldest sister succeeds him.</p> + +<p>A kiva may belong either to a society, a group of gentes, or an +individual. If belonging to a society or order, the kiva chief commonly +has inherited his office in the manner indicated from the “eldest +brother” of the society who assumed its construction. But the kiva chief +is not necessarily chief of the society; in fact, usually he is but an +ordinary member. A similar custom of inheritance prevails where the kiva +belongs to a group of gentes, only in that case the kiva chief is +usually chief of the gentile group.</p> + +<p>As for those held by individuals, a couple of examples will +illustrate the Tusayan practice. In Hano the chief kiva was originally +built +<span class = "pagenum">134</span> +<a name = "page134" id = "page134"> </a> +<!--png 284--> +by a group of “Sun” gentes, but about 45 years ago, during an epidemic +of smallpox, all the people who belonged to the kiva died except one +man. The room fell into ruin, its roof timbers were carried off, and it +became filled up with dust and rubbish. The title to it, however, rested +with the old survivor, as all the more direct heirs had died, and he, +when about to die, gave the kiva to Kotshve, a “Snake” man from Walpi, +who married a Tewa (Hano) woman and still lives in Hano. This man +repaired it and renamed it Tokónabi (said to be a Pah-Ute term, meaning +black mountain, but it is the only name the Tusayan have for Navajo +Mountain) because his people (the “Snake”) came from that place. He in +turn gave it to his eldest son, who is therefore kiva mungwi, but the +son says his successor will be the eldest son of his eldest sister. The +membership is composed of men from all the Hano gentes, but not all of +any one gens. In fact, it is not now customary for all the members of a +gens to be members of the same kiva.</p> + +<p>Another somewhat similar instance occurs in Sichumovi. A kiva, +abandoned for a long time after the smallpox plague, was taken +possession of by an individual, who repaired it and renamed it Kevinyáp +tshómo—Oak Mound. He made his friends its members, but he called +the kiva his own. He also says that his eldest sister’s son will succeed +him as chief.</p> + +<p>In each village one of the kivas, usually the largest one, is called +(aside from its own special name) mungkiva—chief kiva. It is +frequented by the kimungwi—house or village chief—and the +tshaakmungwi—chief talker, councillor—and in it also the +more elaborate ceremonies are observed.</p> + +<p>No women frequent any of the kivas; in fact they never enter them +except to plaster the walls at customary periods, or during the occasion +of certain ceremonies. Yet one at least of the Oraibi kivas was built +for the observances of a society of women, the Mamzrántiki. This and +another female society—Lalénkobáki—exist in all the other +villages, and on the occasion of their festivals the women are given the +exclusive use of one of the kivas.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_2_6" id = "chapIV_3_2_6"><i>Motives for building +a kiva.</i></a>—Only two causes are mentioned for building a new +kiva. Quarrels giving rise to serious dissensions among the occupants of +a kiva are one cause. An instance of this occurred quite recently at +Hano. The conduct of the kiva chief gave rise to dissensions, and the +members opposed to him prepared to build a separate room of their own. +They chose a gap on the side of the mesa cliff, close to Hano, collected +stones for the walls, and brought the roof timbers from the distant +wooded mesas; but when all was ready to lay the foundation their +differences were adjusted and a complete reconciliation was +effected.</p> + +<p>The other cause assigned is the necessity for additional room when a +gens has outgrown its kiva. When a gens has increased in numbers +sufficiently to warrant its having a second kiva, the chief of the +gentile +<span class = "pagenum">135</span> +<a name = "page135" id = "page135"> </a> +<!--png 287--> +group, who in this case is also chief of the order, proposes to his kin +to build a separate kiva, and that being agreed to, he assumes the +direction of the construction and all the dedicatory and other +ceremonies connected with the undertaking. An instance of this kind +occurred within the last year or two at Oraibi, where the members of the +“Katchina” gentes, who are also members of the religious order of +Katchina, built a spacious kiva for themselves.</p> + +<p>The construction of a new kiva is said to be of rare occurrence. On +the other hand, it is common to hear the kiva chief lament the decadence +of its membership. In the “Oak Mound” kiva at Sichumovi there are now +but four members. The young men have married and moved to their wives’ +houses in more thriving villages, and the older men have died. The chief +in this case also says that some 2 years ago the agent gave him a stove +and pipe, which he set up in the room to add to its comfort. He now has +grave fears that the stove is an evil innovation, and has exercised a +deleterious influence upon the fortune of his kiva and its members; but +the stove is still retained.</p> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_2_7" id = "chapIV_3_2_7"><i>Significance of +structural plan.</i></a>—The designation of the curious orifice of +the sipapuh as “the place from which the people emerged” in connection +with the peculiar arrangement of the kiva interior with its change of +floor level, suggested to the author that these features might be +regarded as typifying the four worlds of the genesis myth that has +exercised such an influence on Tusayan customs; but no clear data on +this subject were obtained by the writer, nor has Mr. Stephen, who is +specially well equipped for such investigations, discovered that a +definite conception exists concerning the significance of the structural +plan of the kiva. Still, from many suggestive allusions made by the +various kiva chiefs and others, he also has been led to infer that it +typifies the four “houses,” or stages, described in their creation +myths. The sipapuh, with its cavity beneath the floor, is certainly +regarded as indicating the place of beginning, the lowest house under +the earth, the abode of Myuingwa, the Creator; the main or lower floor +represents the second stage; and the elevated section of the floor is +made to denote the third stage, where animals were created. Mr. Stephen +observed, at the New Year festivals, that animal fetiches were set in +groups upon this platform. It is also to be noted that the ladder +leading to the surface is invariably made of pine, and always rests upon +the platform, never upon the lower floor, and in their traditional +genesis it is stated that the people climbed up from the third house +(stage) by a ladder of pine, and through such an opening as the kiva +hatchway; only most of the stories indicate that the opening was round. +The outer air is the fourth world, or that now occupied.</p> + +<p>There are occasional references in the Tusayan traditions to circular +kivas, but these are so confused with fantastic accounts of early mythic +structures that their literal rendition would serve no useful purpose in +the present discussion.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">136</span> +<a name = "page136" id = "page136"> </a> +<!--png 288--> +<a name = "chapIV_3_2_8" id = "chapIV_3_2_8"><i>Typical +measurements.</i></a>—The following list is a record of a number +of measurements of Tusayan kivas collected by Mr. Stephen. The wide +difference between the end measurements of the same kiva are usually due +to the interior offsets that have been noticed on the plans, but the +differences in the lengths of the sides are due to irregularities of the +site. The latter differences are not so marked as the former.</p> + +<table class = "border" summary = "table of kiva measurements"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2">Width at ends.</th> +<th colspan = "2">Length of sides.</th> +<th>Height<br>at<br>center.</th> +<th colspan = "2">Height at ends.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>13 6</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>24 0</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>8 6</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>12 0</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>21 9</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>7 6</td> +<td>6 6</td> +<td>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>14 6</td> +<td>14 6</td> +<td>24 6</td> +<td>23 3</td> +<td>8 0</td> +<td>6 6</td> +<td>6 6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>12 2</td> +<td>12 11</td> +<td>23 9</td> +<td>23 9</td> +<td>7 10</td> +<td>6 1</td> +<td>6 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>12 6</td> +<td>12 6</td> +<td>26 0</td> +<td>25 3</td> +<td>7 6</td> +<td>6 6</td> +<td>6 6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>13 4</td> +<td>12 10</td> +<td>26 8</td> +<td>26 7</td> +<td>7 10</td> +<td>7 0</td> +<td>7 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>15 0</td> +<td>13 6</td> +<td>26 6</td> +<td>24 11</td> +<td>7 4</td> +<td>6 3</td> +<td>6 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>12 6</td> +<td>11 5</td> +<td>23 7</td> +<td>21 9</td> +<td>8 0</td> +<td>7 0</td> +<td>7 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>12 5</td> +<td>13 5</td> +<td>22 8</td> +<td>24 1</td> +<td>7 3</td> +<td>6 1</td> +<td>6 9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>10 6</td> +<td>13 6</td> +<td>27 0</td> +<td>27 0</td> +<td>8 3</td> +<td>6 3</td> +<td>6 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>13 6</td> +<td>11 6</td> +<td>29 9</td> +<td>29 0</td> +<td>11 0</td> +<td>5 11</td> +<td>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>14 6</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>28 6</td> +<td>28 6</td> +<td>9 8</td> +<td>6 0</td> +<td>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>13 2</td> +<td>14 0</td> +<td>28 9</td> +<td>29 9</td> +<td>8 6</td> +<td>7 0</td> +<td>6 4</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>15 1</td> +<td>14 0</td> +<td>28 6</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>9 6</td> +<td>7 3</td> +<td>6 6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>13 0</td> +<td>12 6</td> +<td>28 7</td> +<td>29 6</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>7 4</td> +<td>6 3</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><a name = "chapIV_3_2_9" id = "chapIV_3_2_9"><i>List of Tusayan +kivas.</i></a>—The following list gives the present names of all +the kivas in use at Tusayan. The mungkiva or chief kiva of the village +is in each case designated:</p> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>HANO.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">1.</td> +<td>Toko´nabi kiva</td> +<td>Navajo Mountain.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">2.</td> +<td>Hano sinte´ kiva</td> +<td>Place of the Hano.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2" colspan = "3">Toko´nabi kiva is the mungkiva.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>WALPI.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">1.</td> +<td>Djiva´to kiva</td> +<td>Goat.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">2.</td> +<td>Al kiva</td> +<td>A´la, Horn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">3.</td> +<td>Naca´b kiva</td> +<td>Na´cabi, half-way or central.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number middle" rowspan = "2">4.</td> +<td>Picku´ibi kiva</td> +<td>Opening oak bud.<a class = "tag" name = "tag5" id = "tag5" href = +"#note5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!--<td></td>--> +<td>Wikwa´lobi kiva</td> +<td>Place of the watchers.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">5.</td> +<td>Mung kiva</td> +<td>Mungwi chief.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2" colspan = "3">No. 5 is the mungkiva.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>SICHUMOVI.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">1.</td> +<td>Bave´ntcomo</td> +<td>Water mound.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">2.</td> +<td class = "rightpad">Kwinzaptcomo</td> +<td>Oak mound.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2" colspan = "3">Bave´ntcomo is the mungkiva.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>MASHONGNAVI.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">1.</td> +<td>Tcavwu´na kiva</td> +<td>A small coiled-ware jar.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">2.</td> +<td>Hona´n kiva</td> +<td>Honani, Badger, a gens.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">3.</td> +<td>Gy´arzohi kiva</td> +<td>Gy´arzo, Paroquet, a gens.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">4.</td> +<td>Kotcobi kiva</td> +<td>High place.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">5.</td> +<td>Al kiva</td> +<td>A´la, Horn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2" colspan = "3">Teavwu´na kiva is the mungkiva.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">137</span> +<a name = "page137" id = "page137"> </a> +<!--png 291--> +</td> +<th>SHUPAULOVI.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">1.</td> +<td>A´tkabi kiva</td> +<td>Place below.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">2.</td> +<td>Kokyangobi kiva</td> +<td>Place of spider.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2" colspan = "3">A´tkabi kiva is the mungkiva.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>SHUMOPAVI.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">1.</td> +<td>Nuvwa´tikyuobi</td> +<td><p>High place of snow, San Francisco Mountain.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">2.</td> +<td>Al kiva</td> +<td>A´la, Horn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">3.</td> +<td>Gy´arzobi</td> +<td>Gy´arzo, Paroquet, a gens.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">4.</td> +<td>Tco´sobi</td> +<td>Blue Jay, a gens.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2" colspan = "3">Tco´sobi is the mungkiva.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th colspan = "2">ORAIBI.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">1.</td> +<td>Tdau kiva</td> +<td>Tda´uollauwuh</td> +<td>The singers.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">2.</td> +<td>Ha´wiobi kiva</td> +<td><p>Ha´wi, stair;<br> +obi, high place.</p></td> +<td>High stair place.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">3.</td> +<td>Ish kiva</td> +<td>Isa´uwuh</td> +<td>Coyote, a gens.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">4.</td> +<td class = "rightpad">Kwang kiva</td> +<td class = "rightpad">Kwa´kwanti</td> +<td>Religious order.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">5.</td> +<td>Ma´zrau kiva</td> +<td>Ma´mzrauti</td> +<td>Female order.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">6.</td> +<td>Na´cabi kiva</td> +<td>Half way or</td> +<td>Central place.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">7.</td> +<td>Sa´kwalen kiva</td> +<td>Sa´kwa le´na</td> +<td><p>Blue Flute, a religious order.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">8.</td> +<td>Po´ngobi kiva</td> +<td>Pongo, a circle</td> +<td><p>An order who decorate themselves with circular marks on the +body.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">9.</td> +<td>Hano´ kiva</td> +<td>Ha´nomuh</td> +<td>A fashion of cutting the hair.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">10.</td> +<td>Motc kiva</td> +<td>Mo´mtci</td> +<td>The Warriors, an order.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">11.</td> +<td>Kwita´koli kiva</td> +<td><p>Kwita, ordure;<br> +ko´li, a heap.</p></td> +<td>Ordure heap.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">12.</td> +<td>Katcin kiva</td> +<td>Katcina</td> +<td>A gens.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "number">13.</td> +<td>Tcu kiva</td> +<td>Tcua, a snake</td> +<td>Religions order.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset2" colspan = "4"> +Tdau kiva is the mungkiva.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5 class = "section"><a name = "chapIV_4" id = "chapIV_4"> +DETAILS OF TUSAYAN AND CIBOLA CONSTRUCTION.</a></h5> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_1" id = "chapIV_4_1"> +WALLS.</a></h6> + +<p>The complete operation of building a wall has never been observed at +Zuñi by the writer, but a close examination of numerous finished and +some broken-down walls indicates that the methods of construction +adopted are essentially the same as those employed in Tusayan, which, +have been repeatedly observed; with the possible difference, however, +that in the former adobe mud mortar is more liberally used. A singular +feature of pueblo masonry as observed at Tusayan is the very sparing use +of mud in the construction of the walls; in fact, in some instances when +walls are built during the dry season, the larger stones are laid up in +the walls without the use of mud at all, and are allowed to stand in +this condition until the rains come; then the mud mortar is mixed, the +interstices of the walls filled in with it and with chinking stones, and +the inside walls are plastered. But the usual practice is to complete +the house at once, finishing it inside and out with the requisite +mortar. In some instances the outside walls are coated, completely +<span class = "pagenum">138</span> +<a name = "page138" id = "page138"> </a> +<!--png 292--> +covering the masonry, but this is not done in many of the houses, as may +be seen by reference to the preceding illustrations of the Tusayan +villages. At Zuñi, on the other hand, a liberal and frequently renewed +coating of mud is applied to the walls. Only one piece of masonry was +seen in the entire village that did not have traces of this coating of +mud, viz, that portion of the second story wall of house No. 2 described +as possibly belonging to the ancient nucleus pueblo of Halona and +illustrated in <a href = "#plateLVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LVIII</span></a>. Even the rough masonry of the kivas is +partly surfaced with this medium, though many jagged stones are still +visible. As a result of this practice it is now in many cases impossible +to determine from mere superficial inspection whether the underlying +masonry has been constructed of stone or of adobe; a difficulty that may +be realized from an examination of the views of Zuñi in Chapter <span +class = "smallroman">III</span>. Where the fall of water, such as the +discharge from a roof-drain, has removed the outer coating of mud that +covers stonework and adobe alike, a large proportion of these exposures +reveal stone masonry, so that it is clearly apparent that Zuñi is +essentially a stone village. The extensive use of sun-dried bricks of +adobe has grown up within quite recent times. It is apparent, however, +that the Zuñi builders preferred to use stone; and even at the present +time they frequently eke out with stonework portions of a house when the +supply of adobe has fallen short. An early instance of such +supplementary use of stone masonry still survives in the church +building, where the old Spanish adobe has been repaired and filled in +with the typical tabular aboriginal masonry, consisting of small stones +carefully laid, with very little intervening mortar showing on the face. +Such reversion to aboriginal methods probably took place on every +opportunity, though it is remarkable that the Indians should have been +allowed to employ their own methods in this instance. Although this +church building has for many generations furnished a conspicuous example +of typical adobe construction to the Zuñi, he has never taken the lesson +sufficiently to heart to closely imitate the Spanish methods either in +the preparation of the material or in the manner of its use. The adobe +bricks of the church are of large and uniform size, and the mud from +which they were made had a liberal admixture of straw. This binding +material does not appear in Zuñi in any other example of adobe that has +been examined, nor does it seem to have been utilized in any of the +native pueblo work either at this place or at Tusayan. +<!----> +<span class = "floatleft caption"> +<a name = "fig32" id = "fig32"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig32.png" width = "237" height = "195" +alt = "Zuñi chimney" +title = "Zuñi chimney"><br> +<br> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 32.</span> +A Zuñi chimney,<br> +showing pottery fragments<br> +embedded in its adobe base.</span> +<!----> +Where molded adobe bricks have been used by the Zuñi in housebuilding +they have been made from the raw material just as it was taken from the +fields. As a result these bricks have little of the durability of the +Spanish work. <a href = "#plateXCVI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XCVI</span></a> illustrates an adobe wall of Zuñi, part of +an unroofed house. The old adobe church at Hawikuh (<a href = +"#plateXLVIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XLVIII</span></a>), +abandoned for two centuries, has withstood the wear of time and weather +better than any of the stonework of the surrounding houses. On the +right-hand side of the street that shows in the foreground of <a href = +"#plateLXXVIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXVIII</span></a> is an +illustration of the construction +<span class = "pagenum">139</span> +<a name = "page139" id = "page139"> </a> +<!--png 295--> +of a wall with adobe bricks. This example is very recent, as it has not +yet been roofed over. The top of the wall, however, is temporarily +protected by the usual series of thin sandstone slabs used in the +finishing of wall copings. The very rapid disintegration of native-made +adobe walls has brought about the use in Zuñi of many protective +devices, some of which will be noticed in connection with the discussion +of roof drains and wall copings. Figs. <a href = "#fig32">32</a> and <a +href = "#fig33">33</a> illustrate a curious employment of pottery +fragments on a mud-plastered wall and on the base of a chimney to +protect the adobe coating against rapid erosion by the rains. These +pieces, usually fragments from large vessels, are embedded in the adobe +with the convex side out, forming an armor of pottery scales well +adapted to resist disintegration, by the elements.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig33" id = "fig33"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig33.png" width = "307" height = "231" +alt = "Zuñi oven" +title = "Zuñi oven"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 33.</span> +A Zuñi oven with pottery scales embedded in its surface.</p> + +<p>The introduction of the use of adobe in Zuñi should probably be +attributed to foreign influence, but the position of the village in the +open plain at a distance of several miles from the nearest outcrop of +suitable building stone naturally led the builders to use stone more +sparingly when an available substitute was found close at hand. The thin +slabs of stone, which had to be brought from a great distance, came to +be used only for the more exposed portions of buildings, such as copings +on walls and borders around roof openings. Still, the pueblo +<span class = "pagenum">140</span> +<a name = "page140" id = "page140"> </a> +<!--png 296--> +builders never attained to a full appreciation of the advantages and +requirements of this medium as compared with stone. The adobe walls are +built only as thick as is absolutely necessary, few of them being more +than a foot in thickness. The walls are thus, in proportion, to height +and weight, sustained, thinner than the crude brick construction of +other peoples, and require protection and constant repairs to insure +durability. As to thickness, they are evidently modeled directly after +the walls of stone masonry, which had already, in both Tusayan and +Cibola, been pushed to the limit of thinness. In fact, since the date of +the survey of Zuñi, on which the published plan is based, the walls of +several rooms over the court passageway in the house, illustrated in <a +href = "#plateLXXXII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXII</span></a>, +have entirely fallen in, demonstrating the insufficiency of the thin +walls to sustain the weight of several stories.</p> + +<p>The climate of the pueblo region is not wholly suited to the +employment of adobe construction, as it is there practiced. For several +months in the year (the rainy season) scarcely a day passes without +violent storms which play havoc with the earth-covered houses, +necessitating constant vigilance and frequent repairs on the part of the +occupants.</p> + +<p>Though the practice of mud-coating all walls has in Cibola +undoubtedly led to greater carelessness and a less rigid adherence to +ancient methods of construction, the stone masonry may still be seen to +retain some of the peculiarities that characterize ancient examples. +Features of this class are still more apparent at Tusayan, and +notwithstanding the rudeness of much of the modern stone masonry of this +province, the fact that the builders are familiar with the superior +methods of the ancient builders, is clearly shown in the masonry of the +present villages.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most noteworthy characteristic of pueblo masonry, and one +which is more or less present in both ancient and modern examples, is +the use of small chinking stones for bringing the masonry to an even +face after the larger stones forming the body of the wall have been laid +in place. This method of construction has, in the case of some of the +best built ancient pueblos, such as those on the Chaco in New Mexico, +resulted in the production of marvelously finished stone walls, in which +the mosaic-like bits are so closely laid as to show none but the finest +joints on the face of the wall with but little trace of mortar. The +chinking wedges necessarily varied greatly in dimensions to suit the +sizes of the interstices between the larger stones of the wall. The use +of stone in this manner no doubt suggested the banded walls that form so +striking a feature in some of the Chaco houses. This arrangement was +likely to be brought about by the occurrence in the cliffs of seams of +stone of two degrees of thickness, suggesting to the builders the use of +stones of similar thickness in continuous bands. The ornamental effect +of this device was originally an accidental result of adopting the most +convenient method of using the material at hand. Though the masonry of +the modern pueblos does not afford examples of distinct bands, the +<span class = "pagenum">141</span> +<a name = "page141" id = "page141"> </a> +<!--png 299--> +introduction of the small chinking spalls often follows horizontal lines +of considerable length. Even in mud-plastered Zuñi, many outcrops of +these thin, tabular wedges protrude from the partly eroded mudcoating of +a wall and indicate the presence of this kind of stone masonry. An +example is illustrated in <a href = "#fig34">Fig. 34</a>, a tower-like +projection at the northeast corner of house No. 2.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig34" id = "fig34"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig34.png" width = "348" height = "433" +alt = "Zuñi masonry" +title = "Zuñi masonry"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 34.</span> +Stone wedges of Zuñi masonry exposed in rain-washed wall.</p> + +<p>In the Tusayan house illustrated in <a href = "#plateLXXXIV">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">LXXXIV</span></a>, the construction of which +was observed at Oraibi, the interstices between the large stones that +formed the body of the wall, containing but small quantities of +<span class = "pagenum">142</span> +<a name = "page142" id = "page142"> </a> +<!--png 300--> +mud mortar, were filled in or plugged with small fragments of stone, +which, after being partly embedded in the mud of the joint, were driven +in with unhafted stone hammers, producing a fairly even face of masonry, +afterward gone over with mud plastering of the consistency of modeling +clay, applied a handful at a time. Piled up on the ground near the new +house at convenient points for the builders may be seen examples of the +larger wall stones, indicating the marked tabular character of the +pueblo masons’ material. The narrow edges of similar stones are visible +in the unplastered portions of the house wall, which also illustrates +the relative proportion of chinking stones. This latter, however, is a +variable feature. <a href = "#plateXV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XV</span></a> affords a clear illustration of the +proportion of these small stones in the old masonry of Payupki; while in +<a href = "#plateXI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XI</span></a>, +illustrating a portion of the outer wall of the Fire House, the tablets +are fewer in number and thinner, their use predominating in the +horizontal joints, as in the best of the old examples, but not to the +same extent. <a href = "#fig35">Fig. 35</a> illustrates the inner face +of an unplastered wall of a small house at Ojo Caliente, in which the +modern method of using the chinking stones is shown. This example bears +a strong resemblance to the Payupki masonry illustrated in <a href = +"#plateXV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XV</span></a> in the +irregularity with which the chinking stones are distributed in the +joints of the wall. The same room affords an illustration of a +cellar-like feature having the appearance of an intentional excavation +to attain a depth for this room +<span class = "pagenum">143</span> +<a name = "page143" id = "page143"> </a> +<!--png 303--> +corresponding to the adjoining floor level, but this effect is due +simply to a clever adaptation of the house wall to an existing ledge of +sandstone. The latter has had scarcely any artificial treatment beyond +the partial smoothing of the rock in a few places and the cutting out of +a small niche from the rocky wall. This niche occupies about the same +position in this room that it does in the ordinary pueblo house. It is +remarkable that the pueblo builders did not to a greater extent utilize +their skill in working stone in the preparation of some of the irregular +rocky sites that they have at times occupied for the more convenient +reception of their wall foundations; but in nearly all such cases the +buildings have been modified to suit the ground. An example of this +practice is illustrated in <a href = "#plateXXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXIII</span></a>, from the west side of Walpi. In some of +the ancient examples the labor required to so prepare the sites would +not have exceeded that expended on the massive masonry composed of +numberless small stones. Many of the older works testify to the +remarkable patience and industry of the builders in amassing and +carefully adjusting vast quantities of building materials, and the +modern Indians of Tusayan and Cibola have inherited much of this ancient +spirit; yet this industry was rarely diverted to the excavation of room +or village sites, except in the case of the kivas, in which special +motives led to the practice. In some of the Chaco pueblos, as now seen, +the floors of outer marginal rooms seem to be depressed below the +general level of the surrounding soil; but it is now difficult to +determine whether such was the original arrangement, as much sand and +soil have drifted against the outer walls, raising the surface. In none +of the pueblos within the limits of the provinces under discussion has +there been found any evidence of the existence of underground cellars; +the rooms that answer such purpose are built on the level of the ground. +At Tusayan the ancient practice of using the ground-floor rooms for +storage still prevails. In these are kept the dried fruit, vegetables, +and meats that constitute the principal winter food of the Tusayan. +Throughout Tusayan the walls of the first terrace rooms are not finished +with as much care as those above that face the open courts. A quite +smoothly finished coat of adobe is often seen in the upper stories, but +is much more rarely applied to the rough masonry of the ground-floor +rooms. At Zuñi no such difference of treatment is to be seen, a result +of the recent departure from their original defensive use. At the +present day most of the rooms that are built on the ground have external +doors, often of large size, and are regarded by the Zuñi as preferable +to the upper terraces as homes. This indicates that the idea of +convenience has already largely overcome the traditional defensive +requirements of pueblo arrangement. The general finish and quality of +the masonry, too, does not vary noticeably in different portions of the +village. An occasional wall may be seen in which underlying stones may +be traced through the thin adobe covering, as in one of the walls of the +court illustrated in <a href = "#plateLXXXII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXII</span></a>, but most of the walls have a fairly +smooth +<span class = "pagenum">144</span> +<a name = "page144" id = "page144"> </a> +<!--png 304--> +finish. The occasional examples of rougher masonry do not seem to be +confined to any particular portion of the village. At Tusayan, on the +other hand, there is a noticeable difference in the extent to which the +finishing coat of adobe has been used in the masonry. The villages of +the first mesa, whose occupants have come in frequent contact with the +eastern pueblo Indians and with outsiders generally, show the effect in +the adoption of several devices still unknown to their western +neighbors, as is shown in the discussion of the distribution of roof +openings in these villages, pp. <a href = "#page201">201</a>-<a href = +"#page208">208</a>. The builders of the first mesa seem also to have +imitated their eastern brethren in the free use of the adobe coating +over their masonry, while at the villages of the middle mesa, and +particularly at Oraibi, the practice has been comparatively rare, +imparting an appearance of ruggedness and antiquity to the +architecture.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig35" id = "fig35"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig35.png" width = "438" height = "327" +alt = "Ojo Caliente wall" +title = "Ojo Caliente wall"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 35.</span> +An unplastered house wall in Ojo Caliente.</p> + +<p>The stonework of this village, perhaps approaches the ancient types +more closely than that of the others, some of the walls being noticeable +for the frequent use of long bond stones. The execution of the masonry +at the corners of some of the houses enforces this resemblance and +indicates a knowledge of the principles of good construction in the +proper alternation of the long stones. A comparison with the Kin-tiel +masonry (<a href = "#plateLXXXIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXIX</span></a>) will show this resemblance. As a rule in +pueblo masonry an upper house wall was supported along its whole length +by a wall of a lower story, but occasional exceptions occur in both +ancient and modern work, where the builders have dared to trust the +weight of upper walls to wooden beams or girders, supported along part +of their length by buttresses from the walls at their ends or by large, +clumsy pieces of masonry, as was seen in the house of Sichumovi. In an +upper story of Walpi also, partitions occur that are not built +immediately over the lower walls, but on large beams supported on +masonry piers. In the much higher terraces of Zuñi, the strength of many +of the inner ground walls must be seriously taxed to withstand the +superincumbent weight, as such walls are doubtless of only the average +thickness and strength of ground walls. The dense clustering of this +village has certainly in some instances thrown the weight of two, three, +or even four additional, stories upon walls in which no provision was +made for the unusual strain. The few supporting walls that were +accessible to inspection did not indicate any provision in their +thickness for the support of additional weight; in fact, the builders of +the original walls could have no knowledge of their future requirements +in this respect. In the pueblos of the Chaco upper partition walls were, +in a few instances, supported directly on double girders, two posts of +12 or 14 inches in diameter placed side by side, without reinforcement +by stone piers or buttresses, the room below being left wholly +unobstructed. This construction was practicable for the careful builders +of the Chaco, but an attempt by the Tusayan to achieve the same result +would probably end in disaster. It was quite common among the ancient +builders to divide the ground or storage floor into smaller rooms than +the floor above, still preserving the vertical alignment of the +walls.</p> + +<!--png 380--> +<!--png 381--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateLXXXIX" id = "plateLXXXIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate89.png" width = "455" height = "258" +alt = "Kin-Tiel masonry" +title = "Kin-Tiel masonry"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate LXXXIX. Masonry in the north wing of Kin-tiel.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">145</span> +<a name = "page145" id = "page145"> </a> +<!--png 307--> +The finish of pueblo masonry rarely went far beyond the two leading +forms, to which attention has been called, the free use of adobe on the +one hand and the banded arrangement of ancient masonry on the other. +These types appear to present development along divergent lines. The +banded feature doubtless reached such a point of development in the +Chaco pueblos that its decorative value began to be appreciated, for it +is apparent that its elaboration has extended far beyond the +requirements of mere utility. This point would never have been reached +had the practice prevailed of covering the walls with a coating of mud. +The cruder examples of banded construction, however—those that +still kept well within constructional expediency—were doubtless +covered with a coating of plaster where they occurred inside of the +rooms. At Tusayan and Cibola, on the other hand, the tendency has been +rather to elaborate the plastic element of the masonry. The nearly +universal use of adobe is undoubtedly largely responsible for the more +slovenly methods of building now in vogue, as it effectually conceals +careless construction. It is not to be expected that walls would be +carefully constructed of banded stonework when they were to be +subsequently covered with mud. The elaboration of the use of adobe and +its employment as a periodical coating for the dwellings, probably +developed gradually into the use of a whitewash for the house walls, +resulting finally in crude attempts at wall decoration.</p> + +<p>Many of the interiors in Zuñi are washed with a coating of white, +clayey gypsum, used in the form of a solution made by dissolving in hot +water the lumps of the raw material, found in many localities. The +mixture is applied to the walls while hot, and is spread by means of a +rude glove-like sack, made of sheep or goat skin, with the hair side +out. With this primitive brush the Zuñi housewives succeed in laying on +a smooth and uniform coating over the plaster. An example of this class +of work was observed in a room of house No. 2. It is difficult to +determine to what extent this idea is aboriginal; as now employed it has +doubtless been affected by the methods of the neighboring Spanish +population, among whom the practice of white-coating the adobe houses +inside and out is quite common. Several traces of whitewashing have been +found among the cliff-dwellings of Canyon de Chelly, notably at the ruin +known as Casa Blanca, but as some of these ruins contained evidences of +post-Spanish occupation, the occurrence there of the whitewash does not +necessarily imply any great antiquity for the practice.</p> + +<p>External use of this material is much rarer, particularly in Zuñi, +where only a few walls of upper stories are whitened. Where it is not +protected from the rains by an overhanging coping or other feature, the +finish is not durable. Occasionally where a doorway or other opening has +been repaired the evidences of patchwork are obliterated by a +surrounding band of fresh plastering, varying in width from 4 inches to +a foot or more. Usually this band is laid on as a thick wash of adobe, +but in some instances a decorative effect is attained by using white. It +<span class = "pagenum">146</span> +<a name = "page146" id = "page146"> </a> +<!--png 308--> +is curious to find that at Tusayan the decorative treatment of the +finishing wash has been carried farther than, at Zuñi. The use of a +darker band of color about the base of a whitewashed room has already +been noticed in the description of a Tusayan interior. On many of the +outer walls of upper stories the whitewash has been stopped within a +foot of the coping, the unwhitened portion of the walls at the top +having the effect of a frieze. In a second story house of Mashongnavi, +that had been carefully whitewashed, additional decorative effect was +produced by tinting a broad band about the base of the wall with an +application of bright pinkish clay, which was also carried around the +doorway as an enframing band, as in the case of the Zuñi door above +described. The angles on each side, at the junction of the broad base +band with the narrower doorway border, were filled in with a design of +alternating pink and white squares. This doorway is illustrated in <a +href = "#fig36">Fig. 36</a>. Farther north, on the same terrace, the +jamb of a whitewashed doorway was decorated with the design shown on the +right hand side of <a href = "#fig36">Fig. 36</a>, executed also in pink +clay. This design closely resembles a pattern that is commonly +embroidered upon the large white “kachina,” or ceremonial blankets. It +is not known whether the device is here regarded as having any special +significance. The pink clay in which these designs have been executed +has in Sichumovi been used for the coating of an entire house front.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig36" id = "fig36"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig36.png" width = "313" height = "132" +alt = "Mashongnavi wall decorations" +title = "Mashongnavi wall decorations"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 36.</span> +Wall decorations in Mashongnavi executed in pink on a white ground.</p> + +<p>In addition to the above-mentioned uses of stone and earth in the +masonry of house walls, the pueblo builders have employed both these +materials in a more primitive manner in building the walls of corrals +and gardens, and for other purposes. The small terraced gardens of Zuñi, +located on the borders of the village on the southwest and southeast +sides, close to the river bank, are each surrounded by walls 2½ or 3 +feet high, of very light construction, the average thickness not +exceeding 6 or 8 inches. These rude walls are built of small, +irregularly rounded lumps of adobe, formed by hand, and coarsely +plastered with mud. When the crops are gathered in the fall the walls +are broken down in places to facilitate access to the inclosures, so +that they require repairing at each planting season. Aside from this +they are so frail as to require frequent repairs throughout the period +of their use. This method of building walls was adopted because it was +the readiest and +<span class = "pagenum">147</span> +<a name = "page147" id = "page147"> </a> +<!--png 310--> +least laborious means of inclosing the required space. The character of +these garden walls is illustrated in <a href = "#plateXC">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">XC</span></a>, and their construction with rough +lumps of crude adobe shows also the contrast between the weak appearance +of this work and the more substantial effect of the masonry of the +adjoining unfinished house. At the Cibolan farming pueblos inclosing +walls were usually made of stone, as were also those of Tusayan. <a href += "#plateLXX">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXX</span></a> indicates +the manner in which the material has been used in the corrals of +Pescado, located within the village. The stone walls are used in +combination with stakes, such as are employed at the main pueblo.</p> + +<!--png 384--> +<!--png 385--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXC" id = "plateXC"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate90.png" width = "480" height = "320" +alt = "Zuñi garden walls" +title = "Zuñi garden walls"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XC. Adobe garden walls near Zuñi.</p> + +<p>Small inclosed gardens, like those of Zuñi, occur at several points +in Tusayan. The thin walls are made of dry masonry, quite as rude in +character as those inclosing the Zuñi gardens. The smaller clusters are +usually located in the midst of large areas of broken stone that has +fallen from the mesa above. In the foreground of <a href = +"#plateXXII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXII</span></a> may be seen +a number of examples of such work. <a href = "#plateXCI">Pl. <span class += "smallroman">XCI</span></a> illustrates a group of corrals at Oraibi +whose walls are laid up without the use of mud mortar.</p> + +<!--png 388--> +<!--png 389--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCI" id = "plateXCI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate91.png" width = "453" height = "314" +alt = "Oraibi corrals" +title = "Oraibi corrals"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCI. A group of stone corrals near Oraibi.</p> + +<p>Where exceptionally large blocks of stone are available they have +been utilized in an upright position, and occur at greater or less +intervals along the thin walls of dry masonry. An example of this use +was seen in a garden wall on the west side of Walpi, where the stones +had been set on end in the yielding surface of a sandy slope among the +foothills. A similar arrangement, occurring close to the houses at Ojo +Caliente, is illustrated in <a href = "#plateXCII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XCII</span></a>. Large, upright slabs of stone have been +used by the pueblo builders in many ways, sometimes incorporated into +the architecture of the houses, and again in detached positions at some +distance from the villages. Pls. <a href = "#plateXCIII"><span class = +"smallroman">XCIII</span></a> and <a href = "#plateXCIV"><span class = +"smallroman">XCIV</span></a>, drawn from the photographs of Mr. +W. H. Jackson, afford illustrations of this usage in the ancient +ruins of Montezuma Canyon. In the first of these cases the stones were +utilized, apparently, in house masonry. Among the ruins in the valley of +the San Juan and its tributaries, as described by Messrs. W. H. +Holmes and W. H. Jackson, varied arrangements of upright slabs of +stone are of frequent occurrence. The rows of stones are sometimes +arranged in squares, sometimes in circles, and occasionally are +incorporated into the walls of ordinary masonry, as in the example +illustrated. Isolated slabs are also met with among the ruins. At +K’iakima, at a point near the margin of the ruin, occurs a series of +very large, upright slabs, which occupy the positions of headstones to a +number of small inclosures, thought to be mortuary, outlined upon the +ground. These have been already described in connection with the ground +plan of this village.</p> + +<!--png 392--> +<!--png 393--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCII" id = "plateXCII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate92.png" width = "452" height = "255" +alt = "Ojo Caliente wall" +title = "Ojo Caliente wall"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCII. An inclosing wall of upright stones at Ojo Caliente.</p> + +<p>The employment of upright slabs of stone to mark graves probably +prevailed to some extent in ancient practice, but other uses suggest +themselves. Occupying a conspicuous point in the village of Kin-tiel (<a +href = "#plateLXIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXIII</span></a>) is +an upright slab of sandstone which seems to stand in its original +position undisturbed, though the walls of the adjoining rooms +<span class = "pagenum">148</span> +<a name = "page148" id = "page148"> </a> +<!--png 311--> +are in ruins. A similar feature was seen at Peñasco Blanco, on the east +side of the village and a short distance without the inclosing wall. +Both these rude pillars are, in character and in position, very similar +to an upright stone of known use at Zuñi. A hundred and fifty feet from +this pueblo is a large upright block of sandstone, which is said to be +used as a datum point in the observations of the sun made by a priest of +Zuñi for the regulation of the time for planting and harvesting, for +determining the new year, and for fixing the dates of certain other +ceremonial observances. By the aid of such devices as the native priests +have at their command they are enabled to fix the date of the winter +solstice with a fair degree of accuracy. Such rude determination of time +was probably an aboriginal invention, and may have furnished the motive +in other cases for placing stone pillars in such unusual positions. The +explanation of the governor of Zuñi for a sun symbol seen on an upright +stone at Matsaki has been given in the description of that place. Single +slabs are also used, as seen in the easternmost room group of +Tâaaiyalana, and in the southwestern cluster on the same mesa, in the +building of shrines for the deposit of plume sticks and other ceremonial +objects.</p> + +<!--png 396--> +<!--png 397--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCIII" id = "plateXCIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate93.png" width = "441" height = "270" +alt = "sandstone blocks" +title = "sandstone blocks"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCIII. Upright blocks of sandstone built into an ancient pueblo +wall.</p> + +<p>An unusual employment of small stones in an upright position occurs +at Zuñi. The inclosing wall of the church yard, still used as a burial +place, is provided at intervals along its top with upright pieces of +stone set into the joints of a regular coping course that caps the wall. +This feature may have some connection with the idea of vertical grave +stones, noted at K’iakima. It is difficult to surmise what practical +purpose could have been subserved by these small upright stones.</p> + +<!--png 400--> +<!--png 401--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCIV" id = "plateXCIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate94.png" width = "442" height = "267" +alt = "ancient rock wall" +title = "ancient rock wall"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCIV. Ancient wall of upright rocks in southwestern Colorado.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the use of large stones for special purposes the +pueblo builders rarely appreciated the advantages that might be obtained +by the proper use of such material. Pueblo masonry is essentially made +up of small, often minute, constructional units. This restriction +doubtless resulted in a higher degree of mural finish than would +otherwise have been attained, but it also imposes certain limitations +upon their architectural achievement. Some of these are noted in the +discussion of openings and of other details of construction.</p> + +<p><a href = "#plateXLV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XLV</span></a>, +an illustration of a Mormon mill building at Moen-kopi, already referred +to in the description of that village, is introduced for the purpose of +comparing the methods adopted by the natives and by the whites in the +treatment of the same class of material. Perhaps the most noteworthy +contrast is seen in the sills and lintels of the openings.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_2" id = "chapIV_4_2"> +ROOFS AND FLOORS.</a></h6> + +<p>In the pueblo system of building, roof and floor is one; for all the +floors, except such as are formed immediately on the surface of the +ground, are at the same time the roofs and ceilings of lower rooms. The +pueblo plan of to-day readily admits of additions at any time and almost +at any point of the basal construction. The addition of rooms +<span class = "pagenum">149</span> +<a name = "page149" id = "page149"> </a> +<!--png 314--> +above converts a roof into the floor of the new room, so that there can +be no distinction in method of construction between floors and roofs, +except the floors are occasionally covered with a complete paving of +thin stone slabs, a device that in external roofs is confined to the +copings that cap the walls and enframe openings.</p> + +<p class = "floatright pictop"> +<a name = "fig37" id = "fig37"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig37top.gif" width = "270" height = "56" +alt = "roof construction" +title = "roof construction"></p> +<p class = "floatright picbottom"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig37middle.gif" width = "392" height = "60" +alt = "roof construction" +title = "roof construction"></p> +<p class = "floatright picbottom"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig37bottom.gif" width = "421" height = "101" +alt = "roof construction" +title = "roof construction"></p> + +<p class = "floatright capleft"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. +37.</span> +Diagram of Zuñi roof construction.</p> + +<p>The methods of roofing their houses practiced by the pueblo builders +varied but little, and followed the general order of construction that +has been outlined in describing Tusayan house building. The diagram, +shown in <a href = "#fig37">Fig. 37</a>, an isometric projection +illustrating roof construction, is taken from a Zuñi example, the +building of which was observed by the writer. The roof is built by first +a series of principal beams or rafters. These are usually straight, +round poles of 6 or 8 inches in diameter, with all bark and projecting +knots removed. Squared beams are of very rare occurrence; the only ones +seen were those of the Tusayan kivas, of Spanish manufacture. In +recently constructed houses the principal beams are often of large size +and are very neatly squared off at the ends. Similar square ended beams +of large size are met with in the ancient work of the Chaco pueblos, but +there the enormous labor involved in producing the result with only the +aid of stone implements is in keeping with the highly finished character +of the masonry and the general massiveness of the construction. The same +treatment was adopted in Kin-tiel, as may be seen in <a href = +"#plateXCV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XCV</span></a>, which +illustrates a beam resting upon a ledge or offset of the inner walls. +The recent introduction of improved mechanical aids has exerted a strong +influence on the character of the construction in greatly facilitating +execution. The use of the American ax made it a much easier task to cut +large timbers, and the introduction of the “burro” and ox greatly +facilitated their transportation. In the case of the modern pueblos, +such as Zuñi, the dwelling rooms that were built by families so poor as +not to have these aids would to some extent indicate the fact by their +more primitive construction, and particularly by their small size, in +<span class = "pagenum">150</span> +<a name = "page150" id = "page150"> </a> +<!--png 315--> +this respect more closely resembling the rooms of the ancient pueblos. +As a result the poorer classes would be more likely to perpetuate +primitive devices, through the necessity for practicing methods that to +the wealthier members of the tribe were becoming a matter of tradition +only. In such a sedentary tribe as the present Zuñi, these differences +of wealth and station are more marked than one would expect to find +among a people practicing a style of architecture so evidently +influenced by the communal principle, and the architecture of to-day +shows the effect of such distinctions. In the house of the governor of +Zuñi a new room has been recently built, in which the second series of +the roof, that applied over the principal beams, consisted of pine +shakes or shingles, and these supported the final earth covering without +any intervening material. In the typical arrangement, however, +illustrated in the figure, the first series, or principal beams, are +covered by another series of small poles, about an inch and a half or +two inches in diameter, at right angles to the first, and usually laid +quite close together. The ends of these small poles are partially +embedded in the masonry of the walls. In an example of the more careful +and laborious work of the ancient builders seen at Peñasco Blanco, on +the Chaco, the principal beams were covered with narrow boards, from 2 +to 4 inches wide and about 1 inch thick, over which was put the usual +covering of earth. The boards had the appearance of having been split +out with wedges, the edges and faces having the characteristic fibrous +appearance of torn or split wood. At Zuñi an instance occurs where split +poles have been used for the second series of a roof extending through +the whole thickness of the wall and projecting outside, as is commonly +the case with the first series. A similar arrangement was seen in a +ruined tower in the vicinity of Fort Wingate, New Mexico. In the typical +roof construction illustrated the second series is covered with small +twigs or brush, laid in close contact and at right angles to the +underlying series, or parallel with the main beams. <a href = +"#plateXCVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XCVI</span></a>, +illustrating an unroofed adobe house in Zuñi, shows several bundles of +this material on an adjoining roof. This series is in turn covered with +a layer of grass and small brush, again at right angles, which prepares +the frame for the reception of the final earth covering, this latter +being the fifth application to the roof. In the example illustrated the +entire earth covering of the roof was finished in a single application +of the material. It has been seen that at Tusayan a layer of moistened +earth is applied, followed by a thicker layer of the dry soil.</p> + +<!--png 404--> +<!--png 405--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCV" id = "plateXCV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate95.png" width = "456" height = "265" +alt = "Kin-tiel floor beams" +title = "Kin-tiel floor beams"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCV. Ancient floor-beams at Kin-tiel.</p> + +<p>In ancient construction, the method of arranging the material varied +somewhat. In some cases series 3 was very carefully constructed of +straight willow wands laid side by side in contact. This gave a very +neat appearance to the ceiling within the room. Examples were seen in +Canyon de Chelly, at Mummy Cave, and at Hungo Pavie and Pueblo Bonito on +the Chaco.</p> + +<p>Again examples occur where series 2 is composed of 2-inch poles in +contact and the joints are chinked on the upper side with small +<span class = "pagenum">151</span> +<a name = "page151" id = "page151"> </a> +<!--png 318--> +stones to prevent the earth from sifting through. This arrangement was +seen in a small cluster on the canyon bottom on the de Chelly.</p> + +<!--png 408--> +<!--png 409--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCVI" id = "plateXCVI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate96.png" width = "449" height = "260" +alt = "Zuñi walls" +title = "Zuñi walls"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCVI. Adobe walls in Zuñi.</p> + +<p>The small size of available roofing rafters has at Tusayan brought +about a construction of clumsy piers of masonry in a few of the larger +rooms, which support the ends of two sets of main girders, and these in +turn carry series 1, or the main ceiling beams of the roof. The girders +are generally double, an arrangement that has been often employed in +ancient times, as many examples occur among the ruins. The purpose of +such arrangement may have been to admit of the abutment of the ends of +series 1, when the members of the latter were laid in contact. In +the absence of squared beams, which seem never to have been used in the +old work, this abutment could only be securely accomplished by the use +of double girders, as suggested in the following diagram, <a href = +"#fig38">Fig. 38</a>.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig38" id = "fig38"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig38.png" width = "186" height = "37" +alt = "roof beams over girders" +title = "roof beams over girders"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 38.</span> +Showing abutment<br> +of smaller roof beams<br> +over round girders. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The final roof covering, composed of clay, is usually laid on very +carefully and firmly, and, when the surface is unbroken, answers fairly +well as a watershed. A slight slope or fall is given to the roof. This +roof subserves every purpose of a front yard to the rooms that open upon +it, and seems to be used exactly like the ground itself. Sheepskins are +stretched and pegged out upon it for tanning or drying, and the +characteristic Zuñi dome-shaped oven is frequently built upon it. In +Zuñi generally upper rooms are provided only with a mud floor, although +occasionally the method of paving with large thin slabs of stone is +adopted. These are often somewhat irregular in form, the object being to +have them as large as possible, so that considerable ingenuity is often +displayed in selecting the pieces and in joining the irregular edges. +This arrangement, similar to that of the kiva floors of Tusayan, is +occasionally met with in the kivas.</p> + +<p>In making excavations at Kin-tiel, the floor of the ground room in +which the circular door illustrated in <a href = "#plateC">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">C</span></a>, was found was paved with large, +irregular fragments of stone, the thickness of which did not average +more than an inch. Its floor, whose paving was all in place, was strewn +with broken, irregular fragments similar in character, which must have +been used as the flooring of an upper chamber.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_3" id = "chapIV_4_3"> +WALL COPINGS AND ROOF DRAINS.</a></h6> + +<p>In the construction of the typical pueblo house the walls are carried +up to the height of the roof surface, and are then capped with a +continuous protecting coping of thin flat stones, laid in close contact, +their outer edges flush with the face of the wall. This arrangement is +still the prevailing one at Tusayan, though there is an occasional +example of the projecting coping that practically forms a cornice. This +latter is the more usual form at Zuñi, though in the farming pueblos of +Cibola +<span class = "pagenum">152</span> +<a name = "page152" id = "page152"> </a> +<!--png 319--> +it does not occur with any greater frequency than at Tusayan. The flush +coping is in Tusayan made of the thinnest and most uniform specimens of +building stone available, but these are not nearly so well adapted to +the purpose as those found in the vicinity of Zuñi.</p> + +<p>Here the projecting stones are of singularly regular and symmetrical +form, and receive very little artificial treatment. Their extreme +thinness makes it easy to trim off the projecting corners and angles, +reducing them to such a form that they can be laid in close contact. +Thus laid they furnish an admirable protection against the destructive +action of the violent rains. The stones are usually trimmed to a width +corresponding to the thickness of the walls. Of course where a +projecting cornice is built, it can be made, to some extent, to conform +to the width of available coping stones. These can usually be procured, +however, of nearly uniform width. In the case of the overhanging +cornices the necessary projection is attained by continuing either the +main roof beams, or sometimes the smaller poles of the second series, +according to the position of the required cornice, for a foot or more +beyond the outer face of the wall. Over these poles the roofing is +continued as in ordinary roof construction with the exception that the +edge of the earth covering is built of masonry, an additional precaution +against its destruction by the rains. In many places the adobe +plastering originally applied to the faces of these cornices, as well as +to the walls, has been washed away, exposing the whole construction. In +some of these instances the face of the cornice furnishes a complete +section of the roof, in which all the series of its construction can be +readily identified. The protective agency of these coping stones is well +illustrated in <a href = "#plateXCVII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XCVII</span></a>, which shows the destructive effect of +rain at a point where an open joint has admitted enough water to bare +the masonry of the cornice face, eating through its coating of adobe, +while at the firmly closed joint toward the left there has been no +erosive action. The much larger proportion of projecting copings or +cornices in Zuñi, as compared with Tusayan, is undoubtedly attributable +to the universal smoothing of the walls with adobe, and to the more +general use of this perishable medium in this village, and the +consequent necessity for protecting the walls. The efficiency of this +means of protecting the wall against the wear of weather is seen in the +preservation of external whitewashing for several feet below such a +cornice on the face of the walls. At the pueblo of Acoma a similar +extensive use of projecting cornices is met with, particularly on the +third story walls. Here again it is due to the use of adobe, which has +been more frequently employed in the finish of the higher and newer +portions of the village than in the lower terraces. As a rule these +overhanging copings occur <ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘pricipally’">principally</ins> +on the southern exposures of the +buildings and on the terraced sides of house rows. When walls rise to +the height of several stories directly from the ground, such as the back +walls of house rows, they are not usually provided with this feature but +are capped with flush copings.</p> + +<!--png 412--> +<!--png 413--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCVII" id = "plateXCVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate97.png" width = "454" height = "290" +alt = "Zuñi oven" +title = "Zuñi oven"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCVII. Wall coping and oven at Zuñi.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">153</span> +<a name = "page153" id = "page153"> </a> +<!--png 322--> +The rapid and destructive erosion of the earthen roof covering must have +early stimulated the pueblo architect to devise means for promptly +distributing where it would do the least harm, the water which came upon +his house. This necessity must have led to the early use of roof drains, +for in no other way could the ancient builders have provided for the +effectual removal of the water from, the roofs and at the same time have +preserved intact the masonry of the walls. Unfortunately we have no +examples of such features in the ruined pueblos, for in the destruction +or decay of the houses they are among the first details to be lost. The +roof drain in the modern architecture becomes a very prominent feature, +particularly at Zuñi.</p> + +<table class = "figures" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig39" id = "fig39"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig39a.png" width = "190" height = "131" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig39b.png" width = "191" height = "137" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. +39.</span> +Single stone roof drains. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig40" id = "fig40"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig40a.png" width = "193" height = "119" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig40b.png" width = "208" height = "158" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. +40.</span> +Trough roof drains of stone. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig41" id = "fig41"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig41a.png" width = "219" height = "150" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig41b.png" width = "213" height = "207" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. +41.</span> +Wooden roof drains. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>These drains are formed by piercing an opening through the thickness +of the coping wall, at a point where the drainage from the roof would +collect, the opening being made with a decided pitch and furnished with +a spout or device of some kind to insure the discharge of the water +beyond the face of the wall. These spouts assume a variety of forms. +Perhaps the most common is that of a single long, narrow slab of stone, +set at a suitable angle and of sufficient projection to throw the +discharge clear of the wall. <a href = "#fig39">Fig. 39</a> illustrates +drains of this type, No. 1 being a Tusayan example and No. 2 from Zuñi. +It will be noted that the surrounding masonry of the former, as well as +the stone itself, are much ruder than the Zuñi example. Another type of +drain, not differing greatly from the preceding, is illustrated in <a +href = "#fig40">Fig. 40</a>. This form is a slight improvement on the +single stone drain, as it is provided with side +<span class = "pagenum">154</span> +<a name = "page154" id = "page154"> </a> +<!--png 323--> +pieces which convert the device into a trough-like spout, and more +effectually direct the discharge. No. 1 is a Tusayan spout and No. 2 a +Zuñi example. Wooden spouts are also commonly used for this purpose. <a +href = "#fig41">Fig. 41</a> illustrates an example from each province of +this form of drain. These are usually made from small tree trunks, not +exceeding 3 or 4 inches in diameter, and are gouged out from one side. +No tubular specimens of wooden spouts were seen. At Tusayan the builders +have utilized stone of a concretionary formation for roof drains. The +workers in stone could not wish for material more suitably fashioned for +the purpose than these specimens. Two of these curious stone channels +are illustrated in <a href = "#fig42">Fig. 42</a>. Two more examples of +Tusayan roof drains are illustrated in <a href = "#fig43">Fig. 43</a>. +The first of the latter shows the use of a discarded metate, or mealing +stone, and the second of a gourd that has been walled into the +coping.</p> + +<table class = "figures" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig42" id = "fig42"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig42a.png" width = "217" height = "189" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig42b.png" width = "211" height = "170" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. +42.</span> +Curved roof drains of stone in Tusayan. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig43" id = "fig43"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig43a.png" width = "213" height = "166" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig43b.png" width = "221" height = "186" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. +43.</span> +Tusayan roof drains; a discarded metate and a gourd. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">155</span> +<a name = "page155" id = "page155"> </a> +<!--png 326--> +It is said that tubes of clay were used at Awatubi in olden times for +roof drains, but there remains no positive evidence of this. Three forms +of this device are attributed to the people of that village. Some are +said to have been made of wood, others of stone, and some again of +sun-dried clay. The native explanation of the use in this connection of +sun-dried clay, instead of the more durable baked product, was that the +application of fire to any object that water passes through would be +likely to dry up the rains. It was stated in this connection that at the +present day the cobs of the corn used for planting are not burned until +rain has fallen on the crop. If the clay spout described really existed +among the people at Awatubi, it was likely to have been an innovation +introduced by the Spanish missionaries. Among the potsherds picked up at +this ruin was a small piece of coarsely made clay tube, which seemed to +be too large and too roughly modeled to have been the handle of a ladle, +which it roughly resembled, or to have belonged to any other known form +of domestic pottery. As a roof drain its use would not accord with the +restrictions referred to in the native account, as the piece had been +burnt.</p> + +<p>In some cases in Zuñi where drains discharge from the roofs of upper +terraces directly upon those below, the lower roofs and also the +adjoining vertical walls are protected by thin tablets of stone, as +shown in <a href = "#fig44">Fig. 44</a>. It will be seen that one of +these is placed upon the lower roof in such a position that the drainage +falls directly upon it. Where the adobe roof covering is left +unprotected its destruction by the rain is very rapid, as the showers of +the rainy season in these regions, though usually of short duration, are +often extremely violent. The force of the torrents is illustrated in the +neighboring country. Here small ruts in the surface of the ground are +rapidly converted into large arroyos. Frequently ordinary wagon tracks +along a bit of valley slope serve as an initial channel to the rapidly +accumulating waters and are eaten +<span class = "pagenum">156</span> +<a name = "page156" id = "page156"> </a> +<!--png 327--> +away in a few weeks so that the road becomes wholly impassable, and must +be abandoned for a new one alongside.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig44" id = "fig44"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig44.png" width = "437" height = "311" +alt = "roof drain" +title = "roof drain"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 44.</span> +Zuñi roof drain, with splash stones on roof below.</p> + +<p>The shiftlessness of the native builders in the use of the more +convenient material brings its own penalty during this season in a +necessity for constant watchfulness and frequent repairs to keep the +houses habitable. One can often see in Zuñi where an inefficient drain +or a broken coping has given the water free access to the face of a +plastered wall, carrying away all its covering and exposing in a +vertical space the jagged stones of the underlying masonry. It is +noticeable that much more attention has been paid to protective devices +at Zuñi than at Tusayan. This is undoubtedly due to the prevalent use of +adobe in the former. This friable material must be protected at all +vulnerable points with slabs of stone in order quickly to divert the +water and preserve the roofs and walls from destruction.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_4" id = "chapIV_4_4"> +LADDERS AND STEPS.</a></h6> + +<p>In the inclosed court of the old fortress pueblos the first terrace +was reached only by means of ladders, but the terraces or rooms above +this were reached both by ladders and steps. The removal of the lower +tier of ladders thus gave security against intrusion and attack. The +builders of Tusayan have preserved this primitive arrangement in much +greater purity than those of Cibola.</p> + +<p>In Zuñi numerous ladders are seen on every terrace, but the purpose +of these, on the highest terraces, is not to provide access to the rooms +of the upper story, which always have external doors opening on the +terraces, but to facilitate repairs of the roofs. At Tusayan, on the +<span class = "pagenum">157</span> +<a name = "page157" id = "page157"> </a> +<!--png 330--> +other hand, ladders are of rare occurrence above the first terrace, +their place being supplied by flights of stone steps. The relative +scarcity of stone at Zuñi, suitable for building material, and its great +abundance at Tusayan, undoubtedly account for this difference of usage, +especially as the proximity of the timber supply of the Zuñi mountains +to the former facilitates the substitution of wood for steps of +masonry.</p> + +<p>The earliest form of ladder among the pueblos was probably a notched +log, a form still occasionally used. Figures 45 and 46 illustrate +examples of this type of ladder from Tusayan.</p> + +<table class = "figures" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig45" id = "fig45"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig45.png" width = "271" height = "313" +alt = "notched ladder" +title = "notched ladder"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig46" id = "fig46"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig46a.png" width = "48" height = "245" +alt = "notched ladder" +title = "notched ladder"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig46b.png" width = "156" height = "241" +alt = "notched ladder" +title = "notched ladder"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 45.</span> +A modern notched ladder in Oraibi. +</td> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 46.</span> +Tusayan notched ladders from Mashongnavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">158</span> +<a name = "page158" id = "page158"> </a> +<!--png 331--> +A notched ladder from Oraibi, made with a modern axe, is shown. This +specimen has a squareness of outline and an evenness of surface not +observed in the ancient examples. The ladder from Mashongnavi, +illustrated on the left of <a href = "#fig46">Fig. 46</a>, closely +resembles the Oraibi specimen, though the workmanship is somewhat ruder. +The example illustrated on the right of the same figure is from Oraibi. +This ladder is very old, and its present rough and weatherbeaten surface +affords but little evidence of the character of the implement used in +making it.</p> + +<p>The ladder having two poles connected by cross rungs is undoubtedly a +native invention, and was probably developed through a series of +improvements on the primitive notched type. It is described in detail in +the earliest Spanish accounts. <a href = "#fig47">Fig. 47</a> +illustrates on the left the notched ladder, and on the right a typical +two-pole ladder in its most primitive form. In this case the rungs are +simply lashed to the uprights. The center ladder of the diagram is a +Mandan device illustrated by Mr. Lewis H. Morgan.<a class = "tag" name = +"tag6" id = "tag6" href = "#note6">6</a> As used by the Mandans this +ladder is placed with its forked end on the ground, the reverse of the +Pueblo practice. It will readily be seen, on comparing these examples, +that an elongation of the fork which occurs as a constant accompaniment +of the notched ladder might eventually suggest a construction similar to +that of the Mandan ladder reversed. The function of the fork on the +notched ladder in steadying it when placed against the wall would be +more effectually performed by enlarging this feature.</p> + +<table class = "figures" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig47" id = "fig47"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig47a.png" width = "64" height = "308" +alt = "ladder" +title = "ladder"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig47b.png" width = "123" height = "303" +alt = "ladder" +title = "ladder"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig47c.png" width = "115" height = "301" +alt = "ladder" +title = "ladder"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "3"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 47.</span> +Aboriginal American forms of ladder. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">159</span> +<a name = "page159" id = "page159"> </a> +<!--png 334--> +At one stage in the development of the form of ladder in common use +to-day the rungs were laid in depressions or notches of the vertical +poles, resembling the larger notches of the single ladder, and then +lashed on with thongs of rawhide or with other materials. Later, when +the use of iron became known, holes were burned through the side poles. +This is the nearly universal practice to-day, though some of the more +skillful pueblo carpenters manage to chisel out rectangular holes. The +piercing of the side poles, <ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘particulary’">particularly</ins> +prevalent in Zuni, has brought +about a curious departure from the ancient practice of removing the +ladder in times of threatened danger. Long rungs are loosely slipped +into the holes in the side pieces, and the security formerly gained by +taking up the entire ladder is now obtained, partially at least, by the +removal of the rungs. The boring of the side pieces and the employment +of loose rungs seriously interferes with the stability of the structure, +as means must be provided to prevent the spreading apart of the side +pieces. The Zuni architect has met this difficulty by prolonging the +poles of the ladder and attaching a cross piece near their upper ends to +hold them together. As a rule this cross piece is provided with a hole +near each end into which the tapering extremities of the poles are +inserted. From their high position near the extremities of the ladders, +seen in silhouette against the sky, they form peculiarly striking +features of Zuni. They are frequently decorated with rude carvings of +terraced notches. Examples of this device may be seen in the views of +Zuni, and several typical specimens are illustrated in detail in <a href += "#plateXCVIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XCVIII</span></a>. +The use of cross pieces on ladders emerging from roof openings is not so +common as on external ones, as there is not the same necessity for +holding together the poles, the sides of the opening performing that +office.</p> + +<p>There are two places in Zuni, portions of the densest house cluster, +where the needs of unusual traffic have been met by the employment of +double ladders, made of three vertical poles, which accommodate two +tiers of rungs. The sticks forming the rungs are inserted in continuous +lengths through all three poles, and the cross pieces at the top are +also continuous, being formed of a single flat piece of wood perforated +by three holes for the reception of the tips of the poles. In additional +to the usual cross pieces pierced for the reception of the side poles +and rudely carved into ornamental forms, many temporary cross pieces are +added during the harvest season in the early autumn to support the +strips of meat and melons, strings of red peppers, and other articles +dried in the open air prior to storage for winter use. At this season +every device that will serve this purpose is employed. Occasionally +poles are seen extending across the reentering angles of a house or are +supported on the coping and rafters. The projecting roof beams also are +similarly utilized at this season.</p> + +<p>Zuni ladders are usually provided with about eight rungs, but a few +have as many as twelve. The women ascend these ladders carrying ollas of +water on their heads, children play upon them, and a few of the +<span class = "pagenum">160</span> +<a name = "page160" id = "page160"> </a> +<!--png 335--> +most expert of the numerous dogs that infest the village can clumsily +make their way up and down them. As described in a previous section all +houses built during the year are consecrated at a certain season, and +among other details of the ceremonial, certain rites, intended to +prevent accidents to children, etc., are performed at the foot of the +ladders.</p> + +<p>In Tusayan, where stone is abundant, the ladder has not reached the +elaborate development seen in Zuñi. The perforated cross piece is rarely +seen, as there is little necessity for its adoption. The side poles are +held together by the top and bottom rungs, which pass entirely through +the side pieces and are securely fixed, while the ends of the others are +only partly embedded in the side pieces. In other cases (<a href = +"#plateXXXII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXXII</span></a>) the poles +are rigidly held in place by ropes or rawhide lashings.</p> + +<p>Short ladders whose side poles are but little prolonged beyond the +top rung are of common occurrence, particularly in Oraibi. Three such +ladders are shown in <a href = "#plateLXXXIV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXIV</span></a>. A similar example may be seen in <a href += "#plateCVII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">CVII</span></a>, in +connection with a large opening closed with rough masonry. In these +cases the rungs are made to occupy slight notches or depressions in the +upright poles and are then firmly lashed with rawhide, forming a fairly +rigid structure. This type of ladder is probably a survival of the +earliest form of the pueblo ladder.</p> + +<!--png 416--> +<!--png 417--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCVIII" id = "plateXCVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate98.png" width = "339" height = "562" +alt = "ladder cross-pieces" +title = "ladder cross-pieces"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCVIII. Cross-pieces on Zuñi ladders.</p> + +<p>In addition to the high cross piece whose function is to retain in +place the vertical poles, the kiva ladders are usually provided, both in +Zuñi and Tusayan, with a cross piece consisting of a round stick tied to +the uprights and placed at a uniform height above the kiva roof. This +stick affords a handhold for the marked dancers who are often encumbered +with ceremonial paraphernalia as they enter the kiva. In the case of the +Oraibi kiva occupying the foreground of <a href = "#plateXXXVIII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXXVIII</span></a>, it may be seen that this +handhold cross piece is inserted into holes in the side poles, an +exception to the general practice. In <a href = "#plateLXXXVII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">LXXXVII</span></a>, illustrating kivas, the +position of this feature will be seen.</p> + +<!--png 420--> +<!--png 421--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateXCIX" id = "plateXCIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate99.png" width = "436" height = "257" +alt = "outside steps" +title = "outside steps"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate XCIX. Outside steps at Pescado.</p> + +<p>The exceptional mode of access to Tusayan kiva hatchways by means of +short nights of stone steps has already been noticed. In several +instances the top steps of these short flights cover the thickness of +the wall. The remains of a similar stairway were observed in Pueblo +Bonito, where it evidently reached directly from the ground to an +external doorway. Access by such means, however, is a departure from the +original defensive idea.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig48" id = "fig48"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig48.png" width = "373" height = "327" +alt = "stone steps" +title = "stone steps"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 48.</span> +Stone steps at Oraibi, with platform at corner.</p> + +<p>Modern practice in Zuñi has departed more widely from the primitive +system than at Tusayan. In the former pueblo short nights of stone steps +giving access to doors raised but a short distance above the ground are +very commonly seen. Even in the small farming pueblo of Pescado two +examples of this arrangement are met with. <a href = "#plateXCIX">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XCIX</span></a> illustrates one of these +found on the north outside wall. In the general views of the Tusayan +villages the closer adherence to primitive methods is +<span class = "pagenum">161</span> +<a name = "page161" id = "page161"> </a> +<!--png 338--> +clearly indicated, although the modern compare very unfavorably with the +ancient examples in precision of execution. <a href = "#plateXXXII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXXII</span></a> illustrates two flights of +stone steps of Shupaulovi. In many cases the workmanship of these stone +steps does not surpass that seen in the Walpi trail, illustrated in <a +href = "#plateXXV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXV</span></a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig49" id = "fig49"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig49.png" width = "434" height = "303" +alt = "stone steps" +title = "stone steps"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 49.</span> +Stone steps, with platform at chimney, in Oraibi.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig50" id = "fig50"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig50.png" width = "294" height = "296" +alt = "stone steps" +title = "stone steps"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 50.</span> +Stone steps in Shumopavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">162</span> +<a name = "page162" id = "page162"> </a> +<!--png 339--> +Perhaps in no one detail of pueblo construction are the careless and +shiftless modern methods so conspicuous as in the stone steps of the +upper terraces of Tusayan. Here are seen many awkward makeshifts by +means of which the builders have tried to compensate for their lack of +foresight in planning. The absence of a definite plan for a house +cluster of many rooms, already noted in the discussion of dwelling-house +construction, is rendered conspicuous by the manner in which the stone +stairways are used. Figs. <a href = "#fig48">48</a> and <a href = +"#fig49">49</a> illustrate stone steps on upper terraces in Oraibi. In +both cases the steps have been added long after the rooms against which +they abut were built. In order to conform to the fixed requirement of +placing such means of access at the corners of the upper rooms, the +builders constructed a clumsy platform to afford passage around the +previously built chimney. <a href = "#fig50">Fig. 50</a> shows the +result of a similar lack of foresight. The upper portion of the flight, +consisting of three steps, has been abruptly turned at right angles to +the main flight, and is supported upon rude poles and beams. The +restriction of this feature to the corners of upper rooms where they +were most likely to conflict with chimneys is undoubtedly a survival of +ancient practice, and due to the necessary vertical alignment of walls +and masonry in this primitive construction.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_5" id = "chapIV_4_5"> +COOKING PITS AND OVENS.</a></h6> + +<p>Most of the cooking of the ancient Pueblos was probably done out of +doors, as among the ruins vestiges of cooking pits, almost identical in +<span class = "pagenum">163</span> +<a name = "page163" id = "page163"> </a> +<!--png 342--> +character with those still found in Tusayan, are frequently seen. In +Cibola the large dome-shaped ovens, common to the Pueblos of the Rio +Grande and to their Mexican neighbors are in general use. In Tusayan a +few examples of this form of oven occur upon the roofs of the terraces, +while the cooking pit in a variety of forms is still extensively +used.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig51" id = "fig51"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig51.png" width = "233" height = "71" +alt = "cooking pits" +title = "cooking pits"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 51.</span> +A series of<br> +cooking pits in Mashongnavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The distribution of the dome-shaped ovens in Cibola and in Tusayan +may be seen on the ground plans in Chapters <a href = "#plateIII"><span +class = "smallroman">III</span></a> and <a href = "#plateIV"><span class += "smallroman">IV</span></a>. The simplest form of cooking pit, still +commonly used in Tusayan, consists of a depression in the ground, lined +with a coating of mud. The pit is usually of small size and is commonly +placed at some little distance from the house; in a few cases it is +located in a sheltered corner of the building. <a href = "#fig51">Fig. +51</a> illustrates a series of three such primitive ovens built against +a house wall, in a low bench or ledge of masonry raised 6 inches above +the ground; the holes measure about a foot across and are about 18 or 20 +inches deep. Many similar pits occur in the Tusayan villages; some of +them are walled in with upright stone slabs, whose rough edges project 6 +or 8 inches above the ground, the result closely resembling the ancient +form of in-door fireplace, such as that seen in a room of Kin-tiel. (<a +href = "#plateC">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">C</span></a>.)</p> + +<!--png 424--> +<!--png 425--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateC" id = "plateC"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate100.png" width = "459" height = "270" +alt = "Kin-tiel room" +title = "Kin-tiel room"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate C. An excavated room at Kin-tiel.</p> + +<p>In its perfected form the cooking pit in Tusayan takes the place of +the more elaborate oven used in Zuñi. Figs. <a href = "#fig52">52</a> +and <a href = "#fig53">53</a> show two specimens of pits used for the +preparation of pi-gummi, a kind of baked mush.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure" colspan = "2"> +<a name = "fig52" id = "fig52"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig52.png" width = "296" height = "142" +alt = "pi-gummi ovens" +title = "pi-gummi ovens"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 52.</span> +Pi-gummi ovens of Mashongnavi. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig53" id = "fig53"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig53a.png" width = "139" height = "109" +alt = "pi-gummi oven" +title = "pi-gummi oven"></td> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig53b.png" width = "141" height = "100" +alt = "pi-gummi oven" +title = "pi-gummi oven"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. +53.</span> +Cross sections of<br> +pi-gummi ovens of Mashongnavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">164</span> +<a name = "page164" id = "page164"> </a> +<!--png 343--> +These occur on the east side of Mashongnavi. They project 6 or 8 inches +above the ground, and have a depth of from 18 to 24 inches. The débris +scattered about the pits indicates the manner in which they are covered +with slabs of stone and sealed with mud when in use. In all the oven, +devices of the pueblos the interior is first thoroughly heated by a long +continued fire within, the structure. When the temperature is +sufficiently high the ashes and dirt are cleaned out, the articles to be +cooked inserted, and the orifices sealed. The food is often left in +these heated receptacles for 12 hours or more, and on removal it is +generally found to be very nicely cooked. Each of the pi-gummi ovens +illustrated above is provided with a tube-like orifice 3 or 4 inches in +diameter, descending obliquely from the ground level into the cavity. +Through this opening the fire is arranged and kept in order, and in this +respect it seems to be the counterpart of the smaller hole of the Zuñi +dome-shaped ovens. When the principal opening, by which the vessel +containing the pi-gummi or other articles is introduced, has been +covered with a slab of stone and sealed with mud, the effect is similar +to that of the dome-shaped oven when the ground-opening or doorway is +hermetically closed.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig54" id = "fig54"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig54a.png" width = "262" height = "190" +alt = "foundation stones of oven" +title = "foundation stones of oven"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig54b.png" width = "183" height = "179" +alt = "foundation stones of oven" +title = "foundation stones of oven"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 54.</span> +Diagram showing<br> +foundation stones<br> +of a Zuñi oven. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>No example of the dome-shaped oven of pre-Columbian origin has been +found among the pueblo ruins, although its prototype probably existed in +ancient times, possibly in the form of a kiln for baking a fine quality +of pottery formerly manufactured. However, the cooking pit alone, +developed to the point of the pi-gummi oven of Tusayan, may have been +the stem upon which the foreign idea was engrafted. Instances of the +complete adoption by these conservative people of a wholly foreign idea +or feature of construction are not likely to be found, as improvements +are almost universally confined to the mere modification of existing +devices. In the few instances in which more radical changes are +attempted the resulting forms bear evidence of the fact.</p> + +<p>In Cibola the construction of a dome-shaped oven is begun by laying +out roughly a circle of flat stones as a foundation. Upon these the +<span class = "pagenum">165</span> +<a name = "page165" id = "page165"> </a> +<!--png 346--> +upper structure is rudely built of stones laid in the mud and +approximately in the courses, though often during construction one side +will be carried considerably higher than another. The walls curve inward +to an apparently unsafe degree, but the mud mortar is often allowed to +partly dry before carrying the overhanging portion so far as to endanger +the structure, and accidents rarely happen. The oven illustrated in <a +href = "#plateXCVII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XCVII</span></a> +shows near its broken doorway the arrangement of foundation stones +referred to. Typical examples of the dome oven occur in the foreground +of the general view of Zuñi shown in <a href = "#plateLXXVIII">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">LXXVIII</span></a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig55" id = "fig55"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig55.png" width = "440" height = "313" +alt = "oven" +title = "oven"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 55.</span> +Dome-shaped oven on a plinth of masonry.</p> + +<p>The dome ovens of Cibola are generally smoothly plastered, inside and +out, but a few examples are seen in which the stones of the masonry are +exposed. In. <a href = "#plateXCIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XCIX</span></a> may be seen two ovens differing in size, +one of which shows the manner in which the opening is blocked up with +stone to keep out stray dogs during periods of disuse. <a href = +"#fig55">Fig. 55</a> illustrates a mud-plastered oven at Pescado, which +is elevated about a foot above the ground on a base or plinth of +masonry. The opening of this oven is on the side toward the houses. This +form is quite exceptional in Cibola, though of frequent occurrence among +the Rio Grande pueblos. A very large and carefully finished example was +examined at Jemez.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig56" id = "fig56"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig56.png" width = "438" height = "269" +alt = "oven" +title = "oven"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 56.</span> +Oven in Pescado exposing stones of masonry.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">166</span> +<a name = "page166" id = "page166"> </a> +<!--png 347--> +<p>Figs. <a href = "#fig56">56</a> and <a href = "#fig57">57</a> +illustrate two specimens of rough masonry ovens seen at Pescado. In one +of these a decided horizontal arrangement of the stones in the masonry +prevails. The specimen at the right is small and rudely constructed, +showing but little care in the use of the building material. The few +specimens of dome ovens seen in Tusayan are characterized by the same +rudeness of construction noticed in their house masonry. The rarity of +this oven at Tusayan, where so many of the constructions have retained a +degree of primitiveness not seen elsewhere, is perhaps an additional +evidence of its foreign origin.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig57" id = "fig57"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig57.png" width = "416" height = "274" +alt = "oven" +title = "oven"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 57.</span> +Oven in Pescado exposing stones of masonry.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">167</span> +<a name = "page167" id = "page167"> </a> +<!--png 350--> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_6" id = "chapIV_4_6"> +OVEN-SHAPED STRUCTURES.</a></h6> + +<p>In Tusayan, there are other structures, of rude dome-shape, likely to +be mistaken for some form of cooking device. <a href = "#fig58">Fig. +58</a> illustrates two specimens of shrines that occur in courts of +Mashongnavi. These are receptacles for plume sticks (bahos) and other +votive offerings used at certain festivals, which, after being so used, +are sealed up with stone slabs and adobe. These shrines occur at several +of the villages, as noted in the discussion of the plans in Chapter +<span class = "smallroman">III</span>. In the foreground of <a href = +"#plateXXXVIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXXVIII</span></a> may be +seen an Oraibi specimen somewhat resembling those seen at +Mashongnavi.</p> + +<table class = "figures" summary = "illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig58" id = "fig58"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig58a.png" width = "205" height = "97" +alt = "shrine" title = "shrine"></td> +<td class = "figure" rowspan = "2"> +<a name = "fig59" id = "fig59"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig59.png" width = "355" height = "236" +alt = "shrine" title = "shrine"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig58b.png" width = "216" height = "69" +alt = "poultry house" title = "poultry house"></td> +<!--<td></td>--> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 58.</span> +Shrines in Mashongnavi. +</td> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 59.</span> +A poultry house in Sichumovi resembling an oven. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><a href = "#fig59">Fig. 59</a> illustrates a very rude structure of +stones in Sichumovi, resembling in form a dome oven, which is used as a +poultry house. Several of these are seen in the Tusayan villages.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_7" id = "chapIV_4_7"> +FIREPLACES AND CHIMNEYS.</a></h6> + +<p>The original fireplace of the ancient pueblo builders was probably +the simple cooking pit transferred to a position within the dwelling +room, and employed for the lighter cooking of the family as well as for +warming +<span class = "pagenum">168</span> +<a name = "page168" id = "page168"> </a> +<!--png 351--> +the dwelling. It was placed in the center of the floor in order that the +occupants of the house might conveniently gather around it. One of the +first improvements made in this shallow indoor cooking pit must have +consisted in surrounding it with a wall of sufficient height to protect +the fire against drafts, as seen in the outdoor pits of Tusayan. In +excavating a room in the ancient pueblo of Kin-tiel, a completely +preserved fireplace, about a foot deep, and walled in with thin slabs of +stone set on edge, was brought to light. The depression had been +hollowed out of the solid rock.</p> + +<p>This fireplace, together with the room in which it was found, is +illustrated in <a href = "#plateC">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">C</span></a> and <a href = "#fig60">Fig. 60</a>. It is of +rectangular form, but other examples have been found which are circular. +Mr. W. H. Jackson describes a fireplace in a cliff dwelling in +“Echo Cave” that consisted of a circular, basin-like depression 30 +inches across and 10 inches deep. Rooms furnishing evidence that fires +were made in the corners against the walls are found in many cliff +dwellings; the smoke escaped overhead, and the blackened walls afford no +trace of a chimney or flue of any kind.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig60" id = "fig60"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig60.png" width = "389" height = "307" +alt = "Kin-tiel room" +title = "Kin-tiel room"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 60.</span> +Ground plan of an excavated room in Kin-tiel.</p> + +<p>The pueblo chimney is undoubtedly a post-Spanish feature, and the +best forms in use at the present time are probably of very recent +origin, though they are still associated with fireplaces that have +departed little from the aboriginal form seen at Kin-tiel and elsewhere. +It is interesting to note, in this connection, that the ceremony +consecrating the house is performed in Tusayan before the chimney is +added, suggesting that the latter feature did not form a part of the +aboriginal dwelling.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">169</span> +<a name = "page169" id = "page169"> </a> +<!--png 354--> +In Cibola a few distinct forms of chimney are used at the present time, +but in the more remote Tusayan the chimney seems to be still in the +experimental stage. Numbers of awkward constructions, varying from the +ordinary cooking pit to the more elaborate hooded structures, testify to +the chaotic condition of the chimney-building art in the latter +province.</p> + +<p>Before the invention of a chimney hood, and while the primitive +fireplace occupied a central position in the floor of the room, the +smoke probably escaped through the door and window openings. Later a +hole in the roof provided an exit, as in the kivas of to-day, where +ceremonial use has perpetuated an arrangement long since superseded in +dwelling-house construction. The comfort of a dwelling room provided +with this feature is sufficiently attested by the popularity of the +modern kivas as a resort for the men. The idea of a rude hood or flue to +facilitate the egress of the smoke would not be suggested until the +fireplace was transferred from the center of a room to a corner, and in +the first adoption of this device the builders would rely upon the +adjacent walls for the needed support of the constructional members. +Practically all of the chimneys of Tusayan are placed in corners at the +present time, though the Zuñi builders have developed sufficient skill +to construct a rigid hood and flue in the center of a side wall, as may +be seen in the view of a Zuñi interior, <a href = "#plateLXXXVI">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">LXXXVI</span></a>.</p> + +<p>Although the pueblo chimney owes its existence to foreign suggestion +it has evidently reached its present form through a series of timid +experiments, and the proper principles of its construction seem to have +been but feebly apprehended by the native builders, particularly in +Tusayan. The early form of hood, shown in <a href = +"#fig66">Fig. 66</a>, was made by placing a short supporting pole +across the corner of a room at a sufficient distance from the floor and +upon it arranging sticks to form the frame work of a contracting hood or +flue. The whole construction was finally covered with a thick coating of +mud. This primitive wooden construction has probably been in use for a +long time, although it was modified in special cases so as to extend +across the entire width of narrow rooms to accommodate “piki” stones or +other cumbersome cooking devices. It embodies the principle of roof +construction that must have been employed in the primitive house from +which the pueblo was developed, and practically constitutes a miniature +conical roof suspended over the fireplace and depending upon the walls +of the room for support. On account of the careful and economical use of +fuel by these people the light and inflammable material of which the +chimney is constructed does not involve the danger of combustion that +would be expected. The perfect feasibility of such use of wood is well +illustrated in some of the old log-cabin chimneys in the Southern +States, where, however, the arrangement of the pieces is horizontal, not +vertical. These latter curiously exemplify also the use of a miniature +section of house construction to form a conduit for the smoke, placed at +a sufficient height to admit of access to the fire.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig61" id = "fig61"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig61.png" width = "243" height = "300" +alt = "chimney hood" +title = "chimney hood"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 61.</span> +A corner chimney hood<br> +with two supporting poles<br> +(Tusayan). +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p> +<span class = "pagenum">170</span> +<a name = "page170" id = "page170"> </a> +<!--png 355--> +A further improvement in the chimney was the construction of a corner +hood support by means of two short poles instead of a single piece, thus +forming a rectangular smoke hood of enlarged capacity. This latter is +the most common form in use at the present time in both provinces, but +its arrangement in Tusayan, where it represents the highest achievement +of the natives in chimney construction, is much more varied than in +Cibola. In the latter province the same form is occasionally executed in +stone. <a href = "#fig61">Fig. 61</a> illustrates a corner hood, in +which the crossed ends of the supporting poles are exposed to view. The +outer end of the lower pole is supported from the roof beams by a cord +or rope, the latter being embedded in the mud plastering with which the +hood is finished. The vertically ridged character of the surface reveals +the underlying construction, in which light sticks have been used as a +base for the plaster. The Tusayans say that large sunflower stalks are +preferred for this purpose on account of their lightness. Figs. <a href += "#fig63">63</a> and <a href = "#fig64">64</a> show another Tusayan +hood of the type described, and in <a href = "#fig69">Fig. 69</a> a +large hood of the same general form, suspended over a piki-stone, is +noticeable for the frank treatment of the suspending cords, which are +clearly exposed to view for nearly their entire length.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig62" id = "fig62"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig62.png" width = "189" height = "336" +alt = "chimney hood" +title = "chimney hood"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 62.</span> +A curved chimney<br> +hood of Mashongnavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In a chimney in a Mashongnavi house, illustrated in <a href = +"#fig62">Fig. 62</a>, a simple, sharply curved piece of wood has been +used for the lower rim of this hood, thus obtaining all the capacity of +the two-poled form. The vertical sticks in this example are barely +discernible through the plastering, which has been applied with more +than the usual degree of care.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">171</span> +<a name = "page171" id = "page171"> </a> +<!--png 358--> +A curious example illustrating a rudimentary form of two-poled hood is +shown in <a href = "#fig63">Fig. 63</a>. A straight pole of unusual +length is built into the walls across the corner of a room, and its +insertion into the wall is much farther from the corner on one side than +the other. From the longer stretch of inclosed wall protrudes a short +pole that joins the principal one and serves as a support for one side +of the chimney-hood. In this case the builder appears to have been too +timid to venture on the bolder construction required in the perfected +two-poled hood. This example probably represents a stage in the +development of the higher form.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig63" id = "fig63"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig63.png" width = "314" height = "335" +alt = "chimney hood" +title = "chimney hood"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 63.</span> +A Mashongnavi chimney hood<br> +and walled up fireplace. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In some instances the rectangular corner hood is not suspended from +the ceiling, but is supported from beneath by a stone slab or a piece of +wood. Such a chimney hood seen in a house of Shupaulovi measures nearly +4 by 5 feet. The short side is supported by two stone slabs built into +the wall and extending from the hood to the floor. Upon the upper stone +rests one end of the wooden lintel supporting the long side, while the +other end, near the corner of the room, is held in position by a light +crotch of wood. <a href = "#fig64">Fig. 64</a> illustrates this hood; +the plan indicating the relation of the stones and the forked stick to +the corner of the room. <a href = "#fig71">Fig. 71</a>, illustrating a +terrace fireplace and chimney of Shumopavi, shows the employment of +similar supports.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig64" id = "fig64"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig64.png" width = "251" height = "225" +alt = "chimney hood" +title = "chimney hood"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 64.</span> +A chimney hood<br> +of Shupaulovi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Corner chimney hoods in Zuñi do not differ essentially from the more +symmetrical of the Tusayan specimens, but they are distinguished by +<span class = "pagenum">172</span> +<a name = "page172" id = "page172"> </a> +<!--png 359--> +better finish, and by less exposure of the framework, having been, like +the ordinary masonry, subjected to an unusually free application of +adobe.</p> + +<p>The builders of Tusayan appear to have been afraid to add the +necessary weight of mud mortar to produce this finished effect, the +hoods usually showing a vertically ridged or crenated surface, caused by +the sticks of the framework showing through the thin mud coat. Stone +also is often employed in their construction, and its use has developed +a large, square-headed type of chimney unknown at Tusayan. This is +illustrated in <a href = "#fig65">Fig. 65</a>. This form of hood, +projecting some distance beyond its flue, affords space that may be used +as a mantel-shelf, an advantage gained only to a very small degree by +the forms discussed above. This chimney, as before stated, is built +against one of the walls of a room, and near the middle.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig65" id = "fig65"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig65.png" width = "128" height = "190" +alt = "chimney hood" +title = "chimney hood"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 65.</span> +A semi-detached<br> +square chimney hood<br> +of Zuñi. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig66" id = "fig66"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig66a.png" width = "126" height = "115" +alt = "chimney hood" +title = "chimney hood"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig66b.png" width = "138" height = "128" +alt = "chimney hood" +title = "chimney hood"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption" colspan = "2"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 66.</span> +Unplastered Zuñi<br> +chimney hoods,<br> +illustrating construction. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>All the joints of these hoods, and even the material used, are +generally concealed from view by a carefully applied coating of plaster, +supplemented by a gypsum wash, and usually there is no visible evidence +of the manner in which they are built, but the construction is little +superior to that of the simple corner hoods. The method of framing the +various types of hoods is illustrated in <a href = "#fig66">Fig. 66</a>. +The example on the left shows an unplastered wooden hood skeleton. The +arrangement of the parts in projecting rectangular stone hoods is +illustrated in the right-hand diagram of the figure. In constructing +such a chimney a thin buttress is first built against the wall of +sufficient width and +<span class = "pagenum">173</span> +<a name = "page173" id = "page173"> </a> +<!--png 362--> +height to support one side of the hood. The opposite side of the hood is +supported by a flat stone, firmly set on edge into the masonry of the +wall. The front of the hood is supported by a second flat stone which +rests at one end on a rude shoulder in the projecting slab, and at the +other end upon the front edge of the buttress. It would be quite +practicable for the pueblo builders to form a notch in the lower corner +of the supported stone to rest firmly upon a projection of the +supporting stone, but in the few cases in which the construction could +be observed no such treatment was seen, for they depended mainly on the +interlocking of the ragged ends of the stones. This structure serves to +support the body of the flue, usually with an intervening stone-covered +space forming a shelf. At the present period the flue is usually built +of thin sandstone slabs, rudely adjusted to afford mutual support. The +whole structure is bound together and smoothed over with mud plastering, +and is finally finished with the gypsum wash, applied also to the rest +of the room. Mr. A. F. Bandelier describes “a regular chimney, with +mantel and shelf, built of stone slabs,” which he found “in the caves of +the Rito de los Frijoles, as well as in the cliff dwellings of the +regular detached family house type,”<a class = "tag" name = "tag7" id = +"tag7" href = "#note7">7</a> which, from the description, must have +closely resembled the Zuñi chimney described above. Houses containing +such devices may be quite old, but if so they were certainly reoccupied +in post-Spanish times. Such dwellings are likely to have been used as +places of refuge in times of danger up to a comparatively recent +date.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig67" id = "fig67"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig67.png" width = "317" height = "338" +alt = "fireplace" +title = "fireplace"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 67.</span> +A fireplace and mantel in Sichumovi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Among the many forms of chimneys and fireplaces seen in Tusayan a +curious approach to our own arrangement of fireplace and mantel was +noticed in a house in Sichumovi. In addition to the principal mantel +ledge, a light wooden shelf was arranged against the wall on one side of +the flue, one of its ends being supported by an upright piece of wood +with a cap, and the other resting on a peg driven into the wall. This +fireplace and mantel is illustrated in <a href = +"#fig67">Fig. 67</a>.</p> + +<p>Aside from the peculiar “guyave” or “piki” baking oven, there is but +little variation in the form of indoor fireplaces in Cibola, while in +Tusayan it appears to have been subjected to about the same mutations +<span class = "pagenum">174</span> +<a name = "page174" id = "page174"> </a> +<!--png 363--> +already noted in the outdoor cooking pits. A serious problem was +encountered by the Tusayan builder when he was called upon to construct +cooking-pit fireplaces, a foot or more deep, in a loom of an upper +terrace. As it was impracticable to sink the pit into the floor, the +necessary depth was obtained by walling up the sides, as is shown in <a +href = "#fig68">Fig. 68</a>, which illustrates a second-story fireplace +in Mashongnavi. Other examples may be seen in the outdoor chimneys shown +in Figs. <a href = "#fig72">72</a> and <a href = "#fig73">73</a>.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig68" id = "fig68"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig68.png" width = "187" height = "215" +alt = "fireplace" +title = "fireplace"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 68.</span> +A second-story<br> +fireplace in Mashongnavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">175</span> +<a name = "page175" id = "page175"> </a> +<!--png 366--> +A modification of the interior fireplace designed for cooking the thin, +paper-like bread, known to the Spanish-speaking peoples of this region +as “guyave,” and by the Tusayan as “piki,” is common to both Cibola and +Tusayan, though in the former province the contrivance is more carefully +constructed than in the latter, and the surface of the baking stone +itself is more highly finished. In the guyave oven a tablet of carefully +prepared sandstone is supported in a horizontal position by two slabs +set on edge and firmly imbedded in the floor. A horizontal flue is thus +formed in which the fire is built. The upper stone, whose surface is to +receive the thin guyave batter, undergoes during its original +preparation a certain treatment with fire and piñon gum, and perhaps +other ingredients, which imparts to it a highly polished black finish. +This operation is usually performed away from the pueblo, near a point +where suitable stone is found, and is accompanied by a ceremonial, which +is intended to prevent the stone from breaking on exposure to the fire +when first used. During one stage of these rites the strictest silence +is enjoined, as, according to the native account, a single word spoken +at such a time would crack the tablet.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig69" id = "fig69"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig69.png" width = "274" height = "280" +alt = "chimney hood" +title = "chimney hood"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 69.</span> +Piki stone and<br> +chimney hood in Sichumovi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>When the long guyave stone is in position upon the edges of the back +and front stones the fire must be so applied as to maintain the stone at +a uniform temperature. This is done by frequent feeding with small bits +of sage brush or other fuel. The necessity for such economy in the use +of fuel has to a certain extent affected the forms of all the heating +and cooking devices. <a href = "#fig69">Fig. 69</a> illustrates a +Sichumovi piki stone, and <a href = "#fig70">Fig. 70</a> shows the use +of the oven in connection with a cooking fireplace, a combination that +is not uncommon. The latter example +<span class = "pagenum">176</span> +<a name = "page176" id = "page176"> </a> +<!--png 367--> +is from Shumopavi. The illustration shows an interesting feature in the +use of a primitive andiron or boss to support the cooking pot in +position above the fire. This boss is modeled from the same clay as the +fireplace floor and is attached to it and forms a part of it. Mr. +Stephen has collected free specimens of these primitive props which had +never been attached to the floor. These were of the rudely conical form +illustrated in the figure, and were made of a coarsely mixed clay +thoroughly baked to a stony hardness.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig70" id = "fig70"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig70.png" width = "433" height = "391" +alt = "Piki stone and andiron" +title = "Piki stone and andiron"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 70.</span> +Piki stone and primitive andiron in Shumopavi.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig71" id = "fig71"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig71.png" width = "308" height = "317" +alt = "terrace fireplace and chimney" +title = "terrace fireplace and chimney"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 71.</span> +A terrace fireplace<br> +and chimney of Shumopavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Chimneys and fireplaces are often found in Tusayan in the small, +recessed, balcony-like rooms of the second terrace. When a deep +cooking-pit is required in such a position, it is obtained by building +up the sides, as in the indoor fireplaces of upper rooms. Such a +fireplace is illustrated in <a href = "#fig71">Fig. 71</a>. A roofed +recess which usually occurs at one end of the first terrace, called +“tupubi,” takes its name from the flat piki oven, the variety of +fireplace generally built in these alcoves. The transfer of the +fireplace from the second-story room to the corner of such a +roofed-terrace alcove was easily accomplished, and probably led to the +occasional use of the cooking-pit, with protecting chimney hood on the +open and unsheltered roof. <a href = "#fig72">Fig. 72</a> illustrates a +deep cooking-pit on an upper +<span class = "pagenum">177</span> +<a name = "page177" id = "page177"> </a> +<!--png 370--> +terrace of Walpi. In this instance the cooking pit is very massively +built, and in the absence of a sheltering “tupubi” corner is effectually +protected on three sides by mud-plastered stone work, the whole being +capped with the usual chimneypot. The contrivance is placed conveniently +near the roof hatchway of a dwelling room.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig72" id = "fig72"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig72.png" width = "414" height = "263" +alt = "cooking pit" +title = "cooking pit"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 72.</span> +A terrace cooking-pit and chimney of Walpi.</p> + +<p>The outdoor use of the above-described fireplaces on upper terraces +has apparently suggested the improvement of the ground cooking pit +<span class = "pagenum">178</span> +<a name = "page178" id = "page178"> </a> +<!--png 371--> +in a similar manner. Several specimens were seen in which the cooking +pit of the ordinary depressed type, excavated near an inner corner of a +house wall, was provided with sheltering masonry and a chimney cap; but +such an arrangement is by no means of frequent occurrence. <a href = +"#fig73">Fig. 73</a> illustrates an example that was seen on the east +side of Shumopavi. It will be noticed that in the use of this +arrangement on the ground—an arrangement that evidently originated +on the terraces—the builders have reverted to the earlier form of +excavated pit. In other respects the example illustrated is not +distinguishable from the terrace forms above described.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig73" id = "fig73"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig73.png" width = "229" height = "244" +alt = "cooking pit" +title = "cooking pit"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 73.</span> +A ground cooking-pit<br> +of Shumopavi covered<br> +with a chimney. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In the discussion of the details of kiva arrangement in Tusayan +(p. 121) it was shown that the chimney is not used in any form in +these ceremonial chambers; but the simple roof-opening forming the +hatchway serves as a smoke vent, without the addition of either an +internal hood or an external shaft. In the Zuñi kivas the smoke also +finds vent through the opening that gives access to the chamber, but in +the framing of the roof, as is shown elsewhere, some distinction between +door and chimney is observed. The roof-hole is made double, one portion +accommodating the ingress ladder and the other intended to serve for the +egress of the smoke.</p> + +<p>The external chimney of the pueblos is a simple structure, and +exhibits but few variations from the type. The original form was +undoubtedly a mere hole in the roof; its use is perpetuated in the +kivas. This primitive form was gradually improved by raising its sides +above the roof, forming a rudimentary shaft. The earlier forms are +likely to have been rectangular, the round following and developing +later short masonry shafts which were finally given height by the +addition of chimney pots. In Zuñi the chimney has occasionally developed +into a rather tall shaft, projecting sometimes to a height of 4 or 5 +feet above the roof. This is particularly noticeable on the lower +terraces of Zuñi, the chimneys of +<span class = "pagenum">179</span> +<a name = "page179" id = "page179"> </a> +<!--png 374--> +the higher rooms being more frequently of the short types prevalent in +the farming pueblos of Cibola and in Tusayan. The tall chimneys found in +Zuñi proper, and consisting often of four or five chimney pots on a +substructure of masonry, are undoubtedly due to the same conditions that +have so much influenced other constructional details; that is, the +exceptional height of the clusters and crowding of the rooms. As a +result of this the chimney is a more conspicuous feature in Zuñi than +elsewhere, as will be shown by a comparison of the views of the villages +given in Chapters <a href = "#plateIII"><span class = +"smallroman">III</span></a> and <a href = "#plateIV"><span class = +"smallroman">IV</span></a>.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig74" id = "fig74"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig74a.png" width = "218" height = "232" +alt = "chimney" +title = "chimney"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig74b.png" width = "181" height = "179" +alt = "chimney" +title = "chimney"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 74.</span> +Tusayan chimneys. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In Tusayan many of the chimneys are quite low, a single pot +surmounting a masonry substructure not more than 6 inches high being +quite common. As a rule, however, the builders preferred to use a series +of pots. Two typical Tusayan chimneys are illustrated in <a href = +"#fig74">Fig. 74</a>. Most of the substructures for chimneys in this +province are rudely rectangular in form, and clearly expose the rough +stonework of the masonry, while in Zuñi the use of adobe generally +obliterates all traces of construction. In both provinces chimneys are +seen without the chimney pot. These usually occur in clusters, simply +because the builder of a room or group of rooms preferred that form of +chimney. <a href = "#plateCI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">CI</span></a> illustrates a portion of the upper terraces +of Zuñi where a number of masonry chimneys are grouped together. Those +on the highest roof are principally of the rectangular form, being +probably a direct development from the square roof hole. The latter is +still sometimes seen with a rim rising several inches above the roof +surface and formed of slabs set on edge or of ordinary masonry. These +upper chimneys are often closed or covered with thin slabs of sandstone +laid over them in the same manner as the roof holes that they resemble. +The fireplaces to which some of them belong appear to be used for +heating the rooms rather than for cooking, as they are often disused for +long periods during the summer season.</p> + +<!--png 428--> +<!--png 429--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCI" id = "plateCI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate101.png" width = "487" height = "351" +alt = "chimneys" +title = "chimneys"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CI. Masonry chimneys of Zuñi.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">180</span> +<a name = "page180" id = "page180"> </a> +<!--png 375--> +<a href = "#plateCI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">CI</span></a> also +illustrates chimneys in which pots have been used in connection with +masonry bases, and also a round masonry chimney. The latter is +immediately behind the single pot chimney seen in the foreground. On the +extreme left of the figure is shown a chimney into which fire pots have +been incorporated, the lower ones being almost concealed from view by +the coating of adobe. A similar effect may be seen in the small chimney +on the highest roof shown in <a href = "#plateLVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LVIII</span></a>. <a href = "#plateLXXXII">Pl. <span class += "smallroman">LXXXII</span></a> shows various methods of using the +chimney pots. In one case the chimney is capped with a reversed +large-mouthed jar, the broken bottom serving as an outlet for the smoke. +The vessel usually employed for this purpose is an ordinary black +cooking pot, the bottom being burned out, or otherwise rendered unfit +for household use. Other vessels are occasionally used. <a href = +"#plateLXXXIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXIII</span></a> shows +the use, as the crowning member of the chimney, of an ordinary water +jar, with dark decorations on a white ground. A vessel very badly broken +is often made to serve in chimney building by skillful use of mud and +mortar. To facilitate smoke exit the upper pot is made to overlap the +neck of the one below by breaking out the bottom sufficiently. The +joining is not often visible, as it is usually coated with adobe. The +lower pots of a series are in many cases entirely embedded in the +adobe.</p> + +<p>The pueblo builder has never been able to construct a detached +chimney a full story in height, either with or without the aid of +chimney pots; where it is necessary to build such shafts to obtain the +proper draft he is compelled to rely on the support of adjoining walls, +and usually seeks a corner. <a href = "#plateCI">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">CI</span></a> shows a chimney of this kind that has been +built of masonry to the full height of a story. A similar example is +shown in the foreground of <a href = "#plateLXXVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXVIII</span></a>. In <a href = "#plateXXII">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">XXII</span></a> may be seen a chimney of the full +height of the adjoining story, but in this instance it is constructed +wholly of pots. <a href = "#plateLXXXV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXV</span></a> illustrates a similar case indoors.</p> + +<p>The external chimney probably developed gradually from the simple +roof opening, as previously noted. The raised combing about trapdoors or +roof holes afforded the first suggestion in this direction. From this +developed the square chimney, and finally the tall round shaft, crowned +with a series of pots. The whole chimney, both internal and external, +excluding only the primitive fireplace, is probably of comparatively +recent origin, and based on the foreign (Spanish) suggestion.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_8" id = "chapIV_4_8"> +GATEWAYS AND COVERED PASSAGES.</a></h6> + +<p>Gateways, arranged for defense, occur in many of the more +compactly-built ancient pueblos. Some of the passageways in the modern +villages of Tusayan and Cibola resemble these older examples, but most +of the narrow passages, giving access to the inner courts of the +inhabited villages, are not the result of the defensive idea, but are +formed by the crowding together of the dwellings. They occur, as a rule, +within the pueblo and not upon its periphery. Many of the terraces now +face outward and are reached from the outside of the pueblo, being in +marked contrast to the early arrangement, in which narrow passages to +inclose +<span class = "pagenum">181</span> +<a name = "page181" id = "page181"> </a> +<!--png 378--> +courts were exclusively used for access. In the ground plans of several +villages occupied within historic times, but now ruined, vestiges of +openings arranged on the original defensive plan may be traced. About +midway on the northeast side of Awatubi fragments of a standing wall +were seen, apparently the two sides of a passageway to the inclosed +court of the pueblo. The masonry is much broken down, however, and no +indication is afforded of the treatment adopted, nor do the remains +indicate whether this entrance was originally covered or not. It is +illustrated in <a href = "#plateCII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">CII</span></a>.</p> + +<!--png 432--> +<!--png 433--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCII" id = "plateCII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate102.png" width = "454" height = "264" +alt = "gateway" +title = "gateway"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CII. Remains of a gateway in Awatubi.</p> + +<p>Other examples of this feature may be seen in the ground plans of +Tebugkihu, Chukubi, and Payupki (<a href = "#fig7">Fig. 7</a>, and Pls. +<a href = "#plateXII"><span class = "smallroman">XII</span></a> and <a +href = "#plateXIII"><span class = "smallroman">XIII</span></a>).</p> + +<p>In the first of these the deep jambs of the opening are clearly +defined, but in the other two only low mounds of débris suggest the +gateway. In the ancient Cibolan pueblos, including those on the mesa of +Tâaaiyalana, no remains of external gateways have been found; the plans +suggest that the disposition of the various clusters approximated +somewhat the irregular arrangement of the present day. There are only +occasional traces, as of a continuous defensive outer wall, such as +those seen at Nutria and Pescado. In the pueblos of the Cibola group, +ancient and modern, access to the inner portion of the pueblo was +usually afforded at a number of points. In the pueblo of Kin-tiel, +however, occurs an excellent example of the defensive gateway. The jambs +and corners of the opening are finished with great neatness, as may be +seen in the illustration (<a href = "#plateCIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">CIII</span></a>). This gateway or passage was roofed over, +and the rectangular depressions for the reception of cross-beams still +contain short stumps, protected from destruction by the masonry. The +masonry over the passageway in falling carried away part of the masonry +above the jamb corner, thus indicating continuity of bond. The ground +plan of this ruin (<a href = "#plateLXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXIII</span></a>) indicates clearly the various points at +which access to the inner courts was obtained. On the east side a +noticeable feature is the overlapping of the boundary wall of the south +wing, forming an indirect entranceway. The remains do not indicate that +this passage, like the one just described, was roofed over. In some +cases the modern passageways, as they follow the jogs and angles of +adjoining rows of houses, display similar changes of direction. In +Shupaulovi, which preserves most distinctly in its plan the idea of the +inclosed court, the passageway at the south end of the village changes +its direction at a right angle before emerging into the court (<a href = +"#plateXXX">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXX</span></a>). This +arrangement was undoubtedly determined by the position of the terraces +long before the passageway was roofed over and built upon. <a href = +"#plateXXII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXII</span></a> shows the +south passageway of Walpi; the entrances are made narrower than the rest +of the passage by building buttresses of masonry at the sides. This was +probably done to secure the necessary support for the north and south +walls of the upper story. One of the walls, as maybe seen in the +illustration, rests directly upon a cross beam, strengthened in this +manner.</p> + +<!--png 436--> +<!--png 437--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCIII" id = "plateCIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate103.png" width = "452" height = "290" +alt = "gateway" +title = "gateway"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CIII. Ancient gateway, Kin-tiel.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">182</span> +<a name = "page182" id = "page182"> </a> +<!--png 379--> +One of the smaller inclosed courts of Zuñi, illustrated in <a href = +"#plateLXXXII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXII</span></a>, is +reached by means of two covered passages, bearing some general +resemblance to the ancient defensive entrances, but these houses, +reached from within the court, have also terraces without. The low +passage shown in the figure has gradually been surmounted by rooms, +reaching in some cases a height of three terraces above the openings; +but the accumulated weight finally proved too much for the beams and +sustaining walls—probably never intended by the builders to +withstand the severe test afterwards put upon them—and following +an unusually protracted period of wet weather, the entire section of +rooms above fell to the ground. This occurred since the surveying and +photographing. It is rather remarkable that the frail adobe walls +withstood so long the unusual strain, or even that they sustained the +addition of a top story at all.</p> + +<p>In the preceding examples the passageway was covered throughout its +length by rooms, but cases occur in both Tusayan and Cibola in which +only portions of the roof form the floor of superstructures. <a href = +"#plateCIV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">CIV</span></a> shows a +passage roofed over beyond the two-story portion of the building for a +sufficient distance to form a small terrace, upon which a ladder stands. +<a href = "#plateXXIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XXIII</span></a> +illustrates a similar arrangement on the west side of Walpi. The outer +edges of these terraces are covered with coping stones and treated in +the same manner as outer walls of lower rooms. In Zuñi an example of +this form of passage roof occurs between two of the eastern house rows, +where the rooms have not been subjected to the close crowding +characteristic of the western clusters of the pueblo.</p> + +<!--png 440--> +<!--png 441--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCIV" id = "plateCIV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate104.png" width = "441" height = "283" +alt = "passageway" +title = "passageway"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CIV. A covered passageway in Mashongnavi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_9" id = "chapIV_4_9"> +DOORS.</a></h6> + +<p>In Zuñi many rooms of the ground story, which in early times must +have been used largely for storage, have been converted into +well-lighted, habitable apartments by the addition of external doors. In +Tusayan this modification has not taken place to an equal extent, the +distinctly defensive character of the first terrace reached by removable +ladders being still preserved. In this province a doorway on the ground +is always provided in building a house, but originally this space was +not designed to be permanent; it was left merely for convenience of +passing in and out during the construction, and was built up before the +walls were completed. Of late years, however, such doorways are often +preserved, and additional small openings are constructed for +windows.</p> + +<p>In ancient times the larger doorways of the upper terraces were +probably never closed, except by means of blankets or rabbit-skin robes +hung over them in cold weather. Examples have been seen that seem to +have been constructed with this object in view, for a slight pole, of +the same kind as those used in the lintels, is built into the masonry of +the jambs a few inches below the lintel proper. Openings imperfectly +closed against the cold and wind were naturally placed in the lee walls +to avoid the prevailing southwest winds, and the ground plans of the +exposed mesa villages were undoubtedly influenced by this circumstance, +<span class = "pagenum">183</span> +<a name = "page183" id = "page183"> </a> +<!--png 382--> +the tendency being to change them from the early inclosed court type and +to place the houses in longitudinal rows facing eastward. This is +noticeable in the plans given in Chapter <span class = +"smallroman">II</span>.</p> + +<p>Doorways closed with masonry are seen in many ruins. Possibly these +are an indication of the temporary absence of the owner, as in the +harvest season, or at the time of the destruction or abandonment of the +village; but they may have been closed for the purpose of economizing +warmth and fuel during the winter season. No provision was made for +closing them with movable doors. The practice of fastening up the doors +during the harvesting season prevails at the present time among the +Zuñi, but the result is attained without great difficulty by means of +rude cross bars, now that they have framed wooden doors. One of these is +illustrated in <a href = "#fig75">Fig. 75</a>. These doors are usually +opened by a latch-string, which, when not hung outside, is reached by +means of a small round hole through the wall at the side of the door. +Through this hole the owner of the house, on leaving it, secures the +door by props and braces on the inside of the room, the hole being +sealed up and plastered in the same manner that other openings are +treated.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig75" id = "fig75"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig75.png" width = "416" height = "320" +alt = "barred door" +title = "barred door"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 75.</span> +A barred Zuñi door.</p> + +<p>This curious arrangement affords another illustration of the survival +of ancient methods in modified forms. It is not employed, however, in +closing the doors of the first terrace; these are fastened by barring +from the inside, the exit being made by means of internal ladders to the +terrace above, the upper doors only being fastened in the manner +illustrated. In <a href = "#plateLXXIX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXIX</span></a> may be seen good examples of the side +hole. <a href = "#fig75">Fig. 75</a> shows a barred door. The plastering +or sealing of the small side +<span class = "pagenum">184</span> +<a name = "page184" id = "page184"> </a> +<!--png 383--> +hole instead of the entire opening was brought about by the introduction +of the wooden door, which in its present paneled form is of foreign +introduction, but in this, as in so many other cases, some analogous +feature which facilitated the adoption of the idea probably already +existed. Tradition points to the early use of a small door, made of a +single slab of wood, that closed the small rectangular wall niches, in +which valuables, such as turquoise, shell, etc., were kept. This slab, +it is said, was reduced and smoothed by rubbing with a piece of +sandstone. A number of beams, rafters, and roofing planks, seen in the +Chaco pueblos, were probably squared and finished in this way. The +latter examples show a degree of familiarity with this treatment of wood +that would enable the builders to construct such doors with ease. As +yet, however, no examples of wooden doors have been seen in any of the +pre-Columbian ruins.</p> + +<p>The pueblo type of paneled door is much more frequently seen in +Cibola than in Tusayan, and in the latter province it does not assume +the variety of treatment seen in Zuñi, nor is the work so neatly +executed. The views of the modern pueblos, given in Chapters <a href = +"#plateIII"><span class = "smallroman">III</span></a> and <a href = +"#plateIV"><span class = "smallroman">IV</span></a>, will indicate the +extent to which this feature occurs in the two groups. In the +construction of a paneled door the vertical stile on one side is +prolonged at the top and bottom into a rounded pivot, which works into +cup-like sockets in the lintel and sill, as illustrated in <a href = +"#fig76">Fig. 76</a>. The hinge is thus produced in the wood itself +without the aid of any external appliances.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig76" id = "fig76"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig76.png" width = "111" height = "206" +alt = "pivot hinges" +title = "pivot hinges"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 76.</span> +Wooden pivot<br> +hinges of a Zuñi door. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>It is difficult to trace the origin of this device among the pueblos. +It closely resembles the pivot hinges sometimes used in mediæval Europe +in connection with massive gates for closing masonry passages; in such +cases the prolonged pivots worked in cavities of stone sills and +lintels. The Indians claim to have employed it in very early times, but +no evidence on this point has been found. It is quite possible that the +idea was borrowed from some of the earlier Mormon settlers who came into +the country, as these people use a number of primitive devices which are +undoubtedly survivals of methods of construction once common in the +countries from which they came. Vestiges of the use of a pivotal hinge, +constructed on a much more massive scale than any of the pueblo +examples, were seen at an old fortress-like, stone storehouse of the +Mormons, built near the site of Moen-kopi by the first Mormon +settlers.</p> + +<p>The paneled door now in use among the pueblos is rudely made, and +consists of a frame inclosing a single panel. This panel, when of large +size, is occasionally made of two or more pieces. These doors vary +greatly in size. A few reach the height of 5 feet, but the usual height +<span class = "pagenum">185</span> +<a name = "page185" id = "page185"> </a> +<!--png 386--> +is from 3½ to 4 feet. As doors are commonly elevated a foot or more +above the ground or floor, the use of such openings does not entail the +full degree of discomfort that the small size suggests. Doors of larger +size, with sills raised but an inch or two above the floor or ground, +have recently been introduced in some of the ground stories in Zuñi; but +these are very recent, and the idea has been adopted only by the most +progressive people.</p> + +<p><a href = "#plateXLI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">XLI</span></a> +shows a small paneled door, not more than a foot square, used as a blind +to close a back window of a dwelling. The smallest examples of paneled +doors are those employed for closing the small, square openings +<span class = "pagenum">186</span> +<a name = "page186" id = "page186"> </a> +<!--png 387--> +in the back walls of house rows, which still retain the defensive +arrangement so marked in many of the ancient pueblos. In some instances +doors occur in the second stories of unterraced walls, their sills being +5 or 6 feet above the ground. In such cases the doors are reached by +ladders whose upper ends rest upon the sills. Elevated openings of this +kind are closed in the usual manner with a rude, single-paneled door, +which is often whitened with a coating of clayey gypsum.</p> + +<p>Carefully worked paneled doors are much more common in Zuñi than in +Tusayan, and within the latter province the villages of the first mesa +make more extended use of this type of door, as they have come into more +intimate contact with their eastern brethren than other villages of the +group. <a href = "#fig77">Fig. 77</a> illustrates a portion of a Hano +house in which two wooden doors occur. These specimens indicate the +rudeness of Tusayan workmanship. It will be seen that the workman who +framed the upper one of these doors met with considerable difficulty in +properly joining the two boards of the panel and in connecting these +with the frame. The figure shows that at several points the door has +been reenforced and strengthened by buckskin and rawhide thongs. The +same device has been employed in the lower door, both in fastening +together the two pieces of the panel and in attaching the latter to the +framing. These doors also illustrate the customary manner of barring the +door during the absence of the occupant of the house.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig77" id = "fig77"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig77.png" width = "333" height = "455" +alt = "wooden doors" +title = "wooden doors"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 77.</span> +Paneled wooden doors in Hano.</p> + +<p>The doorway is usually framed at the time the house is built. The +sill is generally elevated above the ground outside and the floor +inside, and the door openings, with a few exceptions, are thus +practically only large windows. In this respect they follow the +arrangement characteristic of the ancient pueblos, in which all the +larger openings are window-like doorways. These are sometimes seen on +the court margin of house rows, and frequently occur between +communicating rooms within the cluster. They are usually raised about a +foot and a half above the floor, and in some cases are provided with one +or two steps. In Zuñi, doorways between communicating rooms, though now +framed in wood, preserve the same arrangement, as may be seen in <a href += "#plateLXXXVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXVI</span></a>.</p> + +<p>The side pieces of a paneled pueblo door are mortised, an achievement +far beyond the aboriginal art of these people. <a href = "#fig78">Fig. +78</a> illustrates the manner in which the framing is done. All the +necessary grooving, and the preparation of the projecting tenons is +laboriously executed with the most primitive tools, in many cases the +whole frame, with all its joints, being cut out with a small knife.</p> + +<p class = "floatright pictop"> +<a name = "fig78" id = "fig78"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig78top.gif" width = "26" height = "142" +alt = "framing of door-panel" +title = "framing of door-panel"></p> + +<p class = "floatright picbottom"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig78bottom.gif" width = "112" height = "52" +alt = "framing of door-panel" +title = "framing of door-panel"></p> + +<p class = "floatright capleft"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 78.</span> Framing of a<br> +Zuñi door-panel.</p> + +<p>Doors are usually fastened by a simple wooden latch, the bar of which +turns upon a wooden pin. They are opened from without by lifting the +<span class = "pagenum">187</span> +<a name = "page187" id = "page187"> </a> +<!--png 390--> +latch from its wooden catch, by means of a string passed through a small +hole in the door, and hanging outside. Some few doors are, however, +provided with a cumbersome wooden lock, operated by means of a square, +notched stick that serves as a key. These locks are usually fastened to +the inner side of the door by thongs of buckskin or rawhide, passed +through small holes bored or drilled through the edge of the lock, and +through the stile and panel of the door at corresponding points. The +entire mechanism consists of wood and strings joined together in the +rudest manner. Primitive as this device is, however, its conception is +far in advance of the aboriginal culture of the pueblos, and both it and +the string latch must have come from without. The lock was probably a +contrivance of the early Mormons, as it is evidently roughly modeled +after a metallic lock.</p> + +<p>Many doors having no permanent means of closure are still in use. +These are very common in Tusayan, and occur also in Cibola, particularly +in the farming pueblos. The open front of the “tupubi” or balcony-like +recess, seen so frequently at the ends of first-terrace roofs in +Tusayan, is often constructed with a transom-like arrangement in +connection with the girder supporting the edge of the roof, in the same +manner in which doorways proper are treated. <a href = "#plateXXXII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXXII</span></a> illustrates a balcony in +which one bounding side is formed by a flight of stone steps, producing +a notched or terraced effect. The supporting girder in this instance is +embedded in the wall and coated over with adobe, obscuring the +construction. <a href = "#fig79">Fig. 79</a> shows a rude transom over +the supporting beam of a balcony roof in the principal house of Hano. +The upper doorway shown in this house has been partly walled in, +reducing its size somewhat. It is also provided with a small horizontal +opening over the main lintel, which, like the doorway, has been partly +filled with masonry. This upper transom often seems to have resulted +from carrying such openings to the full height of the story. The transom +probably originated from the spaces left between the ends of beams +resting on the main girder that spanned the principal opening (see <a +href = "#fig81">Fig. 81</a>). Somewhat similar balconies are seen in +Cibola, both in Zuñi and in the farming villages, but they do not assume +so much importance as in Tusayan. An example is shown in <a href = +"#plateCI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">CI</span></a>, in which the +construction of this feature is clearly visible.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig79" id = "fig79"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig79.png" width = "351" height = "450" +alt = "transoms" +title = "transoms"></p> + +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 79.</span> +Rude transoms over Tusayan openings.</p> + +<p>In the remains of the ancient pueblos there is no evidence of the use +of the half-open terrace rooms described above. If such rooms existed, +especially if constructed in the open manner of the Tusayan examples, +they must have been among the first to succumb to destruction. The +comparative rarity of this feature in Zuñi does not necessarily indicate +that it is not of native origin, as owing to the exceptional manner of +clustering and to prolonged exposure to foreign influence, this pueblo +exhibits a wider departure from the ancient type than do any of the +Tusayan villages. It is likely that the ancient builders, trusting to +the double protection of the inclosed court and the defensive first +terrace, +<span class = "pagenum">188</span> +<a name = "page188" id = "page188"> </a> +<!--png 391--> +freely adopted this open and convenient arrangement in connection with +the upper roofs.</p> + +<p class = "floatleft pictop"> +<a name = "fig80" id = "fig80"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig80top.gif" width = "223" height = "124" +alt = "doorway with transoms" +title = "doorway with transoms"></p> +<p class = "floatleft picbottom"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig80bottom.gif" width = "312" height = "131" +alt = "doorway with transoms" +title = "doorway with transoms"></p> + +<p class = "floatleft capleft"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 80.</span> +A large Tusayan doorway<br> +with small transom openings.</p> + +<p>The transom-like opening commonly accompanying the large opening is +also seen in many of the inclosed doorways of Tusayan, but in some of +these cases its origin can not be traced to the roof constructions, as +the openings do not approach the ceilings of the rooms. In early days +such doorways were closed by means of large slabs of stone set on edge, +and these were sometimes supplemented by a suspended blanket. In severe +winter weather many of the openings were closed with masonry. At the +present time many doorways not provided with paneled doors +<span class = "pagenum">189</span> +<a name = "page189" id = "page189"> </a> +<!--png 394--> +are closed in such ways. When a doorway is thus treated its transom is +left open for the admission of light and air. The Indians state that in +early times this transom was provided for the exit of smoke when the +main doorway was closed, and even now such provision is not wholly +superfluous. <a href = "#fig80">Fig. 80</a> illustrates a large doorway +of Tusayan with a small transom. The opening was being reduced in size +by means of adobe masonry at the time the drawing was made. <a href = +"#fig81">Fig. 81</a> shows a double transom over a lintel composed of +two poles; a section of masonry separating the transom into two distinct +openings rests upon the lintel of the doorway and supports a roof-beam; +this is shown in the figure. Other examples of transoms may be seen in +connection with many of the illustrations of Tusayan doorways.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig81" id = "fig81"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig81.png" width = "202" height = "170" +alt = "doorway and transom" +title = "doorway and transom"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 81.</span> +A doorway and<br> +double transom in Walpi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The transom bars over exterior doorways of houses probably bear some +relation to a feature seen in some of the best preserved ruins and still +surviving to some extent in Tusayan practice. This consists of a +straight pole, usually of the same dimensions as the poles of which the +lintel is made, extending across the opening from 2 to 6 inches below +the main lintel, and fixed into the masonry in a position to serve as a +curtain pole. Originally this pole undoubtedly served as a means of +suspension for the blanket or skin rug used in closing the opening, just +as such means are now used in the huts of the Navajo, as well as +<span class = "pagenum">190</span> +<a name = "page190" id = "page190"> </a> +<!--png 395--> +occasionally in the houses of Tusayan. The space above this cross stick +answered the same purpose as the transoms of the present time.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig82" id = "fig82"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig82.png" width = "152" height = "181" +alt = "doorway" +title = "doorway"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 82.</span> +An ancient doorway<br> +in Canyon de Chelly cliff ruin. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig83" id = "fig83"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig83.png" width = "237" height = "263" +alt = "notched doorway" +title = "notched doorway"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 83.</span> +A symmetrically notched<br> +doorway in Mashongnavi. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>A most striking feature of doorways is the occasional departure from +the quadrangular form, seen in some ruined villages and also in some of +the modern houses of Tusayan. <a href = "#fig82">Fig. 82</a> illustrates +a specimen of this type found in a small cliff ruin, in Canyon de +Chelly. Ancient examples of this form of opening are distinguished by a +symmetrical disposition of the step in the jamb, while the modern doors +are seldom so arranged. A modern example from Mashongnavi is shown in <a +href = "#fig83">Fig. 83</a>. This opening also illustrates the double or +divided transom. The beam ends shown in the figure project beyond the +face of the wall and support an overhanging coping or cornice. A +door-like window, approximating the symmetrical form described, is seen +immediately over the passage-way shown in <a href = "#plateXXII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XXII</span></a>. This form is evidently the +result of the partial closing of a larger rectangular opening.</p> + +<p><a href = "#fig84">Fig. 84</a> shows the usual type of terraced +doorway in Tusayan, in which one jamb is stepped at a considerably +greater height than the other. In Tusayan large openings occur in which +only one jamb is stepped, producing an effect somewhat of that of the +large balcony openings with flights of stone steps at one side, +previously illustrated. An opening of this form is shown in <a href = +"#fig85">Fig. 85</a>. Both of the stepped doorways, +<span class = "pagenum">191</span> +<a name = "page191" id = "page191"> </a> +<!--png 398--> +illustrated above, are provided with transom openings extending from one +roof beam to another. In the absence of a movable door the openings were +made of the smallest size consistent with convenient use. The stepped +form was very likely suggested by the temporary partial blocking up of +an opening with loose, flat stones in such a manner as to least impair +its use. This is still quite commonly done, large openings being often +seen in which the lower portion on one or both sides is narrowed by +means of adobe bricks or stones loosely piled up. In this connection it +may be noted that the secondary lintel pole, previously described as +occurring in both ancient and modern doorways, serves the additional +purpose of a hand-hold when supplies are brought into the house on the +backs of the occupants. The stepping of the doorway, while diminishing +its exposed area, does not interfere with its use in bringing in large +bundles, etc. Series of steps, picked into the faces of the cliffs, and +affording access to cliff dwellings, frequently have a supplementary +series of narrow and deep cavities that furnish a secure hold for the +hands. The requirements of the precipitous environment of these people +have led to the carrying of loads of produce, fuel, etc., on the back by +means of a suspending band passed across the forehead; +<span class = "pagenum">192</span> +<a name = "page192" id = "page192"> </a> +<!--png 399--> +this left the hands free to aid in the difficult task of climbing. These +conditions seem to have brought about the use, in some cases, of +handholds in the marginal frames of interior trapdoors as an aid in +climbing the ladder.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig84" id = "fig84"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig84.png" width = "410" height = "403" +alt = "notched doorway" +title = "notched doorway"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 84.</span> +A Tusayan notched doorway.</p> + +<p class = "floatright pictop"> +<a name = "fig85" id = "fig85"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig85top.gif" width = "216" height = "119" +alt = "doorway with notched jamb" +title = "doorway with notched jamb"></p> +<p class = "floatright picbottom"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig85middle.gif" width = "303" height = "173" +alt = "doorway with notched jamb" +title = "doorway with notched jamb"></p> +<p class = "floatright picbottom"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig85bottom.gif" width = "202" height = "50" +alt = "doorway with notched jamb" +title = "doorway with notched jamb"></p> + +<p class = "floatright capleft"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 85.</span> A large Tusayan<br> +doorway with one notched jamb.</p> + +<p>One more characteristic type of the ancient pueblo doorway remains to +be described. During the autumn of 1883, when the ruined pueblo of +Kin-tiel was surveyed, a number of excavations were made in and about +the pueblo. A small room on the east side, near the brink of the arroyo +that traverses the ruin from east to west, was completely cleared out, +exposing its fireplace, the stone paving of its floor, and other details +of construction. Built into an inner partition of this room was found a +large slab of stone, pierced with a circular hole of sufficient size for +a man to squeeze through. This slab was set on edge and incorporated +into the masonry of the partition, and evidently served as a means of +communication with another room. The position of this doorway and its +relation to the room in which it occurs may be seen from the +illustration in <a href = "#plateC">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">C</span></a>, which shows the stone in situ. The doorway or +“stone-close” is shown in <a href = "#fig86">Fig. 86</a> on a sufficient +scale to indicate the degree of technical skill in the architectural +treatment of stone possessed by the builders of this old pueblo. The +writer visited Zuñi in October of the same season, and on describing +this find to Mr. Frank H. Cushing, learned that the Zuñi Indians still +preserved traditional knowledge of this device. Mr. Cushing kindly +furnished at the +<span class = "pagenum">193</span> +<a name = "page193" id = "page193"> </a> +<!--png 402--> +time the following extract from the tale of “The Deer-Slayer and the +Wizards,” a Zuñi folk-tale of the early occupancy of the valley of +Zuñi.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig86" id = "fig86"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig86.png" width = "205" height = "202" +alt = "circular doorway" +title = "circular doorway"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 86.</span> +An ancient circular<br> +doorway or “stone-close”<br> +in Kin-tiel. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>“‘How will they enter?’ said the young man to his wife. ‘Through the +stone-close at the side,’ she answered. In the days of the ancients, the +doorways were often made of a great slab of stone with a round hole cut +through the middle, and a round stone slab to close it, which was called +the stone-close, that the enemy might not enter in times of war.”</p> + +<p>Mr. Cushing had found displaced fragments of such circular stone +doorways at ruins some distance northwest from Zuñi, but had been under +the impression that they were used as roof openings. All examples of +this device known to the writer as having been found in place occurred +in side walls of rooms. Mr. E. W. Nelson, while making collections +of pottery from ruins near Springerville, Arizona, found and sent to the +Smithsonian Institution, in the autumn of 1884, “a flat stone about 18 +inches square with a round hole cut in the middle of it. This stone was +taken from the wall of one of the old ruined stone houses near +Springerville, in an Indian ruin. The stone was set in the wall between +two inner rooms of the ruin, and evidently served as a means of +communication or perhaps a ventilator. I send it on mainly as an example +of their stone-working craft.” The position of this feature in the +excavated room of Kin-tiel is indicated on the ground plan, <a href = +"#fig60">Fig. 60</a>, which also shows the position of other details +seen in the general view of the room, <a href = "#plateC">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">C</span></a>.</p> + +<p>A small fragment of a “stone-close” doorway was found incorporated +into the masonry of a flight of outside stone steps at Pescado, +indicating its use in some neighboring ruin, thus bringing it well +within the Cibola district. Another point at which similar remains have +been brought to light is the pueblo of Halona, just across the river +from the present Zuñi. Mr. F. Webb Hodge, recently connected with +the Hemenway Southwestern Archeological Exposition, under the direction +of Mr. F. H. Cushing, describes this form of opening as being of +quite common occurrence in the rooms of this long-buried pueblo. Here +the doorways are associated with the round slabs used for closing them. +The latter were held in place by props within the room. No slabs of this +form were seen at Kin-tiel, but quite possibly some of the large slabs +of nearly rectangular form, found within this ruin, may have served the +same purpose. It would seem more reasonable to use the rectangular +<span class = "pagenum">194</span> +<a name = "page194" id = "page194"> </a> +<!--png 403--> +slabs for this purpose when the openings were conveniently near the +floors. No example of the stone-close has as yet been found in +Tusayan.</p> + +<p>The annular doorway described above affords the only instance known +to the writer where access openings were closed with a rigid device of +aboriginal invention; and from the character of its material this device +was necessarily restricted to openings of small size. The larger +rectangular doorways, when not partly closed by masonry, probably were +covered only with blankets or skin rugs suspended from the lintel. In +the discussion of sealed windows modern examples resembling the +stone-close device will be noted, but these are usually employed in a +more permanent manner.</p> + +<p>The small size of the ordinary pueblo doorway was perhaps due as much +to the fact that there was no convenient means of closing it as it was +to defensive reasons. Many primitive habitations, even quite rude ones +built with no intention of defense, are characterized by small doors and +windows. The planning of dwellings and the distribution of openings in +such a manner as to protect and render comfortable the inhabited rooms +implies a greater advance in architectural skill than these builders had +achieved.</p> + +<p>The inconveniently small size of the doorways of the modern pueblos +is only a survival of ancient conditions. The use of full-sized doors, +admitting a man without stooping, is entirely practicable at the present +day, but the conservative builders persist in adhering to the early +type. The ancient position of the door, with its sill at a considerable +height from the ground, is also retained. From the absence of any +convenient means of rigidly closing the doors and windows, in early +times external openings were restricted to the smallest practicable +dimensions. The convenience of these openings was increased without +altering their dimensions by elevating them to a certain height above +the ground. In the ruin of Kin-tiel there is marked uniformity in the +height of the openings above the ground, and such openings were likely +to be quite uniform when used for similar purposes. The most common +elevation of the sills of doorways was such that a man could readily +step over at one stride. It will be seen that the same economy of space +has effected the use of windows in this system of architecture.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_10" id = "chapIV_4_10"> +WINDOWS.</a></h6> + +<p>In the pueblo system of building, doors and windows are not always +clearly differentiated. Many of the openings, while used for access to +the dwellings, also answer all the purposes of windows, and, both in +their form and in their position in the walls, seem more fully to meet +the requirements of openings for the admission of light and air than for +access. We have seen in the illustrations in Chapters <a href = +"#plateIII"><span class = "smallroman">III</span></a> and <a href = +"#plateIV"><span class = "smallroman">IV</span></a>, openings of +considerable size so located in the face of the outer wall as to unfit +them for use as doorways, and others whose size is wholly inadequate, +but which are still provided with the typical though diminutive +<span class = "pagenum">195</span> +<a name = "page195" id = "page195"> </a> +<!--png 406--> +single-paneled door. Many of these small openings, occurring most +frequently in the back walls of house rows, have the jambs, lintels, +etc., characteristic of the typical modern door. However, as the +drawings above referred to indicate, there are many openings concerning +the use of which there can be no doubt, as they can only provide +outlook, light, and air.</p> + +<p>In the most common form of window in present use in Tusayan and +Cibola the width usually exceeds the height. Although found often in +what appear to be the older portions of the present pueblos, this shape +probably does not date very far back. The windows of the ancient pueblos +were sometimes square, or nearly so, when of small size, but when larger +they were never distinguishable from doorways in either size or finish, +and the height exceeded the width. This restriction of the width of +openings was due to the exceptionally small size of the building stone +made use of. Although larger stones were available, the builders had not +sufficient constructive skill to successfully utilize them. The failure +to utilize this material indicates a degree of ignorance of mechanical +aids that at first thought seems scarcely in keeping with the +massiveness of form and the high degree of finish characterizing many of +the remains; but as already seen in the discussion of masonry, the +latter results were attained by the patient industry of many hands, +although laboring with but little of the spirit of cooperation. The +narrowness of the largest doors and windows in the ancient pueblos +suggests timidity on the part of the ancient builders. The apparently +bolder construction of the present day, shown in the prevailing use of +horizontal openings, is not due to greater constructive skill, but +rather to the markedly greater carelessness of modern construction.</p> + +<p>The same contrast between modern and ancient practice is seen in the +disposition of openings in walls. In the modern pueblos there does not +seem to be any regularity or system in their introduction, while in some +of the older pueblos, such as Pueblo Bonito on the Chaco, and others of +the same group, the arrangement of the outer openings exhibits a certain +degree of symmetry. The accompanying diagram, <a href = "#fig87">Fig. +87</a>, illustrates a portion of the northern outer wall of Pueblo +Bonito, in which the small windows of successive rooms, besides being +uniform in size, are grouped in pairs. The degree of technical skill +shown in the execution of the masonry about these openings is in keeping +with the precision with which the openings themselves are placed. <a +href = "#plateCV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">CV</span></a>, gives a +view of a portion of the wall containing these openings.</p> + +<!--png 444--> +<!--png 445--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCV" id = "plateCV"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate105.png" width = "488" height = "338" +alt = "small openings" +title = "small openings"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CV. Small square openings in Pueblo Bonito.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig87" id = "fig87"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig87.png" width = "303" height = "61" +alt = "arrangement of openings" +title = "arrangement of openings"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 87.</span> +Diagram illustrating symmetrical<br> +arrangement of small openings<br> +in Pueblo Bonito. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">196</span> +<a name = "page196" id = "page196"> </a> +<!--png 407--> +In marked contrast to the above examples is the slovenly practice of the +modern pueblos. There are rarely two openings of the same size, even in +a single room, nor are these usually placed at a uniform height from the +floor. The placing appears to be purely a matter of individual taste, +and no trace of system or uniformity is to be found. Windows occur +sometimes at considerable height, near or even at the ceiling in some +cases, while others are placed almost at the base of the wall; examples +may be found occupying all intermediate heights between these extremes. +Many of the illustrations show this characteristic irregularity, but +Pls. <a href = "#plateLXXIX"><span class = "smallroman">LXXIX</span></a> +and <a href = "#plateLXXXII"><span class = +"smallroman">LXXXII</span></a> of Zuñi perhaps represent it most +clearly.</p> + +<p>The framing of these openings differs but little from that of the +ancient examples. The modern opening is distinguished principally by the +more careless method of combining the materials, and by the introduction +in many instances of a rude sash. A number of small poles or sticks, +usually of cedar, with the bark peeled off, are laid side by side in +contact, across the opening, to form a support for the stones and earth +of the superposed masonry. Frequently a particularly large tablet of +stone is placed immediately upon the sticks, but this stone is never +long enough or thick enough to answer the purpose of a lintel for larger +openings. The number of small sticks used is sufficient to reach from +the face to the back of the wall, and in the simplest openings the +surrounding masonry forms jambs and sill. American or Spanish influence +occasionally shows itself in the employment of sawed boards for lintels, +sills, and jambs. The wooden features of the windows exhibit a curiously +light and flimsy construction.</p> + +<p>A large percentage of the windows, in both Tusayan and Cibola, are +furnished with glass at the present time. Occasionally a primitive sash +of several lights is found, but frequently the glass is used singly; in +some instances it is set directly into the adobe without any intervening +sash or frame. In several cases in Zuñi the primitive sash or frame has +been rudely decorated with incised lines and notches. An example of this +is shown in <a href = "#fig88">Fig. 88</a>. The frame or sash is usually +built solidly into the wall. Hinged sashes do not seem to have been +adopted as yet. Often the introduction of lights shows a curious and +awkward compromise between aboriginal methods and foreign ideas.</p> + +<p class = "floatleft pictop"> +<a name = "fig88" id = "fig88"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig88top.gif" width = "49" height = "79" +alt = "window decoration" +title = "window decoration"></p> +<p class = "floatleft picbottom"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig88bottom.gif" width = "244" height = "70" +alt = "window decoration" +title = "window decoration"></p> + +<p class = "floatleft capleft"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 88.</span> +Incised decoration<br> +on a rude window sash in Zuñi.</p> + +<p>Characteristic of Zuñi windows, and also of those of the neighboring +pueblo of Acoma, is the use of semitranslucent slabs of selenite, about +1 inch in thickness and of irregular form. Pieces are occasionally met +with about 18 inches long and 8 or 10 inches +<span class = "pagenum">197</span> +<a name = "page197" id = "page197"> </a> +<!--png 410--> +wide, but usually they are much smaller and very irregular in outline. +For windows pieces are selected that approximately fit against each +other, and thin, flat strips of wood are fixed in a vertical position in +the openings to serve as supports for the irregular fragments of +selenite, which could not be retained in place without some such +provision. The use of window openings at the bases of walls probably +suggested this use of vertical sticks as a support to slabs of selenite, +as in this position they would be particularly useful, the windows being +generally arranged on a slope, as shown in <a href = "#fig89">Fig. +89</a>. Similar glazing is also employed in the related, obliquely +pierced openings of Zuñi, to be described later.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig89" id = "fig89"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig89a.png" width = "169" height = "89" +alt = "sloping window" +title = "sloping window"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig89b.png" width = "167" height = "126" +alt = "sloping window" +title = "sloping window"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 89.</span> +Sloping selenite window<br> +at base of Zuñi wall on upper terrace. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Selenite, in all probability, was not used in pre-Spanish times. No +examples have as yet been met with among ruins in the region where this +material is found and now used. Throughout the south and east portion of +the ancient pueblo region, explored by Mr. A. F. Bandelier, where +many of the remains were in a very good state of preservation, no cases +of the use of this substance were seen. <a href = "#fig90">Fig. 90</a> +illustrates a typical selenite window.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig90" id = "fig90"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig90.png" width = "234" height = "156" +alt = "glazed window" +title = "glazed window"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 90.</span> +A Zuñi window<br> +glazed with selenite. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In Zuñi some of the kivas are provided with small external windows +framed with slabs of stone. It is likely that the kivas would for a long +time perpetuate methods and practices that had been superseded in the +construction of dwellings. The use of stone jambs, however, would +necessarily be limited to openings of small size, as such use for large +openings was beyond the mechanical skill of the pueblo builders.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">198</span> +<a name = "page198" id = "page198"> </a> +<!--png 411--> +<a href = "#fig91">Fig. 91</a> illustrates the manner of making small +openings in external exposed walls in Zuñi. Stone frames occur only +occasionally in what seem to be the older and least modified portions of +the village. At Tusayan, however, this method of framing windows is much +more noticeable, as the exceptional crowding that has exercised such an +influence on Zuñi construction has not occurred there. The Tusayan +houses are arranged more in rows, often with a suggestion of large +inclosures resembling the courts of the ancient pueblos. The inclosures +have not been encroached upon, the streets are wider, and altogether the +earlier methods seem to have been retained in greater purity than in +Zuñi. The unbroken outer wall, of two or three stories in height, like +the same feature of the old villages, is pierced at various heights with +small openings that do not seriously impair its efficiency for defense. +Tusayan examples of these loop-hole-like openings maybe seen in Pls. <a +href = "#plateXXII"><span class = "smallroman">XXII</span></a>, <a href += "#plateXXIII"><span class = "smallroman">XXIII</span></a>, and <a href += "#plateXXXIX"><span class = "smallroman">XXXIX</span></a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig91" id = "fig91"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig91.png" width = "434" height = "204" +alt = "openings in wall" +title = "openings in wall"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 91.</span> +Small openings in the back wall of a Zuñi house-cluster.</p> + +<p>In some of the ancient pueblos such openings were arranged on a +distinctly defensive plan, and were constructed with great care. +Openings of this type, not more than 4 inches square, pierced the second +story outer wall of the pueblo of Wejegi in the Chaco Canyon. In the +pueblo of Kin-tiel (<a href = "#plateLXIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXIII</span></a>) similar loop-hole-like openings were very +skillfully constructed in the outer wall at the rounded northeastern +corner of the pueblo. The openings pierced the wall at an oblique angle, +as shown on the plan. Two of these channel-like loopholes maybe seen in +<a href = "#plateLXV">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXV</span></a>. +This figure also shows the carefully executed jamb corners and faces of +three large openings of the second story, which, though greatly +undermined by the falling away of the lower masonry, are still held in +position by the bond of thin flat stones of which the wall is built.</p> + +<!--png 448--> +<!--png 449--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCVI" id = "plateCVI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate106.png" width = "486" height = "264" +alt = "sealed openings" +title = "sealed openings"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CVI. Sealed openings in a detached house of Nutria.</p> + +<p>It is often the practice in the modern pueblos to seal up the windows +of a house with masonry, and sometimes the doors also during the +temporary absence of the occupant, which absence often takes place at +the seasons of planting and harvesting. At such times many Zuñi families +occupy outlying farming pueblos, such as Nutria and Pescado, and the +<span class = "pagenum">199</span> +<a name = "page199" id = "page199"> </a> +<!--png 414--> +Tusayans, in a like manner, live in rude summer shelters close to their +fields. Such absence from the home pueblo often lasts for a month or +more at a time. The work of closing the opening is done sometimes in the +roughest manner, but examples are seen in which carefully laid masonry +has been used. The latter is sometimes plastered. Occasionally the +sealing is done with a thin slab of sandstone, somewhat larger than the +opening, held in place with mud plastering, or propped from the inside +after the manner of the “stone close” previously described. <a href = +"#fig92">Fig. 92</a> illustrates specimens of sealed openings in the +village of Hano of the Tusayan group. The upper window is closed with a +single large slab and a few small chinking stones at one side. The +masonry used in closing the lower opening is scarcely distinguishable +from that of the adjoining walls. <a href = "#plateCVI">Pl. <span class += "smallroman">CVI</span></a> illustrates a similar treatment of an +opening in a detached house of Nutria, whose occupants had returned to +the home pueblo of Zuñi at the close of the harvesting season. The +doorway in this case is only partly closed, leaving a window-like +aperture at +<span class = "pagenum">200</span> +<a name = "page200" id = "page200"> </a> +<!--png 415--> +its top, and the stones used for the purpose are simply piled up without +the use of adobe mortar.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig92" id = "fig92"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig92.png" width = "305" height = "461" +alt = "sealed openings" +title = "sealed openings"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 92.</span> +Sealed openings in Tusayan.</p> + +<p>Windows and doors closed with masonry are often met with in the +remains of ancient pueblos, suggesting, perhaps, that some of the +occupants were absent at the time of the destruction of the village. +When large door-like openings in upper external walls were built up and +plastered over in this way, as in some ruins, the purpose was to +economize heat during the winter, as blankets or rugs made of skins +would be inadequate.</p> + +<!--png 452--> +<!--png 453--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCVII" id = "plateCVII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate107.png" width = "454" height = "288" +alt = "opening converted to doorway" +title = "opening converted to doorway"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CVII. Partial filling-in of a large opening in Oraibi, converting +it into a doorway.</p> + +<p>Besides the closing and reopening of doors and windows just +described, the modern pueblo builders frequently make permanent changes +in such openings. Doors are often converted into windows, and windows +are reduced in size or enlarged, or new ones are broken through the +walls, apparently, with the greatest freedom, so that they do not, from +their finish or method of construction, furnish any clue to the +antiquity of the mud-covered wall in which they are found. Occasionally +surface weathering of the walls, particularly in Zuñi, exposes a bit of +horizontal pole embedded in the masonry, the lintel of a window long +since sealed up and obliterated by successive coats of mud finish. It is +probable that many openings are so covered up as to leave no trace of +their existence on the external wall. In Zuñi particularly, where the +original arrangement for entering and lighting many of the rooms must +have been wholly lost in the dense clustering of later times, such +changes are very numerous. It often happens that the addition of a new +room will shut off one or more old windows, and in such cases the latter +are often converted into interior niches which serve as open cupboards. +Such niches were sometimes of considerable size in the older pueblos. +Changes in the character of openings are quite common in all of the +pueblos. Usually the evidences of such changes are much clearer in the +rougher and more exposed work of Tusayan than in the adobe-finished +houses of Zuñi. <a href = "#plateCVII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">CVII</span></a> illustrates a large, balcony-like opening +in Oraibi that has been reduced to the size of an ordinary door by +filling in with rough masonry. A small window has been left immediately +over the lintel of the newer door. <a href = "#plateCVIII">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">CVIII</span></a> illustrates two large openings in +this village that have been treated in a somewhat similar manner, but +the filling has been carried farther. Both of these openings have been +used as doorways at one stage of their reduction, the one on the right +having been provided with a small transom; the combined opening was +arranged wholly within the large one and under its transom. In the +further conversion of this doorway into a small window, the secondary +transom was blocked up with stone slabs, set on edge, and a small +loophole window in the upper lefthand corner of the large opening was +also closed. The masonry filling of the large opening on the left in +this illustration shows no trace of a transom over the smaller doorway. +A small loophole in the corner of this large opening is still left open. +It will be noted that the original transoms of the large openings have +in all these cases been entirely filled up with masonry.</p> + +<!--png 456--> +<!--png 457--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCVIII" id = "plateCVIII"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate108.png" width = "449" height = "274" +alt = "openings converted to windows" +title = "openings converted to windows"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CVIII. Large openings reduced to small windows, Oraibi.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">201</span> +<a name = "page201" id = "page201"> </a> +<!--png 418--> +<p>The clearness with which all the steps of the gradual reduction of +these openings can be traced in the exposed stone work is in marked +contrast with the obscurity of such features in Zuñi. In the latter +group, however, examples are occasionally seen where a doorway has been +partly closed with masonry, leaving enough space at the top for a +window. Often in such cases the filled-in masonry is thinner than that +of the adjoining wall, and consequently the form of the original doorway +is easily traced. <a href = "#fig93">Fig. 93</a>, from an adobe wall in +Zuñi, gives an illustration of this. The entrance doorway of the +detached Zuñi house illustrated in <a href = "#plateLXXXIII">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">LXXXIII</span></a>, has been similarly reduced in +size, leaving traces of the original form in a slight offset. In modern +times, both in Tusayan and Cibola, changes in the form and disposition +of openings seem to have been made with the greatest freedom, but in the +ancient pueblos altered doors or windows have rarely been found. The +original placing of these features was more carefully considered, and +the buildings were rarely subjected to unforeseen and irregular +crowding.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig93" id = "fig93"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig93.png" width = "300" height = "256" +alt = "doorway converted to window" +title = "doorway converted to window"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 93.</span> +A Zuñi doorway converted into a window.</p> + +<p>In both ancient and modern pueblo work, windows, used only as such, +seem to have been universally quadrilateral, offsets and steps being +confined exclusively to doorways.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_11" id = "chapIV_4_11"> +ROOF OPENINGS.</a></h6> + +<p>The line of separation between roof openings and doors and windows +is, with few exceptions, sharply drawn. The origin of these roof-holes, +whose use at the present time is widespread, was undoubtedly in the +simple trap door which gave access to the rooms of the first terrace. <a +href = "#plateXXXVIII">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XXXVIII</span></a>, illustrating a court of Oraibi, shows +in the foreground a kiva hatchway of the usual form seen in Tusayan. +Here there is but little difference between the entrance traps of the +ceremonial chambers and those that give access to the rooms of the first +terrace; the former are in most cases somewhat larger to admit of +ingress of costumed dancers, +<span class = "pagenum">202</span> +<a name = "page202" id = "page202"> </a> +<!--png 419--> +and the kiva traps are usually on a somewhat sharper slope, conforming +to the pitch of the small dome-roof of the kivas, while those of the +house terraces have the scarcely perceptible fall of the house roofs in +which they are placed. In Zuñi, however, where the development and use +of openings has been carried further, the kiva hatchways are +distinguished by a specialized form that will be described later. An +examination of the plans of the modern villages in <ins class = +"correction" title = "text reads ‘Chapter’">Chapters</ins> <span class = +"smallroman">II</span> and <span class = "smallroman">III</span> will +show the general distribution of roof openings. Those used as hatchways +are distinguishable by their greater dimensions, and in many cases by +the presence of the ladders that give access to the rooms below. The +smaller roof openings in their simplest form are constructed in +essentially the same manner as the trap doors, and the width is usually +regulated by the distance between two adjacent roof beams. The second +series of small roof poles is interrupted at the sides of the opening, +which sides are finished by means of carefully laid small stones in the +same manner as are projecting copings. This finish is often carried +several inches above the roof and crowned with narrow stone slabs, one +on each of the four sides, forming a sort of frame which protects the +mud plastered sides of the opening from the action of the rains. +Examples of this simple type may be seen in many of the figures +illustrating Chapters <span class = "smallroman">II</span> and <span +class = "smallroman">III</span>, and in <a href = "#plateXCVII">Pl. +<span class = "smallroman">XCVII</span></a>. <a href = "#fig94">Fig. +94</a> also illustrates common types of roof openings seen in Zuñi. Two +of the examples in this figure are +<span class = "pagenum">203</span> +<a name = "page203" id = "page203"> </a> +<!--png 422--> +of openings that give access to lower rooms. Occasional instances are +seen in this pueblo in which an exaggerated height is given to the +coping, the result slightly approaching a square chimney in effect. <a +href = "#fig95">Fig. 95</a> illustrates an example of this form.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig94" id = "fig94"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig94.png" width = "432" height = "352" +alt = "roof openings" +title = "roof openings"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 94.</span> +Zuñi roof-openings.</p> + +<p>In Zuñi, where many minor variations in the forms of roof openings +occur, certain of these variations appear to be related to roof +drainage. These have three sides crowned in the usual manner with coping +stones laid flat, but the fourth side is formed by setting a thin slab +on edge, as illustrated in <a href = "#fig96">Fig. 96</a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig95" id = "fig95"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig95.png" width = "332" height = "218" +alt = "roof opening" +title = "roof opening"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 95.</span> +A Zuñi roof opening, with raised coping.</p> + +<p><a href = "#fig94">Fig. 94</a> also embodies two specimens of this +form.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">204</span> +<a name = "page204" id = "page204"> </a> +<!--png 423--> +The special object of this arrangement is in some cases difficult to +determine; the raised end in all the examples on any one roof always +takes the same direction, and in many cases its position relative to +drainage suggests that it is a provision against flooding by rain on the +slightly sloping roof; but this relation to drainage is by no means +constant. Roof holes on the west side of the village in such positions +as to be directly exposed to the violent sand storms that prevail here +during certain months of the year seem in some cases to have in view +protection against the flying sand. We do not meet with evidence of any +fixed system to guide the disposition of this feature. In many cases +these trap holes are provided with a thin slab of sandstone large enough +to cover the whole opening, and used in times of rain. During fair +weather these are laid on the roof, near the hole they are designed to +cover, or lie tilted against the higher edge of the trap, as shown in <a +href = "#fig97">Fig. 97</a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig96" id = "fig96"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig96.png" width = "425" height = "326" +alt = "roof openings" +title = "roof openings"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 96.</span> +Zuñi roof-openings, with one elevated end.</p> + +<p>When the cover is placed on one of these holes, with a high slab at +one end, it has a steep pitch, to shed water, and at the same time light +and air are to some extent admitted, but it is very doubtful if this is +the result of direct intention on the part of the builder. The possible +development of this roof trap of unusual elevation into a rudimentary +chimney has already been mentioned in the discussion of chimneys. A +development in this direction would possibly be suggested by the +desirability of separating the access by ladder from the inconvenient +smoke hole. This must have been brought very forcibly to the attention +of the Indian when, at the time a fire was burning in the fireplace, +they were compelled to descend the ladder amidst the smoke and heat.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig97" id = "fig97"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig97.png" width = "421" height = "301" +alt = "roof hole" +title = "roof hole"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 97.</span> +A Zuñi roof hole with cover.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">205</span> +<a name = "page205" id = "page205"> </a> +<!--png 426--> +<p>The survival to the present time of such an inconvenient arrangement +in the kivas can be explained only on the ground of the intense +conservatism of these people in all that pertains to religion. In the +small roof holes methods of construction are seen which would not be so +practicable on the larger scale of the ladder holes after which they +have been modeled. In these latter the sides are built up of masonry or +adobe, but the framing around them is more like the usual coping over +walls. The stone that, set on edge in the small openings built for the +admission of light, forms a raised end never occurs in these. The ladder +for access rests against the coping.</p> + +<p>When occurring in connection with kivas, ladder holes have certain +peculiarities in which they differ from the ordinary form used in +dwellings. The opening in such cases is made of large size to admit +dancers in costume with full paraphernalia. These, the largest roof +openings to be found in Zuñi, are framed with pieces of wood. The +methods of holding the pieces in place vary somewhat in minor detail. It +is quite likely that recent examples, while still preserving the form +and general appearance of the earlier ones, would bear evidence that the +builders had used their knowledge of improved methods of joining and +finishing.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig98" id = "fig98"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig98.png" width = "439" height = "296" +alt = "kiva trap door" +title = "kiva trap door"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 98.</span> +Kiva trapdoor in Zuñi.</p> + +<p>As may readily be seen from the illustration, <a href = "#fig98">Fig. +98</a>, this framing, by the addition of a cross piece, divides the +opening unequally. The smaller aperture is situated immediately above +the fireplace (which conforms to the ancient type without chimney and +located in the open floor of the room) and is very evidently designed to +furnish an outlet to the smoke. In a chamber having no side doors or +windows, or at most +<span class = "pagenum">206</span> +<a name = "page206" id = "page206"> </a> +<!--png 427--> +very small square windows, and consequently no drafts, the column of +smoke and flame can often on still nights be seen rising vertically from +the roof. The other portion of the opening containing the ladder is used +for ingress and egress. This singular combination strongly suggests that +at no very remote period one opening was used to answer both purposes, +as it still does in the Tusayan kivas. It also suggests the direction in +which differentiation of functions began to take place, which in the +kiva was delayed and held back by the conservative religious feeling, +when in the civil architecture it may have been the initial point of a +development that culminated in the chimney, a development that was +assisted in its later steps by suggestions from foreign sources. In the +more primitively constructed examples the cross pieces seem to be simply +laid on without any cutting in. The central piece is held in place by a +peg set into each side piece, the weight and thrust of the ladder +helping to hold it. The primitive arrangement here seen has been +somewhat improved upon in some other cases, but it was not ascertained +whether these were of later date or not.</p> + +<p>In the best made frames for kiva entrances the timbers are “halved” +in the manner of our carpenters, the joint being additionally secured by +a pin as shown in <a href = "#fig99">Fig. 99</a>.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig99" id = "fig99"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig99.png" width = "151" height = "297" +alt = "trap door frame" +title = "trap door frame"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 99.</span> +Halved and pinned<br> +trapdoor frame<br> +of a Zuñi kiva. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The use of a frame of wood in these trapdoors dates back to a +comparatively high antiquity, and is not at all a modern innovation, as +one would at first be inclined to believe. Their use in so highly +developed a form in the ceremonial chamber is an argument in favor of +antiquity. Only two examples were discovered by Mr. L. H. Morgan in +a ruined pueblo on the Animas. “One of these measured 16 by 17 inches +and the other was 16 inches square. Each was formed in the floor by +pieces of wood put together. The work was neatly done.”<a class = "tag" +name = "tag8" id = "tag8" href = "#note8">8</a></p> + +<p>Unfortunately, Mr. Morgan does not describe in detail the manner in +which the joining was effected, or whether the pieces were halved or cut +to fit. It seems hardly likely, considering the rude facilities +possessed by the ancients, that the enormous labor of reducing large +pieces of wood to such interfitting shapes would have been undertaken. A +certain neatness of finish would undoubtedly be attained by arranging +the principal roof beams and the small poles that cross them at right +angles, in the usual careful manner of the ancient builders. The kiva +roof opening, with the hole serving for access and smoke exit, is +paralleled +<span class = "pagenum">207</span> +<a name = "page207" id = "page207"> </a> +<!--png 430--> +in the excavated lodges of the San Francisco Mountains, where a single +opening served this double purpose. A slight recess or excavation in the +side of the entrance shaft evidently served for the exit of smoke.</p> + +<p>At the village of Acoma the kiva trapdoors differ somewhat from the +Zuñi form. The survey of this village was somewhat hasty, and no +opportunity was afforded of ascertaining from the Indians the special +purpose of the mode of construction adopted. The roof hole is divided, +as in Zuñi, but the portion against which the ladder leans, instead of +being made into a smoke vent, is provided with a small roof. These roof +holes to the ceremonial chamber are entered directly from the open air, +while in the dwelling rooms it seems customary (much more customary than +at Zuñi) to enter the lower stories through trapdoors within upper +rooms. In many instances second-story rooms have no exterior rooms but +are entered from rooms above, contrary to the usual arrangement in both +Tusayan and Cibola. All six of the kivas in this village are provided +with this peculiarly constructed opening.</p> + +<p>In Zuñi close crowding of the cells has led to an exceptionally +frequent use of roof-lights and trapdoors. The ingenuity of the builders +was greatly taxed to admit sufficient light to the inner rooms. The roof +hole, which was originally used only to furnish the means of access and +light for the first terrace, as is still the case in Tusayan, is here +used in all stories indiscriminately, and principally for light and air. +In large clusters there are necessarily many dark rooms, which has led +to the employment of great numbers of roof holes, more or less directly +modeled after the ordinary trapdoor. Their occurrence is particularly +frequent in the larger clusters of the village, as in house No. 1. The +exceptional size of this pile, and of the adjoining house No. 4, with +the consequent large proportion of dark rooms, have taxed the ingenuity +of the Zuñi to the utmost, and as a result we see roof openings here +assuming a degree of importance not found elsewhere.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig100" id = "fig100"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig100a.png" width = "183" height = "52" +alt = "section of opening" +title = "section of opening"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig100b.png" width = "191" height = "136" +alt = "section of opening" +title = "section of opening"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig100c.png" width = "197" height = "163" +alt = "section of opening" +title = "section of opening"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 100.</span> +Typical sections<br> +of Zuñi oblique openings. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In addition to roof openings of the type described, the dense +clustering of the Zuñi houses has led to the invention of a curious +device for lighting inner rooms not reached by ordinary external +openings. This consists of an opening, usually of oval or subrectangular +form in elevation, placed at the junction of the roof with a vertical +wall. This opening is carried down obliquely between the roofing beams, +as shown in the sections, <a href = "#fig100">Fig. 100</a>, so that the +light is admitted within the room just at the junction of the ceiling +and the inner face of the wall. With the meager facilities and rude +methods of the Zuñi, this peculiar arrangement often involved weak +construction, and the openings, placed so low in the wall, were in +danger of admitting water from the roof. The difficulty of obtaining the +desired light by this device was much lessened where the outer roof was +somewhat lower than the ceiling within.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">208</span> +<a name = "page208" id = "page208"> </a> +<!--png 431--> +These oblique openings occur not only in the larger clusters of houses +Nos. 1 and 4, but also in the more openly planned portions of the +village, though they do not occur either at Acoma or in the Tusayan +villages. They afford an interesting example of the transfer and +continuance in use of a constructional device developed in one place by +unusual conditions to a new field in which it was uncalled for, being +less efficient and more difficult of introduction than the devices in +ordinary use.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_12" id = "chapIV_4_12"> +FURNITURE.</a></h6> + +<p>The pueblo Indian has little household furniture, in the sense in +which the term is commonly employed; but his home contains certain +features which are more or less closely embodied in the house +construction and which answers the purpose. The suspended pole that +serves as a clothes rack for ordinary wearing apparel, extra blankets, +robes, etc., has already been described in treating of interiors. +Religious costumes and ceremonial paraphernalia are more carefully +provided for, and are stored away in some hidden corner of the dark +storerooms.</p> + +<p>The small wall niches, which are formed by closing a window with a +thin filling-in wall, and which answer the purpose of cupboards or +receptacles +<span class = "pagenum">209</span> +<a name = "page209" id = "page209"> </a> +<!--png 434--> +for many of the smaller household articles, have also been described and +illustrated in connection with the Zuñi interior (<a href = +"#plateLXXXVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXVI</span></a>).</p> + +<p>In many houses, both in Tusayan and in Cibola, shelves are +constructed for the more convenient storage of food, etc. These are +often constructed in a very primitive manner, particularly in the former +province. An unusually frail example may be seen in <a href = +"#fig67">Fig. 67</a>, in connection with a fireplace. <a href = +"#fig101">Fig. 101</a>, showing a series of mealing stones in a Tusayan +house, also illustrates a rude shelf in the corner of the room, +supported at one end by an upright stone slab and at the other by a +projecting wooden peg. Shelves made of sawed boards are occasionally +seen, but as a rule such boards are considered too valuable to be used +in this manner. A more common arrangement, particularly in Tusayan, is a +combination of three or four slender poles placed side by side, 2 or 3 +inches apart, forming a rude shelf, upon which trays of food are +kept.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig101" id = "fig101"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig101.png" width = "426" height = "411" +alt = "mealing stones" +title = "mealing stones"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 101.</span> +Arrangement of mealing stones in a Tusayan house.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig102" id = "fig102"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig102.png" width = "191" height = "203" +alt = "grain bin" +title = "grain bin"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 102.</span> +A Tusayan grain bin. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Another device for the storage of food, occasionally seen in the +pueblo house, is a pocket or bin built into the corner of a room. <a +href = "#fig101">Fig. 101</a>, illustrating the plan of a Tusayan house, +indicates the position of one of these cupboard-like inclosures. A +sketch of this specimen is shown in +<span class = "pagenum">210</span> +<a name = "page210" id = "page210"> </a> +<!--png 435--> +<a href = "#fig102">Fig. 102</a>. This bin, used for the storage of +beans, grain, and the like, is formed by cutting off a corner of the +room by setting two stone slabs into the floor, and it is covered with +the mud plastering which extends over the neighboring walls.</p> + +<p>A curious modification of this device was seen in one of the inner +rooms in Zuñi, in the house of José Pié. A large earthen jar, apparently +an ordinary water vessel, was built into a projecting masonry bench near +the corner of the room in such a manner that its rim projected less than +half an inch above its surface. This jar was used for the same purpose +as the Tusayan corner bin.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig103" id = "fig103"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig103.png" width = "331" height = "115" +alt = "plume box" +title = "plume box"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 103.</span> +A Zuñi plume box. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Some of the Indians of the present time have chests or boxes in which +their ceremonial blankets and paraphernalia are kept. These of course +have been introduced since the days of American boards and boxes. In +Zuñi, however, the Indians still use a small wooden receptacle for the +precious ceremonial articles, such as feathers and beads. This is an +oblong box, provided with a countersunk lid, and usually carved from a +<ins class = "correction" title = +"text reads ‘single / single’ at line break">single</ins> piece of wood. +Typical specimens are illustrated in Figs. <a href = "#fig103">103</a> +and <a href = "#fig104">104</a>. The workmanship displayed in these +objects is not beyond the aboriginal skill of the native workman, and +their use is undoubtedly ancient.</p> + +<p class = "floatright pictop"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig104top.png" width = "436" height = "109" +alt = "plume box" +title = "plume box"></p> + +<p class = "floatright picbottom"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig104bottom.png" width = "78" height = "63" +alt = "plume box" +title = "plume box"></p> + +<p class = "floatright capleft noclear"> +<a name = "fig104" id = "fig104"> </a> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 104.</span> +A Zuñi plume box.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">211</span> +<a name = "page211" id = "page211"> </a> +<!--png 438--> + +<p>Perhaps the most important article of furniture in the home of the +pueblo Indian is the mealing trough, containing the household milling +apparatus. This trough usually contains a series of three metates of +varying degrees of coarseness firmly fixed in a slanting position most +convenient for the workers. It consists of thin slabs of sandstone set +into the floor on edge, similar slabs forming the separating partitions +between the compartments. This arrangement is shown in <a href = +"#fig105">Fig. 105</a>, illustrating a Tusayan mealing trough. Those of +Zuñi are of the same form, as maybe seen in the illustration of a Zuñi +interior, <a href = "#fig105">Fig. 105</a>. Occasionally in recently +constructed specimens the thin inclosing walls of the trough are made of +planks. In the example illustrated one end of the series is bounded by a +board, all the other walls and divisions being made of the usual stone +slabs. The metates themselves are not usually more than 3 inches in +thickness. They are so adjusted in their setting of stones and mortar as +to slope away from the operator at the proper angle. This arrangement of +the mealing stones is characteristic of the more densely clustered +communal houses of late date. In the more primitive house the mealing +stone was usually a single large piece of cellular basalt, or similar +rock, in which a broad, sloping depression was carved, and which could +be transported from place to place. <a href = "#fig106">Fig. 106</a> +illustrates an example of this type from the vicinity of Globe, in +southern Arizona. The stationary mealing trough of the present day is +undoubtedly the successor of the earner moveable form, yet it was in use +among the pueblos at the time of the first Spanish expedition, as the +following extract from Castañeda’s account<a class = "tag" name = "tag9" +id = "tag9" href = "#note9">9</a> of Cibola will show. He says a special +room is designed to grind the grain: “This last is apart, and contains a +furnace and three stones made fast in {no para} masonry. +<span class = "pagenum">212</span> +<a name = "page212" id = "page212"> </a> +<!--png 439--> +Three women sit down before these stones; the first crushes the grain, +the second brays it, and the third reduces it entirely to powder.” It +will be seen how exactly this description fits both the arrangement and +the use of this mill at the present time. The perfection of mechanical +devices and the refinement of methods here exhibited would seem to be in +advance of the achievement of this people in other directions.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig105" id = "fig105"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig105.png" width = "460" height = "183" +alt = "mealing trough" +title = "mealing trough"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 105.</span> +A Tusayan mealing trough.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig106" id = "fig106"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig106.png" width = "187" height = "111" +alt = "metate" +title = "metate"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 106.</span> +An ancient pueblo<br> +form of metate. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The grinding stones of the mealing apparatus are of correspondingly +varying degrees of roughness; those of basalt or lava are used for the +first crushing of the corn, and sandstone is used for the final grinding +on the last metate of the series. By means of these primitive appliances +the corn meal is as finely ground as our wheaten flour. The grinding +stones now used are always flat, as shown in <a href = "#fig105">Fig. +105</a>, and differ from those that were used with the early massive +type of metate in being of cylindrical form.</p> + +<p>One end of the series of milling troughs is usually built against the +wall near the corner of the room. In some cases, where the room is quite +narrow, the series extends across from wall to wall. Series comprising +four mealing stones, sometimes seen in Zuñi, are very generally arranged +in this manner. In all cases sufficient floor space is left behind the +mills to accommodate the women who kneel at their work. <a href = +"#plateLXXXVI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXVI</span></a> +illustrates an unusual arrangement, in which the fourth mealing stone is +set at right angles to the other stones of the series.</p> + +<p>Mortars are in general use in Zuñi and Tusayan households. As a rule +they are of considerable size, and made of the same material as the +rougher mealing stones. They are employed for crushing and grinding the +chile or red pepper that enters so largely into the food of the Zuñi, +and whose use has extended to the Mexicans of the same region. These +mortars have the ordinary circular depressions and are used with a round +pestle or crusher, often of somewhat long, cylindrical form for +convenience in handling.</p> + +<p>Parts of the apparatus for indoor blanket weaving seen in some of the +pueblo houses may be included under the heading of furniture. These +consist of devices for the attachment of the movable parts of the loom, +which need not be described in this connection. In some of the Tusayan +houses may be seen examples of posts sunk in the floor provided with +holes for the insertion of cords for attaching and tightening the warp, +similar to those built into the kiva floors, illustrated in <a href = +"#fig31">Fig. 31</a>. No device of this kind was seen in Zuñi. A more +primitive appliance for such work is seen in both groups of pueblos in +an occasional stump of a beam or short pole projecting from the wall at +varying heights. Ceiling beams are also used for stretching the warp +both in blanket and belt weaving.</p> + +<p>The furnishings of a pueblo house do not include tables and chairs. +The meals are eaten directly from the stone-paved floor, the +participants rarely having any other seat than the blanket that they +wear, rolled up or folded into convenient form. Small stools are +sometimes seen, but +<span class = "pagenum">213</span> +<a name = "page213" id = "page213"> </a> +<!--png 442--> +the need of such appliances does not seem to be keenly felt by these +Indians, who can, for hours, sit in a peculiar squatting position on +their haunches, without any apparent discomfort. Though moveable chairs +or stools are rare, nearly all of the dwellings are provided with the +low ledge or bench around the rooms, which in earlier times seems to +have been confined to the kivas. A slight advance on this fixed form of +seat was the stone block used in the Tusayan kivas, described on <a href += "#page132">p. 132</a>, which at the same time served a useful +purpose in the adjustment of the warp threads for blanket weaving.</p> + +<table class = "figright" summary = "illustration"> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig107" id = "fig107"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig107a.png" width = "157" height = "177" +alt = "stool" +title = "stool"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<img src = "images/figures/fig107b.png" width = "170" height = "108" +alt = "stool" +title = "stool"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 107.</span> +Zuñi stools. +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "figure"> +<a name = "fig108" id = "fig108"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig108.png" width = "159" height = "184" +alt = "chair" +title = "chair"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 108.</span> +A Zuñi chair. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The few wooden stools observed show very primitive workmanship, and +are usually made of a single piece of wood. <a href = "#fig107">Fig. +107</a> illustrates two forms of wooden stool from Zuñi. The small +three-legged stool on the left has been cut from the trunk of a piñon +tree in such a manner as to utilize as legs the three branches into +which the main stem separated. The other stool illustrated is also cut +from a single piece of tree trunk, which has been reduced in weight by +cutting out one side, leaving the two ends for support.</p> + +<p>A curiously worked chair of modern form seen in Zuñi is illustrated +in <a href = "#fig108">Fig. 108</a>. It was difficult to determine the +antiquity of this specimen, as its rickety condition may have been due +to the clumsy workmanship quite as much as to the effects of age. Rude +as is the workmanship, however, it was far beyond the unaided skill of +the native craftsman to join and mortise the various pieces that go to +make up this chair. Some decorative effect has been sought here, the +ornamentation, made up of notches and sunken grooves, closely resembling +that on the window sash illustrated in <a href = "#fig88">Fig. 88</a>, +and somewhat <ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘similiar’">similar</ins> +in effect to the carving on the Spanish beams +seen in the Tusayan kivas. The whole construction strongly suggests +Spanish influence.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">214</span> +<a name = "page214" id = "page214"> </a> +<!--png 443--> +Even the influence of Americans has as yet failed to bring about the use +of tables or bedsteads among the pueblo Indians. The floor answers all +the purposes of both these useful articles of furniture. The food dishes +are placed directly upon it at meal times, and at night the blankets, +rugs, and sheep skins that form the bed are spread directly upon it. +These latter, during the day, are suspended upon the clothes pole +previously described and illustrated.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_13" id = "chapIV_4_13"> +CORRALS AND GARDENS.</a></h6> + +<p>The introduction of domestic sheep among the pueblos has added a new +and important element to their mode of living, but they seem never to +have reached a clear understanding as to how these animals should be +cared for. No forethought is exercised to separate the rams so that the +lambs will be born at a favorable season. The flocks consist of sheep +and goats which are allowed to run together at all tunes. Black sheep +and some with a grayish color of wool are often seen among them. No +attempt is made to eliminate these dark-fleeced members of the flock, +since the black and gray wool is utilized in its natural color in +producing many of the designs and patterns of the blankets woven by +these people. The flocks are usually driven up into the corrals or +inclosures every evening, and are taken out again in the morning, +frequently at quite a late hour. This, together with the time consumed +in driving them to and from pasture, gives them much less chance to +thrive than those of the nomadic Navajo. In Tusayan the corrals are +usually of small size and inclosed by thin walls of rude stone work. +This may be seen in the foreground of <a href = "#plateXXI">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">XXI</span></a>. <a href = "#plateCIX">Pl. <span +class = "smallroman">CIX</span></a> illustrates several corrals just +outside the village of Mashongnavi similarly constructed, but of +somewhat larger size. Some of the corrals of Oraibi are of still larger +size, approaching in this respect the corrals of Cibola. The Oraibi pens +are rudely rectangular in form, with more or less rounded angles, and +are also built of rude masonry.</p> + +<!--png 460--> +<!--png 461--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCIX" id = "plateCIX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate109.png" width = "422" height = "237" +alt = "corrals and kiva" +title = "corrals and kiva"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CIX. Stone corrals and kiva of Mashongnavi.</p> + +<p>In the less important villages of Cibola stone is occasionally used +for inclosing the corrals, as in Tusayan, as may be seen in <a href = +"#plateLXX">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXX</span></a>, illustrating +an inclosure of this character in the court of the farming pueblo of +Pescado. <a href = "#plateCX">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">CX</span></a> illustrates in detail the manner in which +stone work is combined with the use of rude stakes in the construction +of this inclosure. On the rugged sites of the Tusayan villages corrals +are placed wherever favorable nooks happen to be found in the rocks, but +at Zuñi, built in the comparatively open plain, they form a nearly +continuous belt around the pueblo. Here they are made of stakes and +brush held in place by horizontal poles tied on with strips of rawhide. +The rudely contrived gateways are supported in natural forks at the top +and sides of posts. Often one or two small inclosures used for burros or +horses occur near these sheep corrals. The construction is identical +with those above described and is very rude. It is illustrated in <a +href = "#fig109">Fig. 109</a>, which shows the manner in which the +stakes are arranged, and also +<span class = "pagenum">215</span> +<a name = "page215" id = "page215"> </a> +<!--png 446--> +the method of attaching the horizontal tie-pieces. The construction of +these inclosures is frail, and the danger of pushing the stakes over by +pressure from within is guarded against by employing forked braces that +abut against horizontal pieces tied on 4 or 5 feet from the ground. +Reference to <a href = "#plateLXXIV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXIV</span></a> will illustrate this construction.</p> + +<!--png 464--> +<!--png 465--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCX" id = "plateCX"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate110.png" width = "466" height = "268" +alt = "corral" +title = "corral"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CX. Portion of a corral in Pescado.</p> + +<p>Within the village of Zuñi inclosures resembling miniature corrals +are sometimes seen built against the houses; these are used as cages for +eagles. A number of these birds are kept in Zuñi for the sake of their +plumage, which is highly valued for ceremonial purposes. <a href = +"#plateCXI">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">CXI</span></a> illustrates +one of these coops, constructed partly with a thin adobe wall and partly +with stakes arranged like those of the corrals.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig109" id = "fig109"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig109.png" width = "299" height = "447" +alt = "corral construction" +title = "corral construction"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 109.</span> +Construction of a Zuñi corral.</p> + +<p>In both of the pueblo groups under discussion, small gardens +contiguous to the villages are frequent. Those of Tusayan are walled in +with stone.</p> + +<p>Within the pueblo of Zuñi a small group of garden patches is inclosed +by stake fences, but the majority of the gardens in the vicinity of the +<span class = "pagenum">216</span> +<a name = "page216" id = "page216"> </a> +<!--png 447--> +principal villages are provided with low walls of mud masonry. The small +terraced gardens here are near the river bank on the southwest and +southeast sides of the village. The inclosed spaces, averaging in size +about 10 feet square, are used for the cultivation of red peppers, +beans, etc., which, during the dry season, are watered by hand. These +inclosures, situated close to the dwellings, suggest a probable +explanation for similar inclosures found in many of the ruins in the +southern and eastern portions of the ancient pueblo region. Mr. +Bandelier was informed by the Pimas<a class = "tag" name = "tag10" id = +"tag10" href = "#note10">10</a> that these inclosures were ancient +gardens. He concluded that since acequias were frequent in the immediate +vicinity these gardens must have been used as reserves in case of war, +when the larger fields were not available, but the manner of their +occurrence in Zuñi suggests rather that they were intended for +cultivation of special crops, such as pepper, beans, cotton, and perhaps +also of a variety of +<span class = "pagenum">217</span> +<a name = "page217" id = "page217"> </a> +<!--png 450--> +tobacco—corn, melons, squashes, etc., being cultivated elsewhere +in larger tracts. There is a large group of gardens on the bank of the +stream at the southeastern corner of Zuñi, and here there are slight +indications of terracing. A second group on the steeper slope at the +southwestern corner is distinctly terraced. Small walled gardens of the +same type as these Zuñi examples occur in the vicinity of some of the +Tusayan villages on the middle mesa. They are located near the springs +or water pockets, apparently to facilitate watering by hand. Some of +them contain a few small peach trees in addition to the vegetable crops +ordinarily met with. The clusters here are, as a rule, smaller than +those of Zuñi, as there is much less space available in the vicinity of +the springs. At one point on the west side of the first mesa, a few +miles above Walpi, a copious spring serves to irrigate quite an +extensive series of small garden patches distributed over lower +slopes.</p> + +<!--png 468--> +<!--png 469--> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "plateCXI" id = "plateCXI"> </a> +<img src = "images/plates/plate111.png" width = "447" height = "346" +alt = "eagle cage" +title = "eagle cage"></p> +<p class = "caption smallcaps"> +Plate CXI. Zuñi eagle-cage.</p> + +<p>At several points around Zuñi, usually at a greater distance than the +terrace gardens, are fields of much larger area inclosed in a similar +manner. Their inclosure was simply to secure them against the +depredations of stray burros, so numerous about the village. When the +crops are gathered in the autumn, several breaches are made in the low +wall and the burros are allowed to luxuriate on the remains. <a href = +"#plateLIX">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LIX</span></a> indicates the +position of the large cluster of garden patches on the southeastern side +of Zuñi. <a href = "#fig110">Fig. 110</a>, taken from photographs made +in 1873, shows several of these small gardens with their growing crops +and a large field of corn beyond. The workmanship of the garden walls as +contrasted with that of the house masonry has been already described and +is illustrated in <a href = "#plateXC">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">XC</span></a>.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig110" id = "fig110"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig110.png" width = "437" height = "443" +alt = "Zuñi gardens" +title = "Zuñi gardens"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 110.</span> +Gardens of Zuñi.</p> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_14" id = "chapIV_4_14"> +“KISI” CONSTRUCTION.</a></h6> + +<p>Lightly constructed shelters for the use of those in charge of fields +were probably a constant accompaniment of pueblo horticulture. Such +shelters were built of stone or of brush, according to which material +was most available.</p> + +<p>In very precipitous localities, as the Canyon de Chelly, these +outlooks naturally became the so-called cliff-dwellings or isolated +shelters. In Cibola single stone houses are in common use, not to the +exclusion, however, of the lighter structures of brush, while in Tusayan +these lighter forms, of which there are a number of well defined +varieties, are almost exclusively used. A detailed study of the methods +of construction employed in these rude shelters would be of great +interest as affording a comparison both with the building methods of the +ruder neighboring tribes and with those adopted in constructing some of +the details of the terraced house; the writer, however, did not have an +opportunity of making an examination of all the field shelters used in +these pueblos. Two of the simpler types are the “tuwahlki,” or watch +house, and the “kishoni,” or uncovered shade. The former is constructed +by first +<span class = "pagenum">218</span> +<a name = "page218" id = "page218"> </a> +<!--png 451--> +planting a short forked stick in the ground, which supports one end of a +pole, the other end resting on the ground. The interval between this +ridge pole and the ground is roughly filled in with slanting sticks and +brush, the inclosed space being not more than 3 feet in height, with a +maximum width of four or five feet. These shelters are for the +accommodation of the children who watch the melon patches until the +fruit is harvested.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig111" id = "fig111"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig111.png" width = "329" height = "418" +alt = "uncovered shade in Tusayan" +title = "uncovered shade in Tusayan"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 111.</span> +Kishoni, or uncovered shade, of Tusayan.</p> + +<p>The kishoni, or uncovered shade, illustrated in <a href = +"#fig111">Fig. 111</a>, is perhaps the simplest form of shelter +employed. Ten or a dozen cottonwood saplings are set firmly into the +ground, so as to form a slightly curved inclosure with convex side +toward the south. Cottonwood and willow boughs in foliage, grease-wood, +sage brush, and rabbit brush are laid with stems upward in even rows +against these saplings to a height of 6 or 7 feet. This light material +is held in place by bands of small cottonwood branches laid in +continuous horizontal lines around the outside of the shelter and these +are attached to the upright saplings with cottonwood and willow +twigs.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig112" id = "fig112"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig112.png" width = "413" height = "260" +alt = "Tusayan field shelter" +title = "Tusayan field shelter"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 112.</span> +A Tusayan field shelter, from southwest.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">219</span> +<a name = "page219" id = "page219"> </a> +<!--png 454--> +Figs. <a href = "#fig112">112</a> and <a href = "#fig113">113</a> +illustrate a much more elaborate field shelter in Tusayan. As may +readily be seen from the figures this shelter covers a considerable +area; it will be seen too that the upright branches that inclose two of +its sides are of sufficient height to considerably shade the level roof +of poles and brush, converting it into a comfortable retreat.</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig113" id = "fig113"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig113.png" width = "443" height = "285" +alt = "Tusayan field shelter" +title = "Tusayan field shelter"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 113.</span> +A Tusayan field shelter, from northeast.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">220</span> +<a name = "page220" id = "page220"> </a> +<!--png 455--> + +<h6><a name = "chapIV_4_15" id = "chapIV_4_15"> +ARCHITECTURAL NOMENCLATURE.</a></h6> + +<p>The following nomenclature, collected by Mr. Stephen, comprises the +terms commonly used in designating the constructional details of Tusayan +houses and kivas:</p> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td width = "30%">Kiko´li</td> +<td><p>The ground floor rooms forming the first terrace.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tupu´bi</td> +<td><p>The roofed recess at the end of the first terrace.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ah´pabi</td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2">A terrace roof.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ih´pobi</td> +<!--<td></td>--> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tupat´ca ih´pobi</td> +<td><p>The third terrace, used in common as a loitering place.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tumtco´kobi</td> +<td><p>“The place of the flat stone;” small rooms in which “piki,” or +paper-bread, is baked. “Tuma,” the piki stone, and “tcok” describing its +flat position.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tupa´tca</td> +<td><p>“Where you sit overhead;” the third story.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>O´mi Ah´pabi</td> +<td><p>The second story; a doorway always opens from it upon the roof of +the “kiko´li.”</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kitcobi</td> +<td><p>“The highest place;” the fourth story.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tuhkwa</td> +<td><p>A wall.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Puce</td> +<td><p>An outer corner.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Apaphucua</td> +<td><p>An inside corner.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Lestabi</td> +<td><p>The main roof timbers.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wina´kwapi</td> +<td><p>Smaller cross poles. “Winahoya,” a small pole, and “Kwapi,” in +place.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kaha´b kwapi</td> +<td><p>The willow covering.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Süibi kwapi</td> +<td><p>The brush covering.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Si´hü kwapi</td> +<td><p>The grass covering.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kiam´ balawi</td> +<td><p>The mud plaster of roof covering, “Balatle´lewini,” to +spread.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tcukat´cvewata</td> +<td><p>Dry earth covering the roof. “Tcuka,” earth, “katuto,” to sit, +and “at´cvewata,” one laid above another.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kiami</td> +<td><p>An entire roof.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kwo´pku</td> +<td><p>The fireplace.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kwi´tcki</td> +<td><p>“Smoke-house,” an inside chimney-hood.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sibvu´tütük´mula</td> +<td><p>A series of bottomless jars piled above each other, and luted +together as a chimney-top.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sibvu´</td> +<td><p>A bottomless earthen vessel serving as a chimney pot.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Bok´ci</td> +<td><p>Any small hole in a wall, or roof, smaller than a +doorway.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hi´tci</td> +<td><p>An opening, such as a doorway. This term is also applied to a gap +in a cliff.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hi´tci Kalau´wata</td> +<td><p>A door frame.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tûñañ´îata</td> +<td><p>A lintel; literally, “that holds the sides in place.”</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wuwûk´pi</td> +<td><p>“The place step;” the door sill.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Niñuh´pi</td> +<td><p>A handhold; the small pole in a doorway below the +lintel.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pana´ptca ütc´pi bok´ci</td> +<td><p>A window; literally, “glass covered opening.”</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ut´cpi</td> +<td><p>A cover.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ahpa´bütc´pi</td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2"><p>A door. “Apab,” inside; wina, a +pole.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wina´ütc´pi</td> +<!--<td></td>--> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>O´wa ütc´ppî</td> +<td><p>“Stone cover,” a stone slab.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">221</span> +<a name = "page221" id = "page221"> </a> +<!--png 458--> +Tüi´ka</td> +<td><p>A projection in the wall of a room suggesting a partition, such +as shown in <a href = "#plateLXXXV">Pl. <span class = +"smallroman">LXXXV</span></a>. The same term is applied to a projecting +cliff in a mesa.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kiam´i</td> +<td><p>An entire roof. The main beams, cross poles, and roof layers have +the same names as in the kiva, given later.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class = "greek" title = "Wina'ku'i">Wĭna´kü´i</span></td> +<td><p>Projecting poles; rafters extending beyond the walls.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Bal´kakini</td> +<td><p>“Spread out;” the floor.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>O´tcokpü´h</td> +<td><p>“Leveled with stones;” a raised level for the +foundation.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ba´lkakini tü´wi</td> +<td><p>“Floor ledge;” the floor of one room raised above that of an +adjoining one.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hako´la</td> +<td><p>“Lower place;” the floor of a lower room. Sand dunes in a valley +are called “Hakolpi.”</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ko´ltci</td> +<td><p>A shelf.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Owako´ltci</td> +<td><p>A stone shelf.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ta´pü kü´ita</td> +<td><p>A support for a shelf.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wina´koltci</td> +<td><p>A hewn plank shelf.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kokiüni</td> +<td><p>A wooden peg in a wall.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tületa</td> +<td><p>A shelf hanging from the ceiling.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tület´haipi</td> +<td><p>The cords for suspending a shelf.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tükûlci</td> +<td><p>A niche in the wall.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tükûli</td> +<td><p>A stone mortar.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ma´ta</td> +<td><p>The complete mealing apparatus for grinding corn.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Owa´mata</td> +<td><p>The trough or outer frame of stone slabs.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Mata´ki</td> +<td><p>The metate or grinding slab.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kakom´ta mata´ki</td> +<td><p>The coarsest grinding slab.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tala´kî mata´ki</td> +<td><p>The next finer slab; from “talaki” to parch crushed corn in a +vessel at the fire.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Piñ´nyümta mata´ki</td> +<td><p>The slab of finest texture; from “pin,” fine.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ma´ta ü´tci</td> +<td><p>The upright partition stones separating the metates. The rubbing +stones have the same names as the metates.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hawi´wita</td> +<td><p>A stone stairway.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tütü´beñ hawi´wita</td> +<td><p>A stairway pecked into a cliff face.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sa´ka</td> +<td><p>A ladder.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wina´hawi´pi</td> +<td><p>Steps of wood.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ki´cka</td> +<td><p>The covered way.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hitcu´yî´wa</td> +<td><p>“Opening to pass through;” a narrow passage between +houses.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ki´sombi</td> +<td><p>“Place closed with houses;” courts and spaces between house +groups.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Bavwa´kwapi</td> +<td><p>A gutter pipe inserted in the roof coping.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In kiva nomenclature the various parts of the roof have the same +names as the corresponding features of the dwellings. These are +described on pp. <a href = "#page148">148</a>-<a href = +"#page151">151</a>.</p> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td>Le´stabi</td> +<td><p>The main roof timbers.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wina´kwapi</td> +<td><p>The smaller cross poles.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kaha´b kwapi</td> +<td><p>The willow covering.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Süibi kwapi</td> +<td><p>The brush covering.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Si´hü kwapi</td> +<td><p>The grass covering.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tcuka´tcve wata</td> +<td><p>The dry earth layer of the roof.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kiam´ba´lawi</td> +<td><p>The layer of mud plaster on the roof.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kiami</td> +<td><p>An entire roof.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">222</span> +<a name = "page222" id = "page222"> </a> +<!--png 459--> +The following terms are used to specially designate various features of +the kivas:</p> + +<table class = "inline text" summary = "list of names"> +<tr> +<td width = "30%">Tüpat´caiata, lestabi<br> +Lesta´bkwapi,</td> +<td><p>Both of these terms are used to designate the kiva hatchway beams +upon which the hatchway walls rest.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Süna´cabi le´stabi</td> +<td><p>The main beams in the roof, nearest to the hatchway.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ĕp´eoka le´stabi</td> +<td><p>The main beams next to the central ones.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Püep´eoka le´stabi</td> +<td><p>The main beams next in order, and all the beams intervening +between the “epeoka” and the end beams are so designated.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kala´beoka lestabi</td> +<td><p>The beams at the ends of a kiva.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Mata´owa</td> +<td><p>“Stone placed with hands.”</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hüzrüowa</td> +<td><p>“Hard stone.”</p> +<p>Both of these latter terms are applied to corner foundation +stones.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kwa´kü üt´cpi</td> +<td><p>Moveable mat of reeds or sticks for covering hatchway opening, <a +href = "#fig29">Fig. 29</a>. “Kwaku,” wild hay; “utepi,” a +stopper.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tüpat´caiata</td> +<td><p>The raised hatchway; “the sitting place,” <a href = +"#fig95">Fig. 95</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tüpat´caiata tü´kwa</td> +<td><p>The walls of the hatchway.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kipat´ctjua´ta</td> +<td><p>The kiva doorway; the opening into the hatchway, <a href = +"#fig28">Fig. 28</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Apa´pho´ya</td> +<td><p>Small niches in the wall. “Apap,” from “apabi,” inside, and +“hoya,” small.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Si´papüh</td> +<td><p>An archaic term. The etymology of this word is not +known.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class = "greek" title = "Kwop'kota">Kwŏp´kota</span></td> +<td><p>The fireplace. “Kwuhi,” coals or embers; “küaiti,” head.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class = "greek" title = "Koi'tci">Kŏi´tci</span></td> +<td><p>Pegs for drying fuel, fixed under the hatchway. “Ko-hu,” wood; <a +href = "#fig28">Fig. 28</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kokü´ina</td> +<td><p>Pegs in the walls.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sa´ka</td> +<td><p>A ladder. This term is applied to any ladder. <a href = +"#fig45">Figs. 45-47</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sa´kaleta</td> +<td><p>Ladder rungs; “Leta,” from “lestabi;” see above.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tüvwibi</td> +<td><p>The platform elevation or upper level of the floor. “Tu-vwi,” a +ledge; <a href = "#fig24">Fig. 24</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tüvwi</td> +<td><p>Stone ledges around the sides, for seats. The same term is used +to designate any ledge, as that of a mesa, etc.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Katcin´ Kibü</td> +<td><p>“Katcina,” house. The niche in a ledge at the end of the +kiva.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kwi´sa</td> +<td><p>The planks set into the floor, to which the lower beam of a +blanket loom is fastened.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kaintup´ha</td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2"><p>Terms applied to the main floor; +they both mean “the large space.”</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kiva´kani</td> +<!--<td></td>--> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tapü´wü´tci</td> +<td><p>Hewn planks a foot wide and 6 to 8 feet long, set into the +floor.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wina´wü´tci</td> +<td><p>A plank.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Owa´pühü´imiata</td> +<td><p>“Stone spread out;” the flagged floor; also designates the slabs +covering the hatchway.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">223</span> +<a name = "page223" id = "page223"> </a> +<!--png 462--> +Yau´wiopi.</td> +<td><p>Stones with holes pecked in the ends for holding the loom beam +while the warp is being adjusted; also used as seats; see <a href = +"#page132">p. 132</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig114" id = "fig114"> </a> +<img src = "images/figures/fig114.png" width = "290" height = "269" +alt = "section of terraces" +title = "section of terraces"></p> +<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 114.</span> +Diagram showing ideal section of terraces, with Tusayan names.</p> + +<p>The accompanying diagram is an ideal section of a Tusayan four-story +house, and gives the native names for the various rooms and +terraces.</p> + + + + +<h4 class = "chapter"><a name = "concl" id = "concl"> +CONCLUDING REMARKS.</a></h4> + + +<p>The modern villages of Tusayan and Cibola differ more widely in +arrangement and in the relation they bear to the surrounding topography +than did their predecessors even of historic times.</p> + +<p>Many of the older pueblos of both groups appear to have belonged to +the valley types—villages of considerable size, located in open +plains or on the slopes of low-lying foothills. A comparison of the +plans in Chapters <span class = "smallroman">II</span> and <span class = +"smallroman">III</span> will illustrate these differences. In Tusayan +the necessity of defense has driven the builders to inaccessible sites, +so that now all the occupied villages of the province are found on mesa +summits. The inhabitants of the valley pueblos of Cibola, although +compelled at one time to build their houses upon the almost inaccessible +summit of <ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘Tâaiyalana’">Tâaaiyalana</ins> mesa, +occupied this site only +temporarily, and soon established a large valley pueblo, the size and +large population of which afforded that defensive efficiency which the +Tusayan obtained only by building on mesa promontories. This has +resulted in some adherence on the part of the Tusayan to the village +plans of their ancestors, while at Zuni the great house clusters, +forming the largest pueblo occupied in modern times, show a wide +departure from the primitive types. In both provinces the architecture +is distinguished from that of other portions of the pueblo region by +greater irregularity of +<span class = "pagenum">224</span> +<a name = "page224" id = "page224"> </a> +<!--png 463--> +plan and by less skillfully executed constructional details; each group, +however, happens to contain a notable exception to this general +carelessness.</p> + +<p>In Cibola the pueblo of Kin-tiel, built with a continuous defensive +outer wall, occupies architecturally a somewhat anomalous position, +notwithstanding its traditional connection with the group, and the Fire +House occupies much the same relation in reference to Tusayan. The +latter, however, does not break in upon the unity of the group, since +the Tusayan, to a much greater extent than the Zuñi, are made up of +remnants of various bands of builders. In Cibola, however, some of the +Indians state that their ancestors, before reaching Zuñi, built a number +of pueblos, whose ruins are distinguished from those illustrated in the +present paper by the presence of circular kivas, this form of ceremonial +room being, apparently, wholly absent from the Cibolan pueblos here +discussed.</p> + +<p>The people of Cibola and of Tusayan belong to distinct linguistic +stocks, but their arts are very closely related, the differences being +no greater than would result from the slightly different conditions that +have operated within the last few generations. Zuñi, perhaps, came more +directly under early Spanish influence than Tusayan.</p> + +<p>Churches were established, as has been seen, in both provinces, but +it is doubtful whether their presence produced any lasting impression on +the people. In Tusayan the sway of the Spaniards was very brief. At some +of the pueblos the churches seem to have been built outside of the +village proper where ample space was available within the pueblo; but +such an encroachment on the original inclosed courts seems never to have +been attempted. Zuñi is an apparent exception; but all the house +clusters east of the church have probably been built later than the +church itself, the church court of the present village being a much +larger area than would be reserved for the usual pueblo court. These +early churches were, as a rule, built of adobe, even when occurring in +stone pueblos. The only exception noticed is at Ketchipauan, where it +was built of the characteristic Indian smoothly chinked masonry. The +Spaniards usually intruded their own construction, even to the +composition of the bricks, which are nearly always made of straw +adobe.</p> + +<p>At Tusayan there is no evidence that a church or mission house ever +formed part of the villages on the mesa summits. Their plans are +complete in themselves, and probably represent closely the first pueblos +built on these sites. These summits have been extensively occupied only +in comparatively recent times, although one or more small clusters may +have been built here at an early date as outlooks over the fields in the +valleys below.</p> + +<p>It is to be noted that some of the ruins connected traditionally and +historically with Tusayan and Cibola differ in no particular from stone +pueblos widely scattered over the southwestern plateaus which have been +from time to time invested with a halo of romantic antiquity, and +<span class = "pagenum">225</span> +<a name = "page225" id = "page225"> </a> +<!--png 466--> +regarded as remarkable achievements in civilization by a vanished but +once powerful race. These deserted stone houses, occurring in the midst +of desert solitudes, appealed strongly to the imaginations of early +explorers, and their stimulated fancy connected the remains with +“Aztecs” and other mysterious peoples. That this early implanted bias +has caused the invention of many ingenious theories concerning the +origin and disappearance of the builders of the ancient pueblos, is +amply attested in the conclusions reached by many of the writers on this +subject.</p> + +<p>In connection with the architectural examination of some of these +remains many traditions have been obtained from the present tribes, +clearly indicating that some of the village ruins, and even cliff +dwellings, have been built and occupied by ancestors of the present +Pueblo Indians, sometimes at a date well within the historic period.</p> + +<p>The migrations of the Tusayan clans, as described in the legends +collected by Mr. Stephen, were slow and tedious. While they pursued +their wanderings and awaited the favorable omens of the gods they halted +many times and planted. They speak traditionally of stopping at certain +places on their routes during a certain number of “plantings,” always +building the characteristic stone pueblos and then again taking up the +march.</p> + +<p>When these Indians are questioned as to whence they came, their +replies are various and conflicting; but this is due to the fact that +the members of one clan came, after a long series of wanderings, from +the north, for instance, while those of other gentes may have come last +from the east. The tribe to-day seems to be made up of a collection or a +confederacy of many enfeebled remnants of independent phratries and +groups once more numerous and powerful. Some clans traditionally +referred to as having been important are now represented by few +survivors, and bid fair soon to become extinct. So the members of each +phratry have their own store of traditions, relating to the wanderings +of their own ancestors, which differ from those of other clans, and +refer to villages successively built and occupied by them. In the case +of others of the pueblos, the occupation of cliff dwellings and cave +lodges is known to have occurred within historic times.</p> + +<p>Both architectural and traditional evidence are in accord in +establishing a continuity of descent from the ancient Pueblos to those +of the present day. Many of the communities are now made up of the more +or less scattered but interrelated remnants of gentes which in former +times occupied villages, the remains of which are to-day looked upon as +the early homes of “Aztec colonies,” etc.</p> + +<p>The adaptation, of this architecture to the peculiar environment +indicates that it has long been practiced under the same conditions that +now prevail. Nearly all of the ancient pueblos were built of the +sandstone found in natural quarries at the bases of hundreds of cliffs +throughout these table-lands. This stone readily breaks into small +pieces of regular +<span class = "pagenum">226</span> +<a name = "page226" id = "page226"> </a> +<!--png 467--> +form, suitable for use in the simple masonry of the pueblos without +receiving any artificial treatment. The walls themselves give an +exaggerated idea of finish, owing to the care and neatness with which +the component stones are placed. Some of the illustrations in the last +chapter, from photographs, show clearly that the material of the walls +was much ruder than the appearance of the finished masonry would +suggest, and that this finish depended on the careful selection and +arrangement of the fragments. This is even more noticeable in the Chaco +ruins, in which the walls were wrought to a high degrees of surface +finish. The core of the wall was laid up with the larger and more +irregular stones, and was afterwards brought to a smooth face by +carefully filling in and chinking the joints with smaller stones and +fragments, sometimes not more than a quarter of an inch thick; this +method is still roughly followed by both Tusayan and Cibolan +builders.</p> + +<p>Although many details of construction and arrangement display +remarkable adaptation to the physical character of the country, yet the +influence of such environment would not alone suffice to produce this +architectural type. In order to develop the results found, another +element was necessary. This element was the necessity for defense. The +pueblo population was probably subjected to the more or less continuous +influence of this defensive motive throughout the period of their +occupation of this territory. A strong independent race of people, who +had to fear no invasion by stronger foes, would necessarily have been +influenced more by the physical environment and would have progressed +further in the art of building, but the motive for building rectangular +rooms—the initial point of departure in the development of pueblo +architecture—would not have been brought into action. The crowding +of many habitations upon a small cliff ledge or other restricted site, +resulting in the rectangular form of rooms, was most likely due to the +conditions imposed by this necessity for defense.</p> + +<p>The general outlines of the development of this architecture wherein +the ancient builders were stimulated to the best use of the exceptional +materials about them, both by the difficult conditions of their +semi-desert environment and by constant necessity for protection against +their neighbors, can be traced in its various stages of growth from the +primitive conical lodge to its culmination in the large communal village +of many-storied terraced buildings which we find to have been in use at +the time of the Spanish discovery, and which still survives in Zuñi, +perhaps its most striking modern example. Yet the various steps have +resulted from a simple and direct use of the material immediately at +hand, while methods gradually improved as frequent experiments taught +the builders more fully to utilize local facilities. In all cases the +material was derived from the nearest available source, and often +variations in the quality of the finished work are due to variations in +the quality of the stone near by. The results accomplished attest the +patient and persistent industry of the ancient builders, but the work +does not display great skill in construction or in preparation of +material. +<span class = "pagenum">227</span> +<a name = "page227" id = "page227"> </a> +<!--png 470--> +The same desert environment that furnished such an abundance of material +for the ancient builders, also, from its difficult and inhospitable +character and the constant variations in the water supply, compelled the +frequent employment of this material. This was an important factor in +bringing about the attained degree of advancement in the building art. +At the present day constant local changes occur in the water sources of +these arid table-lands, while the general character of the climate +remains unaltered.</p> + +<p>The distinguishing characteristics of Pueblo architecture may be +regarded as the product of a defensive motive and of an arid environment +that furnished an abundance of suitable building material, and at the +same time the climatic conditions that compelled its frequent +employment.</p> + +<p>The decline of the defensive motive within the last few years has +greatly affected the more recent architecture. Even after the long +practice of the system has rendered it somewhat fixed, comparative +security from attack has caused many of the Pueblo Indians to recognize +the inconvenience of dwellings grouped in large clusters on sites +difficult of access, while the sources of their subsistence are +necessarily sparsely scattered over large areas. This is noticeable in +the building of small, detached houses at a distance from the main +villages, the greater convenience to crops, flocks and water outweighing +the defensive motive. In Cibola particularly, a marked tendency in this +direction has shown itself within a score of years; Ojo Caliente, the +newest of the farming pueblos, is perhaps the most striking example +within the two provinces. The greater security of the pueblos as the +country comes more fully into the hands of Americans, has also resulted +in the more careless construction in modern examples as compared with +the ancient.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that, as time shall go on, the system of building +many-storied clusters of rectangular rooms will gradually be abandoned +by these people. In the absence of the defensive motive a more +convenient system, employing scattered small houses, located near +springs and fields, will gradually take its place, thus returning to a +mode of building that probably prevailed in the evolution of the pueblo +prior to the clustering of many rooms into large defensive villages. <a +href = "#plateLXXXIII">Pl. <span class = "smallroman">LXXXIII</span></a> +illustrates a building of the type described located on the outskirts of +Zuñi, across the river from the main pueblo.</p> + +<p>The cultural distinctions between the Pueblo Indians and neighboring +tribes gradually become less clearly defined as investigation +progresses. Mr. Cushing’s study of the Zuñi social, political, and +religious systems has clearly established their essential identity in +grade of culture with those of other tribes. In many of the arts, too, +such as weaving, ceramics, etc., these people in no degree surpass many +tribes who build ruder dwellings.</p> + +<p><span class = "pagenum">228</span> +<a name = "page228" id = "page228"> </a> +<!--png 471--> +In architecture, though, they have progressed far beyond their +neighbors; many of the devices employed attest the essentially primitive +character of the art, and demonstrate that the apparent distinction in +grade of culture is mainly due to the exceptional condition of the +environment.</p> + +<hr class = "mid section"> + +<h4 class = "section"><a name = "notes" id = "notes">FOOTNOTES</a></h4> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a> +This chapter is compiled by Cosmos Mindeleff from material collected by +A. M. Stephen.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a> +The term by which the Tusayan Indians proper designate themselves. This +term does not include the inhabitants of the village of Tewa or Hano, +who are called Hanomuh.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a> +The term yasuna, translated here as “year,” is of rather indefinite +significance; it sometimes means thirteen moons and in other instances +much longer periods.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a> +See Millstone for April, 1884, Indianapolis, Indiana.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note5" id = "note5" href = "#tag5">5.</a> +These two names are common to the kiva in which the Snake order meets +and in which the indoor ceremonies pertaining to the Snake-dance are +celebrated.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note6" id = "note6" href = "#tag6">6.</a> +Cont. to N.A. Ethn., vol. 4, Houses and House life, pp. 129-131.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note7" id = "note7" href = "#tag7">7.</a> +Fifth Ann. Rept. Arch. Inst. Am., p. 74.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note8" id = "note8" href = "#tag8">8.</a> +Contributions to N.A. Ethnology, vol. 4. House Life, etc., p. 182.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note9" id = "note9" href = "#tag9">9.</a> +Given by W. W. H. Davis in El Gringo, p. 119.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note10" id = "note10" href = "#tag10">10.</a> +Fifth Ann. Rept. Arch. Inst. Am., p. 92.</p> + +<h4 class = "section"><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX</a></h4> + +<table class = "index" summary = "index"> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">A</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Acoma, arrival of the Asanyumu at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +direction of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kiva trap-doors at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page207">207</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Adobe, use in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page054">54</a>, <a href = +"#page078">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +use in Zuñi attributed to foreign influence</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page139">139</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +necessity for protecting against rain</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +used in Spanish churches</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Adobe balls used in garden walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Adobe bricks, in Hawikut church</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +use modern in Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Adobe mortar, in Tâaaiyalana structures</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Cibola and Tusayan use of, compared</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page137">137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Adobe walls on stone foundation at Moenkopi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page078">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Áikoka. See Acoma</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Aiyáhokwi, the descendants of the Asa at Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Alleyway, Hawikuh</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Altar, conformity of, to direction of kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Andiron, Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Annular doorway</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a>, <a href = +"#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Apache, inroads upon Tusayan by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page025">25</a>, <a href = +"#page026">26</a>, <a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +exposure of southern Cibola to the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Architectural nomenclature</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page220">220</a>, <a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Architecture, comparison of constructional details of Tusayan and +Cibola</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +adaption to defense</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page226">226</a>, <a href = +"#page227">227</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +adaption to environment</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a>, <a href = +"#page226">226</a>, <a href = "#page227">227</a>, <a href = +"#page228">228</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Art, textile and fictile, degree of Pueblo advancement in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page227">227</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Arts of Cibola and Tusayan closely related</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Asa, migrations of the</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a>, <a href = +"#page031">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +language of the</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +houses of, Hano</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page061">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Asanyumu. See Asa.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Awatubi, survey of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Spanish mission established at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page022">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +when and by whom built</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +settlement of the Asa at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +attacked by the Walpi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page034">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of ruins of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page049">49</a>, <a href = +"#page050">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +possession of sheep by the</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page050">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +clay tubes used as roof drains at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +fragments of passage wall at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Aztecs, ruined structures attributed to the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Badger people leave Walpi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page031">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Baho, use of, in kiva consecratory ceremonies</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a>-<a href = +"#page120">120</a>, <a href = "#page129">129</a>, <a href = +"#page130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Balcony, notched and terraced</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Banded masonry</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page145">145</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Bandelier, A.F., description of chimney</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page173">173</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +explorations of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +on ancient stone inclosures</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page216">216</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Bat house, description of ruin of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page052">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Bátni, the first pueblo of the Snake people of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page018">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Bedsteads not used by Pueblos</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Beams, Tusayan kivas, taken from Spanish church at Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +for supporting upper walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +modern finish of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page149">149</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +construction of steps upon</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page162">162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +for supporting passageway wall</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Chaco pueblos, how squared</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Bear people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page020">20</a>, <a href = +"#page026">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +removal to Walpi of the</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page021">21</a>, <a href = +"#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +movements of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a>, <a href = +"#page030">30</a>, <a href = "#page031">31</a>, <a href = +"#page038">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Bear-skin-rope people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page026">26</a>, <a href = +"#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Benches or ledges of masonry, Zuñi rooms</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tusayan kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a>, <a href = +"#page123">123</a>, <a href = "#page125">125</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Mashongnavi mungkiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page127">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +around rooms of pueblo houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page213">213</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Bins for storage in Tusayan rooms</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a>, <a href = +"#page209">209</a>, <a href = "#page210">210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Blankets formerly used to cover doorways</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a>, <a href = +"#page188">188</a>, <a href = "#page189">189</a>, <a href = +"#page194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Blue Jay people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page026">26</a>, <a href = +"#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Bond stones used in pueblo walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a>, <a href = +"#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Boss, or andiron, Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Boundary line, Hano and Sichumovi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page036">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Boundary mark, Shumopavi and Oraibi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page028">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Boxes for plumes</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page210">210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Bricks of adobe modern in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Brush, use of, in roof construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Brush shelters</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a>-<a href = +"#page219">219</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Burial custom of K’iakima natives</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Burial inclosures at K’iakima</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Burial place of Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Burrowing Owl people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page026">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Buttress, formerly of Halona, existing in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page088">88</a>, <a href = +"#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Buttress projections, Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tusayan rooms</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a>, <a href = +"#page110">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +girders supported by</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +chimney supported by</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page172">172</a>, <a href = +"#page173">173</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +support of passageway roofs by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">C</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Cages for eagles at Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Canyon de Chelly, proposed study of ruins of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Tusayan, tradition concerning villages of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page019">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +early occupancy of, by the Bear people at Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page020">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +occupied by the Asa</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +use of whitewash in cliff houses of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page074">74</a>, <a href = +"#page145">145</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +circular kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page117">117</a>, <a href = +"#page133">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +finish of roofs of houses of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a>, <a href = +"#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +doorway described and figured</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +cliff dwellings of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Casa Blanca, traces of whitewashing at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page145">145</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Castañeda’s account of Cibolan milling</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page211">211</a>, <a href = +"#page212">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cattle introduced into Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page022">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cave lodges occupied in historic times</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cave used by inhabitants of Kwaituki</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page057">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ceiling plan of Shupaulovi kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page123">123</a>, <a href = +"#page125">125</a>, <a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ceilings, retention of original appearance of rooms through +nonrenovation of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cellars not used in Tusayan and Cibola</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page143">143</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ceremonial chamber. See Kiva.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ceremonial paraphernalia of Tusayan taken by the Navajo</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page050">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ceremonies connected with Tusayan house-building</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = +"#page104">104</a>, <a href = "#page168">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ceremonies accompanying kiva construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a>, <a href = +"#page118">118</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ceremonies performed at placing of Zuñi ladders</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page160">160</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Chaco ruins, character of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a>, <a href = +"#page070">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +compared with Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +finish of masonry of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page140">140</a>, <a href = +"#page226">226</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +upper story partitions of, supported by beams</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +finish of woodwork of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page149">149</a>, <a href = +"#page184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +symmetry of arrangement of outer openings of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +loop-holes in walls of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Chairs, lack of in Pueblo houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Chalowe, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page083">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Charred roof timbers of Tusayan kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page120">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Chimney. See Fireplace.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Chimney-hoods, how constructed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page169">169</a>-<a href = +"#page175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Chimneys, traces of in K’iakima</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +remains of, at Matsaki</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +described and figured</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page167">167</a>-<a href = +"#page180">180</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Chukubi pueblo, built by the Squash people</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page025">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page058">58</a>, <a href = +"#page059">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +fragments of passage wall at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Church, Shumopavi, established by Spanish monks</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page075">75</a>, <a href = +"#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Hawikuh</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a>, <a href = +"#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Ketchipauan, remains of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a>, <a href = +"#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +in court of Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page098">98</a>, <a href = +"#page138">138</a>, <a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +See Mission.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Churches established in Zuñi and Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cibola, ruins and inhabited villages of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a>-<a href = +"#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +architecture of compared with that of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +See Zuñi.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Circular doorway of Kin-tiel described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Circular kivas, antiquity of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +traditional references to</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +absent in Cibolan pueblos</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Circular room at Oraibi Wash</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page054">54</a>-<a href = +"#page055">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Circular rooms at Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Circular wall of kiva near Sikyatki</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page117">117</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Clay surface of pueblo roofs</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Clay tubes used as roof drains</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Cliff dwellings, Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page054">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +use of whitewash in</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page074">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +absence of chimneys in</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page168">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +developed from temporary shelters</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +occupied in historic times</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Climatic conditions, effect of, upon pueblo architecture</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page140">140</a>, <a href = +"#page227">227</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Clustering of Tâaaiyalana ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a>-<a href = +"#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cochití claimed to be a former Tewa pueblo</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Communal village, development of pueblo architecture from conical lodge +to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page226">226</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Consecration of kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page129">129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Contours represented on plans, interval of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page045">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Cooking, pueblo method of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page164">164</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cooking pits and ovens described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page162">162</a>-<a href = +"#page166">166</a>, <a href = "#page176">176</a>-<a href = +"#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cooking stones of Tusayan, flames of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Copings of walls described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page151">151</a>-<a href = +"#page152">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Coping of hatchways</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page203">203</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Coping. See Roof-coping.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cords, used for suspending chimney</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page170">170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Corner stones of Tusayan kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Corrals, Payupki</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page059">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page062">62</a>-<a href = +"#page063">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Hawikuh</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Ketchipauan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +modern, at K’iakima</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +how constructed</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +described in detail</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a>-<a href = +"#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cotton cultivated by the Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page033">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Courts, Mishiptonga</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page052">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Kwaituki</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page056">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Chukubi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page059">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page062">62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Walpi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page068">68</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page071">71</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page074">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Hawikuh</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Ketchipauan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Matsaki</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tâaaiyalana</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Pescado</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page098">98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Covered way, how developed</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Covered passages and gateways described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a>-<a href = +"#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Coyote people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page026">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Coyote kiva, direction of the</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Crossbars used in fastening wooden doors</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Crosspieces of ladders</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page159">159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Cruzate, visit to Awatubi of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page049">49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Culture of pueblo tribes, degree of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page227">227</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Cushing, Frank H., identifies K’iakima as scene of death of +Estevanico</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +excavations at Halona</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page088">88</a>, <a href = +"#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +opinion concerning western wall of Halona</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +opinion concerning distribution of Tâaaiyalana ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a>-<a href = +"#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on the former occupancy of Kin-tiel</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Haloua identified as one of the Seven Cities of Cibola</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on Zuñi tradition concerning stone-close</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">D</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Dais of kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a>, <a href = +"#page122">122</a>, <a href = "#page123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Dance ceremony in kiva consecration</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Dance rock, Tusayan, reference to snake dance of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page065">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Débris, how indicated in plans of ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page045">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +an indication of original height of walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Decoration, house openings</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page145">145</a>-<a href = +"#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Kiva roof timbers</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a>, <a href = +"#page120">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +ladder crosspieces</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page159">159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +roof beams</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page123">123</a>, <a href = +"#page124">124</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +wall of Mashongnavi house</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +wooden chair</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page213">213</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Zuñi window sashes</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Deer horns used as pegs in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Defense, wall for, at Bat House</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page052">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +a motive for selection of dwelling site</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page056">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +architecture relied upon for</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page058">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +method of, of Payupki</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page059">59</a>, <a href = +"#page060">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +not a factor in selection of Mashongnavi site</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page067">67</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +features of, at Ojo Calient</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page069">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +wall for, at Pueblo Bonito</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page070">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +features of, at Tusayan and Zuñi compared</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +sites chosen for, inconvenient to sources of subsistence</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page077">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +use of Kelchipauan church for, by natives</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +the motive of occupation of Tâaaiyalana mesa</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +provision for, at Kin-tie</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, <a href = +"#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +provisions for, in Ketchipauan church</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +motive for, dying out in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a>-<a href = +"#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +efficiency of, at Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +not a motive in selection of site of Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +gateways arranged for</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a>, <a href = +"#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +loopholes for</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +adaptation of architecture to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Doors to ground floor rooms of Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page143">143</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Doors of various lands described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a>-<a href = +"#page194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Doorway, Walpi kiva, closed with cottonwood slab</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page064">64</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +position of, in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page103">103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +stepped form in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +how sealed against intrusion</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +window and chimney in one</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +annular</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Doorways, closed with masonry</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a>, <a href = +"#page187">187</a>, <a href = "#page188">188</a>, <a href = +"#page189">189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +why made small</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Drainage of roof, relations of certain roof openings to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page203">203</a>-<a href = +"#page204">204</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Drains of roofs described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page153">153</a>-<a href = +"#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Drains. See roof drains.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">E</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Eagle cages of Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Eagle people, migration legend of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page028">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Earth used in pueblo roof construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Eaves, lack of, in Tusayan houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Echo Cave fireplace described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page168">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Entrances, uniformity of direction of, in Zuñi kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Environment, adaptation, of architecture to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a>, <a href = +"#page226">226</a>, <a href = "#page227">227</a>, <a href = +"#page228">228</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Estevanico’s death, at K’iakima</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Estufa. See Kiva.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">F</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Families occupying Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page105">105</a>-<a href = +"#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Farming outlook, Matsaki used as</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +near Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Farming pueblos, Cibola</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page077">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Nutria</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page094">94</a>, <a href = +"#page095">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Pescado</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a>-<a href = +"#page096">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Ojo Caliente</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Fastenings of doors</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Feathers, use of, in house-building ceremonies</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a>, <a href = +"#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Feather wand or baho used in kiva-building ceremonials</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a>, <a href = +"#page120">120</a>, <a href = "#page129">129</a>, <a href = +"#page130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Fences of corrals and gardens</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a>, <a href = +"#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Fetiches, where placed during kiva ceremonial</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page122">122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tusayan kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page130">130</a>, <a href = +"#page131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Fire gens, Tebugkihu constructed by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page057">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Fire-house or Tebugkihu, Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page020">20</a>, <a href = +"#page057">57</a>, <a href = "#page100">100</a>, <a href = +"#page142">142</a>, <a href = "#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Fire people of Tusayan, migration of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page020">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Fireplaces</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a>, <a href = +"#page109">109</a>, <a href = "#page121">121</a>, <a href = +"#page125">125</a>, <a href = "#page163">163</a>, <a href = +"#page167">167</a>-<a href = "#page180">180</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Floor, Mashongnavi house</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +stone flags, Tusayan kiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +sandstone slabs, Shupaulovi kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Floors in pueblo buildings, various kinds described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a>, <a href = +"#page135">135</a>, <a href = "#page148">148</a>-<a href = +"#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Folk-tale of the Zuñi, describing stone-close</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Food sacrifices in Tusayan house building</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a>, <a href = +"#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Fortress houses the highest type of Pueblo construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page077">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Frames of trap-doors, method of making</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Framing of windows, method of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a>-<a href = +"#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Fuel, how stored in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page103">103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Fuel used in kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Fuel of kivas, where stored</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page124">124</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Furniture of the Pueblos described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page208">208</a>-<a href = +"#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Gardens and corrals of the Pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a>-<a href = +"#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Gardens and garden walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a>-<a href = +"#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Garden walls, how constructed</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Gateway at Awatubi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page049">49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Gateway jambs at Kin-tiel, finish of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Gateways, probable existence in Kin-tiel of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Gateways and covered passages described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a>-<a href = +"#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Gateways of corrals</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Genesis myth of the Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page016">16</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Gentes of Tusayan, grouping of houses by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page024">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +land apportionment by</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +list of traditionary</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page038">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +localization of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a>-<a href = +"#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Girders supporting upper walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Tusayan houses supported by piers</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Glass used in modern Pueblo windows</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Glazing of Pueblo windows</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a>, <a href = +"#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Goat kiva of Walpi, height of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Gourd used as roof drain</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page154">154</a>, <a href = +"#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Grass, use of, in roof construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Graves, probable existence of, in Kin-tiel</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Gravestones at K’iakima</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a>, <a href = +"#page086">86</a>, <a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Greasewood, the ordinary kiva fuel</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Grinding stones. See Metate; Milling.</p></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ground plan, Mashongnavi room</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Shupaulovi kiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page125">125</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ground plans of Zuñi and Tusayan compared</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +of mesa villages influenced by prevailing winds</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Guyave or piki oven</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page173">173</a>, <a href = +"#page175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Gyarzobi or Paroquet kiva, roof timbers of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page120">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Gypsum used as whitewash</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page073">73</a>, <a href = +"#page074">74</a>, <a href = "#page172">172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">H</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hairdressing among the Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Halona, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page088">88</a>, <a href = +"#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +remains of the nucleus of Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a>, <a href = +"#page098">98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +walls of the nucleus of modern Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +stone-close at, described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +“Halving” of timbers in kiva trap-frames</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hampassawan, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page083">83</a>-<a href = +"#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hand-holds cut in faces of cliffs</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hand-holds in frames of trap-doors</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hano, Asa group occupy site of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page061">61</a>, <a href = +"#page062">62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +direction of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kiva, ownership of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kivas, list of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +rude transom over roof beam in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +sealed openings in</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page199">199</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hano people, length of time spent in Tusayan by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +received by the Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page036">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +trouble between the Walpi and</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hanomuh, the inhabitants of Hano</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page017">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +definition of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page036">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hano traditions regarding settlement in Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Harvest time, how determined in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hatchways to pueblo houses</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a>, <a href = +"#page120">120</a>, <a href = "#page121">121</a>, <a href = +"#page124">124</a>, <a href = "#page127">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hawikuh, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a>, <a href = +"#page081">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hawikuh church, durability of masonry of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hemenway Southwestern Archeological Expedition, excavations at +Halona</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +High-house people, a Navajo clan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hinged sashes not in use in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Hinges of Pueblo doors</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hodge, F. Webb, on stone-close of Halona</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Holmes, William H., on ruins of the San Juan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Homólobi, the early home of the Sun and Water peoples</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +legend of Water people concerning</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page031">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hopituh, the native name of the Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page017">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hopituh marriage within phratries and gentes</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page024">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Horn House, description of ruin of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page050">50</a>, <a href = +"#page051">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Horn people migration legend</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page018">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +early settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page019">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +House-building rites of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = +"#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +House clusters in Zuñi, arrangement of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page098">98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Hungo Pavie, finish of roofs in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">I</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Interior arrangement of pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a>-<a href = +"#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Interior of Zuñi house described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Irrigation of gardens near Walpi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">J</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Jackson, W. H., on ruins of the San Juan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +photographs of pueblo ruins by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +describes fireplace of Echo Cave</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page168">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Jar of large size used for storage</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page210">210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Jars used in chimney construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Jeditoh group of ruins</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page052">52</a>, <a href = +"#page053">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Jemez oven-opening described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page165">165</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">K</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kaékibi, an ancient pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kaiwáika. See Laguna</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kápung. See Santa Clara</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Katchina kiva of Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Katchina people depart from Oraibi for eastern Tusayan villages</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page026">26</a>, <a href = +"#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Katchinkihu, occurrence of, in ruined kiva near Sikyatki</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page117">117</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a>, <a href = +"#page123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Shupaulovi kiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Mashonguavi mungkiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page127">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kótite. See Cochití.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ketchipauan church built of stone</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ketchipauan, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a>-<a href = +"#page083">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kiáini. See High-house people</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>K’iakima, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a>, <a href = +"#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +upright stone slabs at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Kikoli rooms occupied in winter</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page103">103</a>, <a href = +"#page104">104</a>, <a href = "#page131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kin-tiel, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a>-<a href = +"#page094">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +compared with Nutria</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page094">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +compared with Pescado</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +plan of, prearranged</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +compared with Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +occurrence of upright stone slab at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a>-<a href = +"#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +beams of ruins of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page149">149</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +upper room of, paved with stone</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +fireplace in room of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a>, <a href = +"#page168">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +defensive gateway at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Kin-tiel, finish of gateway jambs at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +circular doorway at, described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a>, <a href = +"#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +openings at, of uniform height</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +site of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Kisákobi, description of pueblo of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page021">21</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kishoni, or uncovered shade</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a>-<a href = +"#page218">218</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>“Kisi” construction</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a>-<a href = +"#page219">219</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Kitdauwi—the house song of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page118">118</a>-<a href = +"#page119">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Kiva, study of construction of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +remains of, at Payupki</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page060">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page066">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +of Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page078">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +origin of the name</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +ancient form of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a>, <a href = +"#page117">117</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +native explanation of position of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page118">118</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +duties of mungwi, or chief of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page133">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +ownership of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page133">133</a>-<a href = +"#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +motive for building</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a>-<a href = +"#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +significance of structural plan of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +measurements of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +hatchways of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page201">201</a>-<a href = +"#page202">202</a>, <a href = "#page205">205</a>-<a href = +"#page207">207</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +openings of, at Acoma</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page207">207</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +See Mungkiva.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Kivas, excavated, at Awatubi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page050">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Hano</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page061">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page062">62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Walpi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a>, <a href = +"#page064">64</a>, <a href = "#page065">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page072">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page074">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Kin-tiel and Cibola compared</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Zuñi, where located during Spanish occupancy</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a>-<a href = +"#page137">137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +typical plans of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page118">118</a>-<a href = +"#page129">129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +dimensions of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page118">118</a>, <a href = +"#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +of, measurements of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page118">118</a>, <a href = +"#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +annually repaired by women</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page129">129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +uses of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +nomenclature of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page130">130</a>, <a href = +"#page223">223</a>-<a href = "#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tusayan, list of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +nonuse of chimneys in</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page178">178</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Zuñi, stone window-frames of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Kwaituki, description of ruin of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page056">56</a>-<a href = +"#page057">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Kwálakwai, Hano tradition related by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Kwetcap tutwi, the second pueblo of the snake people of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page018">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">L</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ladders, arrangement in Tusayan kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +withdrawal of rungs to prevent use of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +significance of position of, in kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page156">156</a>-<a href = +"#page162">162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +second-story terrace of Tusayan reached principally by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +openings for, in roofs</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page205">205</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Laguna, arrival of the Asanyumu at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Lalénkobáki, a female society of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Land apportionment by gentes in Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Language of the Asa and Hano of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Languages of Tusayan, tradition regarding difference in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page036">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Las Animas ruins, trap-door frames in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Latches of doors</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a>-<a href = +"#page187">187</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Latch strings used on Zuñi doors</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Lathing or wattling of kiva walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ledges of masonry in kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ledges or benches around rooms</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page213">213</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Lenbaki, society of Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page018">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Light, method of introducing, in inner rooms</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page207">207</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Lighting, method of, in crowded portions of Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Lintels of old windows embedded in masonry</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page200">200</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Lizard people move from Walpi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page031">31</a>, <a href = +"#page038">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Lock and key of wood, how made</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Loom appurtenances</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Loom posts of kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page128">128</a>-<a href = +"#page129">129</a>, <a href = "#page132">132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Loophole-like openings in pueblo buildings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page127">127</a>, <a href = +"#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">M</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mamzrántiki, an Oraibi society of women</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mandan ladder described and figured</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Maricopa, myth of the Water people of Tusayan concerning the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page032">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Marriage of the Hopituh within phratries and gentes</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page024">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mashongnavi, origin of name of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page026">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +settlement of Paroquet and Katchina peoples in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +settlementof the Water people at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page032">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of ruins of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page048">48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +age of masonry at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page066">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page066">66</a>-<a href = +"#page070">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +ground plan of room of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +direction of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +description of dais of kiva at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page122">122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +list of kivas at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +wall decoration at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +notched ladder of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page157">157</a>-<a href = +"#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +pi-gummi ovens at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a>-<a href = +"#page164">164</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +shrines of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +chimney hoods of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page170">170</a>-<a href = +"#page171">171</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +second-story fireplace at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page174">174</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +doorway with transom at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +corrals of rude stonework at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +See Old Mashongnavi.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Masonry, ancient, at Nutria</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page094">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Ojo Caliente carelessly constructed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +exterior, of kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Masonry of Pueblo Bonito, skill shown in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Mat close for kiva hatchways</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page127">127</a>, <a href = +"#page128">128</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Matsaki, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +sun symbol at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Meal, votive, used in pueblo house-building</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Mealing trough. See Milling.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Metate used as roof-drain</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page154">154</a>, <a href = +"#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Metates, or grinding stones, how arranged in pueblo houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a>, <a href = +"#page110">110</a>, <a href = "#page210">210</a>, <a href = +"#page211">211</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Migration, effect of, upon pueblo architecture</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page015">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Migration of the Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page017">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Migration of Tusayan Water people</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page031">31</a>, <a href = +"#page032">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Migration of the Horn people</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page018">18</a>, <a href = +"#page019">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Migration of the Bear people of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page020">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Migration of the Asanynmu of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Milling troughs of Pueblo households</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a>, <a href = +"#page210">210</a>, <a href = "#page212">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mindeleff, Cosmos, acknowledgments to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a>, <a href = +"#page015">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on traditional history of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page016">16</a>-<a href = +"#page041">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mindeleff, Victor, paper on pueblo architecture</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a>-<a href = +"#page228">228</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mishiptonga, description of ruin of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page052">52</a>-<a href = +"#page053">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mission buildings of Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a>, <a href = +"#page075">75</a>-<a href = "#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mission house at Walpi, timbers of, used in Walpi kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Missions of Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page022">22</a>, <a href = +"#page049">49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Moen-kopi surveyed and studied</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of ruins of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page053">53</a>-<a href = +"#page054">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of village of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page077">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mole people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Montezuma Canyon ruins, use of large stone blocks in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Monument marking boundary of Oraibi and Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page028">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Morgan, L.H., Mandan ladder described by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on. trap-door frames in Las Animas ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page205">205</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mormon and Pueblo building compared</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mormons, effect of the, upon development of Moen-kopi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page077">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +establishment of woolen mill at Moen-kopi by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page078">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +fort built by, at Moen-kopi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +lock and key contrivance of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Mortar of adobe mud</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page137">137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Mortars used in Pueblo households</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Mortised door in Zuñi house</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a>, <a href = +"#page186">186</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Mummy cave, Arizona, ruin in</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page064">64</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +finish of roofs in ruins of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Mungkiva, Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page127">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a>, <a href = +"#page122">122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">N</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Nambé, Tewa pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Navajo, Asa of Tusayan live among</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +huts of, closed with blankets</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page189">189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +method of sheep-herding compared with Pueblo</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Nelson, E.W., graves unearthed by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +collection of stone-closes by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Niches, use of, in kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a>, <a href = +"#page122">122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Niches formed in old window openings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a>, <a href = +"#page200">200</a>, <a href = "#page208">208</a>-<a href = +"#page209">209</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Nomenclature of Tusayan structural details</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page220">220</a>-<a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Númi. See Nambé.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Notched logs used as ladders</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page157">157</a>-<a href = +"#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Nutria, compared with Kin-tiel</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a>-<a href = +"#page095">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Nuvayauma, old Mashongnavi tradition related by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page047">47</a>-<a href = +"#page048">48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Nuvwatikyuobi kiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page120">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">O</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Oak mound kiva, Tusayan, decadence of membership of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ohke. See San Juan.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ojo Caliente, a modern village</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page054">54</a>, <a href = +"#page096">96</a>-<a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +chinked walls of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page142">142</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Old Mashongnavi, tradition concerning occupation of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page047">47</a>-<a href = +"#page048">48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Openings, splayed, in Ketchipauan church</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +walls of Tâaaiyalana structures</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Kin-tiel walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>, <a href = +"#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +oblique Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page098">98</a>, <a href = +"#page207">207</a>-<a href = "#page208">208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +to kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a>-<a href = +"#page114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +in wall of Zuñi kiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +in lee walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Openings of Pueblo houses banded with whitewash</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page145">145</a>-<a href = +"#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Oraibi, retirement of Sikyátki inhabitants to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page024">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +departure of Ketchina and Paroquet peoples from</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +settlement by the Bears of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +traditions regarding first settlement of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +settlement of the Water people at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page033">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +affray between the Walpi and</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page076">76</a>-<a href = +"#page077">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +families occupying</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page105">105</a>-<a href = +"#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +direction of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a>-<a href = +"#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +rare use of plastering on outer walls of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Oraibi, notched ladders described and figured</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page157">157</a>-<a href = +"#page158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +stone steps at, figured</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page161">161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +corral walls at, laid without mortar</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +distribution of gentes of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a>-<a href = +"#page105">105</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kiva for women</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +list of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page137">137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kiva, hatchway of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page201">201</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +corrals at, large size of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Oraibi-Shumopavi boundary stone</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page028">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Oraibi wash, ruins on the</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page054">54</a>-<a href = +"#page056">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Orientation of kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a>-<a href = +"#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ovens at Pescado</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +upon roofs</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +various kinds described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page162">162</a>-<a href = +"#page166">166</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +in Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page164">164</a>-<a href = +"#page165">165</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Oven-shaped structures described and figured</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Oven-surface imbedded with pottery scales</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page139">139</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">P</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Paintings on kiva walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Palát Kivabi, the pristine habitat of the Squash and Sun people of +Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page025">25</a>, <a href = +"#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Paneled doors in modern pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page184">184</a>-<a href = +"#page186">186</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Parallelogramic form of Tusayan buildings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a>-<a href = +"#page118">118</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Paroquet people, settlement in Shumopavi of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Partitions in Ketchipauan church</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Partitions of upper story supported by beams</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Passageways, Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page072">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page074">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +rarity of, at Oraibi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a>-<a href = +"#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Paving Shupaulovi kiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Paving stones of kiva floor, how finished</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page125">125</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Payupki, tradition concerning pueblo of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page040">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +migration legend</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page040">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page059">59</a>-<a href = +"#page060">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +finish of masonry of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page143">143</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +fragments of passage wall at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Peaches planted by the Asa people</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pegs, deer horns used as, in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pegs for suspending kiva fuel</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Peña Blanca formerly inhabited by the Hano</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Peñasco Blanco, occurrence of upright stone slab at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +method of roof construction at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pescado compared with Kin-tiel</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a>-<a href = +"#page096">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +corral walls at, how constructed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +outside steps at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page160">160</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +ovens at, described and figured</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page165">165</a>-<a href = +"#page166">166</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +fragment of stone close in steps of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +stone inclosure in court of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pestles or crushers used with Pueblo mortars</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Petroglyph, or sun-symbol at Matsaki</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Ketchipauan church</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +legend of the Tusayan concerning</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page032">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Phratries, Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page024">24</a>, <a href = +"#page038">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pictograph on Oraibi-Shumopavi boundary monument</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page028">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Piers of masonry for supporting girders</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Piers. See Buttresses.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pi-gummi ovens of Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Piki or guyave oven</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page173">173</a>-<a href = +"#page175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Piki stone, process of making</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pima, myth of the Water people of Tusayan concerning the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page032">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +opinion of the, as to ancient stone inclosures</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page216">216</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pinawa, description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a>, <a href = +"#page088">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pine invariably used for kiva ladders</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pink clay used in house decorations</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pits for cooking</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Plan of villages, traditional mention of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Plans and descriptions, Tusayan ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page045">45</a>-<a href = +"#page060">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +inhabited villages</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page061">61</a>-<a href = +"#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Cibolan ruins</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Zuñi villages</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page094">94</a>-<a href = +"#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Plan of pueblo houses not usually prearranged</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = +"#page162">162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Planting time, how determined in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Plaster, frequent renewal of, at Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page073">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Plastering, renovation of rooms by frequent</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on outer walls in Ojo Caliente</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page096">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +custom formerly observed in</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +on floor in Mashongnavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kiva walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Shupaulovi kiva, condition of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page124">124</a>-<a href = +"#page125">125</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Shupaulovi kiva</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +on walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page140">140</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +on masonry</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +chimney hoods</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page169">169</a>, <a href = +"#page172">172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +side hole of door for fastening</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a>-<a href = +"#page184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Platform in floor of Tusayan kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Platform at head of steps</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page161">161</a>-<a href = +"#page162">162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Plaza. See Court.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Plume boxes</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page210">210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Plume stick, baho, or feather wand, used in Kiva consecratory +ceremonials</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a>-<a href = +"#page120">120</a>, <a href = "#page129">129</a>, <a href = +"#page130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Plume-stick shrines at Mashongnavi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pojoaque, a Tewa pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pokwádi. See Pojoaque</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Polaka, Hano tradition given by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Poles for suspension of blankets, etc.</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a>, <a href = +"#page189">189</a>, <a href = "#page208">208</a>, <a href = +"#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ponobi kiva of Oraibi, wall lathing of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Population, enlargement of pueblos necessitated by increase of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page070">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Porch posts</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a>, <a href = +"#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Posówe, a former Tewa pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Posts of porch, remains of, at Hawikuh and Ketchipauan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a>, <a href = +"#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Posts sunk in floor forming part of loom</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pots used in chimney construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page179">179</a>-<a href = +"#page180">180</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pottery fragments, Horn House ruin</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page051">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Kwaituki</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page057">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +ruin on Oraibi wash</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page055">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +used in mud-plastered walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page139">139</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pottery of Payupki, character of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page060">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Poultry house of Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Prayer plume, or baho, used in kiva consecratory ceremonials</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a>, <a href = +"#page120">120</a>, <a href = "#page129">129</a>, <a href = +"#page130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Props used for fastening wooden doors</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pueblo architecture, study of, by Victor Mindeleff</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page008">8</a>-<a href = +"#page228">228</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pueblo Bonito, additions to</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page070">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +the largest yet examined</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +finish of roof of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +stairway described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page160">160</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +symmetry of arrangement of outer openings of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +skill shown in masonry of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pueblo buildings, mode of additions to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page070">70</a>, <a href = +"#page097">97</a>, <a href = "#page098">98</a>, <a href = +"#page102">102</a>, <a href = "#page148">148</a>-<a href = +"#page149">149</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pueblo construction in Tusayan and Cibola, details of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page137">137</a>-<a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pueblo Grande. See Kin-tiel.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pueblo openings, carelessness in placing</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pueblo remains, area occupied by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pueblo revolt of 1680</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pueblos of Tusayan and Cibola compared</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pueblos, inhabited</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page061">61</a>-<a href = +"#page079">79</a>, <a href = "#page094">94</a>-<a href = +"#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Pyramidal form of pueblo house rows</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page061">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rabbit-skin robes used to cover doorways</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a>, <a href = +"#page194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Racks for suspending clothes</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page208">208</a>, <a href = +"#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rawhide thong used in pueblo construction to fasten lock</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a>, <a href = +"#page187">187</a>, <a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rectangular kivas, antiquity of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rectangular rooms, how developed</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page226">226</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rectangular type of architecture</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page072">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Reeds used for kiva lathing</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Repair of houses infrequent in Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page073">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Reservoirs, pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a>-<a href = +"#page083">83</a>, <a href = "#page091">91</a>, <a href = +"#page092">92</a>, <a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Reservoir site as affecting selection of dwelling site</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page051">51</a>-<a href = +"#page052">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Revolt of the Pueblos in 1680</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page023">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rites and methods of Tusayan kiva building</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page118">118</a>-<a href = +"#page137">137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rites of house-building at Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = +"#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rito de los Frijoles, chimney of, described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page173">173</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Roof construction, pueblo buildings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page120">120</a>, <a href = +"#page149">149</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Roof-coping of Tusayan houses</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Roof-drains, pueblo buildings</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a>, <a href = +"#page153">153</a>-<a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Roof-openings, pueblo buildings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page061">61</a>, <a href = +"#page063">63</a>, <a href = "#page077">77</a>, <a href = +"#page098">98</a>, <a href = "#page169">169</a>, <a href = +"#page178">178</a>, <a href = "#page201">201</a>-<a href = +"#page208">208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Roofs, pueblo buildings</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a>, <a href = +"#page102">102</a>, <a href = "#page119">119</a>, <a href = +"#page148">148</a>-<a href = "#page151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Roof timbers of kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rooms, arrangement of, into rows in Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page049">49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +confused arrangement of, in Walpi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Tâaaiyalana ruins, arrangement of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +circular, at Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Tusayan, smaller than in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +names of, in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rows of houses forming Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page074">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ruins, method of survey of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page045">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Ruins, Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page045">45</a>-<a href = +"#page060">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +between Horn House and Bat House</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page051">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Oraibi wash</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page054">54</a>-<a href = +"#page056">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Cibola</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tâaaiyalana</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Rungs of ladders, how attached</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page158">158</a>, <a href = +"#page159">159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">S</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sacrifices of food in Tusayan house-building</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a>, <a href = +"#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sandals of yucca found in Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page133">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sandstone used in pueblo construction, how quarried</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +San Felipe, return of Payupki to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page041">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>San Juan, a Tewa pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Santa Clara doubtfully identified with Kápung</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Santo Domingo, settlement of the Asanyumu</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sash of rude construction in window openings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sealing of doorways of pueblo buildings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a>, <a href = +"#page183">183</a>-<a href = "#page184">184</a>, <a href = +"#page198">198</a>-<a href = "#page201">201</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Seats of stone in Tusayan kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page132">132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Selenite used in pueblo windows</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a>, <a href = +"#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Semisubterranean kivas of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Seven cities of Cibola. See Cibola.</p></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sheep, introduced into Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page022">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +possessed by the Awatubi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page050">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +introduction of, among the Pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Shitáimu pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page028">28</a>, <a href = +"#page048">48</a>, <a href = "#page049">49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Shelters in pueblo fields</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page060">60</a>, <a href = +"#page198">198</a>, <a href = "#page217">217</a>-<a href = +"#page219">219</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Shelves, pueblo buildings</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a>, <a href = +"#page173">173</a>, <a href = "#page209">209</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Shrine, Matsaki</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page086">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +court of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page071">71</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +court of Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page075">75</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tâaaiyalana</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Shrines, pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page072">72</a>, <a href = +"#page148">148</a>, <a href = "#page167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Shumopavi, Spanish mission established at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page022">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +by whom built</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +removal of portion of Bear people from</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page073">73</a>-<a href = +"#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a>, <a href = +"#page114">114</a>, <a href = "#page137">137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +primitive andiron at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +piki stone at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +fireplace and chimney of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a>, <a href = +"#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +ground cooking-pit of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page178">178</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Shumopavi-Oraibi boundary stone</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page028">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Shumopavi people, removal of, to mesa site</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page023">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Shupaulovi, settlement of Paroquet and Ketchina peoples in</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +when established</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +settlement of Bear people at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +settlement of the water people at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page032">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page071">71</a>-<a href = +"#page073">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +mungkiva of, described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +direction of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +description of dais of kiva of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +ground and ceiling plans of kiva of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page125">125</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +list of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +description of chimney-hood at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page171">171</a>, <a href = +"#page172">172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +passageway at, described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sichumovi, settled by peoples from Walpi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page031">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +derivation of term</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page038">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page062">62</a>, <a href = +"#page063">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +direction of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +ownership of kiva of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +list of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +poultry-house of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +fireplace and mantel of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page173">173</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +piki stone at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sikyatki, ruin of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page020">20</a>, <a href = +"#page021">21</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +pueblo of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page024">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +ancient kiva near</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page117">117</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sikyátki people dispute with the Walpi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page024">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +slaughtered by the Walpi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page025">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sills of doors</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page110">110</a>, <a href = +"#page186">186</a>, <a href = "#page194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sióki. See Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sipapuh, Tusayan kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page117">117</a>, <a href = +"#page121">121</a>, <a href = "#page122">122</a>, <a href = +"#page123">123</a>, <a href = "#page126">126</a>, <a href = +"#page130">130</a>, <a href = "#page131">131</a>, <a href = +"#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sites of pueblo buildings, why selected</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a>, <a href = +"#page066">66</a>, <a href = "#page090">90</a>, <a href = +"#page097">97</a>, <a href = "#page112">112</a>, <a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Slabs of stone in pueblo architecture</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Slavery among the Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page041">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Smallpox prevalent in Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page038">38</a>, <a href = +"#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Smoke escape through roof-opening and transoms</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page189">189</a>, <a href = +"#page204">204</a>, <a href = "#page206">206</a>, <a href = +"#page207">207</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Snake dance, relation of dance-rock to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page065">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Snake people, the first occupants of the Tusayan region</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page017">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +construction of modern Walpi by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page023">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Snow, use of, as water supply by the Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Spaniards, early visit of, to Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page021">21</a>, <a href = +"#page022">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Spanish authority, effect of, upon purity of Zuñi kiva type</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page112">112</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Spanish beams in Tusayan kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a>, <a href = +"#page123">123</a>, <a href = "#page124">124</a>, <a href = +"#page125">125</a>, <a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Spanish churches at pueblos, Hawikuk</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page081">81</a>, <a href = +"#page082">82</a>, <a href = "#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Spanish influence in Zuñi and Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page169">169</a>, <a href = +"#page180">180</a>, <a href = "#page196">196</a>, <a href = +"#page213">213</a>, <a href = "#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Spanish missions established in Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page022">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Spider people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Splash-stones described and figured</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a>, <a href = +"#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Splayed openings in Ketchipauan church</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Squash people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page025">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Stakes used in construction of stone walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Stephen, A. M., material on traditional history of Tusayan collected +by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page016">16</a>-<a href = +"#page041">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +opinion on Walpi architectural features</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page072">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +acknowledgments to</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on distribution of Oraibi gentes</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a>, <a href = +"#page105">105</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on orientation of Tusayan kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +discovery of ancient kiva type near Sikyatki</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page117">117</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +typical kiva measurements by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page122">122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on wattling or lathing of kiva walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +on significance of structural plan of kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +collection of primitive andirons or bosses by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Steps and ladders described</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page156">156</a>-<a href = +"#page162">162</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Steps cut in faces of cliffs</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Steps or foot-holes of Walpi trail</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page065">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Steps to kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Stone, size, character, and finish of, in pueblo ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page055">55</a>, <a href = +"#page058">58</a>, <a href = "#page060">60</a>, <a href = +"#page138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +means of obtaining, in Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page139">139</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +effect of use of, in chimney hoods</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page172">172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +corrals</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +flags used to floor Tusayan kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +inclosures in Southern Arizona</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page216">216</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +roof drains, curious forms of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page154">154</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +shelters, possible remains of, at Payupki</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page060">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +slabs formerly used to close doorways</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Stone-close anciently used</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a>, <a href = +"#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Stone wedges used in pueblo wall finish</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page140">140</a>, <a href = +"#page142">142</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Stonework, Shumopavi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page075">75</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +at <ins class = "correction" title = +"text reads ‘Oraib’">Oraibi</ins></p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Mormon and Pueblos compared</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Stone steps, Pescado</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page095">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page157">157</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Stools used by the Pueblos</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a>, <a href = +"#page213">213</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Storage facilities of pueblo dwellings</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page057">57</a>, <a href = +"#page062">62</a>, <a href = "#page103">103</a>, <a href = +"#page109">109</a>, <a href = "#page143">143</a>, <a href = +"#page144">144</a>, <a href = "#page182">182</a>, <a href = +"#page209">209</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Straw adobe made by Spaniards</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a>, <a href = +"#page224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Structural features of kivas similar</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page129">129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Subterranean character of kivas</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a>, <a href = +"#page072">72</a>, <a href = "#page112">112</a>, <a href = +"#page113">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sullivan, Jeremiah, Payupki tradition obtained by</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page040">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Sunflower stalks used in chimney construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page170">170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sun people of Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Supplies, how taken to Walpi mesa</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page065">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Survey of Tusayan and Cibola, methods of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page044">44</a>-<a href = +"#page045">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">T</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +<ins class = "correction" +title = "text reads ‘Tâaaialana’">Tâaaiyalana</ins>, +relation of K’iakima to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +stone inclosures at base of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page085">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of ruins of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a>-<a href = +"#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +flight of Zuñis to, during Pueblo revolt</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +mesa of, temporarily occupied</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Tables not used in Pueblo houses</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a>, <a href = +"#page214">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Talla Hogan. See Awatubi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page049">49</a>-<a href = +"#page050">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Taos formerly partly inhabited by the Tewa</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tceewáge. See Peña Blanca.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Tcosobi or Jay kiva, roof timbers of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page120">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Tebowúki, an early pueblo of the fire people of Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page020">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Tebugkihu or fire-house, description of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page057">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +fragments of passage-wall at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Terraced doorways</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a>-<a href = +"#page191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Terraced gardens</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Terraced roofs of Tusayan, names of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Terrace cooking-pits and fireplaces</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page174">174</a>-<a href = +"#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Terrace rooms, half open, not seen in ancient pueblos</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Terraces, Sichumovi form of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page062">62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Oraibi, formed by natural causes</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page076">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a>, <a href = +"#page098">98</a>, <a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +ancient pueblos, how reached</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tusayan names of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Tusayan, order of settlement of, by various peoples</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tesuque, a Tewa pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tetsógi. See Tesuque.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tewa conflict with the Ute</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page036">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tewa, language of the</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tewa. See Hano.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Timbers for roof, kind used in kiva-building</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page019">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Time for planting and harvesting, how determined in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tiponi of Tusayan explained</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Topography, houses of Walpi constructed to conform to</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page064">64</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +of Shupaulovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page071">71</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Tradition, historical value of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page015">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tradition, Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page016">16</a>-<a href = +"#page041">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Hano</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +regarding Hano and Tusayan languages</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page036">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +concerning Payupki pueblo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page040">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +concerning occupancy of Old Mashongnavi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page047">47</a>-<a href = +"#page048">48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +of foundation of Walpi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +concerning circular kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Zuñi concerning stone-close</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a>-<a href = +"#page193">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +concerning early occupancy of former pueblos by existing tribes</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Traditionary gentes of Tusayan, list of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page038">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Trails, Walpi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page065">65</a>, <a href = +"#page066">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tâaaiyalana</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Transoms over pueblo doorways</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a>-<a href = +"#page189">189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Transportation to Walpi mesa, Indian method</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page066">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Trapdoors, Sichumovi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +kivas, no means of fastening</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +frames furnished with hand-holds</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tupubi defined</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Túpkabi. See Canyon de Chelly.</p></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tusayan, survey of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page015">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +traditional history of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page016">16</a>-<a href = +"#page041">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +ruins and inhabited villages of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page042">42</a>-<a href = +"#page079">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +house-building rites</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = +"#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +houses of, owned by women</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kivas in</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a>-<a href = +"#page137">137</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +list of kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Tusayan and Cibola architecture, compared by constructional +details</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +details of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page137">137</a>-<a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tusayan. See Hopituh.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tuwahlki, or watch-house</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tuwii. See Santo Domingo</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Twigs, use of, in roof construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">U</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Ute, conflict with, by the Tewa of Hano</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page036">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +inroads of, upon Tusayan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page025">25</a>, <a href = +"#page026">26</a>, <a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">V</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Vargas, Don Diego, visit to Tusayan of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Vocabulary of Tusayan architectural terms</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page220">220</a>-<a href = +"#page223">223</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">W</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Walls, how indicated on plans of ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page045">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +defensive, at Bat House</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page052">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +construction of, in Moen-kopi ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page053">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +curved, instances of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page054">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +showing precision of workmanship</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page054">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +dimensions in Tâaaiyalana mesa</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +original height of, indicated by débris</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +thickness of, in modern Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +paintings on, in Tusayan kiva</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +pueblo, mode of construction of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page137">137</a>-<a href = +"#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +copings of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page139">139</a>, <a href = +"#page151">151</a>, <a href = "#page152">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Walls, strength of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +weakness of, in Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +of gardens</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Walpi, settlement of Bear people at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page021">21</a>, <a href = +"#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +Spanish mission established at</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page022">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +construction of, by the Snake people</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page023">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +dispute of, with the Sikyatki</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page024">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +settlement of the Asa at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a>, <a href = +"#page031">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +abandoned by Bear, Lizard, Asa, and Badger peoples</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page031">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page063">63</a>-<a href = +"#page066">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +court-surrounded kiva of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +kivas of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page119">119</a>, <a href = +"#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +upper story partitions of, supported by beams</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +use of large stone blocks in garden walls of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page047">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +cooking pit at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page176">176</a>, <a href = +"#page177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +south passageway of, described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Walpi people, attack of Awatubi by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page034">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +affray between the Oraibi and</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page035">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +trouble between the Hano and</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page037">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +various pueblos formerly occupied by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page046">46</a>, <a href = +"#page047">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Warp-sticks, mode of supporting</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page133">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Water, method of carrying, at Walpi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page065">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Water family, last to settle at Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page029">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +migration legend of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page031">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Water jars used in chimney construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Water supply, Cibola</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page080">80</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Ketchipauan</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page082">82</a>, <a href = +"#page083">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Tâaaiyalana dwellings</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page090">90</a>, <a href = +"#page091">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Kin-tiel</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Water vessels, forms of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Wattling or lathing of kiva walls</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Weaving appliances</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wejegi pueblo, loop-holes in</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Well or reservoir of Zuñi</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Whitewash on outer walls of Shumopavi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page073">73</a>-<a href = +"#page074">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +on Mashongnavi room</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page109">109</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +how made and applied in Zuñi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page145">145</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +on house walls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page145">145</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +used for coating doors</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Wíksrun people, settlement in Tusayan of the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page027">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Willow wands used in roof construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Window, doorway and chimney in one</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page121">121</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Windows of various kinds described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page194">194</a>, <a href = +"#page201">201</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Wings constructed in court of Pueblo Bonito</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page070">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Women, house owners at Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +work of, in Tusayan house-building</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a>, <a href = +"#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +roof-building performed by</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +work of, in kiva-building</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page129">129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +when admitted to kivas</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +societies of, and kivas for, in Tusayan</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Wood, kinds of, used in Tusayan construction</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Wood rack of pueblos described</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page103">103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wood-working, how performed</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Wooden doors not found in pre-Columbian ruins</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Wooden features of pueblo windows</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Woolen mill established by Mormons at Moen-kopi</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page078">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Workshop, use of the kiva, as a</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page129">129</a>, <a href = +"#page133">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">Y</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Yeso used for interior whitewash</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page074">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Yucca, use of, in lathing</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page127">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p> +Yucca fiber sandals from Canyon de Chelly</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page133">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "letterhead" colspan = "2">Z</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Zuñi, survey of pueblo of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +arrival of the Asanyumu at</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page030">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +portion of site of, formerly occupied by Halona</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page088">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +tradition as to occupancy of Kin-tiel by the</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p> +plans and descriptions of villages of</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page094">94</a>-<a href = +"#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +description of pueblo of</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page097">97</a>-<a href = +"#page099">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +See Cibola.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class = "mynote"> +<h4><a name = "nichols" id = "nichols"> +Transcriber’s Notes on the Illustrations</a></h4> + +<p>Bureau of Ethnology articles rarely included artist credits, but some +of the drawings are signed:</p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/signatures.gif" width = "308" height = "189" +alt = "artist’s signatures" +title = "artist’s signatures"> +</p> + +<p>Henry Hobart Nichols (1869-1962) was one of the Smithsonian’s stable +of artists. These drawings would have been some of his earliest work. +The “fil.” in one signature distinguishes him from his father, the +engraver H. Hobart Nichols (1838-1886), whose signature also +appears in at least one Bureau of Ethnology publication.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Architecture: +Tusayan and Cibola, by Victor Mindeleff and Cosmos Mindeleff + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 19856-h.htm or 19856-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/8/5/19856/ + +Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, Håkon Hope and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale +de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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